THE MOTHER TONGUE Book II AN ELEMENTARY ENGLISH GRAMMAR WITH LESSONS IN COMPOSITION BY GEORGE LYMAN KITTREDGE Professor of English in Harvard University and SARAH LOUISE ARNOLD Supervisor of Schools in Boston BOSTON, U.S.A. GINN & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS QTbe SU&nwcttm prcee 190 \ ^L> (» wb Copyright, 1000, 1901 By G. L. Kittredge and S. L. Arnold ALL RIGHTS RESERVED PREFACE. The purpose of this book is to set forth the elements of English grammar in their relation to thought and the expression of thought. This object has been the guiding principle in the selection and arrangement of material, in the treatment of forms and constructions, and in the fashioning of the very numerous illustrative exercises. The Introduction explains in simple language certain eneral conceptions too often ignored in the study of grammar: the nature of language, its relation to thought and to style, the processes which affect its growth and decay, the province of grammar, and the relation of gram- mar to usage. These chapters are intended to be read aloud by the pupils or by the teacher and to serve as the basis for informal discussion in the class-room. The pupil should not be allowed to study them mechanically. Above all things, he should not try to learn them by heart. The main principles which they embody are summed up in Chapter I, p. 1, with which the definite study of Grammar begins. Chapters II-LVIII deal primarily with the Parts of eech and with their combination into sentences in the .pression of thought. In this part of the book only so audi inflection is included as is necessary for an under- tanding of the structure of sentences. As soon as the oupil has learned something of the nature of substantives iii IV PREFACE. and verbs, he is introduced to simple sentences, and from this point to the end of Chapter LVI, the study of analy- sis and synthesis is carried on in connection with the treat- ment of the parts of speech until all the main elements of sentence-structure have been exemplified. Chapter LVII sums up, by way of review, the analytical processes with which the pupil has become familiar in the chapters which precede. With Chapter LIX a more detailed study of inflection begins. This continues through Chapter CXV, and includes all the important phenomena of English inflection, which are explained, not as isolated facts, but as means of express- ing varieties of human thought. The explanations are made as simple as possible, and this very simplicity necessitates a somewhat fuller treatment than is usual in school Grammars. The paradigm of the verb has been much simplified by a careful discussion of verb-phrases. A number of notes in fine type deal with some of the more striking facts of Historical Grammar, and may be used by the teacher at his discretion to illustrate the true nature of the forms and constructions of which they treat. The study of this part of the book implies constant reviews of the earlier chapters. For convenience, the point at which such reviews may be advantageously made is indicated in foot- notes, but the teacher will of course use his own judgment. In particular, it will be found desirable to continue practice in analysis, and for this purpose abundant material is con- tained in the exercises appended to the several chapters. A number of the more difficult syntactical questions are deferred until inflection has been mastered (see Chapters CXVI-CXLII). Their treatment at this point affords an opportunity for a thorough and systematic review of the structure of complex sentences. PREFACE. V The Appendix contains a list of irregular verbs and other material intended for reference. The lists of irreg- ular verbs may be used in connection with the lessons on the preterite and the participles (pp. 204 ff.). These lists differ from those furnished by most Grammars in one important particular : they contain only such forms as are unquestionably correct in accordance with the best modern prose usage. Experience has shown that the attempt to include in a single list rare, archaic, and poetical verb- forms along with those habitually employed by the best prose writers of the present day is confusing and even misleading to the beginner.* Accordingly, such archaic and poetical forms as have to be mentioned are carefully separated from the forms regularly used in modern prose. Exercises for practice are furnished in liberal measure. It is not intended that every pupil should necessarily work through all these exercises. Each teacher is the best judge of precisely how much practice his pupils require. The aim of the authors has been to provide such material in abundance and with due regard to variety. In the choice of technical terms, the authors have pre- ferred those names which are universally intelligible and have the authority of long-continued usage in all lan- guages, to other terms which are scarcely seen outside of the covers of elementary English Grammars. Thus, for example, the term genitive has been preferred to possessive. One advantage of this plan is that it does not isolate the study of our own language from the study of foreign lan- guages. Here again, however, the individual teacher can best judge of the needs of his pupils. Hence the alter- native terms are regularly mentioned, and they may be substituted without inconvenience. * See page 386 and foot-note l . VI PREFACE. The authors make no apology for employing certain shorthand grammatical terms which cause no difficulty to the youngest pupils. A studious effort to separate the uameixom the thing named, for example, may be important for the philosopher, but it is only baffling to the beginner. No real confusion of thought can ever arise from speaking of an adjective, for example, as "modifying, or describing, a noun," instead of always taking pains to represent it as " modifying the meaning of the noun " or " describing the 'person or thing for which the noun stands." Scientific grammarians the world over have given their sanction to such shorthand expressions, and they have been unhesi- tatingly used in this book whenever directness could be gained thereby. Surely there is no danger that the young- est child will ever mistake the word apple for the object which bears that name! CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER PAGE 1. Language and Grammar xiii 2. Development of Language xviii ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. General Principles 1 2. The Parts of Speech 2 3. Nouns 4 4. Special Classes of Nouns 7 5. Pronouns 10 6. Verbs and Verb-Phrases 13 7. Sentences 16 8. Sentences. — Subject and Predicate 17 9. Complete and Simple Subject and Predicate ... 20 10. The Copula is 23 11. Interrogative Sentences. 1 25 12. Interrogative Sentences. II 27 13. Imperative Sentences 29 14. Exclamatory Sentences 31 15. Vocative 33 16. Adjectives 37 17. Classes of Adjectives 39 18. The Two Articles 41 19. Adverbs 45 20. Adverbs Modifying Adjectives 47 21. Adverbs Modifying Adverbs 48 vii Vlll CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE 22. Classification of Adverbs ....... 49 23. Analysis. — Modifiers 53 24. Prepositions 55 25. Conjunctions 59 26. Interjections .... .... 63 27. Phrases 65 28. Adjective Phrases 68 29. Adverbial Phrases 71 30. Analysis. — Phrases as Modifiers 75 81. Number 77 32. Genitive or Possessive Case 80 33. Forms of the Genitive 81 34. Genitive of Pronouns 84 35. Genitive Replaced by an Of-Phrase .... 85 36. Analysis. — Genitive and Of-Phrase 86 37. Apposition 87 38. Analysis. — The Appositive 89 39. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. — The Direct Object . 90 40. Analysis. — The Direct Object 94 41. Active and Passive Voice 95 42. Predicate Adjective 97 43. Predicate Nominative 99 44. Direct Object and Predicate Nominative Distinguished . 101 45. Pronoun as Predicate Nominative 105 46. Analysis. — Predicate Nominative and Predicate Adjective 106 47. Simple Subject and Compound Subject .... 107 48. Simple Predicate and Compound Predicate . . . 110 49. Clauses. — Compound Sentences 113 50. Complex Sentences. — Adverbial Clauses .... 115 51. Relative Pronouns 117 52. Adjective Clauses 120 53. Noun Clauses 122 54. The Same Word as Different Parts of Speech . . .125 55. Nouns and Adjectives 127 56. Adjectives and Adverbs 129 57. Structure of Sentences 131 58. Form of Analysis 134 CONTENTS. IX I. II. CHAPTER 59. Inflection 60. Summary of Inflections 61. Gender . 62. Special Rules of Gender. 63. Special Rules of Gender. 64. Plural of Nouns . 65. Irregular Plurals. I. 66. Irregular Plurals. II. 67. Irregular Plurals. III. . 68. Personal Pronouns. I. 69. Personal Pronouns. II. 70. Nominative and Objective Case 71. Predicate Nominative 72. Nominative in Exclamations 73. Genitive or Possessive Case . 74. Case of Appositives . 75. Indirect Object 76. Comparison of Adjectives. 77. Comparison of Adjectives. 78. Comparison of Adjectives. 79. Comparison of Adjectives. 80. Comparison of Adjectives. 81. Comparison of Adverbs . 82. Irregular Comparison of Adverbs 83. Use of Comparative and Superlative 84. Demonstrative Pronouns and Adjectives 85. Inflection of Demonstratives 86. Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives 87. Tbe Self-Pronouns . 88. Special Uses of the Self-Pronouns 89. Numerals .... 90. Inflection of Verbs. — Tense 91. Preterite Tense 92. Preterite Tense of Strong Verbs 93. Weak Preterites in -ed or -d . 94. Weak Preterites in -t . 95. Weak Preterites without Ending I. . II. III. IV. V. . CONTENTS. CHAPTER 96. Singular and Plural Verbs 97. Special Rules for the Number of Verbs 98. Person of Verbs .... 99. Personal Endings 100. Infinitive 101. Participles 102. Present Participle .... 103. Past Participle of Weak Verbs . 104. Past Participle of Strong Verbs 105. Modifiers and Object of Infinitive or Participle 106. Principal Parts of Verbs .... 107. Verbal Nouns in -ing . 108. Future Tense .... 109. Passive Voice .... 110. Active and Passive . . 111. Complete or Compound Tenses 112. Progressive Verb-Phrases. I. . 113. Progressive Verb-Phrases. II. 114. Emphatic Verb-Phrases . 115. Imperative Mood .... 116. Nominative Absolute 117. Cognate Object .... 118. Predicate Objective .... 119. Relative Pronouns 120. Gender of Relatives .... 121. Descriptive and Restrictive Relatives 122. The Relative Pronoun what 123. Compound Relative Pronouns 124. Relative Adjectives and Adverbs 125. Interrogative Pronouns, etc. 126. The Infinitive as a Noun . 127. The Infinitive as a Modifier . 128. Potential Verb-Phrases . 129. Subjunctive Mood 130. Subjunctive in Wishes and Exhortations . 131. Subjunctive in Concessions, Conditions, etc 132. Various Uses of the Subjunctive PAGE 213 215 217 219 222 226 229 230 232 234 236 237 240 245 248 249 251 252 253 255 259 262 263 267 270 271 272 273 274 276 278 280 283 287 289 290 292 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER 133. The Thought in the Sentence 134. Subordinate Clauses Classified . 135. Clauses of Place and Time 13G. Causal and Concessive Clauses . 137. Clauses of Purpose and of Result 138. Conditional Sentences 139. Adverbial Clauses. — Comparison 140. Direct and Indirect Statements 141. Indirect Questions 142. Infinitive Clauses 143. Sequence of Tenses 144. Classification of Phrases . Lessons in Composition PAGE . 294 . 296 . 297 . 298 . 299 . 300 302 . 304 306 . 309 . 311 . . 316 319 APPENDIX. The English Language Lists of Verbs Conjugation of the Verb to be :;s:; 386 394 Synopsis Index 397 409 INTRODUCTION. r ls LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. / Z (fi 2 b Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written Words. The English word language comes from the Latin word lingua, " the tongue," and was originally applied to oral speech. But the art of writing is now so common that it is quite as natural for us to speak of the language in which a book is written as of the language in which an address is delivered or a conversation carried on. Many savage tribes (for example, the North American Indians) have a method of conversing in gestures with- out speaking at all. This is called the sign-language. All language, however, is really the expression of thought by means of signs ; for spoken words are signs made with the voice, and written words are signs made with the pen. Thus when we speak or write the English word dog, we are just as truly making a sign as an Indian is when he expresses the idea dog by his fingers. Our spoken or written sign for dog can- not be understood by anybody who does not know the English language ; for different languages have different words, that is, different signs, for the same thing or idea. Thus the German word for dog is Hund ; the Latin word for dog is canis, and so on. Most words are the signs of definite ideas. xiii XIV THE MOTHER TONGUE. For example, soldier, sailor, dog, cat, horse, tree, river, house, shop, call up in our minds images of persons or things ; run, jump, write, travel, suggest kinds of action ; red, black, tall, studious, careful, suggest qualities belonging to persons or things. By the aid of such distinct and picturesque words as these, we can express man) thoughts and ideas ; that is, we can talk or write after a fashion. But we cannot talk in a connected manner. If, for example, we wish to say that the house is on fire, we can express our thought imperfectly by saying simply, " House burn ! " or " House ! fire ! " as a young child, or a foreigner who knew very little English, might do. But if we wish to express our thought fully, it would be natural to say, " The house is on fire." That is, besides the words that express distinct ideas, we should use little words, the, is, on, which do not call up any clear picture in the mind. To express thought, then, language needs not merely words that are the signs of distinct ideas, but also a number of words like is, was, in, to, and, but, if, which serve merely to join words together and to show their relations to each other in connected speech. The relations of words to each other in connected speech are shown in three ways : (1) by their form ; (2) by their order or arrangement ; (3) by the use of words like and, if, to, from, by, etc. Thus, — I. In the phrase " John's hat," the form of the word John's shows the relation of John to the hat; that is, it shows that John is the owner or possessor of the hat. II. Compare the two sentences : — John struck Charles. Charles struck John. INTRODUCTION. XV The meaning is entirely different. In the first sen- tence, John gives the blow and Charles receives it ; in the second, Charles does the striking and John gets hit. Yet the forms of the three words John, Charles, and struck are the same in both sentences. In each case the relation of the three words to each other is shown by the order in which they stand ; the word which comes first is the name of the striker, and the word which follows struck is the name of the person who receives the blow. III. Let us examine the use of such words as of, by, to, from, and the like. In the following phrase, The honor of a gentleman, the relation of honor to gentleman is shown by the word of. The honor, we see, belongs to the gentleman. The relation in which a word stands to other words in con- nected speech is called its Construction. Grammar is the science which treats of the Forms and the Constructions of words. The study of grammar, then, divides itself into two parts : — (1) the study of the different forms which a word may take (as John or Johns; walk or walks or tvalked ; he or him) ; (2) the study of the different constructions which a word may have in connected speech. The first of these parts is called the study of inflec- tion, the second the study of syntax. The Inflection of a word is a change in its Form to indicate its Construction. Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the Constructions of words. xvi THE MOTHER TONGUE. In some languages, the constructions of words are shown to a great extent by means of inflection. Thus, in Latin, lapis means " a stone " ; lapidis, " of a stone " ; lapide, " with a stone " ; lapidum, " of stones," and so on. The word lapis, it will be seen, changes its form by inflection as its construction changes. English was for- merly rich in such inflections, but most of these have been lost, so that in modern English the constructions of many words have to be shown either by their order or by the use of various little words such as of, with. The rules of Grammar get their authority from Usage. By usage is meant the practice of the best writers or speakers, not merely the habits of the community in which a person happens to live. There are, of course, varieties in usage, so that it is not always possible to pronounce one of two expressions grammatical and the other ungrammatical. In some cases, too, there is room for difference of opinion as to the correctness of a particular form or construction. But in a language like English, which has been written and studied for centuries, all the main facts are well settled. Usage ; then, is practically uniform throughout the English- speaking world. Pronunciation differs somewhat in different places, but educated Englishmen, Americans, and Australians all speak and write in accordance with the same grammatical principles. Since language is the expression of thought, the Rules of Grammar agree, in the main, with the Laws of Thought. In other words, grammar accords, in the main, with logic, which is the science that deals with the processes of reasonable thinking. INTRODUCTION. XVII There are, however, some exceptions. Every lan- guage has its peculiar phrases or constructions which appear to be irregular or even illogical, but which, because they have become established by usage, are not ungrammatical. These are called idioms (from a Greek word meaning "peculiarities"). For example, if we say " When are you going to study your lesson ? " we use the word going in a peculiar way without any reference to actual motion or going. We mean simply " When shall you study ? " This use of " are you going " for " shall you " is, then, an English idiom. One may speak or write grammatically and still not speak or write in what is called a good style. In other words, language may be grammatical without being clear, forcible, and in good taste. Thus in the sentence : " Brutus assassinated Csesar because he wished to become king," no rule of grammar is broken. Yet the style of the sentence is bad because the meaning is not clear ; we cannot tell who it was that desired the kingship — Csesar or Brutus. Again, " He talks as fast as a horse can trot " is per- fectly grammatical, but it would not be an elegant expression to use of a great orator. Good style, then, is impossible without grammatical correctness, but grammatical correctness does not neces- sarily carry with it good style. The ability to speak and write correctly does not depend on a knowledge of grammatical rules. It is usually acquired by unconscious imitation, as children learn to talk. Yet an acquaintance with grammar is of great help in acquiring correctness of speech. In par- ticular, it enables one to criticise one's self and to decide XVlil THE MOTHER TONGUE. between what is right and what is wrong in many doubtful cases. Grammar, then, is useful as a tool. But the study of grammar is also valuable as training in observation and thought. Language is one of the most delicate and complicated instruments which men use, and a study of its laws and their application is a worthy occupation for the mind. II. DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE. Language never stands still. Every language, until it dies (that is, until it ceases to be spoken at all), is in a state of continual change. The English which we speak and write is not the same English that was spoken and written by our grandfathers, nor was their English precisely like that of Queen Elizabeth's time. The farther back we go, the less familiar we find our- selves with the speech of our ancestors, until finally we reach a kind of English which is quite as strange to us as if it were a foreign tongue. Such changes take place gradually, — so slowly indeed, that we are hardly aware that they are going on at all, — but in the long run they may transform a language so completely that only scholars can recog- nize the old words and forms as identical, at bottom, with the new. Indeed, the changes may go so far that entirely new languages are formed. 'Ili us from Latin, the language of the ancient Romans (which is now dead) have come, by these gradual processes, a whole group of living modern languages, including French, Italian, INTRODUCTION. XIX and Spanish, differing from each other so much that a French- man cannot understand an Italian or a Spaniard any better than he can an Englishman or a German. The changes which a language undergoes are of many different kinds. Most of them, however, we can observe in our own experience if we stop to think of what takes place about us. They affect (1) vocabulary, that is, the stock of words which a language .possesses, (2) the meanings of words, (3) their pronunciation and spell- ing, (4) their forms of inflection, (5) their construction, that is, the manner in which they are put together in expressing thought. I. Many words and phrases which once belonged to the English language have gone out of use entirely. Such words are said to be obsolete (from a Latin word which means simply "out of use"). Thus holt ("wood"), couth ("known"), thilk ("that same"), achatour ("buyer"), warray ("to wage war"), are obsolete Eng- lish words. Many words and phrases, though obsolete in spoken English and in prose writing, are still used in poetry. Such words are called archaic (that is, ancient). Examples are ruth ("pity"), sooth ("truth"), icot ("know"), ween ("think"), eke ("also"). But changes in vocabulary are not all in the way of loss. New words and phrases are always springing up, whether to name new things and ideas or merely for the sake of variety in expression. Thus within the memory of persons now living the words telegraph, telegram^ telep>hone, dynamo, and the like, have come into exist- ence and made good their place in the English language. XX THE MOTHER TONGUE. Both of these processes, — the rise and the disappear- ance of words, — may be observed by every one in the case of what we call slang. Slang words spring up almost daily, are heard for a time from the lips of old and young, and then vanish (become obsolete), only to be replaced by newcomers. Now and then, however, a slang word gets a footing in good use and so keeps its place in the language. Thus, mob, snob, boss, chum, were originally slang, but are now recognized members of the English vocabulary. II. Changes in meaning. — The words of a living lan- guage are constantly changing in sense. Old meanings disappear and new meanings arise. Thus, in the fol- lowing passages from Shakspere, the italicized words all bear meanings which, though common three hun- dred years ago, are now out of use (obsolete) : — She is of so sweet, so gentle, so blessed a condition. [Condi- tion here means " character " or " nature."] Advance your standards. [Advance means "lift up."" Make all the money thou canst. [Make here means " collect," "get together," not, as in modern English, "earn" or "gain."]* III. Changes in pronunciation and spelling. — The busi- ness of spelling is to indicate pronunciation. In a perfect system, words would be spelled as they are pro- nounced. Such a system, however, has never been in use in any language, and, indeed, is impracticable, for no two persons pronounce exactly alike. Even if a perfect system could be devised, it would not * Any large dictionary will afford abundant illustration of obsolete words and senses of words. See, for example, such a dictionary under bower, cheer, favor, secure, convince, instance, insist, condescend, ivizard, comply, soon, wot, mote, iv/iil<>/n, trmr, hi<)ht. INTRODUCTION. XXI remain perfect forever, since the pronunciation of every language is constantly changing so long as the language is alive at all. In the last five hundred years the pro- nunciation of English has undergone a complete trans- formation. Our spelling, also, has been much altered, but, as everybody knows, it is far from doing its duty as an indicator of the sounds of words. IV. Inflection, as we have learned, is a change in the form of a word indicating its construction (or relation to other words in the sentence). Thus, tvalk, walks, walking, walked, are all inflectional forms of the same verb. In the time of Alfred the Great, in the ninth century, our language had many inflectional forms which it has since lost. Its history, indeed, is in great part the history of these losses in inflection. English of the present day has very few inflectional forms, replacing them by the use of various phrases (see p. xvi). The study of such changes does not come within the scope of this book; but a few of them must be men- tioned, from time to time, to illustrate modern forms and constructions. V. The changes to which our language has been subjected in the matter of grammatical construction are numerous and complicated. The general tendency, however, especially for the past two hundred years, has been in the direction of law and order. Hence very many constructions which are now regarded as errors were in former times perfectly acceptable. In reading Shakspere, for instance, we are continually meeting with forms and expressions which would be ungram- matical in a modern English writer. Two practical cautions are necessary: — XXU THE MOTHER TONGUE. (1) A construction which is ungramniatical in modern English cannot be defended by quoting Shakspere. (2) Shakspere must not be accused of u bad grammar " because he does not observe all the rules of modern English syntax. The language which one uses should always fit the occasion. Colloquial English (that is, the language of ordinary conversation) admits many words, phrases, forms, and constructions which would be out of place in a dignified oration or a serious poem. On the other hand, it is absurd always to " talk like a book," that is, to maintain, in ordinary conversation, the language appropriate to a speech or an elaborate essay. We should not " make little fishes talk like whales." In general, written language is expected to be more careful and exact than spoken language. A familiar letter, however, may properly be written as one would talk. The poetical style admits many archaic (that is, old) words, forms, and constructions that would be out of place in prose. It is also freer than prose with respect to the order or arrangement of words. The solemn style resembles in many ways the style of poetry. In particular it preserves such words as thou and ye, and such forms as hath, doth, saith, findest, findeth, and the like, which have long been obsolete in everyday language. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. CHAPTER I.* GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 1. Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written words. Words are signs made to indicate thought. 2. Some words express definite ideas : as, horse, sunset^ run, headlong. Other words (like to, from, at, is, was, though) express thought vaguely or in a very general way. Their use in language is to connect the more definite words, and to show their relations to each other. 3. The relation in which a word stands to other words in connected speech is called its Construction. The construction of English words is shown in three ways : (1) by their form ; (2) by their order ; (3) by the use of little words like to, from, is, etc. 4. Inflection is a change in the form of a word which indicates a change in its meaning : as, George, George's ; man, men ; kills, killed. 5. Grammar is the science which treats of the Forms and the Constructions of words. 6. The rules of grammar derive their authority from custom or usage. They agree in general with the proc- esses of thought. * This chapter summarizes some of the general principles explained in the introductory chapters. 1 2 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER II. THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 7. The curfew tolls the knell of parting day; The lowing herd wind slowly o'er the lea; The plowman homeward plods his weary way, And leaves the world to darkness and to me. A study of this stanza of poetry shows that different words in it have different tasks to perform in expressing the poet's thought. Thus, tolls, wind, leaves assert or declare that some- body or something is acting in some manner. Herd, plow- man, world are the names of persons or things. Weary is not the name of anything, but it describes the ivay. And calls up no picture in our minds, as plowman, or herd, or darkness does ; it merely connects the fourth line of the stanza with the third. Of in the first line shows the relation between knell and day. Me is not the name of anybody, but it nevertheless stands for a person, — the speaker or writer of the poem. Every word has its own work to do in the expression of thought. To understand the different tasks performed by different kinds of words is the first business of all students of language. 8. In accordance with their various uses, words are divided into classes called Parts of Speech. 9. There are eight parts of speech : Nouns, Pronouns, Adjec- tives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter- jections.* * The definitions that follow should not be committed to memory at this point. They are for reference, and for use as a review lesson (after p. 64). PARTS OF SPEECH. 6 1. A Noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. Examples : Charles, John, Mary, man, woman, boy, girl, London, Paris, city, town, street, horse, cat, dog, wood, iron, hammer, shovel, goodness, truth. 2. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It desig- nates a person, place, or thing, without naming it. Examples : I, you, he, she, it, this, that, who, which, whoever. Nouns and pronouns are called substantives. 3. An Adjective is a word which limits or defines a substan- tive, usually by attributing some quality. Examples : good, bad, red, green, blue, heavy, large, pleasant, disagreeable, mysterious, idle. 4. A Verb is a word which can assert something (usually an act) concerning a person, place, or thing. Examples : runs, jumps, travels, study, dig, fly, swim, try. 5. An Adverb modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Examples : quickly, slowly, angrily, carefully, here, up, down. 6. A Preposition shows the relation of the substantive which follows it to some other word or words in the sentence. Examples : of, in, by, from, with, during, over, under. 7. A Conjunction connects words or groups of words. Examples : and, or, but, for, because, however, if. 8. An Interjection is a cry or exclamatory sound expressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling. Examples : oh ! ah ! pshaw ! fie ! ha ! alas ! bravo I 4 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER III. NOUNS. 10. One of the first duties of language is that of naming persons and things. It is impossible to express our thoughts unless we can, as the saying is, " call things by their right names." In the following passage the italicized words are the names of various objects. Such words are called nouns. There was a most ingenious architect, who had contrived a new method for building houses, by beginning at the roof and working downward to the foundation ; which he justified to me by the like practice of those two prudent insects, the bee and the spider. — Swift. The word noun is derived from the French word for " name." 11. A Noun is the name of a Person, Place, or Thing. Examples : Charles, Mary, man, woman, boy, girl, horse, cow, cat, camel, city, town, village, kitchen, shop, Chicago, Texas, California, house, box, stable, car, boat, cm-tain, hatchet. 12. Nouns are divided into two classes : (i) Proper nouns ; (2) Common nouns. The difference may be seen in the following examples : Charles rode the horse to water. The boy rode the horse to water. Charles is a person's own name, — the name which belongs to him and by which he is distinguished from other persons. It is therefore called a proper name or proper noun, " proper" in this use meaning "one's own." K NOUNS. 5 Boy, on the other hand, is not the name of a par- ticular person. It is a general term for any one of a large class of persons, — male human beings below the age of manhood. Hence it is called a common noun, that is, a name common to a whole class of objects. The same distinction is found in the names of places and things. Boston, Cincinnati, London, Paris, Ger- many, France, Mt. Washington, Sahara, are proper nouns. City, country, mountain, desert, are common nouns. 13. A Proper Noun is the special name by which a particular person, place, or thing is distinguished from others of the same kind or class. Examples : John, James, Mary, Elizabeth, Washington, Grant, Shakspere, Milton, Rome, London, Cuba, Rocky Mountains, Cape Hatteras, Klondike. 14. A Common Noun is a name which may be applied to any one of a whole class of similar -persons, places, or things. Examples : man, woman, child, dog, cow, fairy, street, house, monument, knife, bookcase. In writing, proper nouns begin with a capital letter and common nouns usually begin with a small letter.* 15. The English word " thing " is not confined in its use to objects that we can see, hear, taste, or touch. We may say, for example : — Patriotism is a good thing. Cowardice is a contemptible thing. I wish there were no such thing as sorroiv. * Common nouns and adjectives often begin with capital letters when they designate the topics or main points of definitions or similar state- ments. Such capitals are called Emphatic (or Topical) Capitals. 6 THE MOTHER TONGUE. Such words as patriotism and cowardice, then, come mider the general heading of names of things, and are therefore nouns. 16. When the name of a person, place, or thing con- sists of a number of words, the whole group may be regarded as a single noun. Thus, — Charles Allen is my brother. "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" was written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The Isthmus of Panama joins North America and South America. EXERCISE. In the following passages pick out the nouns, and tell whether each is a common or a proper noun. 1. Drake with his one ship and eighty men held boldly on ; and, passing the Straits of Magellan, untra versed as yet by any Englishman, swept the unguarded coast of Chili and Peru, and loaded his bark with gold-dust and silver-ingots of Potosi, and with the pearls, emeralds, and diamonds which formed the cargo of the great galleon that sailed once a year from Lima to Cadiz. 2. In that same village, and in one of these very houses (which, to tell the precise truth, was sadly time-worn and weather-beaten), there lived many years since, while the country was yet a province of Great Britain, a simple, good-natured fellow, of the name of Rip Van Winkle. He was a descendant of the Van Winkles who figured so gallantly in the chivalrous days of Peter Stuyvesant and accompanied him to the siege of Fort Christina. 3. An inhabitant of Truro told me that about a fortnight after the St. John was wrecked at Cohasset, he found two bodies on the shore at the Clay Pounds. 4. Oliver Goldsmith was born on the tenth of November, 1728, at Pallas, or Pallasmore, county of Longford, in Ireland. ABSTRACT AND COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 7 CHAPTER IV. SPECIAL CLASSES OF NOUNS* 17. Certain classes of common nouns receive special names. Particularly important classes are abstract nouns and collective nouns. 18. In § 15 we learned that words like patriotism, cowardice, and sorrow, which are the names of ideas or qualities, are nouns. Further examples follow : — Pity is akin to love. Order is heaven's first law. A soft answer turneth away wrath. Virtue is bold, and goodness never fearful. Such names as pit i/, wrath, etc., are called abstract nouns. 19. An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality or general idea. Examples : goodness, sweetness, wisdom, ignorance, truth, amiability, sauciness, folly, virtue, wickedness, liberty. Many abstract nouns end in -ness and -ty. 20. In the following sentences the italicized nouns are the names of groups or collections of persons : — A crowd gathered almost in an instant. The whole class studied the wrong lesson. The crew of the wrecked steamer were all saved. These boys formed a club to practise rowing. Captain Smith is an officer in the navy. Such names are called collective nouns. * This chapter should not be studied uutil the pupil is thoroughly familiar with the two main classes of nouns, proper and common. The teacher may prefer to postpone it until after page 36. 8 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 21. A Collective Noun is the name of a Group, Class, or Multitude, and not of a single person, place, or thing. Examples : class, fleet, army, host, gang, company, regiment, party, people, nation, multitude, flock, herd, set, lot. 22. Collective nouns are usually common nouns, but they become proper nouns when they are used as the special name of a particular group, class, or company. Thus, — The Congress of the United States meets in Washington. The Philadelphia Base Ball Club will play at New York to- morrow. The First Class will recite at ten o'clock. 23. Any word, when mentioned merely as a word, is a noun. Thus, — Is is one of the shortest words in our language. Was is a verb. And. is a conjunction. EXERCISES. In the following passages pick out all the abstract and all the collective nouns that you can find. 1. A number of young people were assembled in the music room. "~2. He leads towards Rome a band of warlike Goths. 3. By ten o'clock the whole party were assembled at the Park. 4. Have I not reason to look pale and dead? 5. People were terrified by the force of their own imagination. 6. The Senate has letters from the general. 7. You misuse the reverence of your place. ABSTRACT AND COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 9 8. There is hardly any place, or any company, where you may not gain knowledge if you please. 9. Here comes another troop to seek for you. 10. Their mastiffs are of unmatchable corn-age. 11. Our family dined in the field, and we sat, or rather re- clined, round a temperate repast. 12. Our society will not break up, but we shall settle in some other place. 13. Let nobody blame him ; his scorn I approve. 14. The Senate have concluded To give this day a crown to mighty Caesar. 15. He is banished, as enemy to the people and his country. 16. Society has been called the happiness of life. 17. His army is a ragged multitude Of hinds and peasants, rude and merciless. 18. There is a great difference between knowledge and wisdom. 19. All the country in a general voice cried hate upon him. 20. The king hath called his Parliament. 21. Let all the number of the stars give light to thy fair way ! H. Give some collective noun which stands for a number or group of — Men, birds, cows, thieves, marbles, schoolchildren, sailors, sol- diers, football players, musicians, robbers, pirates, books, postage stamps, senators, Members of Congress, partners in business. in. Give an abstract noun which names the idea or qual- ity suggested by each of the words in the following- list. Thus, — True. — The noun is truth. True, false, good, bad, lazy, careless, free, brave, sinful, cautious, just, beautiful, amiable, insane, passionate, natural, hasty, valiant, angry, grieving, sorry, holy, evil, unjust, accurate, simple. 10 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER V. PRONOUNS. 24. In expressing our thoughts we often have occasion to mention a person, place, or thing without naming it. Thus, — The boy found a ball on the ground. He picked it up and put it into his pocket. Here the boy and the ball are mentioned at the out- set, but we do not wish to keep repeating the nouns boy and ball. Hence we use he and his to designate the boy, and it to designate the ball. These words are not nouns, for they do not name anything. They are called pronouns, because they stand in the place of nouns (pro being a Latin word for "instead of"). 25. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. It desig- nates a person, place, or thing without naming it. 26. Pronouns are not absolutely necessary to the expression of thought; but they make it possible to avoid awkward and confusing repetition. Compare the passages in the parallel columns below. Thought expressed Thought expressed with Pronouns without Pronouns The savages had two canoes The savages had two canoes with them. They had hauled with the savages. The savages them up on the shore. had hauled the canoes up on the shore. If you try to talk without using I, you, he, she, or it, you will soon discover what pronouns are good for. PRONOUNS. 11 27. The main classes of pronouns are : Personal, Rela- tive, Interrogative, Demonstrative. Their distinction and uses will be studied in later chapters. For the present, we may content ourselves with recognizing some of the most important pronouns when we see them. Such are: /, me, you, we, he, his, him, she, her, they, their, them. 28. Since the chief use of pronouns is to replace nouns, the constructions of these two parts of speech are almost always the same. It is therefore convenient to have a term which means "noun or pronoun," and the term used for this purpose is substantive. 29. Nouns and Pronouns are called Substantives. EXERCISES. I. In the following passages pick out what nouns and pronouns you can find. If you can, tell what noun is replaced by each pronoun. 1. Goneril, the elder, declared that she loved her father more than words could give out, that he was dearer to her than the light of her own eyes. ,—£. Bassanio took the ring and vowed never to part with it. 3. The floor of the cave was dry and level, and had a sort of small loose gravel upon it. — 4. Having now brought all my things on shore, and secured them, I went back to my boat, and rowed, or paddled her along the shore, to her old harbor, where I laid her up. — Robinson Crusoe. 5. Heaven lies about us in our infancy. «_6. Blessed is he who has found his work. 12 THE MOTHER TONGUE. > _ 7. la fact, Tom declared it was of no use to -work on his farm; it was the most pestilent little piece of ground in the whole country; everything about it went wrong, and would go wrong, in spite of him. 8. When Portia parted with her husband, she spoke cheeringly to him, and bade him bring his dear friend along with him when he returned. n. Fill the blanks with pronouns. 1. A thought struck , and wrote a letter to one of — friends. 2. The flowers were bending — — heads, as if were dreaming of the rainbow and dew. 3. We make way for the man who boldly pushes past . 4. " That 's a brave man," said Wellington, when saw a soldier turn pale as marched against a battery : " knows danger, and faces " 5. I know not what course others may take ; but, as for , give liberty, or give death. 6. There, in noisy mansion, skilled to rule, The village master taught little school. 7. Wordsworth helps us to live best and highest life ; is a strengthening and purifying influence like own mountains. 8. As the queen hesitated to pass 'on, young Raleigh, throw- ing cloak from his shoulder, laid on the miry spot, so as to ensure stepping over dryshod. 9. Tender-handed stroke a nettle, And stings you for pains ; Grasp like a man of mettle, And soft as silk remains. 10. Whatever people may think of , do that which believe to be right. *■&' 11. No man is so foolish but may give another good counsel sometimes, and no man so wise but may easily err. VERBS. 13 CHAPTER VI. VERBS AND VERB-PHRASES. 30. In order to express our thoughts we must be able not only to " call things by their right names," but to make statements, — that is, to assert. 31. Let us examine the following groups of words : — Birds fly. Fishes swim. The boy played ball well. Each of these expressions contains a word {fly-, swim, played) which expresses action. Thus, fly expresses the action of the birds ; swim, that of the fishes ; played, that of the boy. But these three words, fly, swim,, and played, not only express action, they state or assert the action. Thus, in " Birds fly," it is the word fly which makes the asser- tion that the birds act in a certain way. Such words are called verbs. Language, then, must furnish us not only with nouns, by means of which we can name persons, places, or things, but with words of another kind, by means of which we can state or assert something about persons, places, and things. 32. A Verb is a word which can assert something (usually an act) concerning a person, place, or thing. In each of the following examples pick out the word which states or asserts some act : — The travellers climbed the mountain. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. The snow fell in great flakes all day long. 14 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 33. Most verbs express action. Some, however, merely express state or condition. Thus, — You lack energy. This lake abounds in fish. The soldier lay dead on the battlefield. 34. Is (are, was, were, etc.), may, can, must, might, shall, will, could, would, should, have, had, do, did, have a peculiar use in what are called verb-phrases : as, — The company is charging up the hill. The house may fall at any moment. We can swim to the boat. Our friends will search the woods in vain. In the first of these sentences the assertion is made by means of the phrase is charging ; in the second it is the phrase may fall that asserts the action, and so on. Each of these phrases is formed by combining is, may, can, etc., with some word that expresses action, charging, fall, swim, search. English has many verh-phrases, by means of which it is able to express action in various ways. They will be studied in later chapters. 35. Is (are, was, were, etc.), may, can, must, might, shall, luill, could, would, should, have, had, do, did, when used in verb-phrases, are called auxiliary (that is, " aiding ") verbs, because they help other words to express action or state of some particular kind. 36. The auxiliary verb may be separated from the rest of the verb-phrase by other words. Thus, — Tom may perhaps find his purse. We were rapidly drifting down the river. Washington has never lost the affection of his countrymen. VERBS AND VERB-PHRASES. 15 EXERCISES. I. In each of the following passages pick out all the verbs and verb-phrases that you can find. 1. Count Otto stares till his eyelids ache. 2. But so slowly did I creep along, that I heard a clock in a cottage strike four before I turned down the lane from Slough to Eton. 3. Like as the waves make towards the pebbled shore, So do our minutes hasten to their end. 4. If it rains, we converse within doors. 5. The book you mention lies now upon my table. 6. The fleet in the Downs sent their captains on shore, hoisted the King's pennon, and blockaded the Thames. 7. The little company of the " Pilgrim Fathers," as after-times loved to call them, landed on the barren coast of Massachusetts, at a spot to which they gave the name of Plymouth, in memory of the last English port at which they touched. II. Pick out all the verbs and verb-phrases that you can find in the second Exercise on page 12. in. Fill each blank with a verb or verb-phrase. A young friend of mine a clever little dog, whose name Jack. He his master whenever he to school, and always for him until the children . Then the dog along at the boy's heels until home in sight. Once some rascal Jack and him up in a cellar a long way from home. But Jack and his master again. I never a dog that - on his hind legs so gracefully as my friend's Jack. 16 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER VII. SENTENCES. 37. Language, as we have already learned, is thought expressed in words. In speaking or writing, however, we do not utter our thoughts in single words, but in groups of words which are so put together as to express connected ideas. Thus, — Birds fly. Iron sinks. Wood floats. Lions roar. These are very simple groups, but each expresses some thought and is, in a manner, complete in itself. 38. If we study a longer passage, we see at once that it may be broken up into a number of groups, some larger and some smaller, each of which is a kind of unit. Thus, — The soldier awoke at break of day. | He sprang up from his hard couch on the ground. [ The drums were beating. | It was time to fall in for the day's march. The passage falls into four of these groups, each standing by itself and expressing a single thought. Such groups of words are sentences of a very simple kind. 39. In the next chapter we shall study the structure of sentences, — that is, the parts out of which they are com- posed and the way in which those parts are put together. For the present, we may content ourselves with fram- ing a few sentences for practice. This we can easily do, for we have spoken in sentences ever since we learned to talk. SENTENCES. 1 7 40. Make a short statement about each of the persons and things mentioned in the list below. Thus, — Lions. Lions are found in Africa. Tree. A large tree grew in the square. Ball, kite, top, doll, carriage, dogs, cats, schoolhouse, John, Mary, tigers, fisherman, carpenters, book, history, sugar, leather, vinegar, apples, plums, melon, salt. In each of the statements you have expressed a thought in language. This you have done by means of putting together (combining) words into sentences. CHAPTER VIII. SENTENCES. — SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 41. In the expression of ideas words are combined into Sen- tences. 42. In its simplest form a sentence is the statement of a single fact. Thus, — Fire burns. The king reigns. Water freezes. Victoria is queen. Each of these sentences consists, it will be observed, of two parts : — (1) a word or words designating the person or thing that is spoken of (fire, rooter, the king, Victoria) ; (2) a word or words telling something about that person or thing (burns, freezes, reigns, is queen). The first of these parts is called the subject of the sentence, and the second is called the predicate. Accordingly we have the following rules : - 18 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 43. Every Sentence consists of a Subject and a Predicate. The Subject of a sentence is that person, place, or thing which is spoken of ; the Predicate is that which is said of the subject. 44. A Declarative Sentence is a sentence which declares or asserts something as a fact. There are several forms of the sentence besides the declarative sen- tence. These will be studied later. 45. In such a sentence as Victoria reigns, we have a very simple form of both subject and predi- cate. Victoria, the subject, is a single noun; and reigns, the predicate, is a single verb. So in Fire burns. Ships sail. Horses gallop. Truth prevails. The subject may, however, be not a noun but a pro- noun; for the office of pronouns is to stand in the place of nouns. Thus, in the sentence He laughs, he is the subject, and laughs is the predicate. If we examine a somewhat longer sentence, we shall see that it is still made up of the same two parts, — subject and predicate. Thus, in The old chief of the Mohawks | fought desperately, the whole subject is The old chief of the Mohawks, and the whole predicate is fought desperately. 46. The subject usually precedes the predicate ; but not always. Thus, — Down came the rain. Up flew the window. Ran Coll, our dog. Sad was the day. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 19 EXERCISES. I. Fill the blanks with verbs, verb-phrases, nouns, or pro- nouns, so as to make each example a complete sentence. Tell what it is that you have inserted in each case. 1. The teacher at her desk writing. 2. The captain his company in the suburbs of the town. 3. The strife with unremitting fury for three mortal hours. 4. The first permanent settlement on the Chesapeake in the beginning of the reign of James the First. 5. I an aged beggar in my walk. 6. The English army too exhausted for pursuit. 7. The owls all night long. 8. A crow a nest in one of the young elm trees. 9. A famous man Robin Hood. 10. In the confusion, five or six of the enemy . 11. The eyes of the savage with fury. 12. A little leak a great ship. 13. The blacksmith the red-hot iron. 14. A sudden clouded the sky. 15. My was then in London. 16. The followed us over the moor. 17. commanded the American army. 18. The have wandered about nearly all day. 19. A high • blew hats and bonnets about. 20. The fired a broadside at the enemy. 21. Many — — were swimming in the pool. 22. Down the timber with a crash. 23. Higher and higher the sun. II. By means of a vertical line divide each of your com- pleted sentences in i, above, into subject and predicate. 20 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER IX. COMPLETE AND SIMPLE SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 47. Examine once more the sentence studied in § 45: — The old chief of the Mohawks | fought desperately. The whole subject is the old chief of the Mohawks, and the whole predicate is, fought desperately. The most important word in the subject is the noun chief ; the most important word in the predicate is the verb fought. If we omit old, the sentence still makes sense. So we may omit of the Mohawks, or desperately, without destroying the sentence. But if we omit either chief or fought, the remaining words no longer make any statement. The old of the Mohawks | fought desperately ; — or The old chief of the Mohawks j A desperately, would be nonsense, for it would not express a thought. In this sentence, then, a single noun, chief, names the person concerning whom the assertion is made, and a single verb, fought, declares or asserts the action. The noun chief is therefore called the simple subject, and the verb fought the simple predicate of the sentence. The other words or phrases which go to make up the whole subject, — the, old, and of the Mohawks, — define more exactly the meaning of the simple subject chief. The noun chief by itself may refer to any chief ; but the old chief of the Mohawks is a well-defined person. Similarly, the meaning of the simple predicate, the verb fought, is defined or limited by the word desperately (telling how he fought). SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 21 48. The Simple Subject of a sentence is a Noun or Pronoun. The Simple Predicate of a sentence is a Verb or Verb-phrase. The Simple Subject, with such words as limit or define its meaning, forms the Complete Subject. The Simple Predicate, with such words as limit or define its meaning, forms the Complete Predicate. In this book the simple subject and the simple predicate will generally be called the subject and the predicate. When the whole or complete subject or predicate is referred to, the terms complete subject and complete predi- cate will be used. 49. The simple predicate may be a verb-phrase. Thus, — Fire will burn. John is running. 50. In each of the following sentences the complete subject and the complete predicate are separated by a vertical line, and the simple subject and the simple predicate are printed in small capitals : — Vast meadows | stretched to the eastward. The farmer of Grand Pre" | lived on his sunny farm. The rude forefathers of the hamlet | sleep. Each horseman [ drew his battle-blade. The old doctor | was sitting in his arm-chair. The clock I has struck the hour of midnight. %->' 51. We are now able to define a sentence in a more accurate way than was possible before we knew the meaning of subject and predicate. A Sentence is a combination of words which expresses a thought and which contains a Subject and a Predicate. A noun or pronoun which is the Subject of a Sentence is said to be in the Nominative Case. 22 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISE. By means of a vertical line divide the following sentences into their complete subjects and complete predicates. In each sentence point out the substantive that is the simple subject and the verb or verb-phrase that is the simple predicate. 1. She roams the dreary waste. 2. Ten thousand warblers cheer the day. 3. Thou climbest the mountain-top. 4. The river glideth at his own sweet will. 5. The rings of iron sent out a jarring sound. 6. The bolted gates flew open at the blast. 7. The streets ring with clamors. 8. The courser pawed the ground with restless feet. 9. Envy can never dwell in noble hearts. 10. His whole frame was trembling. 11. The wondering stranger round him gazed. 52. The exercise which we have just had is an exer- cise in analysis. Analysis is a Greek word which means " the act of breaking up." In grammar the term is applied to the " breaking up " or separation of a sentence into its parts, — subject, predicate, and limiting words. To dissect a sentence in this way is to analyze it. In later chapters we shall learn more about the details of grammatical analysis. 53. Analysis is useful not only because it helps us to get at the meaning of a thought, but because it sharpens our wits and tests our understanding of what we read. Practice in analysis ought also to assist us in expressing ourselves clearly and correctly. TEE COPULA "IS." 23 CHAPTER X. THE COPULA "IS." 54. One peculiar verb which is very important in the making of sentences, has so little meaning in itself that we might easily fail to recognize it as a verb at all. This is the verb is (in its different forms), as seen in the following sentences : — I am your friend. Tom was'tived. The road is rough. You toere merry. These apples are mellow. The soldiers were brave. In all these examples the verb-forms am, is, are, was, were do not in themselves tell us anything about the subject. The meaning of the predicate is really con- tained in the words that follow the verb {your friend, rough, mellow, etc.). Yet if we omit the verb we no longer have sentences : — I your friend. Tom tired. A The road A rough. You merry. These apples mellow. The soldiers brave. 55. The verb is, then, does two things : — (1) It asserts, or makes the statement (for, omitting it, we have no statement) ; (2) It connects the subject with the word or words in the complete predicate that possess a distinct meaning. Hence the verb is (in its various forms) is called the copula, that is, the " joiner " or " link." 56. The forms of the verb is are very irregular. They will be more fully studied in later chapters. 24 THE MOTHER TONGUE. Meantime we should recognize am, is, are, wa.% were, as forms of this verb, and has been, have been, had been, shall be, and will be, as verb-phrases belonging to it. 57. In sentences like those in § 54, the simple predi- cates are the verbs am, is, are, etc.* 58. The verb is (in its various forms) is not always a mere copula- It is sometimes emphatic and has the sense of exist. Thus, — '. I think. Therefore I am. [That is, I exist.'] Whatever is, is right. [That is, Whatever exists.] EXERCISES. -* I. - Make the following groups of words into sentences by inserting some form of the copula (is, are, etc.). 1. Fishes cold-blooded animals. 4. You studious children. 2. Milton a great poet. 5. Thou the man. 3. Washington the Father of his 6. You a studious child. Country. 7. He a colonel. II. Find the copula. Tell what it connects. 1. The stranger is an Austrian. 2. Your friends will be glad to see you. 3. We shall be too tired to walk home. 4. Seals are amphibious animals. 5. I am an American citizen. 6. The streets were wet and muddy. * Many grammarians regard is and the noun or adjective that follows it (is rough, are mellow, etc.) as the simple predicate ; hut the nomen- clature here adopted is equally scientific and more convenient, INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 25 CHAPTER XI. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. I. 59. All the sentences which we have so far studied are declarative sentences ; that is, they declare or assert some- thing (see § 44). But we do not use language for the sole purpose of telling things. Whether we talk or write, we are con- tinually asking questions, giving orders, and making requests, and we often give vent to our emotions by exclaiming. There should, then, be special forms of the sentence to express some or all of these modes of thought. These special forms we shall now study under their several heads : (1) interrogative sentences ; (2) imperative sentences ; (3) exclamatory sentences. 60. If we examine the following sentences, Is John at home ? Have these men a conscience? Who leads in the race ? we observe that they do not assert anything. On the contrary, they make inquiries ; they are questions. Yet without doubt each of these examples is a sentence ; for each expresses a thought and contains a subject and a predicate. Thus, in the first example John is the subject and is at home the complete predicate as truly as in the declarative sentence " John is at home." Such sentences are called interrogative sentences. The word interrogative means merely "questioning." A question is often called an interrogation. 61. A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogative Sentence. ■26 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Ask questions about ten objects in the schoolroom. Ask ten questions about some person or event famous in American history. You have just made a number of interrogative sen- tences. Write an answer to each. These answers will be declarative sentences. II. Turn the following declarative sentences into inter- rogative sentences. 1. Our society meets once a fortnight. 2. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. 3. They heard the din of the battle. 4. Swift wrote " Gulliver's Travels." 5. Shakspere lived in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 6. Our voyage was very prosperous. 7. Nothing dries more quickly than a tear. 8. Sir John Franklin perished in the Arctic regions. 9. The Hudson's Bay Company deals in furs. 10. John Adams was the second President of the United States. 11. Victoria is Empress of India. 12. William II. is the German Emperor. 13. Siberia is a part of the Russian Empire. LEI. Compare the declarative and the interrogative sen- tences that you have made in I and n. Do you observe any difference in the order of words? With what words do many questions begin ? See if you can frame a rough-and-ready rule for inter- rogative sentences. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 27 CHAPTER XII. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. II. 62. The preceding exercise illustrates some of the peculiarities of interrogative sentences. 63. The simple subject of an interrogative sentence often follows the simple, predicate. Thus, — G_Qes Ccesar to the capital to-morrow ? Know you this man? Is Thomas your brother ? Change each of these sentences to the declarative form, and the difference in order is plain. 64. The predicate of an interrogative sentence is often a verb-phrase with do, does, or did. Thus, - — Do I blame the man ? Do you feel better ? Does Charles go to school ? Did they find your knife? Here the predicates are the verb-phrases do blame, do feel, does go, did find. The subjects (I, you, Charles, they) come between the two parts of the verb-phrases, 65. Interrogative sentences often begin with who, whose, whom, which, what. Thus, — Who is on guard? Which of you is ready? Whom did you see ? What troubles you ? These words are pronouns , for they point out or desig- nate a person or thing~(By = asking a question about it). When thus used to introduce a question, who, tvhose, whom, which, and what are called interrogative pronouns. 28 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Write ten interrogative sentences beginning with do, does, or did. Use as subjects some of the nouns in the lists below. Examples : Does Henry skate well? Do bananas grow in Africa ? Henry, Washington, Julia, river, lake, mountain, ship, England, Mr. Jackson, Lowell, bananas, cocoanuts, children, whales, lion, cotton, breadfruit, Kansas, Henry Clay. Write an answer to each of your questions. ii. Write ten interrogative sentences beginning with, who, ivhose, ivhom, which, or what. Write answers to your questions. ill. Analyze the following sentences by designating (1) the complete subject, (2) the complete predicate, (3) the simple subject, (4) the simple predicate. 1. Is wealth thy passion? 2. What shall I say in excuse for this long letter? 3. Is he not able to pay the money ? 4. Urge you your petitions in the street? 5. Why was James driven from the throne ? 6. Is this the welcome of my worthy deeds? 7. Why dost thou bend thine eyes upon the earth? 8. Why do you treat Alfred Burnham so defiantly? 9. Did you ever read anything so delightful? 10. Why would not you speak sooner? 11. Does this garden belong to the governor? IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 29 CHAPTER XIII. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 66. Each of the groups of words that follow expresses a command or a request : — March forward ! Drive the dog out. Sharpen my pencil for me, please. Examining the form of these expressions, we observe certain peculiarities : — (1) There is a verb in each : march, drive, sharpen. (2) No subject is expressed. (3) A subject, however, is certainly in the speaker's mind, — namely, the person to whom he is speaking ; and this subject may be expressed at will by prefixing to the verb the pronoun you. Thus, — [You] march forward ! [You] drive the dog out ! [You] sharpen my pencil for me, please. All these groups of words, then, are sentences of a peculiar kind, having a predicate expressed and a sub- ject, you, understood. (1) They are directly addressed to somebody. (2) They express either a command or a request, the sole difference between the two consisting in the tone of voice in which the sentence is uttered. Such sentences are called imperative sentences. 67. An Imperative Sentence expresses a command or a request. The subject of an imperative sentence is usually omitted ; when expressed, it is either thou or you (ye). 30 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Make ten sentences expressing command or entreaty. How do the imperative sentences which you have made differ in form from declarative sentences? II. Make ten imperative sentences beginning with do not. Observe that this is the common form of a prohibition (or negative command). in. Analyze the following imperative sentences thus : — (1) mention the subject; (2) mention the complete predi- cate ; (3) mention the simple predicate. 1. Go you before to Gloucester with these letters. 2. Follow thou the flowing river. 3. Go you into the other street. 4. To-morrow in the battle think on me. 5. Do not lay your hand on your sword. 6. Bring forth the prisoners instantly. 7. Lend favorable ears to our request. 8. Call thou my brother hither. 9. Do not seek for trouble. 10. Spare my guiltless wife and my poor children. 11. See the wild waste of all-devouring years. 12. Don't measure other people's corn by your own bushel. 13. Teach not thy lips such scorn. 14. Give my regards to your brother. 15. Don't forget my message. 16. Remember never to be ashamed of doing right. 17. Do not saw the air too much with your hand. 18. Keep a firm rein upon these bursts of passion. 19. Do not spur a free horse. 20. Do not stand in your own light. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. 31 CHAPTER XIV. EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. 68. Any sentence, whatever its form, may be spoken as an exclamation ; that is, may be uttered as a kind of cry expressing surprise 'or some other emotion. Such sentences are called exclamatory sentences. Thus, the sentences He comes ! What do you mean ? Go home ! are all exclamatory. Yet these three examples are sentences of different kinds: the first is declarative; the second, interroga- tive ; the third, imperative. In the following sentences, however, we have excla- mations expressed in a peculiar form : — What a noise the boy makes ! What beautiful flowers these are I How fast the horse runs ! These sentences are, it will be seen, essentially declara- tive, but they do not merely state a fact ; they state a fact in the form of an exclamation. In other words, they are exclamatory sentences. 69. Any sentence which expresses surprise, grief, appeal, or any strong emotion in the form of an exclamation or cry may be called an Exclamatory Sentence. An exclamatory sentence is followed by an exclama- tion point (!) if it is declarative or imperative. 32 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISE. Tell whether each of the following sentences is declar- ative, interrogative, or imperative, and give your reasons. If any of the sentences are also exclamatory, mention that fact. 1. Did you ever hear the streams talk to you in May, when you went a-fishing ? 2. The white pavilions made a show, Like remnants of the winter snow. 3. But hark ! what means yon faint halloo ? 4. Things are stagnant enough in town. 5. But what 's the use of delaying? 6. The Moors from forth the greenwood came riding one by one. 7. I was just planning a whole week's adventure for you. 8. At the Peckham end there were a dozen handsome trees, and under them a piece of artificial water where boys were sail- ing toy boats, and a poodle was swimming. 9. Look at the splendid prize that was to recompense our labor. 10. Don't think that my temper is hot. 11. The natives came by degrees to be less apprehensive of any danger from me. 12. Soldier, rest ! thy warfare o'er, Sleep the sleep that knows not breaking. 13. How easily you seem to get interested in new people ! 14. How little I thought what the quarrel would lead to I 15. How have you been employing your time? 16. O, cease your sports, Earl Percy said, And take your bows with speed. 17. He had been in business in the West End. 18. Abandon this mad enterprise. 19. Forgive my hasty words. 20. What black despair, what horror, fills his heart I VOCA TIVE. 33 CHAPTER XV. VOCATIVE.* 70. Examine the following sentence : — Thomas, you are a troublesome fellow. In this sentence the noun Thomas is used as a call to attract the attention of the person addressed. It is not the subject of the sentence. Indeed, it has no connec- tion of any hind with the veil). Similarly, in each of the sentences in § 72, the noun printed in italics is used merely to designate the person to whom we are speaking. It is quite independent of any verb. Nouns thus used in direct address are said to be in the vocative (that is, the "calling") construction. 71. A noun used for the purpose of addressing a person directly, and not connected with any verb, is called a Vocative. A vocative is also called a vocative nominative or a nominative of direct address. 72. The vocative is common in sentences of all kinds, — declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclama- tory. Thus, — John, your father is calling. [Declarative.] John, do you own a horse? [Interrogative.] John, open the door. [Imperative.] What a fellcw you are, John .' [Exclamatory.] * The vocative is treated at this point because it is common in impera- tive .sentences and is often mistaken by beginners for the subject of an imperative. 34 THE MOTHER TONGUE. Omit the vocative John, and the meaning of these sentences is not changed. The vocative, then, stands by itself: that is, it is independent of the rest of the sentence. 73. Since imperative sentences are always directly addressed to some one, vocatives are very common in such sentences. Thus, — Look aloft, Tom. Answer me, Mary, immediately. John, lend me your rifle. Note that the subject of each of these sentences is the unexpressed pronoun you (§ 66), and not the vocative {Tom, Mary, John). 74. In analyzing a sentence containing a vocative, the vocative is mentioned by itself and is not regarded as a part of either the complete subject or the complete predicate. EXERCISES. Fill the blanks with vocatives. Observe that each sentence is complete already, and that therefore the vocatives are not necessary to the thought. 1. We shall miss you very much, . 2. Come hither, , and sit upon my knee. 3. What is your name, ? 4. , can you tell me the road to Denver? 5. , spare that tree. 6. Don't disappoint me, - — . I trust you absolutely. VOCATIVE. 35 7. Jog on, , and we shall soon reach the stable. 8. Run, ! The savages are after us ! 9. Swim, , for your life. There 's a shark chasing you ! 10. Jump, ! It 's our last chance ! II. In each of the following sentences mention the sub- ject and the predicate. Mention also any vocative nouns which the sentences contain. 1. O learned sir, You and your learning I revere. 2. The good old man Means no offence, sweet lady ! 3. Good-by! Drive on, coachman. 4. Why, Sir John, my face does you no harm. 5. Good cousin, give me audience for a while. 6. Yours is the prize, victorious prince. 7. " Wake, Allan-bane," aloud she cried To the old minstrel by her side. 8. Bid adieu, my sad heart, bid adieu to thy peace. 9. My dear little cousin, what can be the matter ? 10. Come, Evening, once again, season of peace ! 11. Plain truth, dear Murray, needs no flowers of speech. 12. Permit me now, Sir William, to address myself personally to you. 13. Go, my dread lord, to your great-grandsire's tomb. 14. Why do you stay so long, my lords of France ? 15. My pretty cousins, you mistake me much. 16. Come on, Lord Hastings. Will you go with me ? 17. O Romeo, Romeo, brave Mercutio 's dead. 18. I will avenge this insult, noble queen. 19. O friend, I seek a harborage for the night. 20. My lord, I saw three bandits by the rock. 21. Father ! thy days have passed in peace. 36 THE MOTHER TONGUE. III. Tell whether each of the following sentences is declarative, interrogative, or imperative. Divide each into the complete subject and the com- plete predicate. Mention the simple subject and the simple predicate. Mention any vocatives that you find. 1. I had a violent fit of the nightmare. 2. It was at the time of the annual fair. 3. My uncle was an old traveller. 4. The young lady closed the casement with a sigh. 5. The supper table was at length laid. 6. Hoist out the boat. 7. Are you from the farm? 8. She broke into a little scornful laugh. 9. Bring forth the horse. 10. When can their glory fade? 11. Shut, shut the door, good John ! 12. Do you mark that, my lord ? 13. Why sigh you so profoundly? 14. Within the mind strong fancies work. 15. The sun peeps gay at dawn of day. 16. The noble stag was pausing now Upon the mountain's southern brow. 17. Then through the dell his horn resounds. 18. Lightly and brightly breaks away The Morning from her mantle gray. 19. Fire flashed from out the old Moor's eyes. 20. The garlands wither on their brow. IV. Change the declarative sentences in ill, above, into interrogative sentences. What changes do you make in the form of each sentence ? ADJECTIVES. 37 'QBl CHAPTER XVI. ADJECTIVES. 75. Examine the sentence that follows : — The golden butterfly | glistened through the shadowy apartment. In this sentence neither of the two nouns, butterfly and apartment, stands by itself. To the noun butterfly is attached the word golden, describing the butterfly; to the noun apartment is attached the word shadowy, describing the apartment. Neither golden nor shadowy, it Avill be observed, is a noun. On the contrary, their task in the sentence is to describe or define the nouns butterfly and apartment ; and this they do by attributing some quality to them. Such words are called adjectives. 76. An Adjective is a word which limits or describes a Sub- stantive, usually by attributing some quality. 77. An Adjective is said to belong to the Substantive which it limits or describes. "When closely attached to the Substan- tive it is called an Attributive Adjective. Thus, in § 75, the adjective golden belongs to the noun butterfly, and shadowy belongs to apartment. 78. How adjectives limit nouns may be seen by writing down (1) a noun by itself, (2) a noun with one adjec- tive, (3) a noun with two adjectives, (4) a noun with three adjectives. Thus, — (1) apple ; (2) red apple ; (3) large, red apple; (4) large, red, mellow apple. 38 THE MOTHER TONGUE. The noun apple in (1) may refer to any apple in the world, red or green or yellow, large or small, mellow or hard. In (2) the adjective red limits the noun to apples of that particular color. In (3) small apples are ruled out by the adjective large. In (4) the adjective mellow makes still more limited the kinds of apples to which the noun can apply. Every additional adjective, then, narrows or limits the meaning of the noun. EXERCISE. In the following sentences, point out all the adjectives and mention the noun or pronoun to which each belongs. 1. The sun is warm, the sky is clear. 2. Hope must have green bowers and blue skies. 3. His axe is keen, his arm is strong. 4. La Fleur instantly pulled out a little dirty pocket-book, crammed full of small letters. 5. His white hair floats like a snowdrift around his face. 6. A sorrowful multitude followed them to the shore. 7. My fugitive years are all hasting away. 8. The sails of this vessel are black. 9. The old officer was reading a small pamphlet. 10. He was almost frantic with grief. 11. We are weak and miserable. 12. A more striking picture there could not be imagined than the beautiful English face of the girl, and its exquisite bloom, together with her erect and independent attitude, contrasted with the sallow and bilious skin of the Malay, veneered with mahogany tints by climate and marine air, his small, fierce, restless eyes, thin lips, slavish gestures and adorations. ADJECTIVES. 39 CHAPTER XVII. CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 79. Most adjectives are, like those which we have so far studied, descriptive words. Others, however, serve merely to point out or designate objects in some way without actually describing them. You cannot swim to yonder rock. Mr. Ashe lives in the next house. The right-hand road leads to London. The under side of the cake is burned. That ice is dangerous. These grapes are very sour. This person was named Jeremy. Some dreams are like reality. Each man took a pear.' Every rat abandoned the sinking ship. Many hands make light work. Few wars are really unavoidable. All men shrink from suffering. No camels were visible. Innumerable mosquitoes buzzed about us. These adjectives, as the examples show us, usually indicate either place or number. Adjectives that indicate number exactly (as, one, two, twenty-five, forty-six) are called numeral adjectives. (See p. 200.) 80. An adjective formed from a proper noun is called a proper adjective and begins with a capital letter: as, Roman, American, English. 81. Tell which of the' adjectives in § 79 are descrip- tive, which indicate place, and which indicate number. 40 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Fill the blanks with appropriate adjectives. 1. Spring is cheery, but winter is . 2. A fairy comes at night. Her eyes are — — , her hair is . 3. The castle had never held half so many knights beneath its roof. 4. Holly is — — - in the winter. 5. No fire blazed on the hearth. 6. Wellington was an general. 7. I wish you a New Year. 8. Down he sank in the waves. 9. The clothes and food of the children are and 10. His eyes are with weeping. 11. " 'T was a victory," said the man. 12. snow lay on the ground. 13. No footstep marked the gravel. 14. Miss Bell seemed very . 15. John looks as as a judge. II. Make twenty sentences, each containing one of these ;idjectives followed by a noun : — Proud, tall, rusty, ruinous, anxious, careless, faithful, angry, blue-eyed, plentiful, purple, flowery, outrageous, accurate, fault- finding, swift, patriotic, athletic, torrid, American. III. Mention a number of adjectives that might be used in describing each of the following objects : — Iron, lead, robin, parrot, eagle, sparrow, bicycle, horse, oxen, cornfield, spring, summer, autumn, winter, butterfly, spider, car- penter, physician, sugar, marble. ARTICLE ii. 41 IV. Use in a sentence each of the nouns in the list below. With each noun use an adjective. Thus, — Noun : dog. Adjective : shaggy. Sentence : That shaggy dog of John's needs clipping. Cat, engineer, game, hall, orange, lemon, sailor, architect, president, Washington, scholar, mechanic, board, saw, book, mer- chant, battle, charge, artillery, grove, prairie, mountain, lake. CHAPTER XVIII. THE TWO ARTICLES. 82. Two peculiar adjectives, a (or an) and the are called Articles.* 83. The general difference between the two articles a and the appears in the following sentences : — The horseman galloped up. A horseman galloped up. In the first sentence the article the, belonging to horseman, shows that some particular horseman is meant, in other words, it definitely points out an individual person as distinguished from a whole class of persons. Hence the is called the definite article. In the second sentence the article a, belonging to horseman, does not definitely point out the horseman as an individual ; it simply designates him, indefinitely, as belonging to a class of persons, — horsemen. Hence a (or an) is called the indefinite article. * The articles are sometimes rated as a distinct class among the parts of speech; but it is hotter to include them among adjectives, in accordance with their origin, nature, and use. 42 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 84. The Definite Article the points out one or more individual persons or things as in some way distinct from others of the same general class or kind. Find the definite articles in the following passages, and observe that they each designate a particular object : — 1. You should have seen the wedding. 2. The day of our vengeance was come. 3. In the year fifty-nine came the Britons. 4. As they entered the yard the flames were rushing out of the chimney. 5. The old man looked ■wistfully across the table, the muscles about his mouth quivering as he ended. 6. Harry shaded his eyes with his hand for a minute, as he stood outside the cottage drinking in the fresh, pure air, laden with the scent of the honeysuckle which he had trained over the porch, and listening to the chorus of linnets and finches from the copse at the back of the house. 85. The Indefinite Article a (or an) designates a person or thing as merely one of a general class or kind, making no dis- tinction between individuals. The article a is simply a fragment of an (pronounced ahn), the old form of the modern English numeral one. An preserves the old -n, which is lost in a. In its meaning the indefinite article may still be recognized as a very weak " one." Compare the indefinite use of one in such phrases as " One John Smith is suspected of this robbery," that is, "somebody, nobody knoivs who, called John Smith," "a John Smith," " a certain John Smith." 86. An is used before words beginning with a vowel or silent h; a before other words. Thus, — an inkstand; a box; an elephant ; a cataract ; an hour ; a zebra. ARTICLES. 43 87. Special Rules for a or an. 1. Before words beginning with the sound of y or w, a, not an, is used. Thus, — a unison ; a European ; a unicorn ; a eucalyptus tree ; a universal genius ; such a one. Under this head are included all words beginning with eu and many beginning with u. These form no exception to the general rule in § 86, for u and eu, when pronounced like the pronoun you, do not express a vowel sound. 2. Before words beginning with h and not accented on the first syllable, an is often used. Thus, we say a his'tory ; but, an historical novel. Here again we have no real exception to the rule in § 86 ; for in the words in question, when the accent is not on the first syllable, the h is very weak in pronunciation and sometimes entirely disappears, so that the word practically begins with a vowel. EXERCISES. I. Find the indefinite articles in the following passages, and observe whether the form is a or an. 1. Whenever there was sickness in the place, she was an untiring nurse. 2. We are going to have a great archery party next month, and you shall have an invitation. 3. But man of all ages is a selfish animal, and unreasonable in his selfishness. 4. There is a pleasure in the pathless woods. 5. At length I met a reverend good old man. 6. He was lying on a crimson velvet sofa, reading a French novel. It was a very little book. He is a very little man.. In that enormous hall he looked like a mere speck. 44 THE MOTHER TONGUE. II. In the following sentences supply an article, either definite or indefinite. In case it is possible to supply either the definite or the indefinite article, tell what difference of meaning comes from using one rather than the other. 1. The schoolhouse was low building rudely constructed of logs ; windows were partly glazed, and partly patched with leaves of old copy-books. 2. He was always ready for either fight or frolic. 3. It was, as I have said, fine autumnal day. sky was clear and serene. 4. sloop was loitering in distance, dropping slowly down with tide, her sail hanging uselessly against mast. 5. musician was old gray-headed negro. 6. On one side of church extends a wide woody dell, along which raves large brook. III. In the following passage, point out all the definite and all the indefinite articles and tell to what noun each belongs. 1. An acquaintance, a friend as he called himself, entered. 2. The town was in a hubbub. 3. The men were quiet and sober. 4. You see this man about whom so great an uproar hath been made in this town. 5. I disliked carrying a musket. 6. I sat down on one of the benches, at the other end of which was seated a man in very shabby clothes. 7. The ploughman whistles. 8. The mower whets his scythe. 9. Young and old come forth to play On a sunshine holiday. ADVERBS. 45 CHAPTER XIX. ADVERBS. 88. Examine the following sentence : — The statesman advised the king wisely. In this sentence the word wisely is different, both in its form and its use, from any part of speech which we have so far studied. It bears some resemblance to an adjective. It is not an adjective, however, for it does not describe or limit either of the two nouns in the sentence, statesman or king. Indeed, its very form (ivisely) shows that it is not an adjective. " The wisely statesman " is an impossible- form of speech. Wise is the adjective form, not wisely. Wisely, then, has no relations with the nouns in the sentence. On the other hand, it clearly is connected with the verb, — advised; for it tells how or in what manner the statesman advised the kiner. Wisely, then, modifies (that is, affects the meaning of) the verb advised. For ivisely we may substitute foolishly, rashly, treacherously, quickly, or respectfully, and each of these words would change the meaning of advised. ' wisely. The statesman advised the king -i •* •*' . rashly. * treacherously. Such words are called adverbs, because of their fre- quent association with verbs. 46 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Pick out the adverbs and tell what verb or verb- phrase each modifies. 1. Carroll waved his whip triumphantly in the air. 2. This contemptuous speech cruelly shocked Cecilia. 3. Spring came upon us suddenly. 4. The king gained ground everywhere. 5. Every night in dreams they groaned aloud. 6. Northward he turneth through a little door. 7. I dimly discerned a wall before me. 8. Miss Sharp had demurely entered the carriage some minutes before. 9. Punctuality at meals was rigidly enforced at Gateshead Hall. 10. But here the doctors eagerly dispute. 11. The guardsman defended himself bravely. 12. Swiftly, swiftly flew the ship, Yet she sailed softly too : Sweetly, sweetly blew the breeze — On me alone it blew. 13. Kent had been looking at me steadily for some time. 14. By this storm our ship was greatly damaged. II. Change the meaning of each of the following sen- tences by substituting a different adverb. 1. Stevens laughed boisterously. 2. Merrily sang the birds in the wood. 3. You have acted unjustly toward your brother. 4. The ship settled in the water gradually. 5. Fiercely the chieftain made reply. 6. We rowed slowly up the stream. 7. Mr. Fleetwood entered the room noisily. 8. They waited patiently for better times. ADVERBS. 47 CHAPTER XX. ADVERBS MODIFYING ADJECTIVES. 89. An Adverb may modify the meaning of an Adjective. Thus, in the sentence The man was foolishly confident, the adverb foolishly modifies the adjective confident by indicating that the man was confident in a foolish way. As before, we could substitute for foolishly other adverbs, such as rashly, bravely, wisely, moderately, and every such substitution would affect or modify the meaning of confident (see p. 45). The man was -< foolishly " rashly bravely » wisely > confident. EXERCISE. Pick out the adverbs that modify adjectives. 1. Her language is singularly agreeable to me. 2. Mr. Sedley's eyes twinkled in a manner indescribably roguish. *~*3. The river walk is uncommonly pretty. 4. She had been going on a bitterly cold winter night to visit some one at Stamford Hill. ^ 5. Mrs. Harrel was extremely uneasy. 6. The meeting was very painful to them both. 7. Kate had been unreasonably angry with Heatherleigh. 8. Be particularly careful not to stumble. -*- 9. The poor fellow was pitifully weak. 48 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER XXL ADVERBS MODIFYING ADVERBS. 90. An Adverb may modify the meaning of another Adverb. Thus, in The governor predicted his own election very confidently, (1) confidently is an adverb modifying the verb predicted, and (2) very is an adverb modifying confidently. The pupil recited very badly. The governor spoke rather rapidly. Charles cannot dance so gracefully as John. 91. In accordance with what we have learned from pages 45-48, we may now define the adverb: — An Adverb is a word that modifies the meaning of a Verb, an Adjective, or another Adverb. EXERCISE. Pick out the adverbs that modify other adverbs. 1. She told her distress quite frankly. 2. Cecilia then very gravely began an attempt to undeceive her. 3. This service she somewhat reluctantly accepted. 4. He fixed his eyes on me very steadily. 5. We strolled along rather carelessly towards Hampstead. 6. Do not speak so indistinctly. 7. The red horse trots uncommonly fast. 8. The commander rebuked his boldness half seriously, half jestingly. 9. The cotton must be picked pretty soon. 10. Why did King Lear's daughters treat him so unkindly ? ADVERBS. 49 CHAPTER XXII. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 92. Adverbs may be divided according to their sense into four classes : (1) adverbs of manner; (2) adverbs of time; (3) adverbs of place; (4) adverbs of degree. 93. Adverbs of Manner answer the question "How?" "In what way? " They are very numerous, and most of them end in -ly. The starving man ate greedily. The wayfarer plodded wearily along. Merrily sang the boatmen. The queen was foolishly suspicious. The gift was splendidly generous. ' The nine plays unexpectedly well. Several adverbs of manner have no ending -ly and are identical in form with adjectives of like meaning. The farmer always works hard. How fast the time flies ! Adverbs of manner usually modify either verbs or adjectives ; they rarely modify adverbs. See how many of the adverbs on page 46 are adverbs of manner, and tell what they modify. 94. Adverbs of Time answer the question "When?" Examples : now, then, soon, formerly, to-day, to-morrow, by- and-by. Adverbs of time usually modify verbs. Thus, — James lives in San Francisco now. Then the sailor leaped into the sea. I shall return to-morrow. 50 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 95. Adverbs of Place answer the question "Where?" Examples : here, there, yonder, far, near, aloft, astern, for- ward, backward. Adverbs of place usually modify verbs. Thus, — There stands the Capitol. I shall wait for him here. The tired swimmer fell far astern. 96. Adverbs of Degree answer the question "To what degree or extent? " Examples : so, very, much, little, exceedingly, hardly, barely, not (the negative adverb). Adverbs of degree modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. They are the only class of adverbs that are much .used to modify other adverbs. The reply pleased the king very much. Here much modifies the verb pleased, indicating the degree or extent to which the king was pleased. The workman was little content with his lot. Here little modifies the adjective content. I never saw him run so rapidly. Here so modifies the adverb rapidly. 97. The four classes of adverbs are not separated by hard and fast lines. The same adverb may be used in different senses and thus belong to different classes. Sometimes, too, there is room for difference of opinion as to the classification of an adverb in a gdven sentence. The whole matter is simply a question of the thought expressed. ADVERBS. 51 EXERCISES. I. Fill each blank with an adverb of degree and tell how it modifies the adjective or the adverb that follows. 1. The wind blew hard. 2. The air bites shrewdly ; it is cold. 3. I was in the utmost astonishment, and roared loud that they all ran back in fright. 4. I bowed respectfully to the governor. 5. The peacock's voice is not beautiful as his pluznage. 6. We jogged homeward merrily . 7. Tom was angry to measure his words. 8. The load was too heavy for the horse to draw . 9. " My lesson is hard. Is yours ? " " No, not very ; but still it is difficult." 10. The physician was rather surprised to find his patient lively. 11. This has been an dry season. II. Very many adverbs end in -ly. These are usually derived from adjectives. Thus, — Adjectives Adverbs fail- fairly bold boldly cordial cordially outrageous oirtrageously Form such adverbs from the adjectives in the follow- ing list. Use each adverb in a sentence. Fine, courageous, brave, splendid, eager, plain, doubtful, con- fusing, remarkable, heedless, careful, polite, rude, civil, violent, mild, meek, gentle, smooth, soft, boisterous. 52 THE MOTHER TONGUE. III. In the sentences which you have made in n, tell whether the adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. IV. Use each of the following verbs and verb-phrases with several different adverbs, and see how the meaning varies. Let each of your examples be a sentence. Sings, runs, flies, talks, walks, works, acted, spent, played, rushes, has confessed, were marching, are writing, gazed, have examined, will study, devoured, shall watch, may hurt, can ride, has injured, will attack. V. Read the sentences which you have made in iv, omitting all the adverbs. Observe how this changes the meaning;. VI. Pick out all the adverbs on page 46. Tell whether they are adverbs of time, place, manner, or degree, and indicate what verb, adjective, or adverb each modifies. Note. — In determining whether an adverh indicates manner, time, place, or degree, the student will do well to test the matter hy asking him- self whether the word answers the question " how ? " " when ?" " where ? " or " to what extent? " VII. For each adverb in the sentences on page 46 substitute some other adverb. Observe what effect this change has on the meaning of each sentence. ANALYSIS: MODIFIERS. 53 CHAPTER XXIII. ANALYSIS. —MODIFIERS. 98. You have already learned to take the first steps in the analysis of a sentence. You know how to divide it into the complete subject and the complete predicate, and to designate the simple subject (noun or pronoun) and the simple predicate (verb or verb-phrase). Thus, — The honest farmer | worked diligently. Here the complete subject is the honest farmer ; the complete predicate is worked diligently. The simple sub- ject is the noun farmer; the simple predicate is the verb worked. 99. We may now take another step in analysis and study some words which change or modify the meaning of the simple subject and the simple predicate. 100. In the sentence before us the subject farmer has attached to it the adjective honest, and the predicate worked has attached to it the adverb diligently. Honest changes or modifies the meaning of farmer by describing the farmer's character. Diligently modifies worked by telling how or in what manner the farmer worked. Hence honest is called a modifier of the subject, and dili- gently is called a modifier of the predicate. 101. A word or group of words attached to the Subject or the Predicate of a sentence to modify its meaning is called a Modifier of the Subject or the Predicate. An Adjective is often used as a Modifier of the Subject. An Adverb is often used as a Modifier of the Predicate. 54 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Analyze the sentences below, as follows : — (1) Divide each sentence into the complete subject and the complete predicate. (2) Point out the simple subject and the simple predicate. (3) Mention any adjectives that modify the subject. (4) Mention any adverbs that modify the predicate. A. The large room was quickly filled. "—"•S. A great wood fire blazed cheerfully. 3. Our dusty battalions marched onward. ^^4. The heavy gates were shut instantly. 5. A magnificent snow-fed river poured ceaselessly through the glen. 6. Back darted Spurius Lartius. T. A meagre little man was" standing near. 8. This terrible winter_dragged slowly along. —f-3- The cattle wre feeding quietly. 10. Instantly a dire hubbub arose. 11. The red sun sank slowly behind th^Jiills. — J.2. Many strange stories •were told\ >f this adventure. II. Expand the following short sentences by inserting modifiers of the subject and of the predicate. Nil. Men work. 8. Corn grew. 2. Pupils studied. 9. Fire spread. 3. The wind howls. 10. Messenger rode. 4. Women were weeping. 11. Building fell. 5. Grapes hung. 12. Child cried. 6. Enemy resisted. 13. Dog swam. 7. Crows were cawing. 14. Tiger sprang. PREPOSITIONS. 55 CHAPTER XXIV. PREPOSITIONS. 102. Among the words which do not themselves call up a distinct picture to the mind, but which serve to bind other words together and to show their relations to each other in connected speech,* the prepositions form a very important class. Their use is illustrated in the following sentences : — The walls of the factory fell with a crash. The dog lay ly the fire. The hat on the table is mine. This train goes to Chicago. He wrapped his cloak about me. In the first sentence, for example, the word of not merely connects the two nouns walls and factory, but it shows the relation between them ; the walls belong to the factory. Omit of, and we no longer know what the factory and the walls have to do with each other. Again, in the same sentence, with shows the relation of the noun crash to the verb fell ; the act of falling was accompanied by a loud noise. Omit with, and the sense of the passage vanishes. So in each of the other sentences the italicized word (a preposition) shows the relation between the noun that follows it and some other word in the sentence. Accordingly, we have the following definition : — 103. A Preposition shows the relation of the substantive which follows it to some other word or words in the sentence. * See Introduction, p. xiv. 56 TEE MOTHER TONGUE. 104. The substantive which follows a preposition is called its Object, and is said to be in the Objective Case. Thus, in the first example in § 102, the noun factor// is the object of the preposition of and the noun crash is the object of the preposition with. In the last example the pronoun one is the object of the preposition about. Other examples may be seen in the following sen- tences : — The savages fought with fury. The anchor was made of iron. The train runs from Boston to New York. The banner floated over the castle. We shall arrive at Denver before morning. 105. A preposition may have two or more objects. Tims, — The fireman dashed through smoke and flame. Here the two nouns smoke and flame are the objects of the preposition through. He feathers his oars with skill and dexterity. The father sought his lost boy in highways and byways. The hunters galloped through field and forest. The road runs over hill and plain. 106. Some words that are usually prepositions may be attached to certain verbs as adverbial suffixes. Thus, - The ship lay to. A fierce storm set in. The fainting man came to. The darkness came on. A friend of mine came in. He passed by on the other side. In this use the adverb is practically a part of the verb. PREP 0S1 Tl ONS. 5 7 EXERCISES. Fill the blanks with prepositions showing the relation of the italicized words to each other. 1. John's hat hung the peg. 2. The river rises the mountains and jloics a great plain the sea. 3. The miseries of numbed hands and shivering skins no longer accompany every pull the river. 4. He was a particularly good-humor with himself. 5. His conscience pricked him for intruding Hardy during his hours of work. 6. Tom came to understand the differences his two heroes. 7. Such cruelty Jills us indignation. 8. He was haunted a hundred fears. 9. a score of minutes Garbetts came back an anxious and crestfallen countenance. 10. To drive the deer hound and horn Earl Percy took his way. 11. Cooks, butlers, and their, assistants were bestirring them- selves the kitchen. 9 12. The weary traveller was sleeping a tree. 13. Jack hid the door. 14. I will call dinner. II. Use the following prepositions, with objects, in sen- tences : — Of, in, upon, from, by, to, into, during, along, behind, within, Without, till, up, down, round, at, beside, before, against, about, concerning, except, but (= except), beyond, through, throughout, after, above, beneath, over, under. 58 THE MOTHER' TONGUE. III. In the following sentences (1) find the prepositions ; (2) mention their objects ; (3) point out the word with which each preposition connects its object ; (4) tell what part of speech that word is if you can. 1. The village maid steals through the shade. 2. His eyes burnt like coals under his deep brows. 3. Their vessels were moored in our bay. 4. The hounds ran swiftly through the woods. 5. They knocked at our gates for admittance. 6. I grew weary of the sea and intended to stay at home with my wife and family. 7. Several officers of the army went to the door of the great council-chamber. 8. This seems to me but melancholy work. 9. The bowmen mustered on the hills. 10. Death lays his icy hand on kings. 11. Untie these bands from off my hands. 12. Down the wide stairs a darkling way they found. 13. He halts, and searches with his eyes ^ Among the scattered rocks. 14. The cottage windows through the twilight blazed. 15. All shod with steel, We hissed aloug the polished ice. 16. He was full of joke and jest. 17. Lady Waldegrave swept her fingers over a harp which stood near. IV. Find fifteen prepositions in some poem in your read- ing book. Mention the object of each preposition. Between what other word and its object does each preposition show the relation? C ON J UNC TI ONS. 5 9 CHAPTER XXV. CONJUNCTIONS. 107. Conjunction means "connective." Certain words which do not themselves express any distinct ideas, but which serve to make clearer the connection between ideas expressed by other words, are grouped together as conjunctions. Their use is illustrated in the following sentences : — Have you seen Jack and Tom this morning? The boy and his dog went up the road. Is New York or Philadelphia the larger city? The wildcat scratched and bit fiercely. The teacher struck a bell and the pupils all rose. You are strong, but I am weak. I will help him if he is poor. The people rebelled because they were abused. The italicized words in these sentences are conjunc- tions. Though they differ much in the amount and kind of meaning which they express, they are all alike in one respect — they are connectives. Thus, in the first sentence, the two nouns Jack and Tom are connected by and ; in the second, and connects the boy and his dog; in the fourth, two verbs are joined by means of and; in the sixth, but binds together two statements, " You are strong " and " I am weak." Hence we have the following definition : — 108. Conjunctions connect words or groups of words. 109. The groups of words connected by conjunctions may be whole Sentences. 60 Tif.6; MOTHER TONGUE. Thus, in the last example above, the conjunction because connects "The people rebelled" and " They were abused," each of which could stand by itself as a com- plete sentence. When two or more sentences are thus combined to make one longer sentence, they are called clauses. The study of clauses and the classification of con- junctions must be reserved for later chapters. 110. The most important English conjunctions are : — And (both . . . and), or (either . . . or), nor (neither . . . nor), but, for, however, nevertheless, therefore, wherefore, still, yet, because, since (= because), though, although, if, unless, that, whether, as (= because), than, lest. 111. Prepositions, as well as conjunctions, may be re- garded as connectives ; but there is a marked difference between the two parts of speech. A preposition (as we have already seen in Chapter XXIV) not only connects its object with some other word in the sentence but indicates a close and definite grammatical relation between the two. A conjunction, on the other hand, has no object, and simply makes clear some connection of thought between two words or groups of words. Thus, — Snow and ice are both cold. [Here and simply connects the two nouns snow and ice without affecting the sense of either. It is therefore a conj unction.'] Snow on ice makes poor skating. [Here on shows some relation between the noun ice, its object, and the noun snoiv. It indicates the position of the ice with respect to the snow ; the snow is above and the ice beneath. Hence on is a preposition. ] CONJUNCTIONS. 61 EXERCISES. I. Pick out the conjunctions, and tell what words, or groups of words, they connect. 1. The wind was high and the clouds were dark, And the boat returned no more. 2. It was the time when lilies blow And clouds are highest up in air. 3. Beating heart and burning brow, ye are very patient now. 4. The uncouth person in the tattered garments dropped on both knees on the pavement, and took her hand in his, and kissed it in passionate gratitude. 5. He rose, and stood with his cap in his hand. 6. She bowed to him, and passed on, grave and stately. 7. She was an amiable but strictly matter-of-fact person. 8. Brand became more and more convinced that this family was the most delightful family in England. 9. If there were any stranger here at all, we should not dream of asking you to sing. 10. Helen was on the lookout for this expected guest, and saw him from her window. But she did not come forward. 11. I am busy and content. 12. Carrying this fateful letter in his hand, he went down- stairs and out into the cool night air. 13. For Romans in Rome's quarrel Spared neither land nor gold, Nor son nor wife, nor limb nor life, In the brave days of old. 14. He was neither angry nor impatient. 15. There were forty craft in Aves that were both swift and stout. 16. We knew you must come by sooner or later. 17. He continued his story, though his listener seemed singu- larly preoccupied and thoughtful. 62 THE MOTHER TONGUE. II. Make sentences containing : — 1. Two nouns connected by and ; by or. 2. A noun and a pronoun connected by and ; by or. 3. Two adjectives connected by and ; by or. 4. Two adverbs connected by and ; by or. 5. Two verbs connected by and ; by or. 6. Two adverbs connected by and ; by or. 7. Neither nor connecting nouns. 8. Neither nor connecting pronouns. 9. Neither nor connecting adjectives. 10. Neither • nor connecting adverbs. 11. Neither nor connecting verbs. 12-16. Either or, used like neither nor in 7-11. 17. Three nouns in a series, with two conjunctions ; with one. 18. Three verbs in a series, with two conjunctions ; with one. III. Make sentences, each containing one of the follow- ing conjunctions : — And, but, or, nor, neither, if, however, although, since, for, because, whether, than. IV. Find ten conjunctions in Exercise I, pp. 11, 12, and tell what each conjunction connects. V. Fill each blank with a conjunction. 1. Iron, lead, gold are metals. 2. Jack nor Joe is at school. 3. you do not hurry, you will miss the train. 4. Either Mary Francis is to blame. 5. There are lions tigers in the jungle. 6. one or the other of us must give way. IN TEUJE C 1 '1 ONS. 6 3 CHAPTER XXVI. INTERJECTIONS. 112. Examine the following sentences : — Oh ! how sorry I am ! Ah! my friend, here you are ! Hallo ! there are the dancing bears ! Bah ! this is disgusting. In these sentences the italicized words are mere cries or exclamatory sounds. Indeed, they are hardly words at all, and may be compared with the bark of a dog or the mewing of a cat. They express emotion or feeling but have no distinct sense. Thus, the single word oh ! uttered in various tones of the voice, may suggest almost any kind of feeling, — anger, distress, surprise, delight, scorn, pity, and so on. Such words are called interjections (that is, words inter- jected or " thrown in "), because they usually have no grammatical connection with the structure of the sen- tences in which they stand. 113. An Interjection is a cry or other exclamatory sound ex- pressing surprise, anger, pleasure, or some other emotion or feeling. An interjection is often followed by an exclamation point (!). 114. Interjections usually have no grammatical connection with the phrases or sentences in which they stand. 115. In analyzing a sentence, any interjections that it contains are mentioned separately, since they have no genuine grammatical relation with the rest of the sentence. 64 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 116. The number of possible interjections is almost limitless. The following' are among the commonest : — Oh (or 0), ah, hullo (holloa, halloo), bah, pshaw, fie, whew, tut-tut, st (often spelled hist), ha, aha, ha-ha, ho, hey, hum, hem, heigh-ho, (heigh-o), alas, bravo. Calls to animals (like ivhoa, haw, gee) and imitations of the voices of animals (like mew, bow-wow, etc.) are also interjections. The spelling of an interjection is often a very imper- fect representation of its sound. EXERCISES. i. In the following sentences pick out the interjections and tell what emotion you think each expresses. 1. Fie, fie ! they are not to be named, my lord. 2. Pish for thee, Iceland dog ! 3. Lo ! where the giant on the mountain stands. 4. " Ah me ! " she cries, " was ever moonlight seen so clear? " 5. Pshaw ! this neglect is accident, and the effect of hurry. 6. O, let us yet be merciful. 7. That I did love thee, Caesar, O, 't is true. 8. The Wildgrave winds his bugle-horn, To horse, to horse ! halloo ! halloo ! 9. But psha ! I 've the heart of a soldier, All gentleness, mercy, and pity. 10. Louder rang the Wildgrave r s horn, " Hark forward, forward ! holla, ho ! " 11. Huzza for the Arethusa ! She is a frigate tight and brave. II. Try to think of some interjections that you are in the habit of using, and frame sentences containing them. What emotion does each express? PHRASES. 65 CHAPTER XXVII. PHRASES. 117. To express thought we use, as you have already learned, words combined into sentences. Sentences, however, are not the only groups of con- nected words which language employs in the expression of thought. 118. Examine the following sentences, noting the itali- cized words : — The President of the United States | lives in the White House. The Duke of Marlborough | -was victorious at Blenheim. A girdle of gold | encircled the sultan's waist. In the first and second sentences, President of the United States and Duke of Marlborough are groups of words which serve as the names of persons ; in the White House and at Blenheim are groups of words answering the question « Where ? " In the third, of gold is a group describing the girdle ; girdle of gold and golden girdle mean the same thing. Each of these groups may be said to be used as a single part of speech. Thus, President of the United States and Duke of Marlborough may be called nouns, for they are the names of persons ; of gold is like an adjective, for it describes the noun girdle, as the adjective golden would do ; in the White House and at Blenheim are like adverbs of place, for they modify verbs and answer the question " Where ? " The groups that we are studying are not sentences, for they do not contain a subject and a predicate. Such groups are known as phrases. 66 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 119. A group of connected words, not containing a subject and a predicate, is called a Phrase. A Phrase is often equivalent to a Part of Speech. 120. In the following sentences each group of italicized words is a phrase. See if you can tell why. That fireman will be killed. Jack hit the ball with all his might. The messenger was running up the road at full speed. The knight's armor was of burnished steel. A man of courage surely would have made the attempt. The master of the school was named Lawson. The mayor of San Francisco has an office in the City Hall. Tell, if you can, what part of speech each of these phrases stands for or resembles. EXERCISES. I. Make sentences of your own containing the follow- ing phrases : — Baseball club, Queen of England, will come, has travelled, North American Continent, Isthmus of Suez, in the street, on the playground, with an effort, of fur, of silver, had tried, at sea, at home, in school, of iron, of stone, with the exception of, out of, in front of, against my will. II. Tell, if you can, what part of speech each of the phrases in I, above, resembles in its use in your sentence. in. Take each of the phrases to pieces and name the parts of speech of which it consists. PHRASES. 67 IV. Find one phrase in each of the following sentences. Tell, if yon can, for what part of speech it stands. 1. The Declaration o f Indep endence was signed in 1776. 2. The House of Representatives has adjourned. 3. Professor Edward Johnston is now in Sioux City. 4. The great Desert of Sahara is in the Continent of Africa. 5. All were on their feet in a moment. G. The preparations for disembarking had begun. 7. The Pacific Mail Steamship Company has an office at this port. 8. Isabel shuddered with horror. 9. I am a man of peace, though my abode now rings with arms. 10. They were all running at full speed. 11. They had fixed the wedding day. 12. There are many thousand Cinderellas in London, and elsewhere in England. 13. The maddened, terrified horse went like the wind. 14. The Prince of Wales is heir to the crown of England. 15. "In two days," Cromwell said coolly, "the city will be in our hands." 16. The scene had now become in tin' utmost degree ani- mated and horrible. 17. There were upwards of three hundred strangers in the house. 18. The dog is not of mountain breed. 19. The boys were coming out of the grammar-school in shoals, laughing, running, whooping, as the manner of boys is. 20. My father walked up and down the room with impatience. 21. Mr. Thomas Inkle of London, aged twenty years, em- barked in the Downs on the good ship called the Achilles, bound for the West Indie's, on the 16th of June, 1647, in order to improve his fortune by trade and merchandise. 68 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER XXVIII. ADJECTIVE PHRASES. 121. Instead of using an adjective to describe or limit a noun or pronoun, we may often use a prepositional phrase, — that is, a phrase consisting of a preposition and its object. Thus, instead of " an honorable man," we may say " a man of honor " ; instead of " a bad-tempered fellow," "a fellow with a bad temper'''' ; instead of "a Brazilian Indian," "an Indian from Brazil.'''' Phrases thus used are called adjective phrases. 122. A substantive may be modified by a Prepositional Phrase which describes or limits it as an adjective would do and which is therefore called an Adjective Phrase. A person of experience is usually a safe guide. The bale of cotton was held together by bands of iron. He received the freedom of the city in a box of polished silver. He rang the bell and a man in black came to the door. He received a book with pictures as a present. The judge was a man toithout mercy. Spices from the East were used to flavor the dish. The ring was made of gold from Australia. 123. An adjective phrase is, as we have seen, often a mere substitute for a single adjective. Thus, " a man without mercy" is "a merciless man"; "gold from Australia " is the same thing as " Australian gold " ; " spices from the East'" are " Oriental spices." It is, however, not always possible to substitute an adjective for an adjective phrase. The descriptive ideas ADJECTIVE PHRASES. 09 which have to be expressed in speech and writing are countless, and our stock of adjectives is limited. Hence the power to form adjective phrases freely adds enor- mously to the richness and variety of the English language. EXERCISES. i. Find the adjective phrases and tell what substantive each describes or limits. 1. A man of strong understanding is generally a man of strong character. 2. His flaxen hair, of sunny hue, Curled closely round his bonnet blue. 3. Eastward was built a gate of marble white. 4. He found a strong, fierce-looking Highlander, with an axe on his shoulder, standing sentinel at the door. 5. Hard by a poplar shook alway, All silver-green, with gnarled bark. 6. The gentleness of heaven is on the sea. 7. The balustrade of the staircase was also of carved wood. 8. Of stature fair, and slender frame, But firmly knit, was Malcolm Graeme. 9. It was a lodge of ample size. 10. This gentleman was a man of unquestioned courage. 11. An emperor in his nightcap would not meet with half the respect of an emperor with a glittering crown. 12. Our affairs are in a bad condition. 13. Vathek arose in the morning with a mind more at ease. 14. Her own mind was now in a state of the utmost confu- sion. 15. Griffiths was a hard business man, of shrewd, worldly good sense, but of little refinement or cultivation. 70 THE MOTHER TONGUE. II. Substitute for each italicized adjective an adjective phrase without changing the general meaning of the sentence. Thus, — The cashier was a strictly honest man. The cashier was a man of strict honest;/. 1. The cashier was a strictly honest man. 2. A very deep ravine checked our advance. 3. Brutus is an honorable man. 4. Wooden pillars supported the roof. 5. The wanderer's clothing was ragged. 6. The sailor carried an ivory-handled knife. 7. The runner was quite breathless. 8. The baron lived in his ancestral castle. 9. Light-hearted he rose in the morning. 10. Dr. Rush was a skilful and experienced physician. III. Replace the adjective phrases by adjectives without materially changing the sense. 1. Warrington was of a quick and impetuous temper. 2. The road was not of the most picturesque description. 3. Fanny left the room with a sorrowful heart. 4. You are a man of sense. 5. Upon the hero's head was a helmet of brass. 6. Bring forth the goblets of gold ! 7. To scale the wall was a task of great difficulty. 8. The old soldier was in poverty. 9. We were all in high spirits. 10. A river of great width had to be crossed. 11. He told his fellow-prisoners, in this darkest time, to be of courage. 12. This is a matter of importance. 13. The beasl glared a1 me with eyes of fire. ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 71 CHAPTER XXIX. ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 124. In the preceding chapter we learned that a phrase may often be used instead of an adjective. Similarly, a great variety of phrases may be used instead of adverbs, and such phrases are called adverbial phrases. 125. In the sentence, The lady received her visitor graciously, graciously is an adverb of manner modifying the verb received. Without changing the meaning of the sentence, we may substitute for the adverb graciously any one of sev- eral phrases. Thus, — The lady received her visitor in a gracious way. The lady received her visitor in a gracious manner. The lady received her visitor with graciousness. The lady received her visitor in a gracious fashion. In each of these sentences a prepositional phrase has been substituted for the adverb graciously, but the mean- ing has not been changed at all. In other words, the adverbial phrases in a gracious manner, in a gracious way, etc., modify the verb received just as the adverb graciously modifies it. Substitute adverbs of manner for the italicized phrases : — The hunter crept along with caution. I was received in silence. A gainst my will I obey you. Do you say this in jest ! He struggled hard, but without success. 72 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 126. The number of adverbs of time or place in the English language is ciumj^uively limited. Hence n is often necessary to^Kress time or place by means of a phrase. Thus, — I. Adverbial phrases of time : — He lived there many years ago. The letter will probably arrive in a few days. At this instant a large ship was sighted. King Alfred ruled England in days of old. We expect to settle this claim in the future. II. Adverbial phrases of place : — The carpenter lives in this neighborhood. The governor of Massachusetts resides in Boston. Caesar conquered Pompey's sons at Munda in Spain. My mother is not at home. The building stands in the square. All such phrases are, of course, adverbial phrases modifying the verb in the same way in which a single adverb of time or place would have modified it. 127. Other examples of adverbial phrases of time or place are the following : — I. Time : before long, in olden times, in youth, in age, in middle life, without delay, on the spot, of yore, of old. II. Place : in town, away from home, at a distance, in this vicinity, in front, at one side, to windward, to the eastward. 128. Degree, like manner, time, or place, may be ex- pressed by means of an adverbial phrase. Thus, — The strength of one's memory depends to a great extent on one's habits of thought. His report was by no means accurate. My friend always enjoys himself in the extreme. ■1A1 " ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 73 129. In accordance with the examples in the preced- ing sections we have the following rule : — A verb, an adjective, or an adverb may be modified by a phrase used as an adverb. Such phrases are called adverbial phrases. 130. Most adverbial phrases consist of a preposition and its object or objects, with or without modifiers ; but many idiomatic phrases of other kinds are used adver- bially. Thus, — To and fro, now and then, up and down, again and again, first and last, full speed, full tilt, hit or miss, more or less, head first, upside down, inside out, sink or swim, cash down. Many of these phrases may be regarded as compound adverbs. 131. A phrase consisting of a noun and its modifiers may be used adverbially. Thus, — I have been waiting a long time. Jackson was forty-three years old. The river is almost two miles wide. The gun carries Jive miles. Move the table this way. This rope is several fathoms too short. They rode silently the whole way. You can do nothing that way. They marched Indian fie. In the first sentence, the phrase a lonf/ time modifies the verb- phrase have been waiting as an adverb of time would do. The phrase consists of the noun time with its adjective modifiers the article a and the adjective long. In the second sentence, the phrase forty-three years modifies the adjective old as an adverb of degree would do. Study the other phrases in the same way. 74 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Use each of the adverbial phrases in § 127, i and II, in a sentence. Do the same with those in § 130. ii. Here is a short list of adverbs with adverbial phrases which have the same meaning : — courageously : with courage. furiously : with fury, eloquently : with eloquence. easily : with ease, without effort, purposely : on purpose. fearlessly : without fear, unwillingly : against his will. vainly : in vain. Try to continue the list. Make a sentence including each of these adverbs. Substitute for the adverb the corresponding phrase. in. Pick out the adverbial phrases and tell what each modifies. 1. Early in the morning a sudden storm drove us within two or three leagues of Ireland. 2. These things terrified the people to the last degree. 3. At the first glimpse of dawn he hastened to the prison. 4. The wall fell with a crash. 5. By daybreak we had sailed out of sight of land. 6. The full light of day had now risen upon the desert. 7. With smiles the rising morn we greet. 8. Innumerable dismal stories we heard every day. 9. Homer surpasses all men in this quality. 10. Her time was filled by regular occupations. 11. I say this to you wholly in confidence. PHRASES AS MODIFIERS. 75 CHAPTER XXX. ANALYSIS. — PHRASES AS MODIFIERS. 132. In analyzing sentences we have already seen that the subject may be modified by one or more adjectives, and the predicate by one or more adverbs (p. 58). We have since learned that a phrase may take the place of an adjective or an adverb. Obviously, there- fore, among the modifiers of the subject there may occur adjective phrases, and among the modifiers of the predi- cate there may occur adverbial phrases. Thus, — A man of courage will not be overcome by trifling obstacles. Here the complete subject is a man of courage ; the complete predicate is will not be overcome by trifling obstacles. The simple subject is man, which is modified by the adjective phrase of cour- age; the simple predicate is the verb-phrase will be overcome, which is modified (1) by the negative adverb not and (2) by the adver- bial phrase by trifling obstacles. EXERCISES. I. Analyze the sentences on page 74 as follows : — (1) Divide each sentence into the complete subject and the complete predicate. (2) Point out the simple subject and the simple predicate. (3) Mention the modifiers of the subject, whether adjectives or adjective phrases. (4) Mention the modifiers of the predicate, whether adverbs or adverbial phrases. This is the usual order of analysis and may be used as a model. 7G THE MOTHER TONGUE. II. In the following sentences pick out all the prepo- sitional phrases and tell whether each is an adjective phrase or an adverbial phrase. In the former case mention the noun or pronoun to which the phrase belongs. In the latter case mention the verb, adjective, or adverb which it modilies. 1. A long journey lay before us. 2. The kitchen soon was all on fire. 3. The sea-fowl is gone to her nest ; The beast is laid down in his lair. 4. He was regarded as a merchant of great wealth. 6. The night was Winter in his roughest mood. 6. The chiming clocks to dinner call. 7. The blanket of night is drawn asunder for a moment. 8. Green pastures she views in the midst of the dale. 9. In this state of breathless agitation did I stand for some time. 10. The solution of this difficulty must come from you. 11. Grapevines here and there twine themselves round shrub and tree. 12. Our coach rattled out of the city. 13. La Fleur flew out of the room like lightning. 14. Graham came from his hiding-place in the neighboring mountains. 15. Battles and skirmishes were fought on all sides. 16. The stone cannot be moved from its place hy any force. 17. In silent horror o'er the boundless waste The driver Hassan with his camels passed. 18. They sat them down upon the yellow sand, Between the sun and moon upon the shore. 19. Large towns were founded in different parts of the king- dom. 20. My days now rolled on in a perfect dream of happiness. NUMBER. 77 CHAPTER XXXI. NUMBER. 133. Study the following sentences : — The dog was very hungry. The dogs were very hungry. If we compare these two sentences, we see at once that the subject of the first (dog) denotes a single animal, whereas the subject of the second (dogs) denotes two or more animals. This difference in the number of animals referred to is shown by a difference in the form of the noun. Dogs has an -s and dog has not. Similarly, in the following sentences we can tell immediately, from the form of each noun, whether one per- son or thing is meant or more than one : — The Arabs are mounted on horses trained to battle or retreat. The hermit sat on a bench at the door. The shepherds gave the wanderer milk and fruits. These thoughts were often in his mind. Again, in each of the following sentences we can tell from the form of the pronoun used as the subject whether one person or thing is meant or more than one : — We stopped near a spring shaded with trees. They clambered up the side of the ravine. I understand you very well. Seldom we view the prospect fair. He dug a deep hole in the orchard. It is a rattlesnake. She sat spinning before the door of her cottage. 78 THE MOTHER TONGUE. Accordingly, we have the following definitions : — 134. Number is that property of nouns and pronouns which shows whether they indicate one person or thing or more than one. 135. There are two numbers, — the Singular and the Plural. The Singular Number denotes but one person or thing The Plural Number denotes more than one person or thing. Thus, in the sentence, " The president was elected by a large majority," the noun president is in the singular number, in the sentence, "Presidents of the United States have great power," jwesidents is in the plural number. Again, in the sentence, " He failed to win the game," the pronoun he is in the singular number, for it designates a single person. In " They failed to win," the pronoun they refers to two or more persons and is therefore in the plural number. The change in the form of a noun or pronoun by which it passes from the singular number to the plural is an example of inflection (see § 4). 136. Most nouns form the plural number by adding -s or -es to the singular. Singular Plural Singular Plural dog dogs horse horses cat cats carriage carriages boy boys judge judges girl girls lass lasses teacher teachers compass compasses general generals dish dishes pupil pupils stitch stitches The -8 of the plural often has the sound of z. NUMBER. 79 EXERCISES. I. In the following extracts find all the plural nouns. Give the singular of each. 1. The stranger who would form a correct opinion of the English character must not confine his observations to the metropolis. He must go forth into the country; he must sojourn in villages and hamlets ; he must visit castles, villas, farmhouses, villages ; he must wander through parks and gar- dens, along hedges and green lanes ; he must 'oiter about country churches ; attend wakes and fairs, and other rural festi- vals ; and cope with the people in all their conditions and all their habits and humors. — Irving. 2. My raft was now strong enough to bear any reasonable weight. My next care was what to load it with, and how to preserve what I laid upon it from the surf of the sea. But I was not long considering this. I first laid all the plank or boards upon it that I could get ; and, having considered well what I most wanted, I first got three of the seamen's chests, which I had broken open and emptied, and lowered them down upon my raft. The first of these I filled with provisions, — bread, rice, three Dutch cheeses, five pieces of dried goat's flesh, which we lived much upon, and a little remainder of European corn which had been laid by for some fowls which we brought to sea with us ; but the fowls were killed. There had been some barley and wheat together, but, to my great disappointment, I found after- wards that the rats had eaten or spoiled it all Defoe. II. Write a description of some farm, or piece of woods, or town, or village, that you know well. Pick out all the nouns and adjectives. Give the plural of every noun that you have used in the singular and the singular of every plural noun. 80 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER XXXII. GENITIVE OR POSSESSIVE CASE. 137. If we wish to express, in the shortest possible way, the idea " a dog belonging- to John " or " a dog possessed or owned by John/' we can do it in two words : — John's dog. What is there in this phrase to express the idea of ownership? The answer is, of course, the ending '«, attached to the noun John. For, if we erase the ending 's, we have merely John dog, which certainly does not express possession. By adding 's to John we have not formed a new noun ; we have simply changed the form of the noun John by adding an ending which denotes possession. The form John's is said to be the genitive case of the noun John, and the ending 's is called a genitive ending. In like manner the first noun in each of the following phrases is in the genitive case. the king's daughter the man's dinner the carpenter's shop the horse's head the girl's dolls the fish's scales In all these examples observe that the genitive case denotes possession. If the genitive ending is cut off, the idea of possession disappears. The genitive case is also called the possessive case. 138. The Genitive Case of substantives denotes Possession. GEXITIYE CASE. 81 CHAPTEE XXXIII. FORMS OF THE GENITIVE 139. The Genitive Case of most nouns has, in the singular number, the ending 's. the man's hat Mary's book the woman's veil the horse's head the dog's bark the judge's decision 140. (i) Plural nouns ending in s take no further ending for the genitive. In writing, however, an apostrophe is put after the s to indicate the genitive case. the boys' father (= the father of the boys') the girls' mother (= the mother of the g the horses' heads (= the heads of the horse?') (2) Plural nouns not ending in s take 's in the genitive. the men's gloves (= the gloves of the men) women's opinions (= the opinions of women) the children's toys (= the toys belonging to the children) The apostrophe, it should be observed, is not an ending and has no effect on pronunciation. In its use with the genitive it is merely a sign employed in written and printed speech to distinguish certain forms of the noun that would otherwise look exactly alike. These forms may be seen in the following sentences : — The boys were playing in the field. [Boys is the subject.] The boy's father called him. [Genitive singular. Here the boy's father = the father of the boy.'] The boys' father called them. [Genitive plural. Here the boys' father = the father of the boys.'] 82 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Pick out all the genitives. 1. The emperor's palace is in the centre of the city, where the two great streets meet. 2. Oliver's education began when he was about three years old. 3. Caesar scorns the poet's lays. 4. The silverTight, with quivering glance, Played on the water's still expanse. 5. Here on this beach a hundred years ago, Three children of three houses, Annie Lee, The prettiest little damsel in the port, And Philip Ray, the miller's only son, And Enoch Arden, a rough sailor's lad, Made orphan by a winter shipwreck, played Among the waste and lumber of the shore. 6. It is not the greatness of a man's means that makes him independent, so much as the smallness of his wants. 7. In faith and hope the world will disagree, But all mankind's concern is charity. 8. The jester's speech made the duke laugh. 9. A man's nature runs either to herbs or weeds. II. Write sentences containing the genitive singular of each of the following nouns : — Boy, girl, dog, cat, John, Mary, Sarah, William, spider, frog, elephant, captain, sailor, soldier, chieftain, Shakspere, Milton, Whittier, baker, manufacturer, chimney-sweep. III. Write sentences containing the genitive of the names of twelve persons whom you know. GENITIVE CASE. 83 IV. Pick out all the genitives and tell whether each is singular or plural. Give your reasons. 1. The monarch's wrath began to rise. 2. They err who imagine that this man's courage was ferocity. 3. Two years' travel in distant and barbarous countries has accustomed me to bear privations. 4. Hark ! hark! the lark at heaven's gate sings. 5. Portia dressed herself, and her maid in men's apparel. 6. He waved his huntsman's cap on high. 7. The Porters' visit was all but over. 8. The ladies' colds kept them at home all the evening. 9. The crags repeat the ravens' croak. 10. Farmer Grove's house is on fire : 11. The Major paced the terrace in front of the house for his two hours' constitutional walk. Write sentences containing the genitive plural of all the common nouns in Exercise II. VI. Insert the apostrophe in the proper place in every word that needs it. 1. The mans hair was black. 2. The mens courage was almost gone. 3. The spiders web was too weak to hold the flies. 4. The whole clan bewailed the warriors death. 5. The soldiers helmets were visible. 6. I gave him a months notice. 7. Six months time had elapsed. 8. Womens wages are lower than mens. 9. A womans wit has saved many a stupid man. 10. The chieftains sons are the most devoted of brothers. 84 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER XXXIV. GENITIVE OF PRONOUNS. 141. English pronouns, as we have seen, preserve more forms of inflection than English nouns. Hence we expect to find, in the genitive case of pronouns, more irregularities than in that of nouns. 142. The nominative and the genitive forms, singu- lar and plural, of several important pronouns are as follows : — fOMINATIVE Genitive Nominative Genitive Singular Singular Plural Plural I my or mine we our or ours thou thy or thine you or ye your or yours he his they their or theirs she her or hers they their or theirs it its they their or theirs My book is torn. This box is mine. Our dog ran away. The cat is ours. Thy ways are not our ways. Our hearts are thine. Your uncle is a merchant. The top is yours. The genitive forms in the table above are often called possessive pronouns. You, your, and yours are used in either a singular or a plural sense. In form, however, they are in the plural number. The forms mine, thine, ours, yours, hers, theirs, are used in the predicate. Make sentences containing all the forms of pronouns given in § 142. OF-PH RASES. 85 CHAPTER XXXV. GENITIVE REPLACED BY AN OF-PHRASE. 143. Instead of using the genitive form to indicate possession we may often use the preposition of. Thus, Genitive Noun with of Man's life is short. The life of man is short. Mr. Smith's property is hardly The property of Mr. Smith is safe. hardly safe. Shakspere's plays are supreme. The plays of Shakspere are supreme. In these sentences the noun that follows of is called its object, and is said to be in the objective case (see § 104). 144. Possession may be expressed either by the genitive case or by a phrase consisting of the preposition of and its object. EXERCISES. Make twenty sentences each containing a genitive. Let them express your own thoughts. Replace each genitive by an of-phrase, and note the effect. Is the change an improvement or not? II. Make sentences containing either the genitive of each of the following nouns or an o/-phrase replacing the genitive. Tell the grounds of your choice. Boy, girl, mayor, boys, girls, men, man, Chicago, horse, horses, Charles, Mr. Williams, Boston, friendship, bandit, pirate, senator, Shakspere, tree, Longfellow, house, wisdom, school, chimney, grocer, pansy, rose, lesson, century, bicycle, Julius. 86 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER XXXVI. ANALYSIS. — GENITIVE AND OF-PHRASE. 145. A genitive or an of-phrase limits the substantive to which it is attached, as an adjective would do. 146. In analyzing a sentence, therefore, all genitives and most of-phrases are regarded as adjective modifiers of the substantives to which they belong. Thus, — The patience of Job | is proverbial. Joe's strange panic | lasted for several days. In the first sentence, of Job is an adjective modifier oi patience, the subject of the sentence. It limits the noun by specifying exactly whose patience is referred to. In the second sentence the subject panic has two adjective modifiers; — (1) the genitive Joe's, and (2) the adjective strange. EXERCISE. Analyze the sentences below according to the plan on page 75. Treat the genitives and of-phrases as adjective modifiers. 1. The chieftain's brow darkened. 2. Quickly sped the hours of that happy day. 3. Their friends have abandoned them. 4. Edison's great discovery was then announced. 5. The population of Chicago is increasing rapidly. G. The captain of the steamer stood on the bridge. 7. The men's last hope had vanished. 8. Our distress was soon relieved. 9. The branches of the tree droop gracefully. 10. The bird's song rang out merrily. 11. A huntsman's life had always attracted me. APPOSITION. 87 CHAPTER XXXVII. APPOSITION. 147. Examine the following sentence : — Thompson, the fireman, | saved the man's life. The complete subject contains two nouns, Thompson and fireman, both referring to the same person. The second noun describes the person designated by the first. Compare — Pontiac, the Indian chief, | died in 1769. The tree, a great elm, | fell last night. Similarly, in each of the following sentences, the com- plete predicate contains two nouns referring to the same person or thing : — Crusoe | rescued Friday, a savage, from the cannibals. Tbe officer | lost his only iceapon, a sword. In such sentences the second noun of the pair is said to be in apposition with tiie first, and is called an appositive. 148. The principle of apposition applies to pronouns as well as to nouns. Thus, — /, the king, | command you. He | disobeys me, his father. 149. When two substantives denoting the same person or thing stand in the same part of the sentence (subject or predicate) , and the second describes the person or thing designated by the first, the second is said to be in apposition with the first and is called an Appositive. 88 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Fill the blanks with appositives. 1. Mr. Jones, the , is building a house for me. 2. Have you seen Rover, my , anywhere ? 3. We saw animals of all kinds in the menagerie, , , and 4. Chapman, the of the team, broke his collar bone. 5. My new kite, from my uncle, is caught in the tree. 6. Washington, the of the United States, is on the Potomac. 7. Who has met my young friend to-day ? 8. Charles I. of England, was beheaded in 1649. 9. Washington, the of his country, was born in 1732. 10. The sultan was fond of tiger-hunting, a dangerous . II. Pick out the appositives, and tell to what noun each is attached. 1. An Englishwoman, the wife of one of the officers, was sitting on the battlements with her child in her arms. 2. I went to visit Mr. Hobbes, the famous philosopher. 3. We were hopeful boys, all three of us. 4. Spring, the sweet Spring, is the year's pleasant king. 5. Then forth they all out of their baskets drew Great store of flowers, the honor of the field. 6. He was speedily summoned to the apartment of his cap- tain, the Lord Crawford. 7. No rude sound shall reach thine ear, Armor's clang and war-steed champing. 8. And thus spake on that ancient man, The bright-eyed mariner. 9. There lived at no great distance from this stronghold ;t farmer, a bold and stout man, whose name was Binnock, ANALYSIS. —APP0SIT1 VE. 89 CHAPTER XXXVIII. ANALYSIS. —THE APPOSITIVE. 150. A phrase containing an appositive is called an appositive phrase. Sturt, the dauntless explorer, perished in the desert. 151. An appositive or appositive phrase is an adjective modi- fier of the noun to which it is attached. John, the miller, was doing a thriving business. Here the appositive miller limits the subject John by defining what particular John is referred to. It is not John the carpenter, or John the mason, or John the machinist, but John the miller, that is meant. An appositive, then, limits or describes a noun much as an adjective would do. Thus, — Appositive. Adjective. Smith, the tanner, is growing Young Smith is growing rich. rich. Jack, the sailor, saved the Brave Jack saved the man man from drowning. from drowning. Mr. Russell, the banker, sails Rich Mr. Russell sails for for Europe on Friday. Europe on Friday. 152. In analyzing a sentence, therefore, any appositive or appositive phrase is counted as an adjective modifier. 153. We have now learned to recognize four kinds of adjective modifiers : (1) an adjective, (2) an adjective phrase, (3) a genitive, (4) an appositive. An adjective in the appositive position is often called an appositive adjective. Thus, — The coins, large and small, lay on the table. 90 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER XXXIX. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. THE DIRECT OBJECT. 154. Compare the verbs in the following sentences: — The dog | barked. Brutus \' slabbed Cassar. We see at once that in the first the verb barked is not followed by any noun, but that in the second the verb stabbed is followed by the noun Ccesar. Further, we see that the verb stabbed really needs to be followed by some noun or pronoun if the sentence is to be complete. Brutus stabbed would at once seem to us unfinished, and would suggest the question, "Whom did he stab?" For it is impossible to stab without stabbing somebody or something. On the other hand, the verb barked is complete in sense, and does not require the addition of a noun. In fact, if we were to add a noun to the sentence " The dog barked," we should make nonsense out of it. A dog does not bark anybody or bark anything. Examining the noun that follows stabbed and completes its sense, we find that it is the name of the person (Caisar) to whom the act expressed by the verb was done, that is, it designates the receiver of the action. 155. Study the following sentences : — God created the world. The smith made an anchor. "We manufacture shovels. The earth produces grain. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 91 Here the noun that follows each verb to complete its meaning designates rather that which the action produces than that to which the action is done. 156. Some verbs that express action may be directly followed by a substantive designating either the receiver or the product of the action.* Such verbs are called Transitive Verbs. All other verbs are called Intransitive Verbs. A Substantive that completes the meaning of a Transitive Verb by designating the receiver or the product of the action is called the Direct Object of the verb. A Direct Object is said to be in the Objective Case. An Intransitive Verb cannot have a Direct Object. The direct object is often called the object complement. These rules are illustrated below : — I. Transitive verbs with direct object (objective case) : The fox seized the goose in his mouth. Marshall discovered gold in California. The King of England assembled a powerful army. He rushed on danger because he loved it, and on difficulties because he despised them. II. Intransitive verbs (no object) : Roses bloom in the garden. The boat lies at anchor. I have fished all day long. The messenger was running at the top of his speed. * Observe that we are speaking of the addition of a noun to the verb directly, without the insertion of a preposition between the verb and the noun. We may of course say " The dog barked at John " ; but here the noun John does not immediately follow the verb barked, for at comes between. We cannot say " The dog barked John," as we could say " The dog bit John " or " Brutus .slabbed Caesar." 92 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 157. A verb which is transitive in one of its senses may be intransitive in another.* Transitive Intransitive The girl filled the cup with water. The girl's eyes filled with tears. The fireman ran the locomotive. The horse ran. The traveller dried his coat. The water dried up. 158. A transitive verb may be used without an ob- ject expressed or even distinctly thought of. Thus we may say " The horse eats," as well as " The horse eats his grain"; "The soldier fires," as well as " The soldier fires his rifle " ; ' ; The man writes," as well as " The man writes a letter." In such cases the transitive verb is said to be used absolutely. 159. Many transitive verbs may be used absolutely, — that is, merely to express action without any indication of the direct object. It is easy to distinguish between a transitive verb used absolutely and a real intransitive verb. In the case of a transitive verb used absolutely, one can always add a noun or pronoun as the direct object; in the case of a real intransitive verb this is never possible. Thus, — The man eats. The man laughs. We can add a direct object Here we cannot possibly add (like an apple, his food, his a noun or pronoun as the direct dinner} at will. Eats, then, in object. Laughs, then, is a real this sentence, is not an intran- intransitive verb, sitive verb but a transitive verb used absolutely. * §§ 157-159 may be omitted till a review is made. TRANSITIVE AND INTEANSITIVE VERBS. 93 EXERCISES. I. In the following passages tell whether the verbs are transitive or intransitive and pick out the objects. 1. A small party of the musketeers followed me. 2. These, therefore, I can pity. v 3. Through the darkness and the cold we flew. 4. Yet I insisted, yet you answered not. 5. The enemy made frequent and desperate sallies. 6. Fierce passions discompose the mind. 7. The gallant greyhounds swiftly ran. 8. The Scots killed the cattle of the English. 9. Down the ashes shower like rain. 10. While Spain built up her empire in the New World, the English seamen reaped a humbler harvest in the fisheries of New- foundland. II. In several pronouns the objective case has a special form, different from that of the nominative. Thus, — / have a knife. He is my friend. You blame me. I like him. Fill the blanks with pronouns in the objective case. 1. They found in the woods. 2. My friend asked to dinner. 3. The savage dog bit severely. 4. Our teacher has sent home. 5. Their uncle visited last week. 6. The rain drenched in spite of my umbrella. 7. Mary's brother helped with her lesson. 8. Arthur's book interests very much. 9. The flood drove from our farm. 10. A boat carried across the river, 94 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER XL. ANALYSIS. — THE DIRECT OBJECT. 160. You have already learned to analyze a sentence (1) by dividing it into the complete subject and the complete predicate, and (2) by pointing out the adjective modifiers of the subject (adjectives, adjective phrases, genitives, or appositives) and the adverbial modifiers of the predicate (adverbs and adverbial phrases). 161. In the preceding chapter we have studied another element of the complete predicate, namely, the direct object. This is not, strictly speaking, a modifier of the predicate, for it does not change or modify the meaning of the verb ; it completes the sense of the verb by naming the receiver or product of the action. Accordingly, in analyzing a sentence that contains a direct object, the object is not mentioned among the modifiers, but is specially named by itself. Thus, — The clever young mechanic earned money rapidly. . This is a declarative sentence. The complete subject is the clever young mechanic ; the complete predicate is earned money rapidly. The simple subject is the noun mechanic; the simple predicate is the verb earned. Mechanic is modified by the adjec- tives clever and young. Earned is modified by the adverb rapidly. Money is the direct object of the transitive verb earned. 162. Analyze the following sentences according to the model : — The strolling musician's monkey climbed the tree with agibty. A good man loves his enemies. The swift runner won the race with ease. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE. 95 CHAPTER XLI. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE.* 163. Compare the following sentences : — John struck Thomas. Thomas was struck by John. These sentences express the same idea. In both it is John who gave the blow and Thomas who received it. Yet the form of the sentences is quite different. (1) In the first, John is the subject; in the second, the subject is Thomas. (2) In the first, the subject John is represented as acting in some way, as doing something, and what he was doing is expressed by the verb struck. In the second, the subject Thomas is not represented as doing any- thing ; the verb-phrase was struck indicates, on the other hand, that something was done to him by somebody else. There is, then, an essential difference of meaning between the predicate struck and the predicate verb- phrase was struck, and this difference consists in the fact that struck represents its subject (John) as acting (as doing something), and ivas struck represents its sub- ject (Thomas) as acted upon, that is, as receiving an action done by some one else. This distinction of meaning between struck and was struck is called a distinction of voice. Struck is said to be in the active voice ; ivas struck, in the passive voice. * An elementary study of the passive is introduced here in order to complete the account of transitive verbs and to prepare for the predicate nominative. 96 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 164. Voice is that property of verbs which indicates whether the subject acts or is acted upon, 165. There are two voices : the Active and the Passive. A verb is said to be in the Active Voice when it represents its subject as the doer of an act. A verb is said to be in the Passive Voice when it represents its subject, not as the doer of an action, but as receiving an action. 166. Many languages have special forms of inflection for the passive voice. Thus, in Latin amat means " he loves " and amaJtur " he is loved." In English, how- ever, there are no such verb-forms, and the idea of the passive voice is therefore expressed by means of verb- phrases. EXERCISE. Find the passive verbs (verb-phrases). Mention the subject of each sentence. 1. My command was promptly obeyed. 2. One of the men who robbed me was taken. 3. Now were the gates of the city broken down by General Monk. 4. Suddenly, while I gazed, the loud crash of a thousand cymbals was heard. 5. Judgment is forced upon us by experience. 6. Nature is often hidden, sometimes overcome, seldom extin- guished. 7. Youth is always delighted with applause. 8. The hall was immediately cleared by the soldiery. 9. Just before midnight the castle was blown up. 10. My spirits were raised by the rapid motion of tbe journey. 11. A great council of war was held in the king's quarters. 12. Many consciences were awakened ; many hard hearts were melted into tears ; many a penitent confession was made. PREDICATE ADJECTIVE. 97 CHAPTER XLII. PREDICATE ADJECTIVE. 167. An adjective may or may not stand in the same part of the sentence with the noun or pronoun to which it belongs. Thus, in The black hat hangs on the peg, the adjective black and its noun are both in the subject; in The farmer shot the mad dog, the adjective and its noun are both in the predicate. On the other hand, in The dog is mad, the adjective mad is in the predicate and dog, the noun to which it belongs, is the subject of the sentence. 168. An adjective in the predicate belonging to a noun or pronoun in the subject is called a Predicate Adjective. 169. The number of verbs that may be followed by a predicate adjective is limited. The commonest are is (teas and other forms of the copula), become, and seem. Others are verbs closely resembling become or seem \ in sense: as, — grow, turn, prove, appear, look-, et/' Pick out the predicate adjectives. Show that each describes the subject of the sentence. 1. The river was nowjuJLof life and motion. 2. The sentiments of the hearers were various. *S3 . In the north the storm grew thick. ,1 Soon his eyes grew brilliant. 5. Some fortifications still remained entire. -•■6. He lay prostrate on the ground. ■^7. The evening proved fine. 8. Alfred Burnham has become penitent. 9. How different the place looked now ! 10. She seemed anxious to get away without speaking. 1 1. Their hearts are grown desperate. *=T2. The captain appeared impatient. 13. He began to look a little less stern and terrible. —14. Many houses were then left desolate. 15. Gertrude remained aghast and motionless. "-16. He stood stubborn and rigid. 17. Vain were all my efforts. / 18. These threats sounded alarming. PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 99 CHAPTER XLIII. PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 170. A predicate adjective, as we have just learned (p. 97), may be added to the intransitive verbs is, seem, become, and some others, to describe or define the sub- ject. Thus, — The crag is steep. The task seemed difficult. The shouting mob became silent. When thus added, such an adjective completes the sense of the verb. Omit the adjectives in the sentences above, and this will be clear to you. 171. In precisely the same way, the sense of such intransitive verbs as is, seem, and become may be com- pleted by the addition of a noun or a pronoun. Thus, — William II. is emperor. Spartacus was chief of the gladiators. Johnson became governor. I am your friend. It was /. You are he. Each of the italicized substantives describes or defines the subject, much as the adjectives steep, difficult, and silent do in § 170. Such substantives are called predicate nominatives, because they stand in the predicate, and because, refer- ring as they do to the same person or thing as the sub- ject, they are of course in the nominative case.* * A predicate nominative or adjective is sometimes called an attribute. 100 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Make ten sentences containing a predicate nominative after am, is, are, was, were, has been, or had been. Select the subjects of your sentences from the follow- ing list : — Thomas Jefferson, Columbus, elms, ash, carriage, sword, story, scissors, history, pencil, ships, Carlo, football, oranges, peace, lemons, war, kindness, verb, noun, pronoun. II. Fill each blank with a predicate nominative. /l. Thomas Smith is my 2. My father's name is 3. A noun is the of a person, place, or thing. 4. A pronoun is a used instead of a noun. 5. The banana is a delicious — — 6. The boys are all . 7. Napoleon was of France. 8. Albert has been your for many years. 9. We had been in England. 10. My birthday present will be a : 11. Fire is a good but a bad 12. Hunger is the best 13. Our five senses are , -, , > and 14. My favorite flower has always been the 15. A friend in need is a indeed. 16. Virtue is its own 17. My favorite game is 18. Milton was an English . 19. " Hiawatha " is a of Longfellow's. 20. Benjamin Franklin was a . 21. John Adams was the second of the United States. PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 101 CHAPTER XLIV. DIRECT OBJECT AND PREDICATE NOMINATIVE DISTINGUISHED. 172. The difference between the direct object of a tran- sitive verb and a predicate nominative after an intransitive verb is very great ; but the two constructions are often confused by beginners. 173. The only resemblance is that both the direct object and the predicate nominative serve to complete the sense of the verbs which they follow. Study the following pair of sentences : — Coesar conquers the general. Csesar becomes general. These two sentences appear, at the first glance, to resemble each other very strongly in their make-up. In both Ccesar is the subject, and in both the verb of the predicate is immediately followed by the noun general. Closer examination, however, shows that the construc- tion of general is by no means alike in the two sentences. (1) In the first, the general and Ccesar are two differ- ent persons. Cwsar, the subject, is the person who con- quers, and the general is the person whom Csesar conquers. General, then, is the direct object of the transitive verb conquers (see § 156). (2) In the second sentence, Ca>sar, the subject, does not do anything to the general. On the contrary, Ccesar and the general are one and the same person. The verb becomes, then, is not a transitive verb, and general can- not be its object. 102 THE MOTHER TONGUE. The difference between the two sentences may be stated as follows : — In the First: In the Second: 1. The noun in the predicate 1. The noun in the predicate {general) refers to a person (general) refers to the same different from the subject person as the subject (Ccesar). (Ccesar). 2. The verb of the predicate 2. The verb of the predicate (conquered) is transitive. (became) is intransitive. 3. The noun in the predicate 3. The noun in the predicate (general) is the direct object (general) is not an object of of the verb (conquered). It any verb, but is closely as- names the person to whom sociated with the subject the subject does something. (Ccesar). It defines or ex- plains what the subject is or becomes. A noun in the construction of general in the second sentence is called a predicate nominative. 174. Some passive verbs may be followed by a predi- cate nominative. Thus, — Jackson was elected president. The boy was named Philip. The animals are called kangaroos. The Spaniard was chosen ringleader. He was proclaimed dictator. Phillips had been appointed secretary. 175. A noun or pronoun standing in the predicate after an intransitive or passive verb and referring to the same person or thing as the subject must, like the subject, be in the Nominative Case. Such a noun or pronoun is called a Predicate Nominative. PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 103 EXERCISES. I. In the following sentences pick out (1) the subjects, (2) the predicates, (3) the predicate nominatives. 1. He is an honest man and an honest writer. 2. The Malay has been a fearful enemy for months. 3. King Malcolm was a brave and wise prince. 4. You had been the great instrument of preserving your country from foreign and domestic ruin. 5. Still he continued an incorrigible rascal. 6. Dewdrops are the gems of morning, But the tears of mournful eve. 7. While still very young, she became the wife of a Greek adventurer. 8. Every instant now seemed an age. 9. Dr. Daniel Dove was a perfect doctor, and his horse Nobs was a perfect horse. 10. Francis the First stood before my mind the abstract and model of perfection and greatness. 11. The name of Francis Drake became the terror of the Spanish Indies. 12. Great barkers are no biters. 13. I hope she will prove a well-disposed girl. 14. He may prove a troublesome appendage to us. 15. His bridge was only loose planks laid upon large trestles. 16. I entered the town a candle-snuffer, and I quitted it a hero ! 17. A very complaisant and agreeable companion may, and often does, prove a very improper and a very dangerous friend. 18. Real friendship is a slow grower. 19. He became a friend of Mrs. Wilberforce's. 20. My friends fall around me, and I shall be left a lonely tree before I am withered. 104 THE MOTHER TONGUE. II. Pick out the predicate nominatives and the direct objects. Explain the difference between the two con- structions. 1. With how sad steps, Moon, thou climb'st the sky I 2. The landscape was a forest wide and bare. 3. Here the Albanian proudly treads the ground. 4. Wing thy flight from hence on the morrow. 5. It was a wild and strange retreat As e'er was trod by outlaw's feet. 6. Honor is the subject of my story. 7. I alone became their prisoner. 8. A strange group we were. 9. The mountain mist took form and limb Of noontide hag or goblin grim. 10. The family specialties were health, good-humor, and vivacity. 11. The deep war-drum's sound announced the close of day. 12. You seem a sober ancient gentleman. 13. His house, his home, his heritage, his lands, He left without a sigh. 14. On the tenth day of June, 170:3, a boy on the topmast discovered land. 15. Have you turned coward? 16. This goodly frame, the earth, seems to me a sterile prom- ontory • 17. This southern tempest soon May. change its quarter with the changing moon. 18. Mr. Bletson arose and paid his respects to Colonel Everard 19. Escape seemed a desperate and impossible adventure. 20. Here I reign king. 21. She uttered a half-stifled shriek. 22. The sailors joined his prayer in silent thought. 23. We have been lamenting your absence. 24. This spark will prove a raging fire. PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 105 CHAPTER XLV. PRONOUN AS PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 176. With pronouns the difference of construction between the direct object and the predicate nominative may often be seen clearly ; for the nominative form of some pronouns differs greatly from the objective. Direct Object Predicate Nominative He loves me. It is /. Caesar killed him. Caesar was he. The teacher praised us. It was we. The general blamed them. if ever there were happy men, the discharged soldiers were they. EXERCISE. Errors in the use of pronouns are common. The pronouns in the following sentences are cor- rectly used. Pick out the subjects and the predicate noniinatives. 1. "Who's there?" "It'sJJ" 2. I wish to see Mr. Smith. Are yovi hfl.? 3. " Do vou know John Anson? " " Yes, that 's he ! " 4. See that poor fellow! I shouldn't like to be he. 5. "I asked to see your sons. Are these thijy?" . " Yes, these are they. Shall I tell you their names ? " 6. " It 's she ! There she is ! " cried the children eagerly. 7. Yes, it was he,_; — the famous admiral. 8. I wish it had n't been I that broke the window. 9. If that is the rich Mrs. Blank, I should n't like to be 10. "Who's there?" "It's we." "Who are you?" 11. The best grammarians in the village are we four girls. 106 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER XLVI. ANALYSIS.— PREDICATE NOMINATIVE AND PREDICATE ADJECTIVE. 177. In analyzing a sentence containing a predicate nominative or predicate adjective, the predicate nominative or adjective should, like the direct object (p. 94), be mentioned by itself. Thus, — The injured man | grew rapidly stronger. Here the complete predicate is grew rapidly stronger. It consists of (1) the simple predicate grew, (2) the predicate adjective stronger, and (3) the adverbial modi- fier rapidly. 178. The predicate nominative being a substantive, may, like the subject, have adjective modifiers (see § 153) ; the predicate adjective may be modified by an adverb or an adverbial phrase. These modifiers should be designated in making an analysis of any sentence that contains them. EXERCISE. Analyze sentences 1-4, 6-15 on page 104 in accord- ance with the following plan : — (1) Divide each sentence into the complete subject and the complete predicate ; (2) mention the simple subject and predi- cate ; (3) mention the modifiers of the subject and of the predi- cate ; (4) mention the direct object, the predicate nominative, or the predicate adjective, if the sentence has any of these parts ; (5) mention the modifiers of the direct object, etc. SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SUBJECT. 107 CHAPTER XLVII. SIMPLE SUBJECT AND COMPOUND SUBJECT. 179. Compare the following sentences: — John | hunts bears. Old John | hunts bears. John of Oregon I hunts bears. John, the trapper, | hunts bears. In each of these sentences the subject is John. In the first sentence, John is unmodified and stands alone. In the second, John is modified by the adjective old; in the third, by the adjective phrase of Oregon; in the fourth, by the appositive noun trapper. But in all four the simple subject, the word which denotes the per- son referred to, is the single noun John. 180. Contrast, however, the following sentence : — John and Thomas | hunt bears. This sentence appears to have two distinct subjects, John and Thomas, connected by the conjunction and ; for the assertion made by the verb hunt is just as true of Thomas as of John. The two nouns, then, stand in precisely the same relation to the predicate, and neither of-them is a modifier of the other. Similarly each of the following sentences appears to have two or more distinct subjects: — My- brother and / | meet every week. Spears, pikes, and axes | flash in air. . . A crow, rook, or raven | has built a nest in one of the young elm trees. 108 THE MOTHER TONGUE. In such cases the various distinct subjects of the sentence, taken together, are regarded as making up a single compound subject. 181. The Subject of a sentence may be Simple or Compound. A Simple Subject consists of a single substantive. A Compound Subject consists of two or more simple subjects, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions. 182. The following conjunctions may be used to join the members of a compound subject: and (both . . . and), or (either . . . or; whether . . . or), nor (neither . . . nor).* You and I | are Americans. Captain and crew I were alike terrified. Both gold and silver | were found in the mine. Either you or Tom | broke this window. Either oranges or lemons | make up the cargo. Neither bird nor beast | was to be seen. 183. In analysis, a compound subject should be sepa- rated into the simple subjects of which it is made up, and the modifiers of each should be mentioned. EXERCISES. l. Use the following substantives, in pairs, joined by conjunctions, as the compound subjects of sentences : — Europe, Asia; boots, shoes; wood, iron; justice, mercy; fire, sword ; goodness, truth ; masons, carpenters ; apples, oranges ; books, pencil ; father, mother ; gulfs, bays ; hills, plains ; maple, cedar; thunder, lightning. * Either . . . or and other conjunctions thus used in pairs are called correlative conjunctions. SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SUBJECT. 109 II. Divide the following sentences into their complete subjects and complete predicates. Mention the several substantives that make up each compound subject, and tell by what conjunctions they are joined. 1. Sorrow and sadness sat upon every face. 2. These terrors and apprehensions of the people led them into a thousand weak, foolish, and wicked things. 3. Tears lie in him, and consuming fire. 4. Homer and Socrates and the Christian apostles belong to old days. 5. My childish years and his hasty departure prevented me from enjoying the full benefit of his lessons. 6. Everywhere new pleasures, new interests awaited me. 7. His integrity and benevolence are equal to his learning. 8. Both saw and axo were plied vigorously. 9. Neither Turk nor Tartar can frighten him. 10. The duke and his senators left the court. 11. Either Rome or Carthage must perish. 12. Her varying color, her clouded brow, her thoughtful yet wandering eye, so different from the usual open, bland expression of her countenance, plainly indicated the state of her feelings. 13. Moss and clay and leaves combined To fence each crevice from the wind. 14. Tower and town and cottage Have heard the trumpet's blast. 15. The horsemen and the footmen Are pouring in amain From many a stately market-place, From many a fruitful plain. 16. Groans and shrieks filled the air. -—17. The walls and gates of the town were strongly guarded. __ 18. Chariots, horses, men, were huddled together. 110 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER XLVIII. SIMPLE PREDICATE AND COMPOUND PREDICATE. 184. In the preceding chapter we learned the differ- ence between a simple subject and a compound subject. The predicate of a sentence may likewise be either simple or compound. 185. A Simple Predicate contains but one verb. Thus, — Fire | burns. The soldiers | charged up the hill. The ship | was driven before the wind. Gunpowder | was used to demolish the castle. 186. A Compound Predicate consists of two or more simple predicates, joined, when necessary, by conjunctions. Thus, — The dog | ran down the street and disappeared from sight. The captain \ addressed his soldiers and commended their bravery. Washington | was born in 1732 and died in 1799. The lawyer | rose, arranged his papers, and addressed the jury. ...The prisoner | neither spoke nor moved. 187. The conjunctions mentioned in § 1 82 may be used to join the members of a compound predicate. Thus, — The wounded man | said nothing, but lay still with closed eyes. The messenger | either lost the money or spent it.. The captive Indian | neither spoke nor moved. The man's carelessness | both disappointed and angered his friends. 188. A sentence may have both a compound subject and a compound predicate. Thus, — The American and the Englishman | met and discussed the question. Si MPLE A NJD C 031P U UXD PIIELICA TE. Ill EXERCISES. Divide the sentences into their complete subjects and complete predicates. Mention the several verbs or verb-phrases that make up each compound predicate and tell by what conjunc- tions they are joined. 1. The wakeful bloodhound rose, and shook his hide. 2. They clambered tlirough the cavity, and began to go down on the other side. 3. During this time, I neither saw nor heard of Alethe. 4. The blackbird amid leafy trees, - The lark above the hill, Let loose their carols when they please, Are quiet when they will. "§'.' She immediately scrambled across the fence and walked away. 6. John made no further reply, but left the room sullenly, whistling as he went. 7. I dressed myself, took my hat and gloves, and lingered a little in the room. 8. The sun had just risen and, from the summit of the Arabian hills, was pouring down his beams into that vast valley of waters. 9. They kept up the Cliristmas carol, sent true-love knots on Valentine morning, ate pancakes on Shrovetide, showed their wit on the first of April, and religiously cracked nuts on Michaelmas eve. II. Use the following verbs and verb-phrases in pairs to make the compound predicate of sentences : — Seek, find ; rose, spoke ; wrote, sent ; has fished, has caught ; heard, told ; tries, fails. 112 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Review Exercises n and in on page 62, and observe the compound subjects and predicates that you make. II. Analyze the following sentences, as on page 106. Divide each compound subject or predicate. 1. The wind was either too light or blew from the wrong quarter. 2. They obey their guide, and are happy. 3. The stranger neither spoke nor read English. 4. The water looked muddy and tasted brackish, but was eagerly drunk by the travellers. 5. The watchman was sleepy, but struggled against his drow- siness. 6. The fox was caught, but escaped. 7. The bear growled fiercely, but did not touch the boy. 8. The sails were drying, and napped lazily against the mast. 9. The ladies and gentlemen were inclined to sneer, and were giggling audibly. 10. From the first, Miss Rice was interested in her servant, and encouraged her confidences. 11. He jumped into the gondola and was carried away through the silence of the night. 12. She grew pale herself and dropped his hand suddenly. 13. Reuben came in hurriedly and nodded a good-by to all of us. 14. Gravely he greets each city sire, Commends each pageant's quaint attire, Gives to the dancers thanks aloud, And smiles and nods upon the crowd. 15. Flesh and blood could not endure such hardships. CLAUSES. —COMPOUND SENTENCES. 113 CHAPTER XLIX. CLAUSES . — COMPOUND SENTENCES . 189. Examine the following sentence : — The horse reared and the rider was thrown. This sentence consists of two distinct members, (1) the horse reared, (2) the rider was throum, each contain- ing a subject and a predicate. These two members are called clauses. They are joined by means of the con- junction and. 190. A Clause is a group of words that forms part of a sen- tence and that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause differs from a phrase in that it contains a subject and a predicate, as a phrase does not. 191. Each of the following sentences consists, like the first example, of two distinct clauses, joined together by a conjunction. The dog barked | and | the burglar decamped. [Declarative.] Shall I descend, | and | will you give me leave ? [Interrogative.] Listen carefully | and | take notes. [Imperative.] If we study the structure of these sentences, we ob- serve that each consists of two independent clauses, that is, of two separate and distinct assertions, or questions, or commands, either of which might stand by itself as a com- plete sentence.* * We may test this by omitting and : thus, — The dog barked. The burglar decamped. Shall I descend ? Will you give me leave? Listen carefully. Take notes. 114 THE MOTHER TONGUE: Neither clause can be said to be more important than the other. Hence both are called coordinate clauses, that is, — clauses of the same "order" or rank. A sentence made up of coordinate clauses is called a compound sentence. - 192. The clauses of a compound sentence are not always connected by conjunctions. Thus, — The whip cracked, | the coach started, | and we were on our way to Paris. 193. A Compound Sentence consists of two or more coordinate clauses, which may or may not be joined by means of conjunctions. 194. The following conjunctions are used in forming compound sentences : and (both . . . and), or (either . . . or), nor (neither . . . nor), but, for. EXERCISE. Separate these compound sentences into the clauses of which they are composed. Mention the conjunctions that connect the clauses, if you find any. 1. Summer was now coming on with hasty steps, and my seventeenth birthday was fast approaching. 2. The night had been heavy and lowering, but towards the morning it had changed to a slight frost, and the ground and the trees were now covered with rime. 3. The war-pipes ceased, but lake and hill Were busy with their echoes still. 4. St. Agnes' Eve — ah, bitter chill it was ! The owl, for all "his feathers, was a-cold ; The hare limped trembling through the frozen grass, And silent was the flock in woolly fold. COMPLEX SENTENCES. 115 CHAPTER L. COMPLEX SENTENCES. — ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. :;.-: 195. Compare the following sentences : - The chief arose at daybreak. The chief arose when day damned. These two sentences express precisely the same idea. They differ only in their way of expressing it. , . In the first, the predicate arose is modified by the adverbial phrase at daybreak, which is equivalent to an adverb of time. In the second, this adverbial modifier is replaced by when day datvned, — a group of words which we recog- nize as a clause, since it contains a subject (day) and a predicate (dawned). The sentence then consists of two clauses. The first (the chief arose) is independent, — that is, it could stand alone as a complete sentence. This is called the main clause, since it makes the main statement which the sen- tence is intended to express. "The second clause (when day dawned) is a mere ad- verbial modifier of the predicate of the main clause (arose), and cannot stand by itself as a complete sen- tence. Hence it is called a dependent or subordinate clause. A sentence made up in this manner is called a complex sentence. 196. A Complex Sentence consists of two or more Clauses, at least one of which is Subordinate. 197. Separate each of the following complex sentences into the main clause and the subordinate clause : — 116 THE MOTHER TONGUE. War was declared with Spain while McKinley was president. I will send you the moneyj when I get my pay. Before the firemen arrived, the building fell. He sprang to his feet as he spoke. In each of these sentences the subordinate clause is an adverbial modifier of the predicate. See if you can replace it by an adverbial phrase. 198. A subordinate clause that serves as an adverbial modi- fier is called an Adverbial Clause. 199. Adverbial clauses may be introduced by adverbs of place, time, or manner : as, — where, whither, whence, when, while, before, after, until, hoiv, as. 200. Adverbial clauses are often introduced by the conjunctions because, though, although, if, that (in order that, so that), etc. These are called subordinate conjunctions because they join the subordinate clause to the main clause. EXERCISE. Separate each complex sentence into the main and the subordinate clause. Mention the adverbs or con- junctions that connect the clauses. 1. King Robert was silent when he heard this story. 2. He laughed till the tears ran down his face. 3. When the Arabs saw themselves out of danger, they slackened their pace. 4. We advance in freedom as we advance in years. 5. When I came back I resolved to settle in London. 6. As he approached the stream, his heart began to thump. 7. He struggled on, though he was very tired. 8. I consent because you wish it. RELATIVE PEONOUNH. 117 CHAPTER LI. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 201. Examine the following complex sentence : — The officer shot the soldier who deserted. The two clauses are : — (1) the main statement, " The officer shot the soldier" ; (2) the subordinate clause, kt who deserted." If we examine this subordinate clause, we see that its subject who is a pronoun, for it serves to take the place of a noun ; that is, it designates the soldier without nam- ing him. The pronoun ivho, then, is the subject of the subordinate clause, and at the same time connects the subordinate with the main clause. The method by which the pronoun ivho connects the subordinate clause with the main clause is by attaching itself directly in meaning to the noun soldier. In other words, who is a pronoun which serves as the subject of a verb and which, at the same time, refers definitely back to a noun in another clause. On account of this referring backward, who is called a relative pronoun. 202. Relative Pronouns connect dependent clauses with main clauses by referring directly to a substantive in the main clause. The substantive to which a relative pronoun refers is called its Antecedent. 203. Other relative pronouns are whose, whom, which, that. Harry has lost a knife tehich belongs to me. I have a friend ivhose name is Arthur. The girl whom you saw is my sister. Tell me the news that you have heard. 118 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES, i. Separate each sentence in § 203 into the main and the subordinate clause, and give the subject and the predicate of each clause. In these sentences the relative pronoun is sometimes a subject, sometimes an object, and once a genitive. See if you can distinguish. . II. Fill each blank with a relative pronoun, and mention its antecedent. 1. The house stands yonder belongs to Colonel Carton;. 2. Are you the man saved my daughter from drowning? 3. The sailor's wife gazed at the stately ship was tak- ing her husband away from her. 4. A young farmer, name was Judkins,-was the first to enlist. 5. Nothing you can do will help me. 6. The horses belong to the squire are famous trotters. 7. James Adams is the strongest man I have ever seen. 8. My friend, we had overtaken on his way down town, greeted us cheerfully. 9. Behold the man the king delighteth to honor ! 10. That is the captain ship was wrecked last December. III. .Pick out each relative pronoun in the following sentences, and mention its antecedent. Divide each sentence into its clauses, — main and subordinate, — and give the subject and the predicate of each clause. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 119 1. A sharp rattle was heard on the window, which made the children jump. 2. The small torch that he held sent forth a radiance by which suddenly the whole surface of the desert was illuminated. 3. He that has most time has none to lose. 4. Gray rocks peeped from amidst the lichens and creeping plants which covered them, as with a garment of many colors. 5. The enclosed fields, which were generally forty feet square, resembled so many beds of flowers. 6. They that reverence too much old times are but a scorn to the new. 7. The morning came which was to launch me into the world, and from which my whole succeeding life has, in many important points, taken its coloring. 8. Ten guineas, added to about two which I had remaining from my pocket money, seemed to me sufficient for an indefinite length of time. 9. lie |g the freeman whom the truth makes free. 10. There was one philosopher who chose to live in a tub. 11. Conquerors are a class of men with whom, for the most part, the world could well dispense. 12. The light came from a lamp that burned brightly :on. the table. ::'.... :'.:..'. 13. The sluggish stream through which we moved yielded sullenly to the oar. - 14. The place from which the light proceeded, was a small chapel. 15. The warriors went into battle clad in complete armor, which covered them from top to toe. 16. She seemed as happy as a wave That dances on the sea. 17. He sang out a long, loud, and canorous peal of laughter, that might have wakened the Seven Sleepers. 18. Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea. 19. Many of Douglas's followers were slain in the battle- in which he himself fell. 120 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LII. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 204. Examine the following sentences : — A courageous man will not desert his friends. A man of courage will not desert his friends. A man who has courage will not desert his friends. These three sentences express precisely the same idea, but in different ways. In the first sentence we find the descriptive adjective courageous, belonging to the noun man. In the second, the adjective courageous is replaced by the adjective phrase of courage, also belonging to man. In the third, the adjective is replaced by who has courage. This group of words we recognize as a clause (not a phrase), since it consists of a subject (the relative pronoun who) and a predicate (has courage). The clause who has courage, then, is closely attached to the noun man and has the force of an adjective. Such clauses are called adjective clauses. 205. The following examples illustrate the nature and use of adjective clauses and adjectives : — Simple Sentence, with Adjec- Complex Sentence, with Ad- tive or Adjective Phrase jective Clause A friend in need is a friend A friend who helps you in time indeed. of need is a real friend. A sleeping fox catches no poul- A fox that does not keep aicake try. catches no poultry. A bad-tempered man is a nui- A man who loses his temper con- sance , tinually is a nuisance. ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 121 206. Most adjective clauses are relative clauses ; that is, clauses introduced either by relative pronouns, or by relative adverbs of place or time (where, when, etc). The men, who were Jive in number, skulked along in the shadow of the hedge. The fire which the boys had kindled escaped from their control. The hat that lies on the floor belongs to me. The town where this robbery occurred was called Northampton. The time when this happened was six o'clock. 207. The substantive described, limited, or defined by a clause introduced by a relative pronoun is always the antecedent of the pronoun. EXERCISE. Find the adjective clauses. What substantive does each describe or limit? 1. The careless messenger lost the letter which had been intrusted to him. tj 2. The merchant gave the sailor who rescued him a thousand dollars. 3. The officer selected seven men, veterans whose courage had often been tested. 4. My travelling companion was an old gentleman whom 1 had met in Paris. 5. The castle where I was born lies in ruins. 6. Alas ! the spring which had watered this oasis was dried up. 7. The time that you have wasted would have made an indus- trious man rich. 8. A strange fish, which had wings, was this day captured by the seamen. 9. This happened at a time when prices were high. 122 THE MOTHER TONGUE, CHAPTER LIU. NOUN CLAUSES. 208. A Subordinate Clause may be used as a Substantive. Compare the sentences that follow : — Failure | is impossible. That we should fail | is impossible. These two sentences express the same thought in different words. In the first sentence the subject is the noun failure ■. In the second, the noun failure is replaced by a group of words, that we should fail, which we recognize as a clause, since it contains a subject (we) and a predicate (should fail). This clause is now the subject of the sentence. 209. Compare the sentences in the columns below : — Noun as Subject Clause as Subject" His ingratitude cut me to the That he should show such in- heart. gratitude cut me to the heart. The yello'wne.ss of gold needs That gold is yellow needs no. no proof. proof- His friendship for nie shows That he is my friend shows itself. • itself in his actions. in his actions. 210. Substantive clauses are very commonly intro- duced by that, which in this use is a subordinate conjunction. They are used to express a variety of id^as, which will be particularly studied in later chapters. 211. Substantive clauses may be used in other noun constructions besides that of the. subject. NOUN CLAUSES. 123 Thus in examples 1 and 2 below, the noun clause is the direct object of a transitive verb ; in 3 and 4 it is a predicate nominative ; in 5 and 6 it is an appositive. 1. The sailor saw that the ship was sinking. 2. My father wished that this tree should be cut down. 3. My orders are that we should set out at daybreak. 4. My hope was that some ship might be sighted. 5. The thought that help was near kept our spirits up. 6. The Council issued an order that the troops should disband. EXERCISES. I. Make sentences showing the use of nouns as subjects, direct objects (p. 91), predicate nominatives (p. 99), and appositives (p. 87). ii. Find the noun clauses. Tell whether each is subject, direct object, predicate nominative, or appositive. 1. That some mistake had occurred was evident. 2. That republics are ungrateful is a common saying. 3. That fire burns is one of the first lessons of childhood. 4. That the fever was spreading became only too apparent. 5. I know that he has received a letter. 6. I wish that you would study harder. 7. From that moment I resolved that I would stay in the town. 8. Bassanio confessed to Portia that he had no fortune. 9. My opinion is that this story is false. 10. His decision was that the castle should be surrendered. 11. The saying that the third time never fails is old. 12. The lesson that work is necessary is learned early. 124 THE MOTHER TONGUE. III. Tell whether each sentence is compound or complex. Separate it into its clauses. Point out the adjective, the adverbial, and the noun clauses. 1. All the birds began tasing ■when the sun rose. 2. The house stands where three roads meet. 3. He worked hard all his life that he might enjoy leisure in his old age. 4. The earth caved in upon t he miner so that he was com- pletely buried. 5. I will give you ten cents if you will hold my horse. 6. The wanderer trudged on, though he was very tired. 7. The only obstacle to our sailing was that we had not yet completed our complement of men. 8. Spring had come again, after a long, wet winter, and every orchard-hollow blushed once more with apple-blossoms. v 9. A great stone that I happened to find by the seashore served me for an anchor. 10. If you will go over, I will follow you. 11. He would give the most impalatable advice, if need were. ^ 12. The first thing that made its appearance was an enormous ham. 13. As Pen followed his companion up the creaking old stair, his knees trembled under him. 14. Two old ladies in black came out of the old-fashioned garden ; they walked towards a seat and sat down in the autumn landscape. 15. The brigand drew a stiletto and rushed upon his adver- sary. The man eluded the blow and defended himself with his pistol, which had a spring bayonet. 16. In the midst of this strait, and hard by a group of rocks called the Hen and Chickens, there lay the wreck of a vessel which had been entangled in the whirlpools and stranded during a storm. PARTS OF SPEECH. 125 CHAPTER LIV. THE SAME WORD AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 212. Words, as we learned at the outset, are merely signs of ideas : that is, words stand for thoughts. You have also learned into what parts of speech words are divided. Naturally, the same word may stand for or express different kinds of thought under different circumstances.* 213. The same word may be sometimes one part of speech, sometimes another. The meaning of a word in the sentence determines to what part of speech it belongs. Verb Noun We always walk to school. Tom and I took a walk. Tom and I ride almost every day. The long rule was very tire- some. You attempt to do too much. The boy made a daring attempt. Anchor the boat near the shore. The anchor will not hold. The farmer ploughs with a yoke The ploughs stood idle in the of oxen. furrows. The italicized words in the left-hand column are verbs ; for they not only express action but also assert something. The italicized words in the right-hand column make no assertion : they simply call the action or the imple- ment by its name. They are therefore nouns. 214. Verbs and Nouns often have the same form in English ; but they may always be distinguished by their different use. * In such cases the words are often different in origin though identical in form. This distinction, however, is not important for beginners. 126 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Tell whether each of the italicized words is a noun or a verb. Give your reasons. 1. We sit in the warm shade and feel right well How the sap creeps up and the blossoms swell. 2. Like the swell of some sweet tune Morning rises into noon, May glides onward into June. 3. Use your chances while they last. 4. Shoemaker, stick to your last. 5. Down came squirrel, eager for his fare, Down came bonny blackbird, I declare I Little Bell gave each his honest share. 6. Not what we give, but what we share, For the gift without the giver is bare. 7. Heaped in the hollows of the grove, the autumn leaves lie dead, They rustle to the eddying gust and to the rabbit's tread. 8. All that tread the globe Are but a handful to the tribes That slumber in its bosom. 9. But what shall I gain by young Arthur's fall ? 10. The woods decay, the woods decay and fall. II. Lse these words in sentences, (1) as nouns, (2) as verbs : — Walk, use, order, alarm, match, fish, fall, fire, light, taste, faint, pity, row, crowd, wrong, lest, plant, reply, ink, frame, frown, dawn, studies, pastures, comforts, struggles. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 127 CHAPTER LV. NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 215. The same word may often be used either as an adjective or as a noun. The sense determines in every instance. 216. Compare the italicized words below : — Nouns Adjectives Iron will float in mercury. An iron anchor will hold the ship. The miner digs for gold. My uncle gave me a gold watch. Leather is made of the skins of The ancients commonly used animals. leather bottles. The street was paved with stone. The beggar sat down on the stone floor. A brick fell on the mason's head. The boy fell down on the brick sidewalk. Smith is a millionaire. The millionaire banker built a splendid house. Tom is going to college. Tom's college studies are too hard for him. The italicized nouns in the first column are used in the second column to describe objects, that is, as adjectives. 217. On the other hand, words that are usually adjec- tives may be used to name persons or things. They are then nouns. Thus, — Adjectives Nouns Old men can give advice. The old should be our advisers. Harry was a cautious rider. The cautious are not always cowards. Brave men are common. Toll for the brave ! 128 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. i. Tell whether each of the italicized words is a noun or an adjective. Give your reasons. 1. God gives sleep to the bad in order that the good may be undisturbed. 2. Is thy news good or bad? 3. She shall be a high and mighty queen. 4. He hath put down the mighty from their seats. 5. Alexander was a mighty conqueror. 6. Give us some gold, good Timon ! Hast thou more ? 7. Man wants but little here below. Nor wants that little long. 8. The fairy wore a little red cap. 9. I heard thee murmur tales of iron wars. 10. Strike now, or else the iron cools. 11. Without haste, without rest, Lifting better up to best. 12. You are a better scholar than I. 13. I stand before you a />" man. 14. The Star Spangled Banner, O long may it wave O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave ! 15. Nature ne'er deserts the wise and pure. II. Make sentences of your own, using each of the words studied above, (1) as a noun, (2) as an adjective. HI. Make sentences, using each of the following words, (1) as a noun, (2) as an adjective : — Silver, copper, wood, crystal, leather, tin, bold, cruel, savage, generous, evil, right, wrong, studious, inexperienced, young. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 129 CHAPTER LVI. ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 218. A number of adverbs are identical in form with adjectives : as, fast, quick, sloiv, right, wrong, straight, cheap, sound. Adjectives Adverbs John is a fast runner. John runs fast. That action is not right. He cannot hit the ball right. The child was in a sound sleep. The dog sleeps sound. This is a cheap pair of skates. I bought them cheap. Your voice is too low. You speak too low. Note. — In the oldest form of English many adverbs ended in -e, as if formed directly from adjectives by the addition of this ending. Thus, the adjective for hot was hat, side by side -with which was an adverb hate (dissyllabic), meaning hotly or in a hot manner. Iu the fourteenth century (in Chaucer, for example) this distinction was still kept up. Thus, Chaucer used not only the adjective hot, but also the dissyllabic adverb hole, mean- ing hotly. Shortly after 1400 all weak final e's disappeared from the language. In this way the adverb hote, for example, became simply hot. Thus these adverbs in -e lost everything which distinguished their form from that of the corresponding adjectives. Hence in the time of Shakspere there existed, in common use, not only the adjective hot, but also the adverb hot (identical in form with the adjective but really descended from the adverb hote). It was then possible to say not only " The fire is hot " (adjective), but " The fire burns hot " (adverb of manner). The tendency in modern English has been to reduce the number of such adverbs by confining the form without ending to the adjective use and restricting the adverbial function to forms in -/;/. Thus, a writer of the present time would not say, in prose, " The fire burns hot," but " The fire burns hotly." A certain number of the old adverbs, identical in form with the corresponding adjectives, still remain in use, and students should take care not to regard these as erroneous. In poetry, moreover, the language of which is usually more archaic than that of prose, adverbs of this kind are freely employed : as, — The boy like a gray goshawk stared wild. [In prose: stared wildly.'] 130 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 219. Several English words are sometimes Prepositions and sometimes Adverbs. Prepositions Adverbs {Observe the object.) {No object.) The cat lay down before the fire. You told roe so before. The brook runs down the moun- The horse fell cloion in the tain. street. The park lies within the city There is nobody toithin. limits. Lay your book by. [That is, The cottage stands by the river. lay it aside.'] The preposition has an object, and thus may be easily- distinguished from the adverb, which of course has none. EXERCISE. Study the italicized words and tell to what part of speech each belongs. Remember that the sense determines. 1. I must reach town before night. 2. I have met you before. 3. Is there anybody within f 4. Within this half hour will he be asleep. 5. The city stands on a hill above the harbor. 6. The sun shines above ; the waves are dancing. 7. He went by the house at a great pace. 8. He passed by on the other side. 9. The horse was running down the road. 10. The lion lay down in his lair. 11. Come quick ! We need your help at once. 12. Elton was a quick and skilful workman. 13. This remark cuts me to the quick. 14. Hard work cannot harm a healthy man. 15. A healthy man can work hard. 16. Jack rose early, for he meant to go a-fishing. STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 131 CHAPTER LVIL* STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 220. You have learned the main facts relating to the structure of sentences. These facts will now be summed up for reference and review. The elements which make up a sentence are (1) subject, (2) predicate, (3) modifiers, (4) the three complementary ele- ments, predicate nominative, predicate adjective, object. Out of these elements a single sentence of almost any length may be constructed. 221. The simple subject of a sentence is a noun or pro- noun naming or designating the person, place, or thing that is spoken of (pp. 18, 21). The simple predicate is a verb or verb-phrase expressing, in whole or in part, that which is said of the subject (pp. 18, 21). Two or more simple subjects, with or without modi- fiers, may be joined to make a single compound subject (pp. 107, 108). Two or more simple predicates with or without modi- fiers may be joined to make a single compound predicate (p. 110). Either the subject or the predicate or both of them may be compound (p. 110). The simple or compound subject, with modifiers, makes up the complete subject. The simple or compound * This chapter summarizes what the pupil has already learned of the structure of sentences. It should be used for the purpose of a thorough and systematic review of this subject. The Exercises appended to the several chapters furnish material for analysis. 132 THE MOTHER TONGUE. predicate, with modifiers or complementary elements, makes up the complete predicate. 222. Modifiers are of two kinds : adjective modifiers and adverbial modifiers (p. 53). 223. Adjective modifiers are : adjectives (p. 53), genitives (p. 86), appositives (p. 89), adjective phrases (p. 68), and adjective clauses (p. 120). Any substantive in the sentence may take an adjec- tive modifier. 224. Adverbial modifiers are of three kinds: adverbs (p. 53), adverbial phrases (p. 71), and adverbial clauses (p. 116). Any verb may take an adverbial modifier. 225. The complementary elements serve to complete the meaning of the simple predicate (verb or verb- phrase). They are the following: predicate nominative (p. 99), predicate adjective (p. 97), and object (pp. 90-94). 226. Certain expressions may be included in a sen- tence without being a part of its structure. Such are: the interjection (p. 63), the vocative (p. 33). 227. Sentences may be simple, compound, or complex (pp. 113-116). A simple sentence consists of a single statement, ques- tion, command (entreaty), or exclamation. 228. A compound sentence consists of two or more simple statements, questions, etc., which may or may not be joined by coordinate conjunctions (and, or, etc.). Each of these statements, questions, etc., is a clause of equal rank in the sentence. A compound sentence, then, consists of two or more coordinate clauses (p. 113). STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 133 229. A complex sentence consists of (1) a main clause, and (2) one or more subordinate clauses used as modifiers or as substantives (p. 115). Subordinate clauses are also called dependent clauses. A subordinate clause may be an adjective clause (p. 120), an adverbial clause (p. 116), or a noun clause (p. 122). Noun clauses are also called substantive clauses. A noun clause may be (1) the subject of a sentence, (2) an appositive, or (3) a complementary element, — predi- cate nominative or object (p. 123). 230. A clause is made up of the same elements that compose a sentence, — subject, predicate, modifiers, and complementary elements. Two or more clauses may be joined to make one com- pound clause, just as two or more sentences may be joined to make one compound sentence. 231. There is in theory no limit to the length of a sentence. (1) Since any noun or verb may be modified by a clause, it complex sentence may become very long and intricate. For example, tlie predicate of a subordinate clause may be modified by another subordinate clause, and so on. (2) A sentence may be both compound and complex. Such a sentence may be made by joining together two or more complex sentences by means of a coordinate conjunction. It is called a compound complex sentence. Every sentence, however long and complicated, may be resolved into the simple elements described in the preceding sections. This process of resolving a sentence into its elements is called analysis. A formula for analysis is given on page 134. 134 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LVIIL* FORM OF ANALYSIS. 232. In analyzing a simple sentence, the following order may be followed : — (1) Divide the sentence into the complete subject and the complete predicate ; (2) mention the simple subject and the sim- ple predicate ; (3) mention the modifiers of the subject and of the predicate, and describe each modifier ; (4) mention the com- plementary elements, — predicate nominative, predicate adjec- tive, object ; (5) mention by themselves all interjections or vocatives, since these have nothing to do with the structure of the sentence. 233. In analyzing a compound sentence — (1) Divide the sentence into its clauses, and mention the con- junctions that connect them. (L') Analyze each clause as if it were a simple sentence. 234. In analyzing a complex sentence — (1) Divide it into its clauses, and tell which is the main and which is the subordinate clause. (2) Analyze the main clause, mentioning the subordinate clause in its proper place as a modifier or as a substantive. (3) Analyze the subordinate clause. (4) If the sentence is both compound and complex, divide it into the several complex sentences of which it is composed, and analyze each of these as above. * The exercises which precede afford abundant opportunity for practice in the analysis of sentences of various kinds. At this stage of his studies, the pupil should not be required always to analyze sentences to their very dregs, nor should he be expected to analyze any sentence that is so com- plicated as to be puzzling. INFLECTION. 135 CHAPTER LIX. INFLECTION. 235. At the very outset (p. 1) we learned that words may change their form to indicate some change in the sense. Thus the nouns George, John, Smith, dog, carpenter, farmer, may change their form to the genitive by the addition of 's. The verbs walk, tell, recite may change their form to walks, tells, recites, or walked, told, recited. Such a change of form is called inflection, and a word is said to be inflected when it changes its form to indicate some change in its meaning. Inflectional change always indicates some change in meaning. 236. We have already studied * a considerable num- ber of the inflectional changes which words undergo in the expression of thought. (See the chapters on the plural of nouns and pronouns and those on the genitive of nouns and pronouns.) We must now consider systematically the various inflections of English words, and with this study the chapters that immediately follow will be chiefly oc- cupied. * At this point the teacher may find it useful to make a systematic review of pages 77-84, 90-03, with special attention to the nature of inflec- tion as illustrated by the singular and plural, by the genitive, and by the case-forms of pronouns. The extent and thoroughness of the review will naturally depend on the needs of the pupils, but some such recapitula- tion of what has already been learned about inflections will usually be found worth while. 136 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LX.* SUMMARY OF INFLECTIONS. 237. Before studying inflection in detail, we must consider the various kinds of inflectional change of which English words are capable. In many languages the forms of inflection are numerous and difficult. Thus a Roman schoolboy had to learn more than a dozen -different forms for every adjective, and children in ancient Greece had to know as many different forms not only of the adjective, but even of the definite article. A thousand years ago our own language also abounded in inflections, but in the course of time most of these have dis- appeared, so that modern English is one of the least inflected of languages. 238. The inflection of a substantive is called its declen- sion ; that of a verb, its conjugation. 239. Nouns and pronouns have inflections of number which show whether they refer to one person or thing or more than one. There are two numbers, the singular and the plural. 240. Pronouns have inflections of gender to show the sex of the objects which they designate.! * This chapter, like Chapter II (on the Parts of Speech) is intended for reading and reference. It should not he committed to memory at this point. It may also he used as a summary when the subject of inflection is reviewed. See pages 203, 258, foot-notes. j Strictly speaking some of the pronominal forms for different genders are in fact distinct words, not inflectional variations. These words, how- ever, are so associated with each other in our minds that they may be conveniently treated as inflections. See page 153, foot-note. SUMMARY OF INFLECTIONS. 137 There are three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. (See p. 138.) 241. Nouns and pronouns have inflection of case to show their relations to verbs or prepositions, and sometimes to other nouns. English has three cases: the nominative (or subject case), the objective (or object case), and the genitive (or possessive case). The nominative and objective of nouns are always the same, but some pronouns show a difference of form between these two cases. (See p. 153.) 242. Many adjectives have inflections of comparison which show in what degree of intensity the quality that they designate exists. There are three degrees of comparison: the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. (See p. 175.) Many adverbs also have inflections of comparison. 243. Verbs have inflections of tense to show the time of the action or state which they assert. (See p. 204.) There are two inflectional tenses, the present (for present time) and the preterite (for past time). Future time and certain varieties of past time are in- dicated by verb-phrases. 244. Verbs have inflections of mood to indicate the manner in which they express action. There are three moods : the indicative (which is used in most sentences), the imperative (which expresses a command or entreaty), and the subjunctive (which has certain special uses). Other varieties of action are expressed by verb-phrases. 245. The voice of a verb (active or passive, see p. 245) is distinguished in English by means of verb-phrases. 138 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LX1. GENDER. 246. Gender is distinction according to sex. Male beings, whether men or animals, are of the Masculine Gender ; female beings are of the Feminine Gender ; things with- out animal life are of the Neuter Gender. Neuter is a Latin word for " neither." Things without animal life are of the neuter gender because they are neither masculine nor feminine. 247. In accordance with the definitions just given, English nouns and pronouns are said to be of the Masculine, the Femi- nine, or the Neuter Gender. 1. A noun or pronoun denoting a male being is of the Mas- culine Gender. Examples : man, bull, ram, Charles, John, bishop, governor, general, actor, carpenter, mason. 2. A noun or pronoun denoting a female being is of the Feminine Gender. Examples : woman, cow, ewe, Mary, Harriet, lady, seamstress, governess. 3. A noun or pronoun denoting a thing without animal life is of the Neuter Gender. Examples : rock, tree, house, money, book, wood, machine, castle, mountain, glass, wood. A noun or pronoun that may be either masculine or feminine is sometimes said to be of common gender. Examples : cat, puppy, goat, sheep, uurse, physician, friend, companion. GENDER. V6\) 248. The rules in § 247 are important in one par- ticular only : with regard to the form and meaning of pronouns, for English nouns have no inflection of gender. If we hear the sentence John lost his dog, we know that the pronoun his refers to John, for both John and his are of the masculine gender. Again, in the sentence John helped Mary find her dog, the pronoun her refers, of course, to Mary, and not to John ; for both Mary and her are feminine, and John is masculine. Accordingly, we have the following important general rule for the gender of pronouns : — 249. A Pronoun must be in the same Gender as the Noun for which it stands or to which it refers. 250. The only pronouns that indicate difference of gender are the following : — Masculine : he, his, him. Feminine : she, he?; hers. Neuter : it, its, which. Masculine or Feminine : who, whom, whose. All other pronouns may refer to nouns of any gender. Such are: I; you; they, their, them; either, neither. I like Charles and John because they are polite. [Masculine.] I like Mary and Kate because they are polite. [Feminine.] I like Charles and Mary because they are polite. [Masculine and Feminine.] I like apples and pears because they are juicy. [Neuter.] I do not like Charles and Mary because neither of them is agreeable. [Masculine and Feminine.] 140 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. In the following sentences point out all the pro- nouns ; tell the gender of each, and mention the noun to which each refers. 1. The horse was injured in oue of his hind legs. 2. Esther was going to see if she could get some fresh eggs for her mistress's breakfast before the shops closed. 3. All speech, even the commonest speech, has something of song in it. 4. Sam ran out to hold his father's horse. 5. "Now, Doctor," cried the boys, "do tell us your adven- tures!" 6. Our English archers bent their bows, Their hearts were good and true, At the first flight of arrows sent, Full fourscore Scots they slew. 7. The bridegroom stood dangling his bonnet and plume. 8. Emma was sitting in the midst of the children, telling them a story ; and she came smiling towards Erne, holding out her hand. II. Fill each blank with a noun or a pronoun. Tell its gender, and give your reason. 1. The poet had written last song. 2. swept the hearth and mended the fire. 3. The old farmer sat in arm-chair. 4. Tom lost knife ; but Philip found 5. Arthur and Kate studied lessons together. 6. The Indian picked up a stone and threw at the bird. 7. The tracks were so faint that could not be followed. 8. My aunt has sold horse to cousin. GENDER. 141 CHAPTER LXIL SPECIAL RULES OF GENDER. I. 251. Many nouns ordinarily of the Neuter Gender may be- come Masculine or Feminine. 1. Any lifeless object may be regarded as a person ca- pable of thought, speech, and action. Thus, — Mont Blanc is the monarch of mountains ; They crowned him long ago On a throne of rocks, in a robe of clouds, With a diadem of snow. My mother Earth ! And thou fresh breaking Day, and you, ye Mountains, Why are ye beautiful? T cannot love ye. 2. One of the lower animals may be represented as thinking and speaking. So in fables. 3. Human qualities, emotions, and the like, are often regarded as persons. Thus, — Hope enchanted smiled, and waved her golden hair. Revenge impatient rose : He threw his blood-stain'd sword, in thunder, down. 252. The usage described in § 251 is called personifi- cation, and the things, animals, or qualities thus treated are said to be personified.* * The personification of lifeless objects is a natural tendency of the human miud, as may he seen from the talk of young children. The per- sonification of abstract ideas is common in poetry and is the basis of all allegory. The personification of animals is perhaps a survival of a very early stage of culture when animals were regarded as capable of thought and speech. 142 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 253. The name of a personified quality or emotion is regarded as a proper noun and begins with a capital letter. So, often, in the case of a thing or animal that is per- sonified. Thus, — Haste thee, nymph, and bring with thee , Jest and youthful Jollity, Sport, that wrinkled Care derides, And Laughter, holding both his sides. 254. In referring to a ship or other vessel the pro- nouns she and her (not it and its) are regularly used. Hence the nouns ship, barque, brig, schooner, and the like, may be regarded as of the feminine gender. Thus, Admiral Byron, in describing the loss of the ship "Wager," writes as follows: — In the morning, about four o'clock, the ship struck. The shock we received upon this occasion, though very great, being not unlike a blow of a heavy sea, such as in the series of preced- ing storms we had often experienced, was taken for the same ; but we were soon undeceived by her striking again more violently than before, which laid her upon her beam ends, the sea making a fair breach over her. In this dreadful situation she lay for some little time, every soul on board looking upon the present minute as his last ; for there was nothing to be seen but breakers all around us. However, a mountainous sea hove her off from thence; but she presently struck again, and broke her tiller. EXERCISES. Find examples of personification in your Reader. Why are some objects and qualities regarded as masculine and others as feminine? GENDER. 143 CHAPTER LXIIL* SPECIAL RULES OF GENDER. II. 255. The names of the lower animals (as dog, horse, sheep, cat, butterfly, ant) are variously treated with re- gard to their gender. When it is necessary to distinguish the sex of animals (for example, in a treatise on natural history), care is taken to refer to them by means of the pronoun he or she according as the animal is male or female. In ordinary speech, on the other hand, most large animals are referred to by means of the pronoun he, most insects and small animals by means of the pronoun it. If, however, we wish to emphasize the fact that we are talking of living beings, we may use the pronoun he of any creature however small. So especially in fables. 256. In the use of the pronouns who and which with reference to the lower animals, there is considerable dif- ference of usage. The general rule is to use which; but who is not uncommon, especially when an animal is thought of as an intelligent being. Thus, one would always say " The horse which I bought yester- day is not very valuable " ; even if one immediately added " He is not worth more than one hundred dollars." But the hunter in Scott's "Lady of the Lake," when addressing his gallant gray who had fallen exhausted after the stag hunt, might well have said " You, my gallant gray, who have carried me safely through so many perils, must now die in this lonely spot." * This chapter is meant for reading and conversation. It is not to be committed to memory. 144 THE MOTHER TONGUE. Such questions as this can never be settled by mere rules of grammar. The feeling of the speaker must decide in each case. Thought gives laws to grammar ; grammar does not govern thought. 257. It and its are often used in referring to very young children. Thus, — The baby fell and hurt its head. 258. In older English the pronoun his was neuter as well as masculine. Hence in Shakspere, for example, his will often be found where in modern English its would be used. Thus, — My life has run his compass. That same eye did lose his lustre. EXERCISES. I. Make sentences illustrating the gender of nouns and pronouns as follows : — 1. Use he, she, and it so that each shall refer to some noun in the proper gender. 2. Use the genitives his, her, its in the same way. 3. Use they to refer to two masculine nouns ; to two feminine nouns ; to two neuter nouns ; to two nouns of different gender. 4. Use I, my, thou, you in sentences, and see if you can tell their gender. 5. Use, in properly constructed sentences, who, whose, and whom to refer to persons; which to refer to animals; which to refer to things. PLURAL NUMBER. 145 CHAPTER LXIV.* PLURAL OF NOUNS. 259. Substantives have inflection of number. 260. Most nouns form the Plural Number by adding -s or -es to the Singular. Examples : crow, crows ; flower, flowers ; class, classes. 261. Sometimes the last letter of the singular form is changed before the ending -s or -es of the plural. Examples : fly, flies ; ally, allies ; remedy, remedies. In a very few words this change of letter indicates a change of sound. Examples : calf, plural calves ; half, plural halves ; loaf, plural loaves ; knife, plural knives. EXERCISES. Write in parallel columns the singular and the plural of — a. Boy, girl, field, street, paper, hook, pencil, brick, bell, door, hat, lesson, president, governor. b. Fly, cry, reply, supply, ally, remedy, subsidy. c. Toy, play, alley, donkey, ray, dray, survey, essay. d. Calf, half, loaf, knife, wife, life. Compare your four lists, and see if you can frame a rule for the plural of — (1) nouns that end in -y after a consonant, (2) nouns that end in -y after a vowel, (3) nouns like calf and knife. * At this point Chapter XXXI (pp. 77, 78) should be reviewed. 146 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LXV. IRREGULAR PLURALS. I. 262. A few nouns form an irregular plural in -en. These are : ox, plural oxen ; brother, plural brethren (more commonly, brothers) ; child, plural children. In older English there were many more n-plurals than at present ; as, — eyen (later spelled eyne), eyes; ashen, ashes; daughtren, daughters; sistren, sisters ; hosen, hose. 263. A few nouns form the plural number not by adding a termination to the singular, but by a change of vowel in the word itself. These are : — Singular Plural Singular Plural man men tooth teeth woman women goose geese merman mermen mouse mice louse lice foot feet Compound nouns of which the second part is man or woman belong to this class. Examples : horseman, plural horsemen ; washerwoman, plural washerwomen. So, Englishman, Frenchman, Dutchman. Norman, however, has the plural Normans.* 264. A few nouns have the same form in both singular and plural. Examples : deer, sheep, swine, neat, (i.e. cattle). My pet deer is dead. The hunter saw a great herd of deer. There are a hundred sheep in this flock. * German, Mussulman, Ottoman, dragoman, firman are not compounds of man. Hence they make their plural in s : Mussulmans, Ottomans, etc. IRREGULAR PLURALS. 147 265. A few nouns have two plurals. Thus, — Singular Plural brother brothers or brethren ( pennies (single coins) V X ( pence (collectively) fish horse cloth die ( fishes (singly) 1 fish (collectively) < horses (animals) ( horse (cavalry) ( cloths (pieces of cloth) ( clothes (garments) ( dies (for stamping) \ dice (for gaming) In such cases there is always some difference in the meaning or the use of the two forms. Brethren, for example, is applied not to one's real brothers, but to one's associates in religion or some fraternal organization. For full information as to particular words, a large Dictionary should be consulted. The four pennies rolled along the floor. The price of this thing is fourpence. Mr. Thomas owns six horses. The troop consisted of sixty horse. 266. Some foreign words that have been taken into English keep their foreign plurals. Many of them also make a plural by adding -s or -es after the English fashion.* Examples : erratum, plural errata ; memorandum, plural memoranda or memorandums ; thesis, plural theses ; parenthesis, plural parentheses ; appendix, plural appendices or appendixes ; fungus, plural fungi or funguses. * The Dictionary should be consulted for such words. 148 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LXVL* IRREGULAR PLURALS. II. 267. Letters of the alphabet, figures indicating number, and other signs add -'s in the plural. You make your u's and your n's too much alike. Dot your i's and cross your t's. Mind your p's and q's. Cross out all the 3's and Jfs. What queer looking fy's! Be careful about your +'s and x '.1 should be reviewed. CASE OF APP0SIT1VES. 169 Here the genitive ending is added to the appositive only, and not to each noun. In other words, the whole phrase (Smith the grocer, my friend William, our daugh- ter Mary) is treated as if it were a single noun. 313. A phrase ending with an appositive may be put into the genitive by adding the genitive ending to the appositive. EXERCISES. i. Review the Exercises on page 88. Explain the case of each appositive. ii. Pick out the appositives. Explain the case of each. 1. I visited my old friend and fellow-traveller, Mr. Henshaw. 2. At length the day dawned, — that dreadful day. 3. 'Twas where the madcap duke his uncle kept. 4. So off they scampered, man and horse. 5. The north wind, that welcome visitor, freshened the air. 6. I see him yet, the princely boy 1 7. His prayer he saith, this patient, holy man. 8. The vices of authority are chiefly four : delays, corruption, roughness, and facility. 9. 'T is past, that melancholy dream ! 10. Campley, a friend of mine, came by. 11. The mayor, an aged man, made an address. 12. He lent me his only weapon, a sword. 13. Captain William Robinson, a Cornishman, commander oi the "Hopewell," a stout ship of three hundred tons, came to my house. Analyze each of the sentences above (see p. 89). 170 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LXXV. INDIRECT OBJECT. 314. Examine the following sentence : — John sent a letter. Here the transitive verb sent is followed by its direct object, letter. If we wish, however, to mention the person to whom John sent the letter, we can do so by inserting a noun or pronoun immediately after the verb. Thus, — John sent Mary a letter. The transitive verb sent will then have two objects : — (1) its direct object, letter; (2) an indirect object, Mary, denoting the person to whom John sent the letter, — that is, the person toward whom is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate. Other examples of verbs with (1) a direct object only, and (2) both a direct and an indirect object, may be seen in the following sentences : — Direct Object only Direct Object and Indirect Object My father gave money. My father gave the sailor money. I sent a message. I sent him a message. Thomas lent his knife. Thomas lent Albert his knife. 315. Some transitive verbs, from the nature of their mean- ing, may take two objects, a Direct Object and an Indirect Object. The Indirect Object denotes the person or thing toward whom or toward which is directed the action expressed by the rest of the predicate. INDIRECT OBJECT. 171 316. The verbs that take an indirect object are, for the most part, those of telling, giving, refusing, and the like. Such are : allot, assign, assure, bequeath, bring, deny, ensure, fetch, forbid, forgive, furnish, give, grant, guarantee, leave, lend, loan, pardon, pay, refund, refuse, remit, sell, show, spare, tell, vouchsafe, warrant. 317. The position of the indirect object is immediately after the verb. Thus, — The merchant sold him the goods. [Not : The merchant sold the goods Mm.'] The banker refused my friend credit. [Xot : The banker re- fused credit my friend."] 318. The Indirect Object is in the Objective Case.* The force of this rule may be seen when a pronoun is an indirect object. 319. The indirect object may be recognized by the following test : — It is always possible to insert the preposition to before the indirect object without changing the sense. 320. The indirect object is sometimes used without a direct object expressed. Thus, — He told John. Here John may be recognized as the indirect object by the test already given (§ 319, above): we may insert to before it without destroying the sense. *In many languages the indirect object has a special form of inflection, called the dative case, which distinguishes it from the direct object. This was once true of English also; but, in the present poverty of inflection which marks our tongue, there is no distiuctiou between the two except in sense. 172 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Fill each blank with an indirect object (noun or pronoun). 1. My sister gave a book. 2. A deserter brought news of the battle. 3. The king granted a pension of a hundred pounds. 4. Alfred will show his collection of postage stamps. 5. The governor paid the reward. 6. The prisoner told the whole story. 7. De Quincey's father left a large sum of money. 8. Our teacher granted our request. 9. Can such conduct give any satisfaction? 10. His indulgent father forgave his many faults. 11. The grocer refused credit. 12. The surly porter refused permission to enter the building. 13. Poor little Fido gave a piteous look. 14. I can spare ten dollars. n. In the following sentences pick out all the direct objects, and all the phrases in which the idea of the indirect object is expressed by means of to. 1. He by will bequeathed his lands to me. 2. The largest share fell to John. 3. To Mortimer will I declare these tidings. 4. He has told all his troubles to you. 5. Entrust your message to her. 6. Do you give attention to my words ? 7. The judges awarded the prize to Oliver. 8. Do you ascribe this drama to Shakspere ? 9. Show the drawing to your teacher. 10. The scout made his report to the officer. DIRECT AND INDIRECT OBJECTS. 173 III. Make ten sentences containing the following verbs, each with both a direct and an indirect object : — Sold, told, pays, sends, will bring, have brought, had shown, fetches, denied, leut. IV. In the following sentences find (1) the subjects, (2) the predicates, (3) the direct objects, (4) the indirect objects. 1. I shall assign you the post of danger and of renown. 2. The king ordered him a small present and dismissed him. 3. The thoughts of the day gave my mind employment for the whole night. 4. Miss Pratt gave Uncle Adam a jog on the elbow. 6. The king made me a present. 6. I will bring you certain news from Shrewsbury. 7. I will deny thee nothing. 8. Fetch me the hat and rapier in my cell. 9. Forgive us our sins ! 10. My father gave him welcome. 11. I will not lend thee a penny. 12. The mayor in courtesy showed me the castle. 13. I shall tell you a pretty tale. 14. Vouchsafe me one fair look. 15. The reading of those volumes afforded me much amuse- ment. 16. I have occasioned her some confusion, and, for the moment, a little resentment. 17. He '11 make her two or three fine speeches, and then she '11 be perfectly contented. 18. Voltaire, who was then in England, sent him a letter of consolation. 19. The evening had afforded Edmund little pleasure. 20. Mrs. St. Clair here wished the happy pair good morning. 174 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LXXVI. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. I. 321. Examine the following sentences : — John is tall. Thomas is taller than John. James is the tallest boy in the school. In these sentences we observe that the same adjective appears in three different forms, — tall, taller, tallest. The sense, too, changes as we add to the simple form tall the endings -er (making tall-er) and -est (making tall-est). Yet this variation of meaning does not affect the essential meaning of the adjective : John and Thomas and James are all three tall. The difference, then, is not one of kind but one of degree. In the first sentence we simply assert that John is tall, and we make no comparison of his tallness with the stature of anybody else. In the second sentence we not only assert that Thomas is tall, but we compare his height with that of another person, asserting that he is taller than John. In the third sentence we go still farther. We do not merely assert that James is tall, nor do we content our- selves with saying that he is taller than some other person, but we use the strongest form known to us to express his tallness : we say that he is the tallest. These three forms which adjectives may assume are known as degrees of comparison ; and they are called, respec- tively, the positive, the comparative, and the superlative degree. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 175 322. The Degrees of Comparison of an Adjective indicate by their form in what degree of intensity the quality described by the adjective exists. 323. There are three Degrees of Comparison, — the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 324. The Positive Degree is the simplest form of the adjective and has no special ending. It simply describes the quality without suggesting a com- parison between the person or thing possessing it and any other person or thing. Thus, the positive degree of the adjective tall is tall. 325. The Comparative Degree of an adjective is formed by adding the termination -er to the positive degree. It indicates that the quality exists in the person or thing described in a higher degree than in some other person or thing. Thus, the comparative degree of the adjective tall is taller. 326. The Superlative Degree is formed by adding -est to the positive degree. It indicates that the quality exists in the highest degree in the person or thing described. Thus, the superlative degree of the adjective tall is tallest. 327. Other examples of the comparison of adjectives are : Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree strong stronger strongest fair fairer fairest quick quicker quickest clear clearer clearest 17(3 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LXXVIL* COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. II. 328. In forming the comparative and superlative degrees by means of the endings -er and -est, the following rules of spelling should be observed : — 1. Adjectives ending in silent -e drop this letter be- fore the comparative ending -er and the superlative ending -est. Thus, — Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree fine finer (n ot fine- er) finest (not fine-est) rare rarer rarest rude ruder rudest blithe blither blithest polite politer politest 2. Most adjectives ending in -y change y to i before the endings -er and -est. Thus, — Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree dry drier driest holy holier holiest worthy worthier worthiest merry merrier merriest 3. Adjectives having a short vowel and ending in a single consonant double this before the endings -er and -est. Thus, — Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree fat fatter fattest thin thinner thinnest hot hotter hottest * This chapter is for reference only. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 177 EXERCISES. I. Write in three columns the following adjectives in the three degrees of comparison : — Bright, lowly, tall, smooth, rough, quick, nimble, fierce, black, able, subtle, crazy, mad, sane, muddy, wet, dry, red, sad, humble. II. Pick out such adjectives as are in the comparative or the superlative degree. Give the positive degree of each. Mention the substantive to which each belongs. 1. He was a bigger boy than I. 2. They were some of the choicest troops of his whole army. 3. The town is one of the neatest in England. 4. Life is dearer than the golden ore. 5. Byron was, at his death, but a year younger than Burns. 6. On the highest part of the mountain is an old fortress. 7. The storm of passion insensibly subsided into calmer melancholy. 8. The sternest sum-total of all worldly misfortunes is death. 9. Her astonishment now was greater than ever. 10. The air grew colder and colder ; the mist became thicker and thicker ; the shrieks of the sea-fowl louder and louder. III. Make sentences containing the following adjectives (1) in the positive degree ; (2) in the comparative degree ; (3) in the superlative degree : — Fast, pure, low, clumsy, high, large, brown, ragged, cross, deep, cheery, merry, short, hungry, quiet, green, manly, noble, severe, handsome, lovely. 178 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LXXVIIL COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. III. 329. Many adjectives are compared, not by means of the end- ings -er and -est, but by prefixing the adverbs more and most to the positive degree. He is a more honorable man than his neighbor. [Not : He is an honorabler man than his neighbor.] He is the most honorable man in the company. [Xot : He is the honorablest man in the company.] Examples of comparison by means of more and most are the following : — r Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree difficult more difficult most difficult splendid more splendid most splendid horrible more horrible most horrible capacious more capacious most capacious magnificent more magnificent most magnificent In this method of comparison, more and most are ad- verbs modifjdng the adjective before which they stand. 330. Comparison by means of -er and -est is called inflectional comparison. Comparison by means of more and most is called analytical comparison. 331. Some adjectives may be compared in two ways: (1) by means of the endings -er and -est, and (2) by means of the adverbs more and most. Examples : worthy, worthier, worthiest ; or, worthy, more worthy, most worthy. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 179 Most adjectives, however, can be compared in only one way. It is usually short adjectives that are com- pared by means of -er and -est. Many adjectives of two syllables and most adjectives of three or more syllables admit only of comparison by means of more and most. Note. — Comparison by means of -er and -est was formerly much more common than now. Thus, such forms as famouser, famousest, honor- abler, honorablest, difficulter, and difficultest, which would not be allowable in modern English, occur in old writers. The present tendency of our language is to decrease the use of inflec- tional and to increase the use of analytical comparison. It is well, how- ever, to hold to such cases of -er and -est as are still in good use. EXERCISE. Find the comparatives and the superlatives. 1. The evening was more calm and lovely than any that yet had smiled upon our voyage. 2. The environs are most beautiful, and the village itself is one of the prettiest I ever saw. 3. Example is always more efficacious than precept. 4. The Edinburgh scholars of that period were more noted for clearness of head than for warmth of heart. 5. Nothing could be more bleak and saddening than the appearance of this lake. 6. The country became rougher, and the people more savage. 7. He sat down with a most gloomy countenance. 8. The Caliph remained in the most violent agitation. 9. A more extraordinary incident has seldom happened. 10. The wind was even more boisterous than usual. 11. The most elaborate preparations had been made. 12. The garret windows and housetops were so crowded with spectators that I thought in all my travels I had not seen a more populous place. 180 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LXXIX. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. IV. 332. Several very common adjectives have irregular forms of comparison. The most important of these irregular adjectives are: — Positive Degree Comparative Degree Superlative Degree bad (evil, ill) worse worst far farther farthest f nrther furthest good iii 1 i 1 1' ' better best late later, latter latest, last well (in health) better little less, lesser least much, many more most In some of these cases the comparative and superlative are different words from the positive, hut they have heen so long associated with it in the minds of all speakers and writers that they are felt to helong to it almost as much as if they were simply modifications of its form. 333. The adjective old has two forms (older and elder) for the comparative, and two (oldest and eldest) for the superlative. The forms elder and eldest are used only with refer- ence to the age of persons. They are further restricted (1) to certain nouns signifying relationship and (2) to the phrases the elder and the eldest. Thus, — My elder brother is named John is older than I. Charles. The dog is older than his young She has an elder sister. master. Frank is the eldest of the The oldest book may be the cousins. best. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 181 Elder is sometimes a noun. Thus, — Children should respect their elders. The elders of the people took counsel. 334. Next is in form an old superlative of nigh, but it is used only in the special sense of " the very nearest," " immediately adjacent." Thus, — My friend lives in the next house. The landing of the troops took place on the next day. Our lesson in geography comes next. 335. A few superlatives ending in -most are in more or less common use. With these, one or both of the other degrees are commonly wanting. Positive hind (out, adverb) (up, adverb) Comparative (former) hinder inner ( outer ( (utter) upper nether top north northern south southern east, eastern west, western (more northern) (more southern) (more eastern) (more western) Superlative foremost hindmost inmost, innermost outmost, outermost utmost, uttermost uppermost endmost nethermost topmost furthermost northmost northernmost southmost southernmost easternmost westernmost Note. — The ending -most is not the adverb most. It is a very old superlative ending -mest changed under the influence of the adverb most. 182 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISE. Find the comparatives and the superlatives. 1. He walked off without further ceremony. 2. A friend in the court is better than a penny in purse. 3. Cresar has been called the foremost man of all this world. 4. The inquisitive prince passed most of his nights on the summit of his tower. 5. I must confess your offer is the best. 6. The worst minds have often something of good principle in them. 7. So doth the greater glory dim the less. 8. This island was at a greater distance than I expected, and I did not reach it in less than five hours. 9. There are two or three more pens in the box. 10. I ne'er had worse luck in my life ! 11. Lead the way without any more talking. ' 12. He grows worse and worse. 13. I said an elder soldier, not a better. 14. Orlando approached the man and found it was his brother, his elder brother. 15. Present fears are less than horrible imaginings. 16. That is Antonio, the duke's eldest son. 17. A sad tale 's best for winter. 18. To fear the worst oft cures the worse. 19. The bird is perched on the topmost bough. 20. My title 's good, and better far than his. 21. I have three daughters ; the eldest is eleven. 22. To weep is to make less the depth of grief. 23. He has his health, and ampler strength, indeed, Than most have of his age. 24. I will use my utmost skill in his recovery. 25. Brutus' love to Caesar was no less than his. 26. My utmost efforts were fruitless. 27. We cannot defend the outer fortifications. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 183 CHAPTER LXXX. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. V. 336. Some adjectives are, from their meaning, inca- pable of comparison. Thus, we can say : The figure is three-cornered. But it would be absurd to say : That figure is more three-cornered than the other. This is the most three-cornered of several figures. For, if what we are describing is three-cornered at all, that is the end of it: there can be no degrees of tri- angularity. In general, then, Adjectives which denote an absolute degree of a quality do not admit of comparison. Note 1. — To this class are commonly said to belong such words as ■perfect, straight, exact, and the like; but such a statement is not quite accurate. If perfect is used in its strict sense, that is, to denote absolute perfection, it is, of course, impossible to compare it; for a thing which is perfect is perfect, and cannot be spoken of as more perfect or most perfect. But perfect has also another sense, namely, " partaking in a higher or lower degree of the qualities which make up absolute perfection," so that it is possible to describe one statue as more perfect than another, or one of three statues as the most perfect of them all. In this use, which is entirely unobjectionable, we simply admit that there is nothing in the world abso- lutely faultless or flawless, and assert that the three statues commented on approach ideal perfection in various degrees. Note 2. — The question what adjectives are capable of comparison and what are incapable of comparison is not, strictly speaking, a question of grammar at all. It is a question either of logic (common sense) or of style. If, therefore, we say "This is the most three-cornered figure that I ever saw," we are, to be sure, talking nonsense, but our nonsense is quite gram- matical, for no rule of grammar is violated. If, on the other hand we say " This is the three-corneredest figure that I have ever seen," we are both talking nonsense and violating a rule of grammar, since the word three- corneredest is not properly formed. 184 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LXXXI. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 337. Adverbs, like adjectives, have three Degrees of Com- parison : the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 338. Most adverbs are compared by means of more and most. Thus, — The wind blows violently. [Positive.] The wind blows more violently than ever. [Comparative.] The wind blows most violently in the winter. [Superlative.] 339. A few adverbs are compared by means of the endings - er and - est. Thus, — Positive Comparative Superlative cheap cheaper cheapest dear dearer dearest early earlier earliest fast faster fastest hard harder hardest high higher highest long longer longest loud louder loudest near nearer nearest often (oft) oftener oftenest quick quicker quickest slow slower slowest soon sooner soonest sound (of sleeping) sounder soundest Many comparatives and superlatives in -er and -est that are no longer allowable in prose are still used in poetry. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 185 CHAPTER LXXXII. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 340. Several very common adverbs have irregular forms of comparison. 'osittve Comparative Superlative far I forth } ( farther \ further ( farthest ( furthest ill (evil) badly nigh } worse nigher worst ( nighest X next well better best late later ( latest ( last little less least much more most These adverbs are in the main identical in form with the adjectives discussed in § 332, above. Note, however: (1) that good and bad are never adverbs ; (2) that ill and well, better and best, worse and worst, may be either adverbs or adjectives. 341. Some adverbs admit of either inflectional or analytical comparison. 342. Many adverbs are, from their meaning, inca- pable of comparison. Such are : — (1) here, there, then, so, noiv, and the like; (2) adverbs derived from adjectives that express a quality as absolute or complete (see p. 183, and notes). 186 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISE. In the following sentences select all the adverbs and tell what each modifies. If the adverb is capable of comparison, give its three degrees. If its meaning makes it incapable of compari- son, state that fact and give your reasons. 1. Youth seldom thinks of dangers. 2. To every man upon this earth Death cometh soon or late. 3. So the days passed peacefully away. 4. It would ill become me to boast of anything. 5. Delvile eagerly called to the coachman to drive up to the house, and anxiously begged Cecilia to sit still. 6. They came again and again, and were every time more welcome than before. 7. Perhaps this awkwardness will wear off hereafter. 8. And he, God wot, was forced to stand Oft for his right with blade in hand. 9. He heard a laugh full musical aloft. 10. The following morning Gertrude arose early. 11. She walks too fast, and speaks too fast. 12. The seamen spied a rock within half a cable's length of the ship, but the wind was so strong that we were driven directly upon it, and immediately split. 13. Was that the king that spurred his horse so hard? 14. " We know each other well." " We do, and long to know each other worse." 15". He came too late ; the ship was under sail. 16. How slow this old moon wanes ! 17. Your judgment is absolutely correct. 18. The tide rose higher and higher. 19. He swims energetically but slowly. 20. The corn-tiers were all most magnificently clad. COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. 187 CHAPTER LXXXIIL USE OF COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. 343. It is a common mistake to use the superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs for the comparative. In the following sentences the two degrees are cor- rectly employed : - — Smith is the better of the two men. Jones is the best of the three men. In the first sentence two persons are compared, and the comparative degree is used; in the second, more than two persons are compared, and the superlative is used. We should never think of saying " He is the better of the three men." It is, however, a common error to say "He is the best of the two men" ; that is, to use the superlative when only two persons are spoken of, and when, therefore, the comparative is the proper form. 344. The Comparative Degree, not the Superlative, is used in comparing two persons or things. The Superlative is used in comparing one person or thing with two or more persons or things. 345. In a few idiomatic phrases the rule given in § 344 is not observed. Thus we say " He puts his best foot foremost," not " He puts his better foot foremost," although a man has but two feet.* Note. — In older English the superlative was often used instead of the comparative. * Compare " the first of the two men." 188 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 346. It is an error to use more and most before adjec- tives or adverbs that are already in the comparative or the superlative degree. Thus, such expressions as more better, most best, the most proudest are incorrect. Note. — Double comparison was allowed in older English, but is not now in good use. 347. An adjective phrase may sometimes be compared by prefixing more and most to it. Thus, — Your hat is more in fashion than mine. \_More in fashion = more fashionable.] The eldest son was most in favor with his father. This plan is more to my mind than the other. Usually, however, the effect of the comparative or the superlative degree is produced by inserting a com- parative or superlative adjective with the noun of the adjective phrase. Thus, — A person of respectability told me the story. A person of still higher respectability told me this. A person of the highest respectability told me this. EXERCISES. I. Make sentences in which you use the following adjec- tives and adverbs correctly : — Better, best, sooner, most agreeable, nimbler, nimblest, most, more, quicker, quickest, smallest, smaller, most interesting, slower, slowest, more accurate, most accurate. II. Analyze the sentences that you have made. COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. 189 III. Fill the blanks with adjectives or adverbs in the comparative or the superlative degree as the meaning requires. Give the grounds of your choice in each case. 1. Tom and I are friends. Indeed he is the friend I have. 2. Which is the (more or most?) studious of your two sisters ? 3. Both generals are brave, but the old — is of course the (more or most ? ) experienced of the two. 4. Of all the men in our company T think the very brave — was Corporal Jackson. 6. Texas is the large — of the United States. 6. Which is large — , Chicago or Philadelphia? 7. Mention the large — city in the world. 8. I don't know which I like (better or best?), — history or arithmetic. 9. Which do you like (better or best?), — history, arith- metic, or reading ? 10. I like history than anything else. 11. Of all my studies I like history . 12. Which is the heavi — , a pound of feathers or a pound of gold? 13. Which is the heavi — , a pound of feathers, a pound of lead, or a pound of gold? 14. Jane is the tall — of the family. IV. Compare the following adverbs : — Soon, often, badly, well, noisily, merrily, far, much, furiously. V. Use the superlative of each adverb in iv in a sentence of your own. 190 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LXXXIV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 348. Each of the following sentences has a pronoun for its subject : — This is a good knife. That is a tall man. The words this and that, the subjects of these sen- tences, are obviously pronouns, for they designate some person or thing but do not give it a name (§ 25). In their use in these sentences this and that resemble the personal pronouns of the third person. For this might be replaced by it, and that by he, without any very great change in the meaning. Thus, — It is a good knife. He is a tall man. This and that, however, are stronger and more defi- nite than it and he would be. The difference is that this and that appear to point out somebody or something. We can easily imagine the speaker as actually pointing with the finger as he utters the word. For this reason this and that are called demonstratives, that is, "pointing" words (for demonstrate comes from a Latin word which means "to point out"). 349. The Demonstratives are this (plural, these) and that (plural, those). They are used to point out or desig- nate persons or things for special attention. This is a red apple. These are tall buildings. That is a Spanish soldier. Those were excellent oranges. I do not like that. He is angry at this. DEMONS TEA TI VES. 191 350. In the examples given above, the demonstra- tives are used substantively as subjects or objects.* But the same words may also be used to limit a noun. This man is guilty of theft. These books are shabby. That river runs rapidly. Those birds fly high. In these sentences the demonstratives this, these, that, those are adjectives. 351. The Demonstratives may be used either as Pronouns or as Adjectives. Other examples of demonstrative adjectives are : — That picture is by Sir Godfrey Kneller. Under this tree sat the sprightly old lady with her knitting- needles. This brave duke came early to his grave. Then turn your forces from this paltry siege. That judge hath made me guardian to this boy. EXERCISE. Write twenty sentences, each containing a demon- strative (this, that, these, or those). Examine each sentence, and tell whether you have used the demonstrative as a pronoun (substantively) or as a limiting adjective (adjectively). * The pupil should not be directed to "supply nouns" iu such sen- tences as those in §§ ,"48, 349. For example, it is unscientific to expand the first sentence in § 349 to " This (apple) is a red apple," and then to "parse" this as an adjective. It, is even more objectionable to expand the third sentence by inserting thing (or the like) after that. The plan of "supplying" unexpressed words (as being "understood") tends to confuse real distinctions of language, and should never be resorted to when it can be avoided. 192 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LXXXV. INFLECTION OF DEMONSTRATIVES. 352. Demonstrative pronouns and adjectives have only the inflection of Number. The nominative and objective cases are alike; the genitive is wanting and is replaced by of with the objective. Singular Plukal Norn, and Obj. this Nom. and Obj. these Genitive [of this] Genitive [of these] Nom. and Obj. that Nom. and Obj. those Genitive [of that] Genitive [of those] 353. Demonstratives have the same form for all three genders. Thus, — That man ; that woman ; that tree. This gentleman ; this lady ; this axe. These boys ; these girls ; these hammers. Those lords ; those ladies ; those castles. EXERCISES. Tell whether each demonstrative below is a pronoun or an adjective. Mention its number and case. 1. This is the whole truth. 5. That story is false. 2. This apple is sour. 6. Are you sure of that? 3. These men are brave. 7. John told me this. 4. That is a strange fish. 8. These are facts. DEMONS TBA TIVES. 193 n. Pick out the demonstratives below. Tell whether each is used substantively (as a pronoun) or adjectively (as a limiting adjective). 1. These thoughts did not hinder him from sleeping soundly. 2. These are Clan-Alpine's warriors true. 3. Loth as they were, these gentlemen had nothing for it but to obey. 4. " Major Buckley," I said, " what horse is that ? " 5. Nor yet for this, even as a spy, Hadst thou, unheard, been doomed to die. 6. Ill with King James's mood that day Suited gay feast and minstrel lay. 7. That horse's history would be worth writing. 8. All this was meant to be as irritating as possible. 9. These fertile plains, that softened vale, Were once the birthright of the Gael. 10. Many hundred large volumes have been published upon this controversy. 11. What a good old man that is ! 12. That absolves me from any responsibility. 13. Jim will be sorry to hear of this. 14. To hear this beautiful voice after so long a silence — to find those calm, dark, friendly eyes regarding him — bewildered him, or gave him courage, he knew not which. 15. This murderous chief, this ruthless man, This head of a rebellious clan, Hath led thee safe, through watch and ward, Far past Clan-Alpine's outmost guard. 16. Those are terrible questions. 17. These were the strong points in his favor. 18. I '11 fill these dogged spies with false reports. 19. These soldiers are Danes, those are Swedes. 20. Can you hesitate long between this and that? 194 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LXXXVL* INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 354. A number of words that resemble the demon- stratives in their use are called indefinites. Examples : each, every, either, both, neither, some, any, such, none, other, another, each other, one another. Their use may be seen in the following sentences : — Each of us has his own faults. Every soldier carried a pike. I do not dislike either of you. He gave money to both. Some birds cannot fly. Give me some of that gold. Such a villain is unfit to live. From these examples it is clear that the indefinite pronouns and adjectives point out or designate objects, but less clearly or definitely than demonstratives do. 355. Most of the indefinites may be either pronouns or adjectives. But none is always a substantive in modern use, and every is always an adjective. 356. Each other and one another may be regarded as compound pronouns. They designate persons or things that stand in some kind of mutual relation. Thus, — The children love each other. They all fought with one another. There is no real distinction between each other and one another. The rules sometimes given for such a distinction are not supported by the best usage and may be disregarded. * This chapter is for reference. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 195 357. One (genitive one's) is often used as a kind of indefinite personal pronoun ; as, — One does not like one's motives to be doubted. All, several, few, many, and similar words are often counted among indefinites, They may be used as adjectives or as substantives. Everybody, everything, anybody, anything, etc., may be called inde- finite nouns. EXERCISE. Parse the indefinite pronouns, nouns, and adjectives 1. They used to talk about each other's books for hours. 2. Some war, some plague, some famine they foresee. 3. The two armies encountered one another at Towton Field, near Tadcaster. No such battle had been seen in England since the fight of Senlac. 4. The morning was raw, and a dense fog was over every- thing. 5. Some wild young colts were let out of the stock-yard. 6. They tell one another all they know, and often more too. 7. Bate me some and I will pay you some. 8. I do not wish any companion in the world but you. 9. The big round tears coursed one another down his inno- cent nose. 10. Grace and remembrance be to you both. 11. I know it pleaseth neither of us well. 12. Each hurries toward his home. 13. Gentlemen both, you will mistake each other. 14. No such apology is necessary. 15. Does either of you care for this? 16. Mine honor is my life. Both grow in one 17. The parcels contained some letters and verses. 18. Think you there was ever such a man ? 19. A black day will it be to somebody. 20. Friend, we understand not one another. 196 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LXXXVIL THE SELF-PRONOUNS. 358. The English language possesses a number of compound personal pronouns of which the first part is one of the* personal pronouns in some form, and the second part is the word self. These are : myself, plural ourselves ; thyself, yourself, plural yourselves ; himself, herself, itself, plural themselves. To these may be added oneself, more commonly written as two words, one's self. Observe that yourself is singular, and yourselves plural. Hisself and theirselves are incorrect forms. 359. The self-pronouns have two distinct uses which may be seen in the following sentences : — The captain himself replied to my question. He himself was present. The defeated general killed himself 'in despair. He betrayed himself by his folly. In the first two of the sentences himself simply makes more emphatic the noun or pronoun to which it is attached. In this use the self-pronouns are called intensive pronouns, because they serve merely to intensify or strengthen the meaning of some substantive. In the third and fourth sentences the use of himself is quite different. In each, himself is the direct object of a transitive verb (hilled, betrayed) ; yet himself refers to the same person denoted by the subject of the sen- tence (general, he). In other words, the subject (general, he) is represented as doing something to itself. THE SELF-FMONOUiWS. 197 The difference between such an object as himself and an ordinary object may be seen by^comparing the fol- lowing sentences : — The man shot the burglar. The man shot himself. [Here the subject (man) and [Here the subject (man) and the object (burglar) are obvi- the object (himself) are obvi- ously different persons. The ously one and the same person. subject is described as acting The subject is described as act- on some other person.] ing on himself.] In this use the self-pronouns are called reflexive pro- nouns. The word reflexive means " bending back." It is applied to the pronouns because, in this use, we must refer back to the subject of the sentence in order to know who or what is the person or thing designated by the object. These two uses of the self-pronouns are easily con- fused, though quite distinct. 360. The Compound Personal Pronouns ending in -self may be used to emphasize substantives. In this use they are called Intensive Pronouns. 361. An intensive pronoun may be regarded as in apposition with the substantive to which it is attached. 362. The Compound Personal Pronouns ending in -self may be used as the Objects of transitive verbs or of prepositions when the object denotes the same person or thing as the subject of the sentence or clause. In this use they are called the Reflexive Pronouns. A reflexive pronoun may be the indirect object of a verb whose meaning allows. Thus, — He gave himself a blow [= He gave a blow to himself]. 198 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISE. In the following sentences point out all the intensive pronouns and tell with what noun or pronoun each is in apposition. Point out all the reflexive pronouns, mention the verb or preposition of which each is the object, and tell to what noun or pronoun each refers back. 1. The people abandoned themselves to despair. 2. Jack sat by himself in a corner. 3. They have talked themselves hoarse. 4. The men themselves carried no provisions except a bag of oatmeal. 5. Envy shoots at others, and wounds herself. 6. We ourselves were wrapped up in our furs. 7. Clifford wrapped himself in an old cloak. 8. I myself am to blame for this. 9. I shall hardly know myself in a blue dress. 10. I have not words to express the poor man's thankfulness, neither could he express it himself. 11. Every guilty deed holds in itself the seed of retribution. 12. Jane herself opened the door. 13. She amused herself with walking and reading. 14. The story itself was scarcely credible. 15. The lieutenant was presented to Washington himself. 16. Nobody save myself so much as turned to look after him. 17. One seldom dislikes one's serf. 18. The guides themselves had lost the path. 19. The prisoner threw himself into the sea and swam for the shore. 20. The old clock itself looked weary. 21. Guard thyself from false friends. 22. You must prepare yourself for the worst. 23. You cannot protect yourselves from wrong. THE SELF-PRONOUNS. 199 CHAPTER LXXXVIII. SPECIAL USES OF THE SELF-PRONOUNS. 363. The adjective own is sometimes inserted between the first and the second part of the self-pronouns for emphasis. These forms may be regarded as compound pronouns. Examples : my own self, your own self, his own self, your own selves, their own selves. 364. The intensive pronouns are sometimes used idio- matically without being immediately preceded by a noun or pronoun. Thus, — It is myself. Here myself \s equivalent to I myself . 365. In older English and in poetry intensive pro- nouns often stand by themselves in constructions in which ordinary English would require the use of a sim- ple personal pronoun before the intensive. Thus, — Myself am king (instead of I myself am king). This use should be avoided in prose. 366. In older English and in poetry the simple per- sonal pronouns are often used in a reflexive sense instead of the seZ/"-pronouns. Thus, — He laid him down. [Instead of: He laid himself &o\\\\.~] In colloquial language this old construction is often retained, but only in a few expressions, such as I hurt me (instead of I hurt myself). It should be avoided in writing and in careful speech. 200 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER LXXXIX. NUMERALS. 367. In expressing our thoughts it is often necessary to indicate exactly how many persons or things we are thinking of, or how many times an action takes place. For these j)urposes language employs certain peculiar words called numerals, that is, " words of number." Examples may be seen in the following sentences : — Three merry companions once set out on a journey to Spain. Thirty days hath September, April, June, and November ; All the rest have thirty-one, Excepting February alone, Which has just eight and a score, Till Leap-year gives it one day more. The second house in the street belongs to me. Seven of my friends met me at the station. Thrice the brinded cat hath mewed. 368. Numerals are Adjectives, Nouns, or Adverbs. , In the preceding examples most of the numerals are adjectives, because they limit substantives. Score, how- ever, is a noun, and so is seven in the last example but one. Thrice is an adverb, since it modifies the verb hath mewed by telling how many times the action took place. 369. Numeral Adjectives limit substantives by defining the exact number of persons or things thought of. 370. The most important classes of numeral adjec- tives are called cardinals and ordinals. NUMERALS. 2U1 371. Cardinal Numeral Adjectives {one, two, three, four, etc.) are used in counting, and answer the question "How many?" Thus, — Three wise men of Gotham Went to sea in a bowl. Thirty days hath September. That man is seventy-nine years old. 372. Ordinal Numeral Adjectives (first, second, third, etc.) denote the position or order of a person or thing in a series. Monday is the first day of the week. February is the second month. The child was in the third year of his age. 373. All the Cardinal Numerals may be used as Nouns. One of my friends told me this. A million is a great number. Eighty-one of the enemy were killed in this skirmish. 374. The cardinals, in some of their uses as nouns, may receive a plural ending. Thus, — The boy can count by threes. My friends came up in threes and fours. Five tens are fifty. Many hundreds fell in this battle. Thousands of dollars were spent in this experiment. Note. — Hundred, thousand, million were originally nouns, but are now equally common in the adjective construction. 375. Certain numeral adjectives (single, double, triple, etc.) indicate how many times a thing is taken or of how many like parts it consists. Thus, — The pavement consisted of a double layer of bricks. A threefold cord is not easily broken. 202 THE MOTHER TONGUE. Some of these words may be used as adverbs. His labor was repaid threefold. 376. Certain Numeral Adverbs and adverbial phrases indicate how many times an action takes place. I hit the ball once. John knocked twice at the door. Thrice the bell tolled. The sharpshooter fired eleven times before he was killed. The only adverbs of this kind in common use are once and twice. For larger numbers a phrase consisting of a cardinal with the noun times is regularly used. Thrice, however, is still common (instead of three times) in poetry and the solemn style. EXERCISE. Tell whether each numeral is an adjective (cardinal, ordinal, or other), a noun, or an adverb. 1. Twice through the hall the chieftain strode. 2. Hundreds in this little town are upon the point of starving. 3. I have paid you fourfold. 4. The third time never fails. 5. The English lie within fifteen hundred paces of your tents. 6. Methought I saw a thousand fearful wrecks. 7. The threefold shield protected him. 8. They shouted thrice ; what was the last cry for? 9. Yet thousands still desire to journey on. 10. Byron died in the thirty-seventh year of his age. 11. This note doth tell me of ten thousand French That in the field lie slain : of princes, in this number, And nobles bearing banners, there lie dead One hundred twenty-six : added to these, Of knights, esquires, and gallant gentlemen, Eight thousand and four hundred. REVIEW EXERCISE. 203 EXERCISE.* Explain the forms and constructions of the sub- stantives, adjectives, and adverbs. 1. Will you shake hands with me now? 2. Delay not, Caesar ! Read it instantly ! 3. Do you not know that every hard, cold word you use is one stone on a great pyramid of useless remorse? 4. Lay thy finger on thy lips. 5. Have you ever had your house burnt down ? 6. Did you take me for Roger Bacon ? 7. What, has this thing appeared again to-night? 8. Our neighbor's big black mastiff sprang over the fence. 9. Theodore's cousin has just returned from Asia. 10. The jay's noisy chatter silenced our talk. 11. The old pilot's skill saved the ship from destruction. 12. I owe you much already. 13. They shall fetch thee jewels from the deep. 14. I sell thee poison ; thou hast sold me none. 15. Sing high the praise of Denmark's host. 16. Pen never told his mother a falsehood. 17. Last night the very gods showed me a vision. 18. He strode down the creaking stair. 19. The ruling passion conquers reason still. 20. Four seasons fill the measure of the year. 21. He feels the anxieties of life. 22. The long carpets rose along the gusty floor. 23. The needle plies its busy task. 24. I spent some time in Holland. 25. Great offices will have great talents. * Here the inflection of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and adverbs (pp. 138-202) should he reviewed. §§ 237-242 will serve as a summary, and should accordingly be studied at this point. The miscellaneous sen- tences on this page give examples of various forms and constructions and may be used for practice in parsing and analysis at the close of the review. 204 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER XC. INFLECTION OF VERBS. — TENSE. 377. Compare the following sentences : — Queen Victoria rules over England. Queen Elizabeth ruled over England. (1) Rules and ruled are really the same verb with different endings. (2) Rules refers to the present time and ruled refers to past time. In other words, the difference between rules and ruled is a difference in ending that indicates a difference in the time of the action. Similarly, we can distinguish between the time re- ferred to by each of the verbs in the following pairs : — Come, came ; bind, bound ; kill, killed ; Dwell, dwelt ; walk, walked ; fill, filled. This distinction of time in verbs is called tense. The word tense is simply an English form of the French word for time. 378. Every action, of course, must take j)lace at the present time, in past time, or in future time. 379. Verbs have distinction of Tense to indicate Present, Past, or Future time. A verb in the Present Tense refers to Present Time. A verb in the Preterite Tense refers to Past Time.* A verb in the Future Tense refers to Future Time. * Preterite is from the Latin, and means simply "gone by," "past." Preterite is a better name for the tense than past, for both the perfect and the pluperfect tenses refer to past time as well as the preterite. PRETERITE TENSE. 205 CHAPTER XCI. PRETERITE TENSE. 380. The present and the preterite tense have special forms of inflection. For the moment we will consider, in both of these tenses, the form which the verb has when its subject is the first personal pronoun 7. 381. In the Present Tense the verb appears in its simplest form, without any inflectional ending. I walk along the street. I dwell in this world. I answer all questions. I drink water. 382. If we change the verbs in the foregoing sen- tences (§ 381) so that they shall express past instead of present time, the sentences will read as follows : — I walked along the street. I dwelt in this wor'd. I answered all questions. I drank water. All these forms, walked, anstvered, dwelt, drank, are then in the preterite tense. ent Tense Preterite Tense walk walked answer answered dwell dwelt drink drank (1) The verbs walk and answer form their preterite tense by adding -ed to the present. (2) The verb dwell forms its preterite tense by adding -t to the present (omitting one I). (3) The verb drink forms its preterite tense by chang- ing the vowel i of the present to a, and adds no ending. 206 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 383. The Preterite Tense is formed in one of two ways : (i) By adding to the .present tense the ending -ed, -d, or -t; (2) By changing the vowel of the present tense without the addition of an ending. According as verbs form their preterite tense in one or the other of these two ways, they are called (1) weak verbs, or (2) strong verbs. 384. Weak verbs form the preterite tense by adding -ed, -d, or -t to the present. Examples : fill, filled ; stay, stayed ; bless, blessed ; dwell, dwelt ; defend, defended ; select, selected ; compare, compared. 385. Strong Verbs form the preterite tense by changing the vowel of the present, without the addition of an ending. Examples : sing, sang ; spin, spun ; win, won ; fall, fell ; ride, rode ; shine, shone ; bear, bore ; tear, tore.* Weak verbs are sometimes called regular, and strong verbs irregular verbs. t 386. The terms strong and weak were first applied to verbs for a somewhat fanciful reason. The strong verbs were so called because they seemed to form the preterite tense out of their own resources, without calling to their assistance any ending. The weak verbs were so called because they were incapable of form- ing their preterites without the aid of the ending -ed, -d, or -t. * Silent -e in bore, tore, etc., is not counted as an ending. t A strong verb is really just as regular as a weak verb : that is to say, all strong verbs form their preterites in accordance with definite rules and not in obedience to mere chance. To ascertain these rules, however, requires a long study, not merely of the English language, but of several other languages, like German and the Scandinavian tongues, with which English is closely related. The student who is beginning the study of English grammar, therefore, must learn the forms of the strong verbs as separate facts, without much regard to the reasons for their existence. PRETERITE TENSE. 207 EXERCISE. Change all the presents to preterites. Tell whether each preterite that you have made is weak or strong. 1. I ride to Hyde Park. 2. The country becomes disturbed, and nightly meetings of the peasantry take place. 3. Many of the boldest sink beneath the fear of betrayal. 4. When Calabressa calls at the house in Curzon Street he is at once admitted. 5. He walks on, his heart full of an audacious joy. 6. Returning to the cottage, he proceeds to sweep the hearth and make up the fire. 7. Where the remote Bermudas ride In the Ocean's kjf|fl m unespied, From a smalJ*Boat that rows along, The listening winds receive this song. 8. Many fresh streams run to one salt sea. 9. The camels from their keepers break ; The distant steer forsakes the yoke. 10. Lady Evelyn is a tall, somewhat good-looking, elderly lady, who wears her silver-white hair in old-fashioned curls. 11. His faded yellow hair begins to grow thin, and his thread- bare frock coat hangs limp from sloping shoulders. 12. I wander lonely as a cloud. 13. The next morning he comes down to the breakfast room earlier than is his custom, and salutes everybody there with great cordiality. 14. To the belfry, one by one, haste the ringers. 15. No haughty feat of arms I tell. 16. The senators mean to establish Ca?sar as a king. 17. I rest two or three minutes, and then give the boat another shove, and so on, till the sea is no higher than my armpits. 18. His heart jumps with pleasure as the famous university comes in view. 208 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER XCII. PRETERITE TENSE OF STRONG VERBS. 387. The definition of a Strong Verb has already been given in § 385. Strong Verbs form the preterite tense by changing the vowel of the present, without the addition of an ending. Examples : sing, pret. sang ; drink, pret. drank ; write, pret. wrote ; bear, pret. bore.* 388. The strong verbs are an exceedingly important element in our language. Many of the weak verbs might disappear without being missed, but there are very few of the strong verbs that we could conven- iently spare. For these verbs express, for the most part, simple and fundamental ideas with which the language of everyday life is constantly occupied. Thus, among the strong verbs are such essential words as : eat, drink, stand, rise, fall, ride, find, break. 389. The strong preterites, which appear so irregular and accidental to us, were originally formed in accord- ance with definite principles of language, and in the oldest English (Anglo-Saxon) it is easy to classify them. In the course of time, however, the old classes have become confused so that the strong verbs seem no longer to follow any rules. A full list of the strong verbs is given in the Appendix (pp. 386-393) for reference. * Some strong verbs have in the preterite a silent final e which does not appear in the present, but this is not properly an ending. Thus: break, broke; wear, wore; bear, bore; tear, tore. WEAK PRETERITES. 209 CHAPTER XCIII. WEAK PRETERITES IN -ED OR -D. 390. Most weak verbs form their Preterite in -ed. Examples : act, acted ; mend, mended ; jump, jumped ; con- fess, confessed ; regard, regarded ; attend, attended. In modern English, e in the ending -ed, though writ- ten, is silent unless preceded by d or t. Thus, we write filled, but pronounce fill'd; we write knocked, but pronounce knockt. If, however, the present ends in -t or -d (as in request, command), the preterite ending -ed is fully pronounced (requested, commanded). Otherwise the preterite would not differ in pronunciation from the present, for we cannot pronounce request'd or command' d so as to distinguish it from request or command. 391. A few verbs add -d (not -ed) in the preterite and also show a change of vowel. Examples : sell, sold ; tell, told ; flee, fled ; shoe, shod ; hear, heard (pronounced herd) ; say, said. 392. Make has made in the preterite, and have has had. EXERCISE. Make sentences containing the preterites of the follow- ing weak verbs : — Act, govern, rush, knock, fish, tend, tell, rattle, carry, delay, flee, try, address, pitch, talk, experiment, describe, rebel. 210 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER XCIV. WEAK PRETERITES IN -T. 393. Many weak verbs form the preterite tense in -t.* Examples : dwell, dwelt ; feel, felt ; keep, kept ; leave, left. Most verbs of this £-class show special irregularities. 394. Some verbs that have a long vowel sound in the present have in the preterite a short vowel sound before the ending -t. Examples : creep, crept ; keep, kept ; sleep, slept ; sweep, swept ; weep, wept ; feel, felt ; deal, dealt (pronounced delt) ; mean, meant (pronounced ment) ; lose, lost ; leave, left.f 395. Some verbs in -nd and -Id form their preterite tense by changing this -d to -t. Examples : bend, bent ; send, sent ; lend, lent ; rend, rent ; spend, spent ; build, built. 396. A few weak verbs not only add -t in the preter- ite, but also change the vowel of the present and show other irregularities. These are : — bring brought beseech besought buy bought teach taught catch caught think thought seek sought methinks methought Work has an old preterite tense wrought, common in poetry ; its usual preterite is worked. For must, would, etc., see page 393. * As we have seen, the ending -ed often stands for the sound of -t ; as passed, pronounced pasi. In such forms the ending, from the point of view of the spoken language, is of course -t. t In leave and bereave ohserve also the difference of sound between v and /. For the irregular weak verhs see Appendix. WEAK PRETERITES. 211 CHAPTER XCV. WEAK PRETERITES WITHOUT ENDING. 397. Some weak verbs in -d or -t preceded by a long vowel sound have a short vowel in the preterite but add no ending. Examples : bleed, bled ; breed, bred ; feed, fed ; speed, sped ; lead, led ; read (pronounced reed), read (pronounced red) ; meet, met; shoot, shot; light, lit {also lighted). 398. Some weak verbs in -d or -t have in the preterite the same form as in the present. Examples : shed, pret. shed ; spread, pret. spread ; bet, pret. bet; hit, pret. hit; set, pret. set; spit, pret. spit; put, pret. put; shut, pret. shut ; cut, pret. cut ; hurt, pret. hurt ; cast, pret. cast. Note. — The verbs described in §§ 397 and 398 might at first appear to be strong verbs, since they have no ending in the preterite and change the vowel. They are, however, all weak verbs. Their lack of ending is due to the fact that the d or t of the termination has been absorbed in the final d or t of the verb itself. Thus, the preterite set was originally sett'e (dis- syllabic), and this form, after the loss of -e, became indistinguishable in 60und from set, the present. EXERCISES. I. Make sentences containing the preterite tense of the following verbs, some of which are weak and some strong. Bend, sell, act, review, try, spin, drink, eat, carry, lose, compel, read, lead, tread, leave, work, spend, know, set, sit, lie, lay, rend, bring, rear, arise, ring, break, bind, copy, spare, multiply, catch, divide, subtract, telegraph, strike, run, wrestle, blow, burst, climb, sing, begin, stand, understand, go, change, teach, reach, split. 212 THE MOTHER TONGUE. II. Pick out all the preterites, and tell whether they are weak or strong. Give the present tense in each case. When midnight drew near, and when the robbers from afar saw that no light was burning and that everything appeared quiet, their captain said to them that he thought that they had run away without reason, telling one of them to go and reconnoitre. So one of them went, and found everything quite quiet. He went into the kitchen to strike a light, and, taking the glowing fiery eyes of the cat for burning coals, he held a match to them in order to kindle it. But the cat, not seeing the joke, flew into his face, spitting and scratching. in. Fill each blank with a preterite. Tell whether each preterite is weak or strong. 1. The hunter took careful aim and ; but the deer away unharmed. 2. A portrait of Mr. Gilbert on the wall. 3. I my companion to lend me his knife. 4. In the distance the lights of the village. 5. The sailor into the sea and to the rescue. • 6. The boy on the burning deck. N 7. The kite majestically into the air. 8. A puff of wind off the boy's cap and it along the ground. He after it as fast as he could. The faster he the faster the cap > 9. The mischievous fellow three leaves out of my book. 10. The maid the bucket with water and it to the thirsty wayfarers. 11. Tom on a rock, fishing patiently. 12. The miser a hole to conceal his treasure. 13. Joe the tree to get some apples. NUMBER OF VERBS. '21'6 CHAPTER XCVL SINGULAR AND PLURAL VERBS. 399. Nouns and pronouns, as we have seen, may be of either the singular or the plural number. The same is true of verbs. Thus, in The officer encourages his men ; He speaks good German, the verbs encourages and speaks are, like their subjects officer and he, in the singular number. But if we change the subjects of these sentences to the plural number, we find ourselves obliged to change the form of the verbs also. The officers encourage their men. They speak good German. Here the verbs, as well as the subjects, are in the plural. 400. A Verb must agree with its Subject in Number. The importance of this rule may be seen from the bad results of breaking it. We immediately recognize the following sentences as ungrammatical : — All the men | goes to church. The child \ are sick. He | are a good fellow. They | is all feeble. The soldiers | marches. The soldier | march. All these sentences strike us at once as very bad. The reason is that in none of them does the verb agree with its subject in number. We can correct the sentence in each case by changing the number of the verb from singular to plural or from plural to singular. 214 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Fill the blanks with a singular or a plural verb in the present tense. Tell which number you have used in each sentence. 1. I sorry to hear of your misfortune. 2. We ball every Saturday afternoon. 3. He the strongest swimmer in the school. 4. They very good friends of mine. 5. It a great deal of money to build a railroad. 6. John and Tom always — to school together. 7. Birds ; fishes ; snakes ; dogs on four legs ; mankind alone upright. 8. You so badly that I can hardly read your letter. Your brother much better. 9. The farmer the seed ; but the sun and the rain it grow. 10. My uncle me a dollar whenever he to visit us. 11. Kangaroos very long hind legs. 12. A spider eight legs ; a beetle six. 13. My pony apples out of my hand. 14. The grocer tea, sugar, salt, and molasses. 15. The company of soldiers up the hill in the face of the enemy. 16. The grapes in clusters on the vine. II. In the Exercise on page 182, point out all the subjects and all the objects. Mention the number of each substantive and of each verb. in. Do the same in Exercise n, p. 193. NUMBER OF VERBS. 215 CHAPTER XCVIL* SPECIAL RULES FOR THE NUMBER OF VERBS. 401. A Compound Subject usually takes a verb in the Plural Number. The king and his son fear treachery. Thomas and I are friends. The dog and the cat have no liking for each other. 402. A compound subject expressing but a single idea sometimes takes a verb in the singular number. The sole end and aim of his life was to get money. This construction is comparatively rare in modern English, and should be used with great caution. It is for the most part confined to such idio- matic phrases as end and aim (equivalent to the single noun purpose), the long and short of it, etc. 403. Nouns that are plural in form but singular in sense commonly take a verb in the Singular Number. The news is good. Bad news travels fast. Mathematics is my favorite study. Measles is a troublesome disease. In the older language most of these words were felt as plurals and accordingly took a plural verb. Thus, about 1600, we find both " This news is good," and " These news are good," for at this time the word news was still felt to mean " new things," and hence was sometimes plural in sense as well as in form. 404. With regard to some words of this class usage varies. Thus, pains, in the sense of care or effort, is sometimes regarded as a singular and sometimes as a plural. For example, — Great pains has (or have) been taken to accomplish this. * This chapter may be omitted until review. 216 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 405. Collective Nouns take sometimes a Singular and some- times a Plural verb. When the persons or things denoted are thought of as individ- uals, the plural should be used. When the collection is conceived as a unit, the singular should be used. 406. The distinction made in the foregoing rule (§ 405) is observed by careful writers and is conse- quently a matter of some importance. In many in- stances, however, the choice between the singular and the plural depends upon the feeling of the moment. The following examples illustrate this distinction : — 1. The people of the United States are discussing this question with great interest. [Here the people of the United States are thought of not as a whole (or, as we say, collectively), but as a number of individuals holding different opinions and engaged in a lively debate. Hence the verb is in the plural.] 2. The sovereign people is the final authority in a republic. [Here the people is thought of as a single, all-powerful source of political authority. Hence the verb is in the singular.] 3. The committee is of opinion that this measure ought not to pass. [Here the committee, being unanimous, or at any rate having come to some agreement amongst its members, expresses itself with a single voice as if one man were speaking for all. Hence the singular verb is proper.] 4. The committee are both individually and collectively much opposed to this measure. [Here the use of the word individually calls attention at once to the fact that the committee consists of a number of persons who think and feel as individuals ; hence the plural are is natural.] PERSON OF VERBS. 217 CHAPTER XCVIII. PERSON OF VERBS. 407. Compare the following sentences : — I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. (1) The three pronouns I, thou, and he refer to differ- ent persons: /denotes the speaker; thou denotes the per- son spoken to; he denotes neither the speaker nor the person spoken to, but some third person whom we may call the person spoken of. (Cf. p. 152.) (2) The form of the verb walk changes according as this verb is used with I, thou, or he as its subject. (3) If we change any one of the verb-forms without at the same time changing the pronoun, the sentence becomes bad English. -We cannot say I walkest, or / walks, or he walk. (4) If we change the subject of the sentence to a noun in the singular number, the verb will take the same form that it has when the subject is he. Thus, — He walks. John walks. 408. Substantives and Verbs are distinguished as to Person. 409. There are three Persons : First, Second, and Third. The First Person denotes the speaker ; the Second Person de- notes the person spoken to ; the Third Person denotes the person or thing spoken of. 410. A Verb must agree with its subject in Person. 411. We may now include in one rule the principle of agreement between a verb and its subject as ex- plained in §§ 399 and 407 : — A Verb must agree with its subject in Number and Person. 218 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Write an account of some accident or adventure that you have had or that you have heard of. If you have written in the first person, change your story so that it shall be told of some other person. What changes have you made in the form of each verb? If you have told your story in the third person, imagine that the adventure happened to you, and write the story again in the first person. What changes have you made in the form of each verb? ii. Find some story in your history or reading book. Imagine that the incidents related happened to you, and tell the story in the first person. What changes have you made in the form of each verb? in. Tell the person and number of each of the verbs and verb-phrases below. If the form may belong to more than one person or number, mention all. Test your accuracy by using personal pronouns (I, you, they, etc.) with each form. Found, didst know, finds, acts, act, mentions, sells, sold, broughtest, brings, bringest, speak, spoke, broke, endeavors, dives, replied, puzzled, utters, knowest, hath, has, canst, can, is, are, leapest, fight, fought, has spoken, have, am, art, were. IV. In some page of your reading book find all the presents and preterites you can. Tell the person and number of each. PERSONAL ENDINGS. 219 CHAPTER XCIX. PERSONAL ENDINGS. - 412. We may now gather up what we have learned in the preceding Exercises and state it in an orderly manner. 413. Verbs change their form to indicate Person and Number. 414. The endings by means of which a verb indicates Person and Number are called Personal Endings. In the Present Tense a verb has two Personal Endings : — est for the Second Person Singular and -s for the Third Person Singular (old form, -eth). The First Person Singular and all three Persons in the Plural are alike. The simplest form of the verb is used and no Personal Ending is added. Table of Personal Endings of the Present Tense Singular Plural 1. I walk. (no ending) 1. We walk, (no ending) 2. Thou walk-est. 2. You walk. " " 3. Hewalk-s(oldform,walk-eth). 3. They walk. " " 415. In the absence of a personal ending, the person and number of a verb are indicated by its subject. 416. Let us now examine the preterite tense with refer- ence to the personal endings. I walked. Thou walkedst. He (we, you, they) walked. We see at once that there is but one personal ending in the preterite : -(e)st in the second person singular. The ending -ed indicates past time, and is not a personal ending. 220 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 417. The first and third persons of the Preterite Singulai and all three persons of the Preterite Plural have no personal ending. 418. We may draw up the following table of the endings which verbs take to distinguish person and num- ber. Such endings are called the personal endings. Present Tense Preterite Tense Singular Plural Singular Plural 1. (no ending) 1. 2. -est, -st 2. 3. -s (old, -eth) 3. 1. (no ending) 1. (no ending) 2. -est 2. -j (no ending) 3. (no ending) 3. 419. Inflection, as we learned in § 4, is a change in the form of a word to indicate a change in its meaning. Hence these changes in verb-forms that we have just studied are a part of the inflection of the English verb. 420. The inflection of a verb is called its conjugation ; to inflect a verb is to conjugate it. In § 414, then, we have conjugated the verb walk in the present tense. 421. We are now prepared to conjugate verbs in the preterite tense. Thus, — Preterite Tense Singular Plural 1. I walked. 1. We walked. 2. Thou walked-st. 2. You (or ye) walked. 3. He walked. 3. They walked. 1. I found. 1. We found. 2. Thou found-est. 2. You (or ye) found. 3. He found. 3. They found. Walked is a weak verb ; found is a strong verb. NUMBER AND PERSON. 221 EXERCISES. I. In accordance with the model above, conjugate the following verbs in the present and the preterite tense * : — Love, call, answer, shout, examine, stand, find, bind, bear, lose, sit, set, lie, lay, burn, fight, bring, catch, reach, spend, beat, de- clare, read, march, charge, enlarge, despise, praise, honor, foretell, prophesy, enter, depart. II. Mention the number and person of each verb in Exer- cise i, p. 155. in. Conjugate the following verbs in the present tense, giving all three persons and both numbers. Use a pro- noun as the subject of each verb.* Stand, answer, compel, go, ask, fill, try, succeed, spend, earn, study, run, rescue, play, climb, flee, retreat, charge, descend, ride, act, smile, laugh, speed, descry, find, bring, discover, desire, retreat, succeed, drink, lead, bend. IV. Make fifteen sentences, each containing one of the verbs in in, above : — (a) in the present tense, third person, singular number ; (5) in the third person plural ; (c) in the second person plural ; (d ) in the first person plural; (e) in the preterite tense, first person, singular number; (/) in the third person plural; (g) in the second person plural; (/<) in the third person singular. * This exercise may be indefinitely extended according to the needs of the pupils. 222 TEE MOTEER TONGUE. CHAPTER C. INFINITIVE. 422. The verb-forms hitherto discussed have all been such as, in connected speech, have subjects. That is, they have been forms that not only express an action or state, but are also capable of asserting it with reference to some person or thing. Thus, in The whale smashed the boat with his tail, the verb smashed not merely expresses the action of breaking to pieces, but it asserts that the subject, the whale, actually performed that action in a given instance. 423. There are, however, two important classes of words which, though counted among verb-forms, can never have subjects,* and are incapable of asserting an action or a state. They are called infinitives and parti- ciples. We must first give our attention to infinitives. 424. Let us examine the following sentence : — The boy runs to see the fire. We at once recognize see as a verb-form. It expresses action and takes a direct object, fire. But we also ob- serve two peculiarities which distinguish it, at a glance, from runs, the other verb in the sentence : (1) The verb runs has a subject, hoy ; whereas see has no subject. (2) Runs is in the third person and singular number, agreeing with its subject hoy ; whereas see, having no subject, has neither person nor number. * Except in the so-called " infinitive clause " (see p. 309). INFINITIVE. 223 If we change the subject boy to the plural boys, the verb runs must be changed also, but nothing will hap- pen to the form of see. Thus, — The boys run to see the fire. Similarly : I run to see the fire. We run to see the fire. See, then, in all these sentences expresses the idea of action in the very simplest way. It is free from those limitations of person and number to which a verb that has a subject must conform. For this reason it is called an infinitive, that is, an " unlimited " verb-form. We observe, also, that see is introduced by the prepo- sition to, which hi this use is called the sign of the infinitive. 425. The following sentence will make clear another peculiarity of the infinitive : — To obey is a child's duty. Here the subject of the sentence is to obey, which we recognize as an infinitive with its sign to. The infini- tive, then, has at least one of the properties of a noun : it may be used as the subject of a sentence. Indeed, without changing the meaning, we could substitute the pure noun obedience for the infinitive in this sentence. Obedience is a child's duty. Further study will show us that the infinitive has other properties of the noun, but this single specimen is enough for our present purpose. Having learned that the infinitive has noun properties, as well as verb properties, we are ready for the definition. 224 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 426. The Infinitive is a verb-form which partakes of the nature of a noun. It expresses action or state in the simplest possible way, without the limitations of person or number. It is commonly preceded by the preposition to, which in this use is called the Sign of the Infinitive. Strictly speaking, to love, to speak, and the like are infinitive phrases, consisting of the infinitive {love, speak) and the preposition. For con- venience, however, we often speak of the whole phrase as the infinitive, as if the preposition were actually a part of the infinitive itself. Note. — Historically considered, the infinitive is not a verb at all, but a noun expressing action or state. Its real nature comes out if we com- pare " To err is human " with " Error is human "; "I have a horse to sell " with " I have a horse for sale " ; "I desire to see it " with " I desire a sight of it." Yet the infinitive is so closely associated in our minds with the genuine verb that it would be unwise to refuse to admit it to a place among verb-forms. Such a classification is in a manner justified by three important considerations : (1) the infinitive is modified, as verbs are, by adverbs and not, like nouns, by adjectives; (2) it behaves like a verb in taking one or more objects when its meaning allows ; (3) finally, the infini- tive is systematically used to make certain verb-phrases (like the so-called future tense) which supply the lack of genuine inflections in the English verb, and this would in itself be a strong reason for classifying it as a verb-form. EXERCISES. 1. Make sentences of your own containing the follow- ing infinitives : — To boast, to help, to leap, to fly, to flee, to lie, to lay, to ask, to advise, to assist, to order, to revenge, to describe, to injure, to disappear, to lose, to advance, to recognize, to travel, to transform, to spare, to suggest, to pursue, to remember, to remind, to define, to desert, to settle, to build, to plant, to exterminate, to destroy, to cultivate, to sow, to reap, to mow, to pacify, to burn, to descend, to modify, to persevere, to forgive, to puzzle, to explain. INFINITIVE. 225 II. Insert an infinitive with to in each blank. Example : — Tom is too tired his lesson. Tom is too tired to study his lesson. 1. Old Carlo was too well trained cats. 2. Charles was in such a hurry that he could hardly spare time his breakfast. 3. We are taught our enemies. 4. Gerald rose very early and went down to the brook for trout. 5. Little Bo-Peep has lost her sheep, And does n't know where them. 6. The fireman was obliged from the locomotive to save his life. 7. The careless fellow has forgotten the door. 8. Our orders were against the enemy at daybreak. 9. Commodore Dewey did not hesitate into Manila Bay. 10. The performing bear stood up on his hind legs and began clumsily. III. Find the infinitives. 1. Lord Craven did me the honor to inquire for me by name. 2. Distress at last forced him to leave the country. 3. I know not what to think of it. 4. Our next care was to bring this booty home without meet- ing with the enemy. 5. To see judiciously requires no small skill in the seer. 6. The business of his own life is to dine. 7. The ladies are to fling nosegays ; the court poets to scatter verses ; the spectators are to be all in full dress. 8. Vathek invited the old man to dine, and even to remain some days in the palace. 9. Earth seemed to sink beneath, and heaven above to fall. 226 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CI. PARTICIPLES. 427. Let us examine the following sentence : — The boy sees in the courtyard a dog, stretched out and gnawing a bone. We at once recognize stretched and gnawing as verb-forms. They express action, and. one of them, gnawing, takes a direct object, bone. But we observe, as in the infinitive already studied, two peculiarities which distinguish them, at a glance, from sees, the other verb in the sentence : (1) The verb sees has a subject, bog; whereas stretched and gnawing have no subjects. (Dog is the direct object of sees.) (2) Sees is in the third person and singular number, agreeing with its subject bog; whereas stretched and gnawing, having no subject, have neither person nor number. If we change the subject bog to the plural bogs, the verb sees must be changed also, but nothing will happen to the form of stretched or to that of gnawing. Thus, — The boys see in the courtyard a dog, stretched out and gnawing a bone. Similarly we may make I (first person) or you (second person) the subject of the sentence without changing stretched and gnawing at all. Stretched and gnawing, then, in this sentence express the idea of action in a very simple way. Like the infin- itive, they are free from those limitations of person and number to which a verb that has a subject must conform. PAR TICIPLES. 227 They differ, however, from infinitives in two impor- tant respects : — (1) Their forms are not like that of the infinitive. They have endings -ing and -ed, which the infinitives to stretch and to gnaw do not possess ; and they have not and cannot have the infinitive sign to. (2) They describe the noun dog, much as adjectives would do. Indeed, without changing the structure of the sen- tence we could substitute genuine descriptive adjectives for stretched and gnawing. Thus, — The boy sees in the courtyard The boy sees in the courtyard a dog, stretched out and gnaw- a dog, lean and fierce, ing a bone. From this resemblance to adjectives, stretched ztndgnaw- ing are called participles because they participate (that is, share) in the nature of adjectives. We have now learned that the participle has adjective properties as well as verb properties, and are ready for the definition. 428. The Participle is a verb-form which has no subject, but which, partaking of the nature of an adjective, expresses action or state in such a way as to describe or limit a sub- stantive.* * Historically considered the participle is not a verb at all, but a verbal adjective expressing action or state. Its real nature comes out if we com- pare " The scholar, desiring praise, studied hard " with " The scholar, eager for praise, studied hard " ; "Fatigued with his journey, the traveller went to his room " with " Weary from his journey, the traveller went to his room." Yet the participle is commonly and conveniently classified among verb-forms for reasons similar to those already given with regard to the infinitive (p. 224). Like the infinitive, the participle is very impor- tant iu making verb-phrases which supply the place of inflections. 228 THE MOTHER TONGUE. A EXERCISE. Examples of participles may be seen in the following sentences : — Walking up to the front door, I rang the bell. V The policeman saw a man sitting on the steps. He observed a fine dog stretched out on the hearth-rug. • He tripped over a rope extended across his path. In the following sentences pick out the participles. What noun or pronoun does eacli modify? 1. I see trees laden with ripening fruit. 2. In the green churchyard there were cattle tranquilly repos- ing upon the verdant graves. 3. The mob came roaring out, and thronged the place. 4. The girls sat weeping in silence. 5. Asked for a groat, he gives a thousand pounds. 6. Edward marched through Scotland at the head of a power- ful army, compelling all ranks of people to submit to him. /~ 7. The blackest desperation now gathers over him, broken only by red lightnings of remorse. .+ 8. Arrived at Athens, soon he came to court. * 9. Still the vessel went bounding onward. 10. Enchanted with the whole scene, I lingered on my voyage. 11. So saying, from the pavement he half rose Slowly, with pain, reclining on his arm, And looking wistfully with wide blue eyes As in a picture. 12. I went home that evening greatly oppressed in my mind, irresolute, and not knowing what to do. 13. Methinks I see thee straying on the beach. 14. A mountain stood Threatening from high, and overlooked the wood. 15. The wondering stranger round him gazed. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 229 CHAPTER CII. PRESENT PARTICIPLE. 429. English verbs have two simple Participles : the Present Participle and the Past Participle. 430. The Present Participle ends in -ing. Thus, the present participle of the verb give is giv-ing ; that of walk is walk-ing ; that of kill, kill-ing ; that of drink, drink-ing, and so on. 431. The Present Participle usually describes an action as taking place at the same time with some other action. Thus, — The dandy walked up the street, flourishing his cane. The enemy disputed their ground inch by inch, fighting with the fury of despair. Do you hear that nightingale singing in the wood ? 432. The present participle may describe an action as having taken place before some other action. Thus, Raising his rifle and taking careful aim, Tom fired at the bear. Mounting his horse, the bandit rode off. Walking up to the stranger, John asked him his name. Landing at Calais, we proceeded to Paris. 433. The present participle is much used with the copula is (was, etc.), to make verb-phrases expressing continued or repeated action. He is chopping wood. They were travelling in Italy last year. You have been climbing trees all day. A verb-phrase of this kind is called the progressive form of the verb. 230 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CIII. PAST PARTICIPLE OF WEAK VERBS. 434. The Past Participle is always associated with the idea of past time or completed action. The past participle is also called the perfect participle. 435. In form, past participles differ according as they come from (1) weak verbs or (2) strong verbs. 436. The Past Participle of any Weak Verb is identical in form with the Preterite of that verb.* Weak past participles, then, end in -ed, -d, -t, according as the preterite shows one or another of these terminations. Thus, the preterite tense of the verb stretch is stretched; the past participle is also stretched. The rascal stretched a cord across I saw a cord stretched across the the road. [Here stretched is the preterite, and has rascal for its subject.] Present He kills the dog. He spends money. He meets a friend. He buys iron. The terrier catches rats. He shuts the door. Preterite He killed the dog. He spent money. He met a friend. He bought iron. The terrier caught rats. He shut the door. road. [Here stretched has no subject. It is a past parti- ciple and belongs to the noun cord, the object of saw.] Past Participle The dog was killed. Much money was spent. He was met by a friend. Iron was bought. The rat was caught. The door was shut. The past participle, it will be seen, follows the weak preterite through all its irregularities. * The only exceptions to this rule are trivial variations in spelling. PAST PARTICIPLE. 231 The student may, at first, be troubled to distinguish between the preterite tense and the past participle in those verbs which have these two forms alike, but he can make no mistake' if he remembers that the past par- ticiple can never have a subject, and the preterite tense must always have a subject. EXERCISES. I. Write in three columns, as in § 436, (1) the sentences that follow; (2) the same sentences with the verbs changed to the preterite ; (3) sentences containing the past parti- ciple of each verb preceded by was or has. Thus, — Present Preterite Past Participle ( John's horse was tied John ties his horse. John tied his horse. / or / John has tied his horse. 1. The farmer sows his seed. 2. The maid sets the table. 3. The dog obeys his master. 4. The pupil answers the question. 5. The girl reads her book. 6. He spends his money freely. 7. He feels sorry for his faults. II. Give the present, the preterite, and the past participle of : Quarrel, accept, tell, offer, hit, drown, flee, start, arrive, hear, convey, sleep, obey, cut, delay, sweep, sell, stay, feel, make, deal, beseech, creep, bring, shut, cast, keep, lose, catch 5 cost, leave. 232 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CIV. PAST PARTICIPLE OF STRONG VERBS. 437. The Past Participle of Strong Verbs, like the preterite, shows a change from the vowel of the present tense. All strong verbs had originally the ending -en (-n) in the past participle, but this ending has been lost in many verbs. Present Indicative Preterite Indicative Past Participle He rides. He rode. He has ridden. He forgets. He forgot. It is forgotten. He breaks the stick. He broke the stick. The stick is broken. He sinks. He sank. They have sunk. He begins. He began the game. The game is begun. He digs a pit. He dug a pit. The pit is dug. He finds gold. He found gold. The gold was found. The past participle without ending is sometimes iden- tical in form with the preterite. The forms show great variety and must be learned by practice. 438. The strong past participles have suffered many changes of form, even in comparatively modern English. New forms have come up and been in fashion for a while, only to disappear from accepted usage, and old forms have sometimes been revived and have made good their position in the language. Thus, the only past participle of write now in good use is written, which is really a very old form. A hundred years ago, however, wrote was an accepted form, and two hundred years ago writ was perfectly good. Hence, whereas we can say only " I have written a letter," our ancestors could say " I have written a letter," " I have writ a letter," or " I have wrote a letter." PARTICIPLES. 233 EXERCISES. Errors in the forms of the preterite and. the past par- ticiple are very common among careless speakers. Most of the erroneous forms now heard were once in good use, but this does not make them correct now.* I. Write in three columns, as in § 437, (1) the sentences that follow ; (2) the same sentences with the verbs changed to the preterite; (3) sentences containing the past participle of each verb preceded by ivas or has. Thus, — Present Preterite Past Participle !Xo hat was worn by Jack OR Jack has worn no hat. 1. Nobody knows the truth of the matter. 2. Henry writes to his mother every day. 3. The arrow strikes the target near the centre. 4. The explosion throws down the wall. 5. January 1, 1901, begins a new century. 6. The boy stands on the burning deck. 7. A great banquet takes place to-night. 8. The old man sits in the sun. 9. The Mexican swings the lasso round his head. 10. Johnson swims in the lake every day. II. Make sentences containing (1) the preterite and (2) the past participle (preceded by have or has) of — (a) Begin, drink, ring, run, shrink, sing, sink, spring, swim. (b) Bear, bite, break, choose, drive, eat, fall, forget, freeze, hide, ride, shake, speak, steal, swear, take, tear, wear. * See pages 38(J ff. for the correct modern forms. 234 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CV. MODIFIERS AND OBJECT OF INFINITIVE OR PARTICIPLE. 439. Infinitives and Participles, like other verb-forms, may be modified by Adverbs or Adverbial Phrases. To ivalk briskly is good exercise. He ordered the company to march forward at once. The constable, running with all his speed, was scarcely able to overtake the thief. The carriage, driven rapidly, was soon out of sight. 440. An Infinitive or a Participle, like any other verb-form, may take an Object if its meaning allows. I wish to find gold. To rouse a lion is a dangerous game. Sudden a thought came like a full-blown rose, Flushing his broiu. We could see a woman pulling a small boat. 441. No word of any kind should be inserted between to and the infinitive.* [Right] I will try to inform him thor- oughly in regard to this matter. Creditably to perform one's task is not always easy. On, To perform one's task creditably is not always .easy. [Wrong] T will try to thoroughly in- form him in regard to this matter. '-NOT-' To creditably perform one's task is not always easy. * This rule of order is in strict accordance with the best usage, although it is habitually neglected by careless writers and sometimes deliberately violated by good writers and speakers who choose to defy it. INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 235 EXERCISES. I. In each of the following sentences insert an adverb or adverbial phrase to modify the infinitive. 1. I resolved to return to England. 2. His orders to me were to keep him in sight. 3. My first thought was to flee. 4. To rush towards her was my impulse. 5. What right have you, then, to upbraid me for having told you the truth ? 6. The young man began to spend his money. II. Pick out the participles, and tell what noun or pronoun each modifies. Mention all the modifiers and objects of the participles. 1. He occupied a farm of seventy acres, situated on the skirts of that pretty little village. 2. Mine was a small chamber, near the top of the house, fronting on the sea. 3. The listening crowd admire the lofty sound ! 4. This life, which seems so fair, Is like a bubble blown up in the air. 6. Still is the toiling hand of Care ; The panting herds repose. 6. His bridge was only loose planks laid upon large trestles. 7. She had a little room in the garret, where the maids heard her walking and sobbing at night. 8. The kind creature retreated into the garden, overcome with emotions. 9. The colonel, strengthened with some troops of horse from Yorkshire, comes up to the bridge. 10. Exhausted, I lay down at the base of the pyramid. 236 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CVI. PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS. 442. Three forms of the verb are of so much consequence that they are called the Principal Parts.* These are : — (1) the First Person Singular of the Present ; (2) the First Person Singular of the Preterite ; (3) the Past Participle. Present Preterite Past Participle I act I acted acted I kill I killed killed I bring I brought brought I find I found found I ride I rode ridden In giving the principal parts of a verb the pupil may be sure of getting the past participle right if he remem- bers that it is always the form which we use after I have. Thus, — [/ have] found, ridden, brought. EXERCISE. In Exercise II, p. 235, pick out all the presents and preterites and mention the subject of each. Select all the present and past participles and mention the substantive which each modifies. Tell whether the verb is weak or strong in each case. Give the principal parts of every verb. * The importance of the present and the preterite is at once clear. Their difference in form serves to distinguish the time of actions. The importance of the past participle will appear in the chapters on the passive voice and the compound tenses. VERBAL NOUNS. 237 CHAPTER CVII. VERBAL NOUNS IN -ING. 443. Not all words that end in -ing are participles. There is a large class of verbal nouns that have this ending. Indeed, from any ordinary verb in the lan- guage a noun in -ing may be formed just as readily as a present participle. The distinction between verbal nouns in -ing and pres- ent participles is easy to make ; for the present parti- ciple is never used as a noun. Consequently, if a word in -ing is the subject of a sentence, or the object of a verb or preposition, or stands in any other noun con- struction, it cannot be a participle. 444. The distinction just indicated may be seen in the following sentences: — Walking up the street, I met an old friend. [Participle.] Walking is good exercise. [Verbal noun.] I like walking on account of its good effect upon my health. [Verbal noun.] He gave much attention to walking, because he thought it made him feel better. [Verbal noun.] In the first of these examples we see at once that tvalking is a participle, not a noun. It expresses action but has no subject, and it modifies the subject of the sentence, i", thus having the use of an adjective. In the other examples, however, walking is not a par- ticiple, but a noun. In the second sentence it is the subject; in the third it is the direct object of the verb like ; in the fourth it is the object of the preposition to. 238 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 445. From nearly every English verb there may be formed a Verbal Noun in -ing. Such nouns are identical in form with present participles, but they have the construction, not of par- ticiples, but of Nouns. Note. — In the oldest form of English the present participle ended, not in -ing, but in -ende, and the number of nouns in -ing was limited. At a later period a confusion of endings came about, so that there was no longer any distinction in form between verbal nouns in -ing and present participles. As a result of this confusion, nouns in -ing multiplied greatly in number, so that in modern English we can form one from almost any verb at pleasure. 446. Verbal nouns in -ing partake of the nature of the verbs from which they are formed. Hence : (i) Verbal Nouns in -ing may take a Direct or an Indirect Object if their meaning allows. Thus, — Giving them money does not satisfy them. Here the verbal noun giving, which is the subject of the sen- tence, takes both a direct object (money) and an indirect object (them), as the verb give might do. (2) A verbal noun in -ing may take an adverbial modifier. Eating hastily injures the health. Here the verbal noun eating is the subject of the verb injures. It is, however, modified by the adverb hastily, precisely as if it were a verb. But verbal nouns in -ing, like other nouns, may be modified by adjectives. Thus, in the last example we may substitute the adjective hasty for the adverb hastily without changing the construction of the verbal noun eating. Adverbial Modifier Adjective Modifier Eating hastily injures the health. Hasty eating injures the health. 5EL*OS,CA?> VERBAL NOUNS. 239 447. That nouns in -ing are real nouns may be proved by substituting ordinary nouns in their places. On thinking this matter over. On consideration of this matter. After resting. After a rest. By experimenting. By an experiment. 448. Verbal Nouns in -ing are similar in some of their constructions to Infinitives used as nouns (§ 425). Thus, — Infinitive as Noun Verbal Noun in -ing To breathe is natural to animals. Breathing is natural to animals. [Subject.] [Subject.] To see is to believe. [Subject Seeing is believing. [Subject and predicate nominative.] and predicate nominative.] Note. — Verbal nouns in -ing are sometimes called infinitives and some- times gerunds. EXERCISE. In the following sentences pick out all the words in -ing and tell whether they are present participles or verbal nouns. Give your reasons. 1. Books, painting, fiddling, and shooting were my amuse- ments. 2. We are terribly afraid of Prince Eugene's coming. 3. Upon hearing my name, the old gentleman stepped up. 4. After I had resided at college seven years, my father died and left me — his blessing. 5. The neighing of the generous horse was heard. 6. Joseph still continued a huge clattering with the poker. 7. Then came the question of paying. 8. The day had been spent by the king in sport and feasting, and by the conspirators in preparing for their enterprise. 9. He first learned to write by imitating printed books. 10. Here we had the pleasure of breaking our fast on the leg of an old hare, and some broiled crows. 240 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CVIII. FUTURE TENSE. 449. English verbs, as we have seen in Chapter XC, have special forms of inflection to express present time and past time. Thus, I find and I act are in the pres- ent tense ; I found and I acted are in the preterite tense. Many languages have also an inflectional form for the future tense. In English, however, there is no such future inflection, and we are obliged, therefore, to use a verb-phrase to express future time. Thus, — I shall visit Chicago next month. You will find your horse in the stable. The ship will sail on Monday. We shall march up Main Street. In these sentences the verb-phrases shall visit, will find, will sail, and shall march, manifestly refer to future time. Each of them consists of an auxiliary verb (shall or will) followed by an infinitive (visit, find, sail, march) without the infinitive sign to. 450. The English Future Tense is a verb-phrase consisting of the auxiliary verb shall or will, followed by the infinitive without to. 451. A correct use of shall and will in the future tense is a matter of some difficulty. The following table shows the proper form of the future tense for each of the three persons (1) in asser- tions and (2) in questions : — FUTURE TENSE. 241 FUTURE TENSE Assertions (Declarative) Singular Number Plural Number 1. I shall fall. We shall fall. . 2. Thou wilt fall. You will fall. 3. He will fall. They will fall. Questions (Interrogative) Singular Number Plural Number 1. Shall I fall? Shall we fall? 2. Shalt thou fall? Shall you fall? 3. Will he fall? Will they fall? 452. Very common errors are the use of will for shall (1) in the first person in assertions and questions and (2) in the second person in questions. In the following sentences the first person of the future tense is correctly formed : — 1 shall fall. Shall I fall? I shall break my arm. Shall I break my arm ? We shall die. Shall we die ? The italicized phrases express merely the action of the verb in future time. They do not indicate any willingness or desire on the part of the subject. Contrast the following sentences, in which a verl> phrase consisting of / will and the infinitive is used : I will lend you five dollars. I will speak, in spite of you. I will not permit such disorder. I will do my very best. I will conquer or die. 242 THE MOTHER TONGUE. In these sentences the italicized phrases do not (as in the previous examples of / shall) express the action of the verb in future time. They express the present will- ingness or desire or determination of the subject to do some- thing in the future. Hence such verb-phrases with will in the first person are not forms of the future tense. They are special verb-phrases expressing willingness or desire. 453. In the First Person shall, not will, is the auxiliary of the Future Tense in both assertions and questions. It denotes simple futurity, without expressing willingness, desire, or de- termination. Will in the First Person is used in promising, threatening, consenting, and expressing resolution. It never denotes simple futurity. / will give you a thousand dollars to do this. [Promise.] / will shoot the first man that runs. [Threat.] / will accompany you, since you wish it. [Consent.] / will fight it out on this line if it takes all summer. [Resolution.] 454. I'll and we HI stand for I will and we will, and are proper only when I will and we will would be cor- rect. They can never stand for i" shall and we shall. 455. The use of will for shall in the first person of the future is a common but gross error. Thus, — We will all die some day. [Wrong, unless what one means is " We are determined to die." Say: " We shall.'"'] I will be glad to help you. [Say : " I shall be glad."] Such expressions as I shall be glad, I shall be willing, I shall be charmed to do this, express willingness not by means of shall but in the adjectives glad, willing, charmed. To say " I will be glad to do this," then, would be wrong, for it would be to express volition twice. Such a sentence could only mean " / am determined to be glad to do this." FUTURE TENSE. 243 456. In the Second Person shall you ? not will you ? is the proper form of the Future Tense in questions. Will you ? always denotes willingness, consent, or determi- nation, and never simple futurity. I. Future Tense (simple futurity). Shall you vote for Jackson? [That is, Are you going to vote for him as a matter of fact ? ] Shall you try to win the prize ? Shall you go to Paris in June or in July? II. Verb-phrase denoting willingness, etc. Will you lend me ten dollars as a favor ? Will you try to write better? Will you insist on this demand ? 457. Shall in the second and third persons is not the sign of the future tense in declarative sentences. It is used in commanding, promising, threatening, and expressing resolution, the volition being that of the speaker. Thus, — Thou shalt not steal. [Command.] You shall have a dollar if you run this errand. [Promise.] You shall be punished if you defy me. [Threat.] He shall be punished if he defies me. [Threat.] You shall never see him again. [Determination.] He shall leave the house instantly. [Determination.] EXERCISES. Express the thought in each of the following sen- tences by means of a verb-phrase with will or shall. 244 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 1. I am determined to learn my lesson. (/ will or I shall?) 2. I am willing to accompany you. (Will or shall ?) 3. You are sure to fall if you climb that tree. ( You will or you shall ?) 4. I am sure to fall if I climb that tree. (7 will or / shall f) 5. He is not to go home till he has learned his lesson. (He will not or he shall not ?) 6. We agree to lend you fifty dollars. ( We will lend or we shall lend ?) 7. We are going to lend you fifty dollars, as a matter of fact. ( We will or tee shall ?) 8. We are determined to find the rascal who stole our dog. 9. We are certain to succeed in the search. 10. Columbus cannot fail to discover land if he sails on. 11. You are resolved to win this game, I see. II. Fill the blanks with shall or will as the sense re- quires. Give your reason for selecting one or the other word. In some cases either may be used. 1. I lose my train if I stay any longer. 2. I be tired to death by night. 3. We break through the ice if we are not careful. 4. "We try to do our duty. 5. "We not be guilty of such a crime. 6. We give you what you need. 7. I send a letter to him at once, since you wish it. 8. « I drown ! " cried the poor fellow, who was strug- gling in the water. " Nobody help me ! " 9. He misspell his words, in spite of all I can say. 10. They not be captured if I can help it. 11. They catch nothing if they fish in that stream. 12. I catch one fish if I have to stay here all day. 13. I catch cold in this carriage. 14. I ride as fast as I can. PASSIVE VOICE. 245 CHAPTER CIX.* PASSIVE VOICE. 458. We have already studied the difference between the active and the passive voice of verbs (pp. 95, 96). 459. A verb is said to be in the Active Voice when it rep- resents its subject as the doer of an act. Thomas struck John. The sleeping fox catches no poultry. The wave washed him overboard. 460. A verb is said to be in the Passive Voice when it rep- resents its subject not as the doer of an action, but as receiv- ing an action. John was struck by Thomas. The goose was caught by the fox. He was washed overboard by the wave. 461. In English there is no single verb-form for the passive voice. Hence the passive voice must be expressed by a verb-phrase, as in the examples above. 462. The Passive Voice of a verb is expressed by a verb- phrase made by prefixing some form of the copula (is, was, etc.) to the Past Participle of the Verb. Thus in the second example in § 460, the passive is expressed by was caught, a phrase consisting of (1) the copula was and (2) caught, the past participle of the verb catch. 463. In this way a verb may have passive forms for all tenses of the indicative mood. * Here pages 95, 96 should be reviewed. 246 THE MOTHER TONGUE. ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE Present Tense 1. I strike. 2. Thou strikest. 3. He strikes. 1. We strike. 2. You strike. 3. They strike. Singular Number I am struck. Thou art struck. He is struck. Plural Number We are struck. You are struck. They are struck. Preterite Tense Singular Number 1. I struck. I was struck. 2. Thou struckest (or didst Thou wast {or wert) struck. strike). 3. He struck. 1. We struck. 2. You struck. 3. They struck. 1. I shall strike. 2. Thou wilt strike. 3. He will strike. 1. We shall strike. 2. You will strike. 3. They will strike. He was struck. Plural Number We were struck. You were struck. They were struck. Future Tense Singular Number I shall be struck. Thou wilt be struck. He will be struck. Plural Number We shall be struck. You will be struck. They will be struck. PASSIVE VOICE. 247 EXERCISES. I. Find the passives. Give tense, person, and number. Mention the subject of each. 1. The spears are uplifted ; the matches are lit. 2. Burton was staggered by this news. 3. Thus was Corinth lost and won. 4. Five hundred carpenters had been set at work. 5. Old Simon is carried to his cottage door. 6. You will be surprised at her good spirits. 7. George Brand was ushered into the little drawing-room. 8. "We shall be hit by the sharpshooters. 9. The house had been struck by lightning. 10. The art of writing had just been introduced into Arabia. 11. They are bred up in the principles of honor and justice. 12. He was carried away captive by the Indians. 13. The alarm bell will be rung when the foe appears. 14. For my own part, I swam as Fortune directed me, and was pushed forward by wind and tide. 15. Thus the emperor's great palace was built. 16. The stranger was surrounded, pinioned with strong fetters, and hurried away to the prison of the great tower. 17. Some of the cargo had been damaged by the sea water. 18. Our blows were dealt at random. 19. Nothing will be gained by hurry. 20. I shall be surprised if he succeeds. II. Use in sentences some passive form of each of the following verbs : — Delay, devour, pierce, set, send, bring, betray, fulfil, declare, conduct, guide, spend, read, feel, catch, sink, cut, find, steal, drink, ring. 248 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CX. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE. 464. Any sentence in which the verb of the predi- cate is transitive may be changed from the active to the passive form. Thus, — Active. The dog chased the boy. Passive. The boy was chased by the dog. (1) The verb (chased) is changed from the active voice to the passive (becoming was chased). (2) Boy, the object of the active verb chased, becomes the subject of the passive verb was chased. (3) Dog, the subject of the active verb, becomes, in the passive sentence, a part of the complete predicate, and is the object of the preposition by. 465. In turning a sentence from the Active Voice to the Passive, the Object of the active verb becomes the Subject of the passive. 466. An Intransitive Verb can have no passive voice. Since it is the very nature of the passive voice that the object of the action should appear as the subject of the sentence, an intransitive verb, which takes no object, cannot be used in the passive. EXERCISE. In Exercise I, p. 46, change the transitive verbs from the active to the passive or from the passive to the active without altering the meaning of the sentences. COMPLETE TENSES. 249 CHAPTER CXI. COMPLETE OR COMPOUND TENSES. 467. Completed action is denoted by special verb-phrases made by prefixing to the past participle some form of the auxiliary have. These are called the complete or compound tenses. 468. The Perfect Tense denotes that the action of the verb is complete at the time of speaking. It is formed by prefixing have (hast, has) to the Past Participle. I have eaten my breakfast. He has filled his pockets with apples. 469. The Pluperfect (or Past Perfect) Tense denotes that the action was completed at some point in past time. It is formed by prefixing had (hadst) to the Past Participle. When I reached the pier, the ship had sailed. After the bell had rung three times, the session began. 470. The Future Perfect Tense denotes that the action will be completed at some point of future time. It is formed by pre- fixing the future tense of have (shall have, etc.) to the Past Participle. The ship will sail before I shall have reached the pier. The future perfect tense is rare except in very formal writing. 471. A verb-phrase made by prefixing having to the past participle is called the perfect participle. Having knocked, he waited for admittance. 472. A verb-phrase made by prefixing to have to the past participle is called the perfect infinitive. He ought to have studied harder. 250 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 473. In the Passive Voice of the complete tenses the past participle been follows the auxiliary. The flames have been extinguished. [Perfect Passive.] The horse had been driven too hard. [Pluperfect Passive.] When this happens, I shall have been attacked once too often. [Future Perfect Passive.] He could not move, having been crippled by a fall. [Perfect Passive Participle.] You ought to have been punished. [Perfect Passive Infinitive.] EXERCISE. In the following sentences select all the verbs, give the tense, voice, person, and number of each, and point out the subject with which it agrees. 1. My eldest daughter had finished her Latin lessons, and my son had finished his Greek. 2. There has been a heavy thunderstorm this afternoon. 3. A multitude of humming birds had been attracted thither. 4. Our men had besieged some fortified house near Oxford. 5. I really have had enough of fighting. 6. All shyness and embarrassment had vanished. 7. The great tree has been undermined by winter floods. 8. He had lost his way in the pine woods. 9. Thousands had sunk on the ground overpowered. 10. A storm of mingled rain and snow had come on. 11. We had left our two servants behind us at Calais. 12. The patience of Scotland had found an end at last. 13. His passion has cast a mist before his sense. 14. The surgeon has set my arm very skilfully and well. 15. A strange golden moonlight had crept up the skies. 16. You will have finished your task by Saturday. 17. The wind has howled all day. 18. He had gasped out a few incoherent words. PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES. 251 CHAPTER CXII. PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES. I. 474. Examine the following sentences : — I struck John. I was striking John. In these two short sentences the predicates (struck, was striking) both refer to past time, but there is an obvious difference in their sense. (1) The first predicate, struck, merely states a fact in past time. The form is that of the simple preterite tense. (2) The second predicate, was striking, describes an act as going on or progressing in past time. Hence it is called the progressive form of the preterite tense. It is, we observe, a verb-phrase made by prefixing the preterite of be (namely, was) to the present participle, striking. 475. The Progressive Form of a tense represents the action of the verb as going on or continuing at the time referred to. 476. The Progressive Form is a verb-phrase made by prefixing to the present participle some form of the verb to be. He is striking. They will be striking. They were striking. They have been striking. 477. The progressive forms of the present indicative active may be seen in the following table : — Present Tense, Progressive Form Singular Plural 1. I am reading. We are reading. 2. Thou art reading. You are reading. 3. He is reading. They are reading. 252 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXIII. PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES. II. 478. In the passive, the progressive verb-phrases are made by prefixing am being, is being, was being, etc., to the past participle. Thus, — I am always being tormented by this fellow. John is being educated in Germany. While the guard was being changed, the prisoner escaped. 479. Instead of the progressive form of the passive, English sometimes prefers a peculiar phrase consisting of the verbal noun in -ing preceded by some form of be. Thus, — The house is building. [Instead of : The house is being built.'] Arrangements were making for a grand celebration. [Instead of : Arrangements were being made.'] The book is now printing. [Instead of : is now being printed.] The word in -ing in these examples is not the present participle ; it is the verbal noun in -ing. The construction is in fact the same as that in "I went a-fishing," "They were going a-Maying," "The old year lies a-dying," etc., in which a is a contraction of the preposition on (" I went on fishing"). The omission of a- disguises the real construction. The use of the -ing phrase as a substitute for the passive is becoming less and less common, but the construction is often useful as well as elegant. Thus, if one wished to say that the building of a certain house had taken ten years, the progressive form of the passive would be intoler- able : — The house had been being built ten years. But the -ing construction would be both neat and concise: — The house had been ten years building. Care should be taken, however, to avoid ambiguity. It would never do to say " The boy was whipping " if one meant " The boy was being w/iipped." EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES. 253 CHAPTER CXIV. EMPHATIC VERB-PHRASES. 480. Compare the following sentences : — I study. I do study. In these two short sentences the predicates (study, do study) both refer to present time, but there is an obvious difference in their sense. (1) The first predicate, study, merely states a fact. We recognize the form as that of the simple present tense. (2) The second predicate, do study, states the same fact, but with emphasis : "I do study." Hence it is called the emphatic form of the present tense. It is a verb-phrase made by prefixing the present tense of do to the infinitive study (without the infinitive sign to). Similarly we may use an emphatic preterite, " I did study," instead of the simple preterite " I studied." 481. The Present or the Preterite of a verb in the active voice may be expressed with emphasis by means of a verb-phrase con- sisting of do or did and the infinitive without to. Such a phrase is called the Emphatic Form of the present or the preterite tense. 482. The emphatic form is confined to the present and preterite tenses of the active voice. In questions and in negative sentences, the emphatic forms are used without the effect of emphasis. See §§ M, 489, 4iiO. In older English the verb-phrase with do or did in declarative sentences often carried no emphasis whatever, but was merely a substitute for the simple present or preterite. 254 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. Change the progressive and the emphatic forms to the ordinary tense-forms. Tell which of the " emphatic " forms are really emphatic. 1. The church bells, with various tones, but all in harmony, were calling out and responding to one another. 2. A huge load of oak wood was passing through the gateway. 3. Many a chapel bell the hour is telling. 4. Edmund was standing thoughtfully by the fire. 5. A thick mist was gradually spreading over every object. 6. I have been walking by the river. 7. Merry it is in the good greenwood When the mavis and merle are singing, When the deer sweeps by, and the hounds are in cry. And the hunter's horn is ringing. 8. The morn is laughing in the sky. 9. Curly-headed urchins are gambolling before the door. IT. 1. The wind did blow, the cloak did fly. 2. Glossy bees at noon do fieldward pass. 3. A second time did Matthew stop. 4. He did come rather earlier than had been expected. 5. She did look a little hot and disconcerted for a few minutes. 6. The dogs did bark, the children screamed, Up flew the windows all. 7. The Nile does not always rise on the same day. 8. But Knowledge to their eyes her ample page, Rich with the spoils of time, did ne'er unroll. 9. Beasts did ieap and birds did sing, Trees did grow and plants did spring. 10. The noise of the wind and of the thunder did not awaken the king, for he was old and weary with his journey. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 255 CHAPTER CXV.* IMPERATIVE MOOD. 483. An Imperative Sentence expresses a command or an entreaty in the second person. Come here. Go to your mother. Love your enemies. Forgive us our sins. The form of the verb used in an Imperative Sentence is called the Imperative Mood. 484. The imperative mood has both voices, active and passive, but only one tense, — the present. It has both numbers, the singular and the plural, but only one person, the second. It has the same form for both the singular and the plural number. 485. In the Active Voice the Imperative has the same form as the second person plural of the present indicative. Indicative Mood Imperative Mood (Declarative Sentences) (Imperative Sentences) You learn your lessons well. Learn your lessons. You run very fast. Run home with this message. You waste your time. Waste nothing. Exception. — The imperative of the verb to be is be. Thus, — Be a man. Be diligent in business. Be good, and you '11 be happy. Be attentive. 486. In the Passive Voice the Imperative is expressed by a verb-phrase consisting of be and a past participle. Be killed at your post rather than run away. Be honored by your friends rather than by strangers. * Here pages 29-35 should be reviewed. 256 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 487. The emphatic form of the imperative consists of the imperative do, followed by the infinitive without to. Do go to market with me. Do come to my house this afternoon. Do try to be more careful. 488. The Subject of an Imperative is seldom expressed unless it is emphatic. The subject, when expressed, may precede the imper- ative : as, — you go, you read. In this use the subject is almost always emphasized in speaking. The construction is seldom heard except in familiar language. In older English the subject often followed the imperative : as, — go thou, go you, hear ye. This use is now confined to the solemn style and to poetry. 489. In modern English the so-called emphatic form with do is often used when the subject of the imperative is expressed : as, — - do you go. In this use the emphatic force of do has disappeared. 490. Negative commands or entreaties are commonly expressed by means of the so-called emphatic form with do, which in this use has lost its emphatic force. Do not skate on thin ice. Do not keep bad company. Do not interrupt a conversation. Do not talk so idly. The subject is very rarely expressed except in familiar language : as, — Don't you believe him. Don't you do it. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 257 491. In older English, negative commands and en- treaties are often expressed by the simple imperative, followed by not. The subject, when expressed, pre- cedes the not. Thus, — Look not upon the wine when it is red. Speak not, but go. Judge not, that ye be not judged. If sinners entice thee, consent thou not. This construction is common in the solemn style and in poetry. EXERCISE. In each of the following imperative sentences pick out the verb. Mention the subject, when it is expressed ; when not, supply it. 1. Let us have a walk through Kensington Gardens. 2. Do not forget the poor. 3. Hope not, base man, unquestioned hence to go ! 4. Would ye be blest? Despise low joys, low gains. 5. Summon Colonel Atherton without a moment's delay. 6. Look up and be not afraid, but hold forth thy hand. 7. Mount ye ! spur ye ! skirr the plain ! 8. O, listen, listen, ladies gay ! 9. Toll ye the church-bell sad and slow. 10. You, Herbert and Luffness, alight, And bind the wounds of yonder knight. 11. Stay with us. Go not to Wittenberg. 12. Listen to the rolling thunder. 13. Call off your dogs ! 14. Keep thine elbow from my side, friend. 15. Do not leave me to perish in this wilderness. 16. Saddle my horses ! Call my train together. 258 TEE MOTEER TONGUE. EXERCISE.* You have now studied the inflections of the verb in the indica- tive mood (that is, in the set of forms used in most sentences) and the imperative mood. You are acquainted with the present, preterite, and future tenses ; with the complete tenses ; with the infinitive and participle ; with the progressive and emphatic verb- phrases. You have learned to distinguish person and number. In the following passages tell all you can about the form and construction of each verb and verb-phrase. 1. The more I give to thee, the more I have. 2. Comes the kincr back from Wales ? 3. Dost thou not hear them call ? 4. The more we stay, the stronger grows our foe. 5. I know not, gentlemen, what you intend. 6. How long hast thou to serve, Francis ? 7. A great portion of my time was passed in a deep and mournful silence. 8. The day, which had been tempestuous, was succeeded by a heavy and settled rain. 9. His courage was not staggered, even for an instant. 10. I was startled by the sound of trumpets. 11. The company was surprised to see the old man so merry, when suffering such great losses ; and the mandarin himself, coming out, asked him, how he, who had grieved so much, and given way to calamity the day before, could now be so cheerful? " You ask me one question," cries the old man ; " let me answer by asking another : Which is the more durable, a hard thing or a soft thing ; that which resists or that which makes no resist- ance?" — "A hard thing, to be sure," replied the mandarin. — " There you are wrong," returned Shingfu. " I am now four- score years old ; and, if you look in my mouth, you will find that I have lost all my teeth, but not a bit of my tongue." * Here pages 204-57 should be reviewed. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 259 CHAPTER CXVI. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 492. Examine the following sentence : — The general falling, the troops became discouraged. In this sentence the noun general is not the subject or the object of any verb, nor is it in any other noun con- struction which we have so far studied. The participle falling obviously belongs to it. The phrase the general falling modifies the predicate became discouraged, by giving the time or perhaps the cause of the discouragement. We might, indeed, substitute an adverbial phrase of time for this participial phrase with- out any material change in the sense : — On the fall of the general the soldiers became discouraged. [Here became discouraged is modified by the phrase on the fall of the general.l Other sentences illustrating this use of nouns and participles are the following : — His friends requesting it, he surrendered his office. [Here the phrase his friends requesting it is equivalent to because his friends requested it: that is, it expresses cause.] The time having come, he mounted the scaffold. [Here the phrase the time having come is equivalent to when the time had come : that is, it expresses time.] He began to speak, the audience listening intently. [Here the phrase the audience listening intent!)/ expresses neither time nor cause, but merely one of the circumstances that attended the oration.] We may, then, formulate the following rule : — 260 TEE MOTHER TONGUE. 493. A noun or pronoun, with a participle in agreement, may express the cause, time, or circumstances of an action. This is called the Absolute Construction. The noun or pronoun is in the nominative case and is called a Nominative Absolute. 494. The absolute construction of the nominative is per- fectly correct in English ; but care should be taken not to use it with great frequency, since it is a loose and inexact way of designating the relations of thought, and an excessive employment of it tends to clumsiness and obscurity.* 495. It is not always necessary that a participle should be expressed in the nominative absolute construc- tion. Sometimes two substantives, or a substantive and an adjective may be used together in this manner. In such cases, however, it is always easy to supply the participle being to separate the two. Expressions of this kind are not numerous, but some of them are highly idiomatic. Thus, — Stephen once king, anarchy reigned. [That is : Stephen once being king, or, in other words, As soon as Stephen became king.] The rain over, we ventured out. The gate once open, the cattle came trooping out of the yard. We stood silent, our eyes full of tears. * Students of Latin will see that the construction is of the same kind as the ablative absolute, so characteristic of Latin style. The absolute case in English was originally the dative. All dative case-endings, however, dis- appeared, so that the dative of nouns became indistinguishable from the nominative ; and hence the absolute case came to be felt as a nominative, and even pronouns (which kept a dative distinct in form from the nomina- tive) have followed the analogy of nouns. Thus, we say "He being present, the game went on," and not " Him being present, the game went on," although him is the old dative of the personal pronoun he. NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE. 261 EXERCISE. In the following sentences point out all instances of the nominative absolute, and tell whether each expresses the time, place, or circumstance of the action. 1. Navigation was at a stop, our ships neither coming in nor going out as before. 2. Night coming on, we sought refuge from the gathering storm. 3. The song ended, she hastily relinquished her seat to an- other lady. 4. The house consisted of seven rooms, the dairy and cellar included. 5. The resolution being thus taken, they set out the next day. 6. They had some difficulty in passing the ferry at the river- side, the ferryman being afraid of them. 7. She sat beneath the birchen tree, Her elbow resting on her knee. 8. The signal of battle being given with two cannon shot, we marched in order of battalia down the hill. 9. The dark lead-colored ocean lay stretched before them, its dreary expanse concealed by lowering clouds. 10. Next Anger rushed, his eyes on fire. 11. The last of these voyages not proving very fortunate, I grew weary of the sea. 12. The two Scottish generals, Macbeth and Banquo, return- ing victorious from this great battle, their way lay over a blasted heath. 13. The cottage was situated in a valley, the hills being for the most part crowned with rich and verdant foliage, their sides covered with vineyards and corn, and a clear, transparent rivulet murmuring along from east to west. 14. This done, the conspirators separated. 15. This being understood, the next step is easily taken. 16. This said, he picked up his pack and trudged on. 262 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXVII. COGNATE OBJECT. 496. Some verbs that are regularly intransitive may be followed by a noun which resembles a direct object. The horse ran a race. The general smiled a sickly smile. He wept bitter tears. In all these examples, the noun that follows the verb simply expresses once more, in the form of a noun, the action already expressed by the verb. Thus, the race is, to all intents and purposes, the running of the horse ; the tears are the weeping ; the sickly smile repeats the same idea already expressed in the verb smiled. Nouns thus used are called cognate objects. 497. A verb that is regularly intransitive sometimes takes as a kind of object a noun whose meaning closely resembles its own. A noun in this construction is called the Cognate Object of the verb and is in the Objective Case.* The neuter pronoun it is used as a cognate object in such expressions as go it, he went it, and the like. These are colloquial or vulgar, but extremely idiomatic. The idiom was formerly much commoner than at present. 498. A cognate object merely repeats in some way the meaning of a verb whose sense is already complete. A direct object completes the meaning of a verb by denot- ing that which receives or is produced by the action (see § 156). * Cognate means " related." The name is given to an object of this kind because of the close relation between its meaning and that of the verb. PREDICATE OBJECTIVE. 263 CHAPTER CXVIII. PREDICATE OBJECTIVE. 499. Examine the following sentence : — The people elected Adams president. We observe that the transitive verb elected has two objects, (1) the direct object, Adams, and (2) a second noun, president, referring to the same person as the direct object and completing the sense of the predicate. This second noun we may call a predicate objective. 500. Verbs of choosing, calling, naming, making, and think- ing, may take two objects referring to the same person or thing. The first of these is the Direct Object, and the second, which completes the sense of the predicate, is called a Predicate Objective. The predicate objective is often called the complementary object, because it completes the sense of the verb. It is sometimes called the objective attribute. Examples may be seen in the following sentences : — Washington called the man friend. The nobles made the prince their king. I call this headache a nuisance. Csesar appointed Brutus governor of a province. I thought him a rascal. The judge deemed him a criminal. The club chose Thomas secretary. 501. With some verbs an adjective may serve as a predicate objective. Tims, — His rashness makes his friends uneasy. His companions thought him gentlemanly. I call such conduct unwise. 264 THE MOTHER TONGUE. The fact that in these sentences the adjective stands in the same construction as the predicate objective may be seen by comparing the examples below : — Adjective as Predicate Objective Predicate Objective His companions thought him a His companions thought him gentleman. gentlemanly. I call such conduct folly. I call such conduct unwise. 502. Predicate objectives must be carefully distinguished from nouns in apposition with the direct object. Appositive Predicate Objective The pirates charged Kidd, their The pirates elected Kidd cap- captain, with treachery. tain. (1) In the first sentence the appositive captain is simply added to Kidd to describe Kidd. It might be omitted, without making the sense incomplete : — The pirates charged Kidd with treachery. (2) In the second sentence the predicate objective, cap- tain, is not a mere descriptive word, to be omitted at our pleasure. If we cut it out, the sense is incomplete. " The pirates elected Kidd " would at once suggest the question: " Elected him what ? Captain? or cook? or commodore ? " The predicate objective completes the mean- ing of the verb, forming a vital part of the statement. In this construction the direct object is, strictly speaking, the object of the whole idea expressed by the verb and the predicate adjective or objective. Compare " He made the child quiet " with "He quieted the child " ; " He made the wall white " with " Hewhitened the wall." Made quiet = quieted; made white =whitened ; and, since child is the object of quieted and wall the object of whitened, these same nouns are clearly the objects of the phrases made quiet and made white. PREDICATE OBJECTIVE. 265 EXERCISES. I. Fill each blank with a predicate objective! 1. The boys elected Will Sampson of the boat club. 2. I always thought your brother an excellent . 3. Do you call the man your ? 4. The governor appointed Smith . 5. Everybody voted the talkative fellow a 6. The pirates chose Judson . 7. The hunter called the animal a . 8. My parents named my brother . 9. I cannot think him such a . 10. The merchant's losses made him a poor . 11. You called my brother a . Fill each blank with a predicate adjective. 1. A good son makes his mother . 2. The jury declares the prisoner . 3. This noise will surely drive me . 4. I cannot pronounce you of this accusation. 5. The sedate burghers thought the gay youngster very . 6. The travellers thought the river . 7. Our elders often think our conduct . 8. I call the boy for his age. 9. Exercise makes us 10. Nothing makes one so as a good dinner. 11. Do you pronounce the prisoner ? 12. Do you think us ? III. Analyze the sentences in I and II, according to the plan described on page 131. 266 THE MOTHER TONGUE. IV. Pick out (1) transitive verbs, (2) direct objects, arid (3) predicate objectives. 1. Pope had now declared himself a poet. 2. The people call it a backward year. 3. He called them untaught knaves. 4. He could make a small town a great city. 5. She called him the best child in the world. 6. A man must be born a poet, but he may make himself an orator. 7. Fear of death makes many a man a coward. 8. Ye call me chief. 9. The Poles always elected some nobleman their king. 10. He cared not, indeed, that the world should call him a miser ; he cared not that the world should call him a churl ; he cared not that the world should call him odd. V. The predicate objective becomes a predicate nominative when the verb is changed from the active voice to the passive. Active Voice Passive Voice {Predicate Objective) (Predicate Nominative) The people elected Grant presi- Grant was elected president by dent. the people. I named my dog Jack. My dog was named Jack. They think such conduct unwise. Such conduct is thought un- wise. The noise drove me mad. I was driven mad by the noise. Change the verbs in Exercises n and iv, above, to the passive voice. What happens to the predicate objective or adjective ? RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 267 CHAPTER CXIX.* RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 503. A relative pronoun introduces a subordinate clause, which it attaches to the main clause by referring directly back to a substantive in the main clause. This substantive is called the antecedent of the relative. 504. A Relative Pronoun must agree with its Antecedent in Gender, Number, and Person ; but its Case is determined by the construction of its own clause and has nothing to do with the case of the antecedent. 505. The simple relative pronouns are who, which, that, as, and what. Who and which are inflected as follows : — Sixg. and Pl. — Nam., who ; gen., -whose ; obj., whom. Sing, and Pl. — Nom., which; gen., whose; obj., which. That, as, and what have no inflection. They have the same form for both nominative and objective and are not used in the genitive case. As may be used as a relative pronoun when such stands in the main clause. 506. Examples of who, which, that, and as, in various constructions may be seen in the following sentences : — He bowed to every man whom he met. Elizabeth was a queen icho could endure no opposition. The stone which you have picked up is not gold ore. The king that succeeded Henry V. was a mere child. The house that I bought last week has burned down. Such money as I have is at your service. * Here pages 117-19 should be reviewed. 268 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 507. Who is either masculine or feminine, which is neuter, that and as are of all three genders. The sentences in § 506 illustrate the agreement of the relative with its antecedent in gender. 508. The Plural of the Relative Pronouns does not differ in form from the singular. If the relative is the subject of a verb, however, the verb-form must be singular or plural according as the relative pronoun refers to a singular or a plural antecedent. Hence the rule that a relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in number is of importance. The boy who comes to school late will be punished. [Singular.] All the boys who come to school late will be punished. [Plural.] 509. Relative Pronouns have no distinction of form for the three Persons ; but they are regarded as agreeing in person with their antecedents. Hence a verb which has for its subject a relative pro- noun is in the same person as the antecedent of the relative. Thus, — Why do you attack me, who am your friend? [First Person.] It is you ivho are to blame. [Second Person.] He who speaks to them shall die. [Third Person.] 510. The Case of a Relative Pronoun has nothing to do with its antecedent, but depends on the construction of its own clause. The general who was appointed immediately resigned. [Who is in the nominative, being the subject of teas appointed."] He appointed the general, who immediately resigned. [Who is in the nominative, being the subject of resigned, although its antecedent general is in the objective case.] These men whom you see standing about are waiting for work. [Whom is in the objective case, being the direct object of see, The antecedent, men, is, on the contrary, in the nominative.] RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 269 511. A Relative Pronoun in the Objective Case is often omitted . Relative Pronoun Expressed Relative Pronoun Omitted The stranger bowed to every man The stranger bowed to every whom he met. man he met. The dog that you bought of Tom The dog you bought of Tom has run away. has run away. The listener heard every word The listener heard every word that he said. he said. This omission of the relative is common in conver- sation and in an easy and informal style of writing. In case of doubt, express the pronoun. In analyzing a sentence in which the relative is omitted, it should be supplied. EXERCISES. I. In Exercise in, pp. 118, 119, pick out all the relative pronouns ; tell their number, person, and gender ; desig- nate their antecedents ; explain their case. n. Review Exercise n, p. 118. Give your reason for using one relative rather than another. in. Make twelve sentences containing the pronouns — who, whom, which, whose, of which, that, as. IV. In Exercises n, m, pp. 118, 119, see how many rela- tives may be omitted without spoiling the sentences. 270 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXX. GENDER OF RELATIVES. 512. The relative tvhich is commonly used in referring to the lower animals unless these are regarded as per- sons. This is true even when he or she is used of the same animals (see p. 143). Thus, — The horse which I bought yesterday is a good trotter. He can go a mile in less than three minutes. The genitive form whose is freely used. of all living creatures, whether they would be designated by the pronoun he, by she, or by it. Thus, — The lady whose purse was lost offered a large reward. The general whose men were engaged in this battle was com- plimented by the commander-in-chief. The butterfly, whose wing was broken, fell to the ground. It was picked up immediately by one of the birds. In the case of things without animal life, however, the tendency is to use of which instead of whose, unless euphony forbids.* Thus, of the sentences that follow, though both are grammatical, the second is more in accordance with modern usage : — The tree, whose top had been struck by lightning, was cut down. The tree, the top of which had been struck by lightning, was cut down. The choice between whose and of which is rather a question of style than of grammar. A cultivated ear is the best guide. * WTiose is particularly common when the relative is restrictive (§ 514). DESCRIPTIVE, RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES. 271 CHAPTER CXXI. DESCRIPTIVE AND RESTRICTIVE RELATIVES. 513. Relative Pronouns have two uses, which may be distinguished in the sentences that follow : — The hat, which is black, belongs to me. The hat which is black belongs to me. In the first sentence, the relative clause (which is black) merely describes the hat by adding a fact about it. In speaking, a pause is made between the antecedent (Jiat) and the relative [which). In the second sentence, the relative clause is very closely connected with the antecedent (hat), and there is no pause between them. The relative clause serves to designate the particular hat which is meant ; that is, the relative confines or restricts the meaning of the noun. In the first of these uses, the relative is called a descrip- tive relative ; in the second, a restrictive relative. 514. A Relative Pronoun that serves merely to introduce a descriptive fact is called a Descriptive Relative. A Relative Pronoun that introduces a clause confining or limiting the application of the antecedent is called a Restrictive Relative. 515. A descriptive relative is preceded by a comma ; a restrictive relative is not. 516. Who, which, and that are all common as restrictive relatives ; but some writers prefer that, especially in the nominative case. In Exercises n and in, pp. 118, 119, explain why each relative is descriptive or restrictive. 272 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXXIL THE RELATIVE PRONOUN "WHAT." 517. The relative pronoun what is often equivalent to that which. Thus, in the second of the sentences below, what has exactly the sense of that which in the first : — 1. The fire destroyed that which was in the building. [That, the antecedent of which, is a demonstrative pronoun and is the direct object of destroyed. The relative pronoun which is the subject of was.~\ 2. The fire destroyed what was in the building. [What, being equivalent to that which, has two constructions. It serves both as the direct object of destroyed and as the subject of was."] 518. In this use, what has a double construction: — (1) the construction of the omitted or implied antecedent that; (2) the construction of the relative which. In parsing what, mention both of its constructions. EXERCISE. Change each what to that which. Explain the con- structions of that and which. 1. We seldom imitate what we do not love. 2. He gives us what our wants require. 3. What 's mine is yours, and what is yours is mine. 4. What you have said may be true. 5. What I have is at your service. 6. The spendthrift has wasted what his father laid up. 7. What I earn supports the family. 8. What supports the family is Tom's wages. COMPOUND RELATIVES. 273 CHAPTER CXXIII. COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 519. The Compound Relative Pronouns are formed by adding ■ever or -soever to who, which, and what. The forms in -soever are used in the solemn style or for special emphasis. 520. The compound relative pronouns are thus inflected : — Singular and Plural Nominative whoever (whosoever) whichever (whichsoever) Genitive whosever (whosesoever) Objective whomever (whomsoever) whichever (whichsoever) Whatever (ivhatsoever) has no inflection. The nomi- native and the objective are alike, and the genitive is supplied by the phrase of whatever (of whatsoever). The phrase of ivhichever (of whichsoever) is used instead of whosever exactly as of which is used instead of whose (p. 270). 521. The Compound Relative Pronouns may include or imply their own Antecedents and hence may have a double construction. Whoever sins, he shall die. [Here he, the antecedent of who- ever, is the subject of shall die, and whoever is the subject of sins.'] Whoever sins shall die. [Here the antecedent he is omitted, being implied in whoever. Whoever has therefore a double con- struction, being the subject both of si?is and of shall die.] Whoever runs away is a coward. Whatever he does is right. Whichever he chooses will be right. 274 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXXIV. RELATIVE ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 522. Which, what, whichever, and whatever are often used as adjectives. Thus, — He gave me what money was on hand. I will take whichever seat is vacant. He has lost whatever friends he had. 523. A noun limited by the adjectives what, whatever, whichever, may have the same double construction that these relatives have when they are used as pronouns (§§ 518, 521). Thus, in the first sentence above, what money is both the direct object of gave and the subject of was. 524. A number of adverbs are closely related in mean- ing to the relative pronouns. Thus, in The town where this took place is a frontier settlement, the word where is an adverb of place, but it is connected with town in much the same way in which a relative pronoun is connected with its antecedent. Indeed we might substitute for where the phrase in which. Similarly, The time tvhen \_=at which] this took place was five o'clock. 525. The most important relative adverbs are : — Where, whence, whither, wherever, when, whenever, while, as, how, why, before, after, till, until, since. Such words connect subordinate clauses with main clauses as relative pronouns do. Hence they are called relative or conjunctive adverbs. They will be further studied on page 296. RELATIVES. 275 EXERCISES. I. In each of the following sentences explain the con- struction of that and of which. Then change that which to what and explain the double construction of what. 1. That which man has done, man can do. 2. I will describe only that which I have seen. 3. That which was left was sold for old iron. 4. That which inspired the inventor was the hope of final success. 5. Captivity is that which I fear most. 6. That which we have, we prize not. That which we lack, we value. 7. I thought of that which the old sailor had told of storms and shipwrecks. 8. Give careful heed to that which I say. 9. That which offended Bertram most was his cousin's sneer. 10. That which is done cannot be undone. Substitute whatever for that which whenever you can. ii. Explain the construction of the relatives. 1. Whoever he is, I will loose his bonds. 2. Give this message to whomever you see. 3. Give this letter to anyone whom you see. 4. Whatsoever he doeth shall prosper. 5. Everything that he does shall prosper. 6. I owe to you whatever success I have had. 7. I owe to you any success that I have had. 8. Whoever deserts you, I will remain faithful. 9. He gave a full account of whatever he had seen. 10. Whichever road you take, you will find it rough and lonely. 276 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXXV.* INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, ETC. 526. The pronouns who, which, and what are often used in asking questions. 527. In this use they are called interrogative pronouns. Who is your best friend ? Whose coat is this ? Whom do you see in the street? What is the name of your sled? Which of the three is the best scholar? 528. The forms of the interrogative pronouns are the same as those of the corresponding relatives (see p. 267). 529. The objective whom often begins a question (as in the third example above). In such cases, care should be taken not to write who. So also in such sentences as " Whom did you give it to?" where whom is the object of the preposition. 530. Which and what are often used as interrogative adjectives. Thus, — Which seat do you prefer? In what state were you born? 531. The interrogative adjective what is common in exclamatory sentences (see p. 31). Thus, — What a rascal he is ! What weather we are having I What heroes they are ! In this use what in the singular is often followed by the indefinite article a or an. * Here pages 27, 28 should be reviewed. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 211 532. Where, when, whence, whither, how, why, may be used as interrogative adverbs. Thus, — When did you visit Naples ? How do you spell this word? EXERCISES. I. Write fifteen interrogative sentences, using all the forms of the interrogative pronouns and adjectives. II. Give the gender, number, and case of the interroga- tive pronouns, and tell what nouns the interrogative adjectives limit. Mention the interrogative adverbs. 1. Who told you that I was going to-SaihJ?, 2. What is the meaning of this terrible- summons ? 3. Who are these strange-looking men? 4. What dost thou want ? Whence didst thou come ? >—5. What is the creature doing here ? 6. Which of you is William Tell? 7. Where did we go on that memorable night? What did we see ? What did we do ? Or rather, what did we not see, and what did we not do? 8. Of what crime am I accused ? Where are the witnesses ? 9. Whom shall you invite to the wedding? 10. Whose are the gilded tents that crowd the way Where all was waste and silent yesterday ? 11. Whom did you see at my uncle's ? 12. What strange uncertainty is in thy looks? 13. Which of you trembles not that looks on me? III. Write ten exclamatory sentences beginning with what. 278 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXXVI. THE INFINITIVE AS A NOUN. 533. The infinitive is often used as a pure noun. 534. The Infinitive, with or without an object or modifiers, may be used as the Subject of a Sentence. To steal is_disgraceful. To kill a man is a crime. • To read carefully improves the mind. The infinitive as subject is especially common with is and other forms of the verb be. 535. The Infinitive may be used as a Predicate Nominative. His fault is to talk too much. His custom is to ride daily. An infinitive often stands in the predicate when the neuter pronoun it is used as the subject of a sentence. Thus, — It is good to be here. [Instead of : To be here is good.] It is a crime to kill a man. It is human to err ; it is divine to forgive. In this construction the infinitive is still in sense the subject, for it has little meaning and serves merely to introduce the sentence. In this use it is often called an expletive (or "filler"). 536. An infinitive may be used as the object of the prepositions about, hut, except. Thus, — I am about to return home. There was nothing to do but to acquiesce. She did nothing but cry (or, except to cry). INFINITIVE AS NOUN. 279 EXERCISES. I. Replace each infinitive by a verbal noun in -ing, and each noun in -ing by an infinitive. Thus, — To laugh is peculiar to man. Laughing is peculiar to man. Tojish is great sport. Fishing is great sport. 1. To toil is the lot of mankind. 2. To hunt was Roderick's chief delight. 3. To aim and to hit the mark are not the same thing. 4. To swim is easy enough if one has confidence. 5. Wrestling is a favorite rnral sport in the South of England. 6. To cross the river was Washington's next task. 7. To be poor is no disgrace. 8. Begging was the poor creature's last resource. 9. Waiting for a train is tedious business. 10. To desert one's flag is disgraceful. 11. Feeling fear is not being a coward. II. Analyze the sentences in I, above. in. Explain the construction of the infinitives. • 1. To save money is sometimes the hardest thing in the world. 2. It is delightful to hear the sound of the sea. 3. It was my wish to join the expedition. 4. Pity it was to hear the elfin's wail. 5. To be faint-hearted is indeed to be unfit for our trade. 6. Her pleasure was to ride the young colts and to scour the plains like Camilla. 7. 'Tis thine, king, the afflicted to redress. 8. The queen's whole design is to act the part of mediator. 280 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXXVIL* THE INFINITIVE AS A MODIFIER. 537. The infinitive with to is common as an adverbial modifier of verbs and adjectives and as an adjective modifier of nouns. 538. In each of the following sentences the verb of the predicate is followed by an infinitive : — 1. The cat hastened to climb a tree. 2. The ogre ceased to laugh. 3. The whole company began to shout. 4. The midshipman tried to do his duty. 5. Everybody wishes to enjoy life. 6. Antony prompted the Romans to avenge Csesar. 7. I permitted him to call me friend. 8. We go to school to learn. 9. Brutus addressed the people to calm their agitation. 10. The lawyer rose to address the court. 11. He bent his bow to shoot a crow. 12. You must not sell the horse to buy the saddle. The force of the infinitive varies considerably in the different sentences. In Nos. 1-7 the infinitive completes or defines the meaning of the verb. In this use infinitives are called complementary infini tives. The verbs of Nos. 1-7 do not make complete and definite sense without the added infinitive ; whereas in Nos. 8-12 the part of the sentence that precedes the infinitive makes complete sense by itself. * For the so-called infinitive clause, see pp. 309, 310. INFINITIVE AS MODIFIER. 281 The infinitive in these cases does not serve to complete or define the sense of the verb, but to add something new — namely, the purpose of the action, — to a statement already complete. Both the complementary infinitive * and the infinitive of purpose may be regarded as adverbial phrases modifying the verb. 539. An Infinitive may modify a verb by completing its mean- ing, or by expressing the purpose of the action. 540. An Infinitive may be used to modify the meaning of a noun or an adjective. In this use the infinitive is said to depend on the noun or the adjective which it limits. It may be regarded as an adjective modifier of the noun and an adverbial modifier of the adjective. Nouns Adjectives Desire to rule is natural to men. All men are eager to rule. Quickness to learn was his strong He was quick to see the point. point. There is no need to summon assist- It was necessary to call for help. ance. The ability to laugh is peculiar to Only human beings are able to mankind. laugh. His will to do right was strong. He was willing to try anything. * After some verbs, the infinitive approaches the construction of a pure noun. In such case it is often regarded as the object of the verb. Thus, — "I desire to see you " (compare " I desire a sight of you "). It is simpler, however, to regard all such infinitives as complementary phrases and to treat them as adverbial modifiers. For it is impossible to distinguish the construction of the infinitive after certain adjectives (for example, in " I am eager to see you ") from its construction after such verbs as wish and desire. 282 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Explain the construction of each infinitive, — as noun, as complementary infinitive, as infinitive of purpose, as modifier of a noun or an adjective. 1. All men strive to excel. 2. I have several times taken up my pen to write to you. 3. The moderate of the other party seem content to have a peace. 4. There was not a moment to be lost. 5. He chanced to enter my office one day. 6. The lawyer had no time to spare. 7. They tried hard to destroy the rats and mice. 8. This was very terrible to see. 9. He continued to advance in spite of every obstacle. 10. Even the birds refused to sing on that sullen day. 11. The bullets began to whistle past them. 12. The fox was quick to see this chance to escape. 13. That gaunt and dusty chamber in Granby Street seemed to smell of seaweed. 14. Resolved to win, he meditates the way. 15. The explorer climbs a peak to survey the country before him. n. Make sentences containing each of these words fol- lowed by an infinitive : — (a) Verbs : begins, try, hoped, omits, endeavored, neglects, resolved, strove, undertook, determined, dares, venture, desires, wishes, longs, feared. (b) Adjectives and Participles : able, ready, unwilling, glad, loth, reluctant, eager, sorry, disposed, determined, pleased, shocked, gratified, content, disturbed. POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES. 283 CHAPTER CXXVIII. POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES. 541. Several auxiliary verbs are used to form verb-phrases indicating ability, possibility, obligation, or necessity. Such verb-phrases are called potential phrases, that is, " phrases of possibility." 542. The auxiliary verbs used in potential phrases are : may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. They are called modal auxiliaries and are followed by the infini- tive without to.* I may give him a small present. He can overcome all his difficulties. We might help them if we tried. They could catch fish in the river. If he should fall, he would be killed. 543. Potential phrases show a great variety of forms, — present, preterite, and perfect, active and passive. Thus, I may send, I might send, I may have sent, I might have sent, I may be sent, I might be sent, I may have been sent, I might have been sent, etc. Such phrases may easily be arranged in paradigms, like that on page 246. They are often called, collectively, the potential mood. * The fact that give, etc., in such phrases as can give, are infinitives is not apparent from modern English. We use the verb-phrase as a whole without thinking of its parts or their grammatical relation to each other. A study of older English, however, makes the origin and history of the phrases clear. We may also see the nature of these constructions by com- paring " I can strike " with " I am able to strike," " I may strike " with "I am permitted to strike," "I must strike" with "I am obliged to strike," and so on. 284 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 544. Can is regularly used to indicate that the subject is able to do something. May is frequently used to indi- cate that the subject is permitted to do something. Thus, "You can cut down that tree " means " You are able to cut it down," that is, you have strength or skill enough to do so ; whereas " You may cut down that tree " means simply " You are allowed or permitted to cut it down," and implies nothing as to your ability to carry out the permission. Hence, in asking permission to do anything, the proper form is, " May I? " not " Can I? " For example, "May I go to the party this evening?" is the correct form, and not " Can I go to the party this evening? " Note. — The use of can for may to express permission is a very common form of error, but should he carefully avoided. With negatives, however, can is the common form rather than may, except in questions. Thus, — Question : " May I not {or May n't I) go to the party this evening?" Answer: "No, you cannot go this evening; hut if there is a party next week you may go to that." 545. May often indicates possibility or doubtful intention. I may go to town this afternoon. [That is, It is possible that I shall go.] 546. Must expresses necessity or obligation. Thus, — Brave men must meet death fearlessly. You must not disobey the law. Must, though originally a preterite tense, is in mod- ern English almost always used as a present. 547. Necessity in past time may be expressed by had to with the infinitive. He had to pay dear for his sport. 548. The irregular verb ought expresses moral obliga- tion, as distinguished from mere necessity. POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES. 285 Ought with the present infinitive expresses a moral obligation in present time. Ought with the perfect infinitive expresses a moral obligation in past time. Children ought to obey their parents. [Present.] They ought not to act so selfishly. [Present.] He ought not to have made such a mistake. [Past.] The general ought to have consulted the commander-in-chief. 549. Ought (like must) was originally a preterite, but in modern English is always used in a present sense. 550. Had should never be prefixed to ought. Correct Incorrect I ought to go to school. I had ought to go to school. John ought not to have hit me. John hadn't ought to have hit me. He ought to go, ought n't he ? He ought to go, had n't he ? 551. The preterite should is often used in the sense of ought. Thus, — One should always do one's best. You should have given me the letter. 552. In subordinate clauses after if, though, when, until, etc., shall and should are used in all three persons unless the subject is thought of as wishing or consenting, when will and would are correct. If he shall offend, he will be punished. [Futurity.] If he should offend, he would be punished. [Futurity.] If you should try, you could do this. [Futurity.] If / would consent, all would be well. [Willingness.] If you would agree, I should be glad. [Willingness.] When duty or obligation is expressed, should is of course the auxiliary for all three persons (see § 551), in both principal and subordinate clauses. 286 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISES. I. Pick out the potential verb-phrases. Explain the meaning of each phrase. 1. She might have held back a little longer. 2. The French officer might as well have said it all aloud. 3. Is it possible that you can have talked so wildly ? 4. An honest man may take a knave's advice. 5. If he cannot conquer he may properly retreat. 6. I arrived at Oxford with a stock of erudition that micrht have puzzled a doctor, and a degree of ignorance of which a schoolboy would have been ashamed. 7. From the hall door she could look down the park. 8. Early activity may prevent late and fruitless violence. 9. Lear at first could not believe his eyes or ears. 10. May I come back to tell you how I succeed ? 11. We might have had quieter neighbors. 12. It must then have been nearly midnight. 13. We must have walked at least a mile in this wood. 14. When bad men combine, the good must associate. 15. I ought to be allowed a reasonable freedom. 16. He must and shall come back. 17. Something must have happened to Erne. 18. He would not believe this story, even if you should prove it by trustworthy witnesses. 19. Would you help me if I should ask it? 20. Should you care if I were to fail? 21. You should obey me if you were my son. 22. If he should visit Chicago, would he call on me? 23. I would go if the others would. II. Analyze the sentences in I, above. SUBJUNCTIVE AWOD:' j 2&7 *OS HHGBUBS, CRU CHAPTER CXXIX. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 553. Besides the inflections of the indicative and the imperative, the English verb has a set of forms which belong to the subjunctive mood. 554. In older English the special subjunctive forms were common hi a variety of uses, and this is still true of poetry and the solemn style. In ordinary modern prose, however, such forms are rare, and in conversa- tion they are hardly ever heard, except in the case of the copula be. 555. The main forms of the subjunctive mood may be seen in the following paradigm. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD Present Tense Singular Number Plural Number 1. If I be. If we be. 2. If thou be. If you (or ye) be. 3. If he be. If they be. Preterite Tense Singular Number Plural Number 1. If I were. If we were. 2. If thou wert. If you (or ye) were. 3. If he were. If they were. If is prefixed to each of these forms because it is in clauses beginning with if that the subjunctive is com- monest in modern English. If however, is of course no part of the subjunctive inflection. 288 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 556. In other verbs, the subjunctive active has the same forms as the indicative, except in the second and third per- sons singular of the present tense, which are like the first person : — Indicative Subjunctive 1. I find. If I find. 2. Thou findest. If thou find. 3. He finds. If he, find. 557. In the passive subjunctive, the subjunctive forms of the copula (§ 555) are used as auxiliaries : — Present, if I be struck ; Preterite, if I were struck. 558. Progressive verb-phrases in the subjunctive may be formed by means of the copula : — Present, if I be strik- ing ; Preterite, if I were striking. The present is rare ; the preterite is in common use. 559. In the future and future perfect verb-phrases the auxiliary is shall for all three persons. Thus, — If I (he) shall strike, if thou shalt strike. If I (he) shall have struck, if thou shalt have struck. Volition, however, may be expressed by will. If I will consent, he will begin at once. Nothing can be done if you will not help. If Jack will study, he can learn his lesson. In an advanced study of English grammar it is worth while to attempt to distinguish the subjunctive from the indicative by historical and logical tests, even when its forms are identical with those of the indicative. But the beginner should not be expected to split hairs. It is enough if he learns to recognize those forms in which the subjunctive really differs from the indicative. When he comes to study the constructions of the subjunctive in later chapters, he will be able in some cases to distinguish between the subjunctive and the indicative character of certain identical forms, but till then the matter should be left largely in abeyance. SUBJUNCTIVE IN WISHES. 289 CHAPTER CXXX. SUBJUNCTIVE IN WISHES AND EXHORTATIONS. 560. The English subjunctive was once very common in both dependent and independent clauses ; but it is now confined to a few special constructions. 561. The Subjunctive is often used in Wishes or Prayers. Heaven forgive him! God forbid ! The Lord help the poor crea- God grant us peace ! tures ! The saints protect you ! The Lord be with you ! Oh ! that my father were here ! God help our country ! Oh ! that money grew on trees ! In the first seven examples, the wish is expressed in an independent sentence. In the last two, the construction is subordinate, — the that- clause being the object of an unexpressed " I wish " (or the like). The verbs may and would in such expressions of wish as " May all go well with you ! " " Would that I were with him ! " were originally sub- junctives. Would stands for I would, that is, I should wish. 562. Exhortations in the first person plural sometimes take the subjunctive in elevated or poetical style. Thus, Strike we a blow for freedom ! [That is, in plain prose, Let us strike a blow for freedom !] In ordinary language such exhortations are regularly expressed by let us followed by the infinitive. Thus, — Let us tell our friends. Let us seek for gold. Let us try this road. Let us not be cowardly. In this construction let is a verb in the imperative, us is its object, and the infinitive (tell, seek, without to) depends on let. 290 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXXXI. SUBJUNCTIVE IN CONCESSIONS, CONDITIONS, ETC. 563. The subjunctive is used after though, although, to express a concession not as a fact but as a supposition. Thus, — Though this be true, we need not be anxious. Though he were my brother, I should condemn him. The indicative is regularly used after though and al- though when the concession is stated as a fact. Thus, — Though he is my brother, he does not resemble me. Though John was present, he took no part in the proceedings. 564. After if and unless, expressing condition, the sub- junctive may be used in a variety of ways. If this be true, I am sorry for it. [It may or may not be true.] If he find this out, he will be angry. [He may or may not find it out.] If this were true, I should be sorry for it. [It is not true ; hence I am not sorry.] If this had been true, I should have been sorry for it. [It was not true ; hence I was not sorry.] 565. In conditional clauses, the present subjunctive de- notes either present or future time. It suggests a doubt as to the truth of the supposed case, but not decisively. (See examples 1 and 2, above.) The preterite subjunctive refers to present time. It im- plies that the supposed case is not a fact. (Example 3.) The pluperfect subjunctive refers to past time. It im- plies that the supposed case was not a fact. (Example 4.) USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 291 566. Condition is sometimes expressed by the subjunctive without if. In this construction the verb precedes the subject. Thus, — Were my brother here, he would protect me. [That is : If my brother were here — .] Had you my troubles, you would despair. [That is : If you had my troubles — .] Had the boat capsized, eveiy man of them would have been drowned. In modern English, this construction is confined to were and had; hut it was formerly common with other verbs. 567. After as if (as though), the preterite subjunctive is used. Thus, — He acts as if he ivere angry. [Not : as if he was angry.] You speak as if I ivere your enemy. [Not : as if I was."] 568. The subjunctive is occasionally used after that, lest, before, until, etc., in subordinate clauses referring to the future and commonly expressing purpose. Thus, — Sustain him, that he faint not. I will help him, lest he die. We will abide until he come. These constructions are confined to poetry and the solemn style. 569. In ordinary English Ave say — Hold him up, so that (or in order that) he may not fall. We will wait till he comes. Thus old subjunctive constructions are in modern Eng- lish often replaced by the indicative or by potential verb- phrases with may, might, should. 292 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXXXII. VARIOUS USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 570. The subjunctive is sometimes used to express not what is or was but what would be or would have been the case. Thus, — It were belter to eat husks than to starve. Tt had been belter for him if he had never been born. This construction is old-fashioned. Modern English commonly uses would be or would have been instead : as, It icould be better to eat husks than to starve. 571. The preterite subjunctive had is common in had rather and similar phrases. Thus, — I had rather die than be a slave. You had better be careful. I had as lief do it as not. Had in this construction is sometimes regarded as erroneous or inelegant ; but the idiom is old and well established, and has first-rate modern usage in its favor. EXERCISES. i. Make a table of all the indicative and subjunctive forms of the verbs be, have, do, bind, declare, in the present and preterite active. (See § 555.) Make a similar table for the present and preterite pas- sive of send, bind, declare. USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 293 II. Explain the form, use, and meaning of each subjunctive. 1. Mine be a cot beside the hill. 2. Ruin seize thee, ruthless king ! 3. It were madness to delay longer. 4. Of great riches there is no real use, except it be in the distribution. 5. King though he be, he may be weak. 6. " God bless you, my dear boy ! " Pendennis said to Arthur. 7. Your ladyship were best to have some guard about you, if he come ; for, sure, the man is tainted in 's wits. 8. It is Jove's doing, and Jove make me thankful ! 9. If this were played upon a stage now, I could condemn it as an impi-obable fiction. 10. Go we, as well as haste will suffer us, To this unlooked for, unprepared pomp. 11. If this be treason, make the most of it ! 12. "Walk in." "I had rather walk here, I thank you." 13. He looks as if he were afraid. 14. I should have answered if I had been you. 15. God in thy good cause make thee prosperous ! 16. These words hereafter thy tormentors be ! 17. Had I a son, I would bequeath him a plough. 18. There 's matter in 't indeed if he be angry. 19. I wish I were at Naples this moment. 20. If he were honest, he would pay his debts. 21. If wishes were horses, beggars might ride. 22. No man cried, " God save him ! " 23. By heaven, methinks it were an easy leap To pluck bright honor from the pale-faced inoou. 24. Unless my study and my books be false, That argument you held was wrong in you. 25. Take heed lest thou fall. 26. Though he be angry, he can do no harm. 294 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXXXIIL THE THOUGHT IN THE SENTENCE. 572. We have now studied the main facts and prin- ciples of English grammar, — that is, we have observed how those signs that we call words perform their task of signifying, or expressing, thought. Thought, as we have seen, may be rudely and imper- fectly uttered by means of single words. For its complete expression, however, words must be combined into sentences. This combination, too, must be made in accordance with definite principles, or laws ; otherwise language would be so confused that nobody could understand his neighbor. In studying the laws that govern the structure of sentences, we have found that a very simple thought may be expressed in a very simple sentence, consisting of a single noun and a single verb. Such sentences, however, do not carry us far. To make clear the various shades of meaning which our language has to convey, words and groups of words must be used to modify the subject and predicate ; and this process of modification results in the building up of complicated sentences that sometimes consist of several clauses. Such, complicated sentences, however, may always be analyzed (or broken up) into their elements, — and in this process of analysis we are able to see clearly the relations which the different parts of the sentence bear to each other in their common task, — the full and exact expression of thought. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 295 Among these elements of expression, we have found that subordinate clauses are of great importance ; for by means of them the meaning of a sentence may be changed or modified at pleasure.* Subordinate clauses, as we have learned, may serve as nouns, as adjective modifiers, or as adverbial modifiers, and they may be connected with the main clause by various words (such as relative pronouns, relative adverbs, and subordinate conjunctions), — each of which has its special office in the common work of language. We must now carry our study of the thought in the sentence a step farther, and ask what are the main varieties of thought that are expressed by the different kinds of subordinate clauses. To this study the chapters that follow are devoted, t We shall find that most subordinate clauses may be easily classified in accordance with their meaning. We shall also observe that the subordinate conjunction or other word which introduces such a clause not only serves as a connective but also suggests, in most cases, what the general sense of the clause is to be. These chapters are not intended to be worked through mechanically. Still less are they meant to be committed to memory. Their purpose is to lead the student to recognize, in his own speech, oral or written, and in the speech of others, some of the important varieties of human thought, and to see how language behaves in express- ing these different ideas. * In connection with this chapter the summary chapter on the Structure of Sentences (pp. 131-133) should be consulted if the matter is not fresh in the pupil's mind. f Chapters CXXXIV-CXLII. 296 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXXXIV.* SUBORDINATE CLAUSES CLASSIFIED. 573. Subordinate or dependent clauses express a great variety of ideas and are attached to main clauses by different kinds of words. The word which attaches a subordinate clause to a main clause is said to introduce the subordinate clause. 574. A subordinate clause may be introduced by (1) a relative or an interrogative pronoun, (2) a relative or an interrogative adverb, (3) a subordinate conjunction. The relative pronouns are: who, which, what, that (=who or ivhich), as (after such), and the compound relatives whoever, which- ever, whatever. Their uses have already been studied (pp. 267 ff.). The chief relative adverbs are : when, whenever, since, until, be/ore, after, where, whence, whither, wherever, why, as, how. The interrogative pronouns are : who, which, what. The interrogative adverbs are : when, where, whence, whither, how, why. The most important subordinate conjunctions are : because, since (= because), though, although, if, unless, that (in order that, so that), as, as if, as though, than. 575. Subordinate clauses may be used as adjective modifiers, as adverbial modifiers, or as substantives. 576. The ideas expressed by subordinate clauses may be classified under (1) time or place, (2) cause, (3) con- cession, (4) purpose, (5) result, (6) condition, (7) com- parison (or manner and degree), (8) indirect statement, (9) indirect question. * The present chapter is for reference and review. It summarizes pages 297-307. CLAUSES OF TIME AND PLACE. 297 CHAPTER CXXXV. CLAUSES OF PLACE AND TIME. 577. An adjective or an adverbial clause may express Place or Time. I. Adjective Clauses. The town where John lives is called Granby. The lion returned to the cave whence he had come. Show me the book in which you found the poem. There was no water in the desert through which he passed. The general fell at the moment when the enemy began to flee. Her father died on the day on which she was born. II. Adverbial Clauses. The soldier died where he fell. He found his knife where lie had left it. You make friends wherever you are. Whither thou goest, I will go. Washington lived when George III. was king. The poor fellow works whenever he can. We cannot start while the storm is raging. Jack rose from bed as the clock struck six. We reached our inn before the sun went down. Everybody waited until the speaker had finished. When the iron is hot, then is the time to strike. 578. Adjective clauses of place and time may be in- troduced by relative pronouns (see examples above). 579. Adjective and adverbial clauses of place and time may be introduced by relative adverbs : as, — Place : where, whence, whither, wherever, whithersoever, wherefrom, whereto, etc. Time : when, whenever, while, as, before, after, until, since. 298 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXXXVI. CAUSAL AND CONCESSIVE CLAUSES. 580. An adverbial clause may express Cause. The shepherd fled because he was afraid of the wolf The bell is ringing because there is afire. Since you will not work, you shall not eat. 581. Causal clauses are introduced by because, since, as, inasmuch as, and other subordinate conjunctions of like meaning. Since is an adverb when it expresses time (§ 579), a conjunction when it expresses cause. 582. An adverbial clause may denote Concession. 583. A concessive clause is usually introduced by a subordinate conjunction, though, although, or even if. It admits (or concedes) some fact or supposition in spite of which the assertion in the main clause is made. Although Smith is an Englishman, he has never seen London. I admired the man, though he teas my enemy. Though this be madness, yet there 's method in 't. Such an act would not be kind, even if it were just. 584. For the distinction between the indicative and the subjunctive in concessive clauses, see § 563. EXERCISES. Make (1) ten complex sentences containing clauses of time ; (2) ten containing clauses of place ; (3) ten con- taining causal clauses ; (4) ten containing concessive clauses. PURPOSE AND RESULT. 299 CHAPTER CXXXVII. CLAUSES OF PURPOSE AND OF RESULT. 585. A subordinate clause may express Purpose or Result. I. Clauses of Purpose. Brutus smote Caesar that Rome might be free. I will do my best that no lives may be lost. Tbe sailors cast anchor so that the ship might not drift on the rocks. The bandits fought desperately in order that they might not be taken alive. Guide him faithfully lest he lose his way. II. Clauses of Result. The castle was very old, so that it fell after a short bombardment. The messenger was so tired that he could scarcely stand. The duke received me so courteously that I was quite enchanted. 586. Clauses of purpose may be introduced by the sub- ordinate conjunction that or by a phrase containing it (so that, in order that, to the end that, etc.). Negative clauses of purpose may be introduced by that . . . not or by lest. Lest is often followed by the sub- junctive (see § 568). 587. Clauses of result may be introduced by the phrase so that, consisting of the adverb so and the subordinate conjunction that; or by that alone, especially when so, such, or some similar word stands in the main clause. 588. A clause of purpose or of result may be either an adverbial modifier (as in the examples in § 585), or a substantive clause : as, — 300 THE MOTHER TONGUE. My purpose was that the wall should be undermined. [Predicate Nominative.] The mayor ordered that the city gates should be shut. [Object.] The result was that nobody came. [Predicate Nominative.] His speech had this result, that everybody went to sleep. [Ap- positive.] 589. Purpose is often expressed by the infinitive with to or in order to, and result by the infinitive with as to. He worked hard to earn his living. They rowed so hard as to be quite exhausted. CHAPTER CXXXVIII. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 590. Study the following sentence : — Caesar deserved death if he was a tyrant. The sentence consists of two clauses: (a) the main statement, " Caesar deserved death " (the main clause) and (b) "if he was a tyrant" (the subordinate clause). The zj-clause does not state anything as a fact. It simply expresses a supposition, or condition, on the truth of which the truth of the assertion made in the main clause depends. Such a sentence is called a conditional sentence, because it states a fact not absolutely but conditionally. Other examples of conditional sentences are : — If money were plenty, nobody would care for it. If you call at ten o'clock, I shall be at home. Nobody will help you if you do not help yourself. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 301 591. A clause that expresses a Condition or Supposition in- troduced by if, or by some equivalent word or phrase, is called a Conditional Clause. A sentence that contains a conditional clause is called a Conditional Sentence. 592. A conditional sentence in its simplest form con- sists of two parts: (1) A subordinate clause, commonly introduced by if, and expressing the condition. (2) A main clause expressing the conclusion, that is, the statement asserted as true in case the condition expressed in the {/-clause is true. The conditional clause is often called the protasis, and the conclusion is often called the apodosis. 593. The main clause of a conditional sentence is not necessarily declarative. It may be interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. If this story were false, what should you do ? Stand still if you value your life. What a pity it would be if he should fail I 594. A conditional clause is usually introduced by the conjunction if, but sometimes by other conjunctions or phrases : as, provided (or provided that), granted that, supposing, on condition that. 595. In a conditional sentence, either the condition or the conclusion may come first. The dog must be punished if he steals. If the dog steals, he must be punished. 596. A negative condition is commonly introduced by if . . not, or unless. 302 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER OXXXIX. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. —COMPARISON. 597. An adverbial clause introduced by as if may express Comparison.* The man acted as if he were crazy. You look as if you were very happy. The Arabs treated me as kindly as if I had been a, Moslem. 598. The subjunctive were, not the indicative was, is used after as if. 599. As and than, as subordinate conjunctions, intro- duce clauses of comparison or degree. Albert is as tall as I [am]. Henry is taller than 1 [am]. I like you better than [I like] him. You cannot run as fast as he [can]. You can play ball better than he [can]. When the verb is omitted, the substantive that fol- lows as or than is in the same case in which it would stand if the verb were expressed. Thus, — Albert is taller than /. [Not : than me.] I like you better than him. [Not : than \e.~\ Fill the blanks below with he or him as the construc- tion requires : — James is a better scholar than . You are older than . I am as strong as . You can run faster than . We are as careful as — * Clauses introduced by as are often called clauses of manner. SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 303 EXERCISE. Tell whether the subordinate clauses express time, place, cause, concession, condition, purpose, result, or comparison. 1. As flattery was his trade, he practised it with the easiest address imaginable. 2. Whenever Macbeth threatened to do mischief to any one, he was sure to keep his word. 3. His armor was so good that he had no fear of arrows. 4. We admire his bravery, though it is shown in a bad cause. 5. He talks as if he were a Spaniard. 6. The marble bridge is the resort of everybody, where they hear music, eat iced fruits, and sup by moonlight. 7. It was a fortnight after this, before the two brothers met again. 8. It was impossible for me to climb this stile, because every step was six feet high. 9. The troops were hastily collected, that an assault might be made without delay. 10. Let us therefore stop while to stop is in our power. 11. King Robert was silent when he heard this story. 12. If others have blundered, it is your place to put them to right. 13. If Milton had any virtues, they are not to be found in the Doctor's picture of him. 14. Where foams and flows the glorious Rhine, Many a ruin wan and gray O'erlooks the cornfield and the vine, Majestic in its dark decay. 15. It was impossible for me to advance a step; for the stalks were so interwoven that I could not creep through. 16. If he is not here by Saturday, I shall go after him. 17. He laid his ear to the ground that he might hear their steps. 304 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXL. DIRECT AND INDIRECT STATEMENTS. 600. In a direct quotation the words of another are repeated exactly as he spoke or wrote or thought them. He said : " There is gold in this old river-bed." My friend writes : " I am going to Mexico this winter." " I have to work for a living," said the ant. " The goose is fat and tender," thought the fox. 601. In an indirect quotation the words or thoughts of another are repeated in substance, but not always in exactly their original form. An indirect quotation takes the form of a subordinate clause dependent on some word of saying or thinking, and introduced by the conjunction that. He said that there teas gold in this old river-bed. My friend writes that he is going to Mexico this winter. The ant said that he had to work for a living. The fox thought that the goose was fat and tender. 602. A substantive clause introduced by th at may be used with verbs and other expressions of telling, thinking, knowing, and perceiving, to report the words or thought of a person in substance, but with some change of form. Such clauses are said to be in the Indirect Discourse. 603. Direct quotations begin with a capital letter, unless the quotation is a fragment of a sentence. They are enclosed in quotation marks. Indirect quotations begin with a small letter. They usually have no quotation marks. INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 305 604. Statements in the indirect discourse are usually the objects of verbs of telling, thinking, etc. ; but they may be in other substantive constructions. Some one reported that the enemy was retreating. [Object.] That the enemy was retreating was rumored throughout the camp. [Subject.] The rumor was that the enemy was retreating. [Predicate Nom- inative.] The rumor that the enemy ivas retreating was false. [Appositive.] EXERCISES. I. Change the following statements to the form of indirect discourse after " He said that." 1. I found this diamond in South Africa. 2. I shall sail for Yokohama next Tuesday. 3. My grandfather has given me a gold watch. 4. I am not fond of poetry. 5. I honor the memory of Mr. Gladstone. 6. Lieutenant Peary has just returned from the Arctic regions. 7. You will certainly visit the pyramids. 8. John is stronger than Thomas. 9. This bird's wing has been broken. 10. The trapper is struggling with a huge bear. 11. My home is on the prairie. 12. Louisiana formerly belonged to France. II. Copy the sentences in indirect discourse that you have made in Exercise I. Turn each sentence back into the direct form and compare the results with the original sentences. 306 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXLI. INDIRECT QUESTIONS. 605. We have learned to recognize sentences like the following as interrogative sentences and to write them with an interrogation point : — Who is president ? What shall you do ? Which man is he ? Is the dog mad ? Such interrogative sentences are called direct questions. 606. A question expressed in the form actually used in ask- ing it is called a Direct Question. If, now, we prefix " He asked " to the sentences given in § 605, we have our choice between two forms of expression : — I. We may keep the direct form of question. Thus, — He asked : " Who is president ? " He asked : " Is the dog mad? " II. We may change the form of the question while keeping its substance. Thus, — He asked who was president. He asked whether (or if) the dog was mad. Each of these new sentences contains a question, but this is no longer expressed in the direct form. It has become the dependent clause of a complex sentence, the main clause being- he asked. Such a clause is called an indirect question. 607. An Indirect Question expresses the substance of a direct interrogation in the form of a Subordinate Clause. INDIRECT QUESTIONS. 307 608. Indirect questions depend on verbs or other expressions of asking, doubting, thinking, perceiving, and the like. He knew what the man's name was. [Direct question : " What is the man's name ? "] John saw who his companion pretended to be. [Here the question which presented itself to John's mind was : " Who does my com- panion pretend to be ? "] The guide tried to discover which way led out of the cave. [Here the question which the guide proposed to himself was : " Which way leads out of the cave ? "] 609. Both direct and indirect questions may be in- troduced (1) by the interrogative pronouns who, which, what; (2) by the interrogative adverbs when, where, whence, whither, how, why. Indirect questions may be introduced by the subordinate conjunctions whether and if. The farmer asked Tom whether (or if) he liked fruit. [The farmer's question was : " Do you like fruit ? "] 610. Indirect questions should be carefully distinguished from relative clauses. Our guide found the road which led home. [Relative.] Our guide found ivhich road led home. [Indirect Question.] In the first sentence, which is a relative pronoun refer- ring to its antecedent road, the object of found. We cannot express the clause as a question. In the second sentence, the object of found is the whole clause. There was a direct question in the guide's mind: "Which road leads home?' 1 Which is an inter- rogative adjective, and no antecedent is thought of. 308 THE MOTHER TONGUE. EXERCISE. Pick out the substantive clauses. Give the construc- tion of each (as subject, object, etc.), and tell whether it is an indirect statement or an indirect question. 1. That fine feathers do not make fine birds has always been taught by philosophers. 2. Here we halted in the open field, and sent out our people to see how things were in the country. 3. I do not imagine that you find me rash in declaring myself. 4. What became of my companions I cannot tell. 5. I should now tell what public measures were taken by the magistrates for the general safety. 6. You see, my lord, how things are altered. 7. Now the question was, what I should do next. 8. He said that he was going over to Greenwich. I asked if he would let .me go with him. 9. That the tide is rising may be seen by anybody. 10. Ask me no reason why I love you. 11. That Arnold was a traitor was now clear enough. 12. I doubt whether this act is legal. 13. I am not prepared to say that Knox had a soft temper ; nor do I know that he had an ill temper. 14. There are two questions, — whether the Essay will suc- ceed, and who or what is the author. 15. The shouts of storm and successful violence announced that the castle was in the act of being taken. 16. The stranger inquired where the mayor lived. 17. That all is not gold that glitters was found out long ago. 18. I demanded why the gates were shut. 19. I doubt if I ever talked so much nonsense in my life. 20. T solemnly assure you that you are quite mistaken. 21. The prince soon concluded that he should never be happy in this course of life. INFINITIVE CLAUSES. 309 CHAPTER CXLII. INFINITIVE CLAUSES. 611. Compare the following sentences: — John's friends wished that he should succeed. John's friends wished him to succeed. These sentences say the same thing, but in different ways. In the first sentence, the direct object of wished is the noun clause that he should succeed. In the second, the object must be him to succeed, since this group of words expresses what John's friends wished, precisely as the noun clause does in the first sentence. What is the construction of the objective him? It is not the object of wished; for I wish him would make no sense. It appears to be a kind of subject of the infini- tive to succeed, since it tells who is to succeed and replaces he, which stands as the subject of should suc- ceed in the first sentence.* 612. A kind of clause, consisting of a substantive in the objective case followed by an infinitive, may be used as the object of certain verbs. Such clauses are called Infinitive Clauses, and the substan- tive is said to be the Subject of the Infinitive. 613. An infinitive clause is usually equivalent in meaning to a noun clause with that. * In § 420 we learned that the infinitive has no subject. The con- struction which we are now studying may be regarded as a peculiar exception to that rule. 310 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 614. Infinitive clauses are used (1) after verbs of wish- ing, commanding, and the like, and (2) after some verbs of believing, declaring, and 'perceiving.* Thus, — My father wishes me to become a lawyer. I believe him to be an honorable man. 615. A predicate pronoun after to be in an infinitive clause is in the objective case, agreeing with the subject of the infinitive. Thus, — You know the culprit to be him. You believe my brother John to be me. We know it to be her. Contrast the predicate nominative in — You know that the culprit is he. You believe that my brother John is i". The culprit was thought to be he. My brother was believed to be /. It was known to be she. 616. After see, hear, feel, and some other verbs, the infinitive without to is used. Thus, — I saw the sailor climb the rope. The hunter heard the lion roar in the distance. I felt his pulse beat feebly. They watched the boat drift slowly down the stream. They could not perceive him move. 617. Make ten sentences containing infinitive clauses after verbs of wishing, commanding, believing, declaring, etc. * After verbs of luishing, you his story, that you may know the truth. He •] [■ you his story, that you might know the truth. C ordered ~) He < , , 7 . >- that the room should be cleared. ( had ordered ) If the main verb is in the perfect tense, the clause of purpose sometimes has may and sometimes might or should. Thus, — . He has told you this, that you may (or, might) know the truth. He has ordered that the gates should be shut. * May, can, must, might, could, would, and should are often called modal auxiliaries. For their general use, see pp. 283-5. t The sequence of these verbs is not different in principle from that of other verbs. Their uses, however, are so various that a misunderstanding may easily arise as to some of their constructions. There are many niceties of idiom, and a full discussion would require much space. Only the main facts are here given. SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 313 The choice between may and might after the perfect tense depends on the meaning. If the purpose refers emphatically to the future, may is commonly preferred. 623. Can, will, and shall are often used in subordinate clroises when the main verb is in the present tense ; could, would, and should, when it is in some past tense. Thus, — I hope that he can come. I hoped that ha could come. ( 1 shall ) I hope that < you will > succeed. ( he will ) ( hoped ~\ (1 should ~\ I ■< have hoped V that •< you would > succeed. ( had hoped ) ( he would ) 624. After wish in the present tense, ivould and could are common in the subordinate clause. Thus, — I wish that you (he) would (or, could) come. 625. In the expression of general or universal truths, may, can, and will are proper, even when the main verb is in the preterite (see § 619). Thus, — He discovered that men may always be mistaken. He found that nobody can accomplish impossibilities. He proved that iron will always float in mercury. 626. Must is almost always a present tense in modern English (§ 546). It may be used in the subordinate clause to express necessity or obligation referred to the time of the main verb. Thus, — He believes that he must go. He believed that he must go. 314 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 31ust should not be used after a present tense to express past obligation or necessity. Thus we say, — He knows that the general had to retire (or, was obliged to retire). [" He knows that the general must retire " would refer to present necessity.] 627. For the tenses of the subjunctive in concessions and conditions, see pp. 290, 291. For the preterite subjunctive after as if, see § 598. EXERCISES. Fill each blank with the proper form of an auxiliary verb. Sometimes more than one form is possible. 1. The citizens took measures that the tax be abolished. [May or might ?] 2. The cabin is chained to the ground, that it not be blown over in the winter. [Mag or might ?] 3. Jack was swimming with all his strength in the hope that he reach the shore before the shark overtake him. 4. Copernicus discovered that the earth round the sun. [Moves or moved ?] 5. Newton discovered that his papers on fire. [Are or were ?~] 6. Could you doubt that there a God ? [7s or was f] 7. I hope that you escape this danger. [ Will or would f] 8. He believed that you fail in this. [ Will or would?] 9. I am sure that I succeed. [Shall or should f] 10. We were confident that we not be drowned. [Shall or should ?] 11. The king gave orders that the prisoner be discharged. SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 315 12. I shall assign you a post of honor so that you dis- tinguish yourself. 13. He feared that his life stagnate for want of motion. 14. I wish you help me. [May t might ? can ? could ? will ? ivould ?] 15. The governor is convinced that you disclose the plot. 16. The islands afford few pleasures, except to the hardy sportsman, who tread the moor and climb the mountain. [Can or could ?] II. Explain the tenses used in the subordinate clauses. Show, in each sentence, the time of the verb in the subordinate clause, and prove that the tense could not be changed without changing or destroying the sense. 1. They who remember the year 1800, will remember also the great controversy, whether it was the beginning of a century or the end of one. 2. A Quaker, by name Benjamin Lay, took one of his compo- sitions to Benjamin Franklin, that it might be printed. 3. He found that a great misfortune is apt to weaken the mind and disturb the understanding. 4. It was certain that Parliament would be drawn into a struggle with the Crown. 5. It happened that they had not an equal share of money. 6. Major Pendennis announced to his nephew's tutor that the young fellow would go to college in October, and that Mr. Smirke's valuable services would no longer be needful. 7. I promise myself so much from you, that I dread the least disappointment. 8. The cottage door was open, so that they could see their child swinging on the gate. 9. The sage endeavors to amuse them, that they may pro- long their visits. 10. He was of opinion that Pen would distinguish himself. 31(3 THE MOTHER TONGUE. CHAPTER CXLIV. CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES. 628. Phrases may denote a great variety of relations, according to the prepositions that introduce them. The ideas or relations expressed by phrases include, among others, (1) place in which, (2) place from which, (3) place to which (or limit of motion), (4) agency, (5) instrument or means, (6) accompaniment. 629. Place in which is often denoted by in, within, or at. Thus, — He had a fever when he was in Spain. The beast is laid down in his lair. Stockbridge sat in his saddle, immovable and silent as a statue. In greatness is no trust. I wonder what is going on at Drumston now. Many other prepositions may denote the place where : as, by, on, upon, beyond, ac? , oss, over, under. 630. Place from which is often denoted by from or out of. Thus, — Behold, from yonder hill the foe appears ! Banish egotism out of your conversation. Brand at once rose and went out from the shadow of the trees. 631. The place to which (or limit of motion) is often expressed by to or unto. Thus, — Go to the gate, — somebody knocks. Doctor Portman was of opinion that Pen should go to college. Quentin then betook himself to his own chamber. CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES. 317 632. The agent, or doer of the action expressed by a verb in the passive voice, is usually indicated by means of the preposition by. Thus, — The mutineers were led by the boatswain. A loud shout was raised by some of the bystanders. 633. The instrument or means of an action is often indicated by with, by, or by means of. Thus, — This letter was written with a lead pencil. The gate was demolished by the battering-ram. He descended by means of a knotted rope. 634. Accompaniment is usually expressed by with, along with, or together with. Thus, — The corporal approached with (or, along ivith) seventeen men. Hardship, together with ill health, had reduced him to a mere skeleton. EXERCISES. Pick out the adverbial phrases and tell what verb is modified by each. Tell which of the phrases indicate the place in which, the limit of motion, agency, and so on. 1. The emperor and royal family came out of the palace. 2. The sea appeared paved with innumerable faces, upturned to the heavens. 3. It was a wild and melancholy glen, Made gloomy by tall firs and cypress dark. 4. What his subjects saw in their king was a pleasant brown- faced gentleman playing with his spaniels, or drawing caricatures of his ministers, or flinging cakes to the water-fowl in the park. 318 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 5. The doctor turned round and looked at me fixedly from under his dark eyebrows. 6. My path lay across a wild, bleak moor, dotted with low clumps of furze, and not presenting on any side the least trace of habitation. 7. Arbitrary taxation, arbitrary legislation, arbitrary im- prisonment were powers claimed without dispute and unsparingly exercised by the Crown. 8. "How did you like my picture, Edith?" inquired Lady Waldegrave. "Should you have known me by it?" 9. My orders were to march to Clonmel. 10. The Lieutenant is gone down to Palmerston this morning, with the Secretary. 11. Either the young Lee will visit the old one in person, or he will write to him, or hold communication with him by letter. 12. He conceived the design of penetrating into the Pacific, whose waters had never seen an English flag ; and, backed by a little company of adventurers, he set sail for the southern seas in a vessel hardly as big as a Channel schooner, with a few yet smaller companions, who fell away before the storms and perils of the voyage. 13. There was the noise of horses' feet and merry voices in the little gravelled yard behind the house. 14. The greater part of the Scottish army were on foot, armed with long spears. 15. By the Act of 1773, Warren Hastings was named Governor- General of Bengal. 16. I returned home to repair my house, miserably shattered by the late tempest. II. Make five sentences containing a phrase that expresses the place in which ; five containing a phrase expressing agency, — and so with the other classes mentioned in § 628. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. SECTION I. INTRODUCTION Composition is the orderly expression of thought in connected discourse. The word composition is derived from the Latin con- (con*-), "together," and pono (positus), "put," and means literally "the act or process of putting together." Composition may be oral or written ; it may reach the mind through the ear or the eye. The same principles hold good in both cases. In writing, however, greater care and exactness are expected than in talking.* The requirement of greater exactness in written language is only reasonable. A writer must express his thoughts without the aid of gesture, emphasis, or inflections of the voice, — all of which a speaker has at his command. It is not enough for a writer or speaker to mean some- thing ; it is his duty to make his meaning clear. Obscurity, vagueness, and ambiguity are not merely faults in composition, — they defeat the very purpose of language, which is the expression of thought. Indeed, * See Introduction, page xxii, for remarks on colloquial language. 310 320 THE MOTHER TONGUE. a piece of writing that contains these faults can hardly be said to be " composed " at all. To write clearly one must think clearly. But clear thinkers are not always clear writers. Composition is an art, and requires training and practice. It has its technique as truly as sculpture or music or engineering. The elements of composition are easily understood, since they are merely common-sense reduced to simple rules, but constant practice is needed to make them useful. The first requisite in composition is to have thoughts. We cannot be expected to write upon a subject unless we know something about it. The second requisite is to have a vocabulary, — that is, to be master of a stock of words in which to express such thoughts as one may have. Only one thing is necessary in order to increase one's vocabulary, and that is — attention. Every book that we read and every intelligent conversation in which we engage may contribute something to our stock of available words. A young student is not expected to have a large vocabulary, for simple thoughts are best expressed in simple words ; and in increasing his vocabulary he should take care not to let it outrun his ideas. Above all things, he should know the meaning of every word that he uses, and should know it exactly, not merely in a vague and shadowy way. Here again attention, com- bined with the use of the dictionary, will achieve the end in view. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 321 SECTION II. Study the use aud meaning of the italicized words in the following selection. Use the words in sentences of your own. THE SOUTH WIND. (From " The King of the Golden River.") It was the most extraordinary looking little gentleman he had ever seen in his life. He had a very large nose, slightly brass- colored ; his cheeks were very round and very red, and might have warranted a supposition that he had been blowing a refractory fire for the last eight-and-forty hours ; his eyes twinkled merrily through long silky eyelashes, his moustaches curled twice round like a corkscrew on each side of his mouth, and his hair, of a curi- ous mixed pepper-and-salt color,. descended far over his shoulders. He was about four feet six in height, and wore a conical pointed cap of nearly the same altitude, decorated with a black feather some three feet long. His doublet was prolonged behind into something resembling a violent exaggeration of what is now termed a " swallow tail," but was much obscured by the swelling folds of an enormous black, glossy-looking cloak, which must have been very much too long in calm weather, as the wind, whistling round the old house, carried it clear out from the wearer's shoulders to about four times his own length. — Ruskin. SECTION III. Turn to some page of your reading-book or history, and see how many familiar words it contains which you cannot "define." You may have a general idea of the meaning, but the question is. what do the words mean exactly ? Do you 322 THE MOTHER TONGUE. know them by sight, or have you a speaking acquaint- ance with them? Can you use them in your own compositions without fear of saying something absurd ? To the Teacher. — Exercises of this kind may be repeated as often as time allows and the needs of the class require. They may he distinct from ordinary reading lessons or lessons in literature, but their effect will soon appear, both in the pupil's written work and in his understanding of what he reads. When attention is thus roused, lessons in synonyms may be used to advantage. Care should be taken not to rest satisfied with definitions, but to require the use of the words in written or spoken com- position. If it is clear tbat the pupil really understands a word, and can use it correctly, he should not be too much pressed for a formal " definition." SECTION IV. SYNONYMS. Our language is rich in synonyms, — that is, in differ- ent words for the same idea. Thus, angry, irritated, vexed, wrathful, infuriated, are synonyms. We observe, however, that these five words do not all convey the same shade of meaning, though their sense is in general the same. A knowledge of synonyms and of their differences is of great importance in the expression of thought. Write down such synonyms as you know for : nation, liberty, happy, proud, strong, struggle, weak, fear. Use each synonym in a sentence. If your sentence does not make clear the exact mean- ing of the synonym, explain its meaning as distinguished from other synonyms. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 323 To the Teacher. — This exercise maybe repeated according to the needs of the class. The dictionary should be freely used by the pupil, sometimes in preparing his lists of synonyms, at others in explaining or correcting his illustrative sentences. Thus variety may be secured. It is easy to overdo the work with synonyms. Particular care should be taken not to insist on hair-splitting distinctions, or, in general, on distinctions that are more delicate than the pupil can be expected to appreciate. The following words will give abundant practice in work of this kind : abbreviate, error, omit, destroy, get, speech, combine, throw, answer, care- less, cruel, kind, trouble, inquiry, pain, pardon, toil, disdain, seldom, use- less, instruction, energy, recollect, saunter, progress, confess, affectionate, suppose, regard, town, accident, purpose, remain, return, puzzled, mistake, follow, civil, pacify, conquer. SECTION V.* USE OF SYNONYMS. Use the synonyms in the list on page 324 according to the following plan : — 1. Make a sentence containing the first synonym in line 1 . Thus, — He gave a frank account of his opinions. 2. Substitute the second synonym (fair) in your sen- tence. Thus, — Pie gave a fair account of his opinions. 3. Consider the meaning of this last sentence, and tell how it differs from that of the first. If there is no difference, say so. 4. Proceed in the same way with the other synonyms in the first line. 5. If any sentence does not make sense, reject it, and use the synonym in a new sentence. This will help you to see the difference in meaning. * This section will furnish material for several lessons. 324 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 1. frank fair open straightforward 2. bold daring courageous fearless a. battle engagement conflict combat 4. request entreat beg implore 5. anxiety solicitude worry foreboding 6. amidst among betwixt between 7. falsehood deceit lie untruth 8. fear dread terror horror 9. home dwelling house residence 10. necessary indispensable essential inevitable 11. neglect omission negligence oversight 12. new recent modern novel 13. price cost value expense 14. advance forward promote further 15. put place set station 16. scholar pupil student learner 17. shelter protect defend harbor 18. say talk tell speak 19. crowd throng multitude host 20. common customary familiar habitual 21. virtue goodness righteousness integrity 22. labor work employment business 23. pleasant agreeable pleasing attractive 24. command direction order mandate 25. old aged ancient elderly SECTION VI.* ANTONYMS. Words of opposite meaning are called antonyms. Thus, weak and strong, crafty and simple, empty and full, are antonyms. Study the pairs of antonyms in the following list. * This section will furnish material for several lessons. lessons in composition: 325 1. courageous cowardly 11. plenty want 2. friendly hostile 12. calm storm 3. clever stupid 13. beauty ugliness 4. rapid slow 14. virtue vice 5. industrious lazy 15. riches poverty 6. build demolish 16. freeman slave 7. create annihilate 17. ruler subject 8. advance r 3treat 18. citizen alien 9. generosity stinginess 19. highlands lowlands 10. frugality extravagance 20. soothe irritate Use each of these words in a sentence of your own. Use each pair of antonyms in a sentence. SECTION VII.* Find an antonym for each word in the first column of the list of synonyms in Section V. Use these antonyms as in Section VI. SECTION VIII. THE SENTENCE AS A UNIT. Composition, as we have seen, is a process of " put- ting together." In expressing our thoughts in orderly discourse, whether oral or written, we put together words to make sentences, and sentences to make larger divisions of story, oration, essay, and so on. The process is continuous and identical in its nature, from the simplest combination of subject and predicate, like " Birds fly," to a play of Shakspere, a novel of Scott, or the most elaborate scientific or historical treatise. * This section will furnish material for several lessons. 320 THE MOTHER TONGUE. Ill forming sentences we must take care that every sentence is a unit, — that is, we must not include in a single sentence different ideas that have no obvious connection. The Spartans did not care for literature. The Spartans were stubborn fighters. Each of these sentences is a unit. The two state- ments may be combined into : — The Spartans despised literature, but they excelled in warfare. This sentence is also a unit, for it characterizes the Spartans by telling what they cared for and what they did not care for. Contrast the case of the two follow- ing sentences : — The Spartans did not care for literature. The Spartans lived in Laconia. It would not be easy to combine these two statements into a single sentence without producing a ridiculous effect. The residence of the Spartans in Laconia and their distaste for literature are not connected ideas. The principle illustrated in what precedes is called the principle of unity. It runs through all forms of composition. SECTION IX. UNITY. Study the following pairs of sentences and see if they can be combined without violating the principle of unity. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 327 1. The inhabitants of these islands are very barbarous. The inhabitants of these islands live principally on raw fish. 2. Napoleon was a great conqueror. Napoleon wore a long riding-coat at the Battle of Leipzig. 3. Thus Wallace's party grew stronger and stronger. Many of the Scottish nobles joined Wallace. 4. John Oxenford lived in Clifton Terrace. His favorite author was Sir Walter Scott. 5. The natives of the Andaman Islands were said to be igno- rant of the use of fire. These natives were firm believers in witchcraft. 6. Five or six men were seated on logs and stools round the chimney. The herdsmen were eating their supper of bread and cheese. 7. King Charles I. was beheaded. The news of the king's death was received with a thrill of horror. 8. At last they found means to carry their meal to a mill near Woodford. They had their meal ground at this mill. 9. The scantiness of his purse was notorious. Goldsmith was forced to live in obscure lodgings. 10. Columbus landed in 1492. Sebastian Cabot sailed from Bristol in 1497 and pushed along the coast of America to the south as far as Florida. 11. My copy of Shakspere is in ten volumes. The plays of Shakspere were very popular in his own time. See into how many short sentences the following- passage may be cut up. The dream of finding a passage to Asia by a voyage round the northern coast of the American continent drew a west-coun- try seaman, Martin Frobisher, to the coast of Labrador, and the news which he brought back of the existence of gold mines there set adventurers cruising among the icebergs of Baffin's Bay. 328 TEE MOTHER TONGUE. SECTION X. VARIETY. Sameness (or monotony) of style is a fatal fault in composition, for it takes the life out of the most inter- esting subject. Variety, on the other hand, stimulates attention and lends a certain attractiveness to the driest material. The free syntax of our language, together with its large and diversified stock of words, makes variety an easy merit in English writing. The same idea may often be expressed in several different ways by chang- ing the grammatical construction. We have already studied many such " equivalent constructions." Examples are : adjectives, adjective phrases, and adjective clauses (§§ 121-3, 204-7); adverbs, adverbial phrases, and adverbial clauses (§§ 124-31, 195-200); nouns and noun clauses (§§208-11); active and passive (§§464-6); nouns and infini- tives (§§ 448, 533-6); infinitives and clauses of purpose and result (§§ 585-9); infinitive clauses (§§ 611-17); clauses of cause, time, place, and circumstance, and the nominative absolute (§§ 492-5).* Observe that two " equivalent constructions " often differ in the exact shade of thought or feeling that they express, or, at all events, in emphasis. f Compare what was said of synonyms in Section IV. * This enumeration will serve as a basis for several review lessons at this point if the pupil's memory needs refreshing. The exercises attached to the several chapters afford abundant material for practice in connection with such reviews. t The teacher may prefer to take up this whole subject in connection with the lessons in emphasis (pp. :«i0-3). LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 329 SECTION XI. In the sentences on page 261, substitute a clause for the nominative absolute whenever this is possible. In the same sentences, substitute a prepositional phrase whenever it can be done without spoiling the style. SECTION XII. See in how many ways you can change the sentences on page 293 without materially affecting the sense. section xni. Study the following sentence from Lamb : — Taking the dagger in his hand, Macbeth softly stole in the dark to the chamber where Duncan lay. You observe that the constructions may be varied in a number of ways. Thus, — (1) Instead of the present participle " taking," we might use the perfect participle (" having taken "), or a clause of time (" when he had taken "), or a preposi- tional phrase (" after taking "), or a nominative absolute ("dagger in hand"). (2) instead of the adjective clause " where Duncan lay," we might use a genitive (" Duncan's chamber "), or an o/-phrase (" the chamber of Duncan "), or an adjec- tive ("the royal chamber"). Make the sentence over, in different ways, on the basis of these suggestions, and tell whether you think it is improved by the several changes. 330 THE MOTHER TONGUE. SECTION XIV. Study the following sentences in accordance with the plan described in Section XIII. 1. Being weary they fell asleep. 2. Taking an affectionate leave of my kind and interesting young hosts, I went my way. 3. Seeing a crowd of people in the street, I joined with them to satisfy my curiosity, and found them all staring up into the air. 4. We set out in the evening by moonlight, and travelled hard, the road being very plain and large, till we came to Gran- tham. 5. There lay before me, extending completely across my path, a thicket. 6. He often laid his ear within two yards of me ; but all in vain, for we were wholly unintelligible to each other. 7. One begins to see in this country the first promises of an Italian spring, clear unclouded skies and warm suns, such as are not often felt in England. 8. Everard recollected the fiery, high, and unbending charac- ter of Sir Henry Lee, and felt, even when his fingers were on the latch, a reluctance to intrude himself upon the presence of the irritable old knight. 9. Foiled in an attempt on North Carolina by the refusal of his fellow-general, Sir Henry Clinton, to assist him, Lord Corn- wallis fell back in 1781 on Virginia, and intrenched himself in the lines of Yorktown. 10. Wild and savage insurrection quitted the woods, and prowled about our streets in the name of reform. 11. The swallow, oft, beneath my thatch Shall twitter from her clay-built nest ; Oft shall the pilgrim lift the latch, And share my meal, a welcome guest. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 331 SECTION XV. In each of the following sentences, substitute a parti- cipial or a prepositional phrase for the clause indicating time. 1. When I had watered my horse, I turned him loose to graze. 2. I must now relate what occurred to me a few days before the ship sailed. 3. It must have been raining cats and dogs ever since I had been out. 4. After the proclamation had been read, the crowd dispersed, little by little. 5. As he approached they raised a rueful cry. 6. I shall be in town when November comes in. Have you improved or injured the passages, or have your changes made them neither better nor worse ? SECTION XVI. An infinitive construction may often be substituted for a clause, or a clause for an infinitive construction. Thus, — 1. He was so frightened that he could not speak. He was too frightened to speak. 2. The board was adjusted so that it covered the trapdoor. The board was so adjusted as to cover the trapdoor. 3. My purpose was that the wall should be undermined. My purpose was to undermine the wall. 4. He toiled that he might procure bread for his children. He toiled to procure bread for his children. Make similar substitutions in the following sentences. 332 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 5. Mr. Williams seems to have lost the power of acting intelli- gently. [It seems that, etc.] 6. The rising waters seemed to cut off their retreat and their advance. 7. I saw him change color and bite his lip. 8. Even Cromwell was powerless to break the spirit which now pervaded the soldiers. 9. The emperor held frequent council to debate what course should be taken with me. 10. Five hundred men were set at work that the great building might be ready. 11. The queen's earnest wish is for you to act the part of a mediator. 12. I am sorry that I must leave you in this difficulty. 13. The traveller was so exhausted that he could not speak. 14. The river was so high that it flooded the city. 15. The colonel ordered that the forces should set out at daybreak. 16. The crew sacrificed themselves that the passengers might be saved. SECTION XVII. CONDENSED EXPRESSIONS. It is often possible to condense a clause or a long phrase into a word or two. Thus, — 1. i" have no doubt that the confusion was great. No doubt the confusion was great. 2. While this was happening, the cavalry had come up. Meanwhile the cavalry had come up. 3. They started without a moment's delay. [Instantly.] 4. It is certain that the report is false. The report is certainly false. 5. He was agitated and paced the floor. He paced the floor in agitation. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 333 Substitute condensed expressions for the italicized por- tions of the following sentences. 6. She wondered how it was that they could both be alive. 7. Almost everybody knows some one thing, and is glad to talk about that one thing. 8. He uttered his words carefully and with deliberation. 9. I always read a poem in the morning, before I sit down to breakfast. 10. The Declaration of Independence was signed on the fourth day of the month of July, in the year of our Lord 1776. 11. He lay awake through the long hours of the night. 12. A farmer whose name teas Binnock was the first to enlist. 13. The president of the company was a man by the name of Johnson. 14. He rose, and, when he had mounted his horse, rode off at a gallop. It must not be supposed that the condensed phrases are "better English" than the longer expressions. Both have their place in composition. The nature of our subject and the effect that we wish to produce must determine our choice of words. Expand the italicized expressions in an appropriate way. 1. Amazed, he stares around. 2. All the night it was stormy and dark. 3. She held out her hands in welcome. 4. Meanwhile the rain had begun with fury. 5. The woods were soon burning. 6. The sailor swam vigorously. 7. This done, they embarked for Calais. 334 THE MOTHER TONGUE. SECTION XVIII. THE PARAGRAPH. Read the following passage and observe that it is not printed in one mass, but is divided into paragraphs. THE ENGLISH LARK. Near the gold mines of Australia, by a little squatter's house that was thatched and whitewashed in English fashion, a group of rough English miners had come together to listen in that far-away country to the singing of the English lark. Like most singers, he kept them waiting a bit. But at last, just at noon, when the mistress of the house had warranted him to sing, the little feathered exile began as it were to tune his pipes. The savage men gathered around the cage that moment, and amidst a dead stillness the bird uttered some very uncertain Chirps, but after a while he seemed to revive his memories and call his ancient cadences back to him one by one. And then the same sun that had warmed his little heart at home came glowing down on him here, and he gave music back for it more and more, till at last, amidst breathless silence and glistening eyes of the rough diggers hanging on, his voice outburst in that distant land his English song. Tt swelled his little throat and gushed from him with thrilling force and plenty, and every time he checked his song to think of its theme, the green meadows, the quiet, stealing streams, the clover he first soared from, and the spring, he sang so well, a loud sigh from many a rough bosom, many a wild and wicked heart, told how tight the listeners had held their breath to hear him ; and when he swelled with song again, and poured forth with all his soul the green meadows, the quiet brooks, the honey clover, and the English spring, the rugged mouths opened and so stayed, and the shaggy lips trembled, and more than one tear trickled from fierce, unbridled hearts down bronzed and rugged cheeks. Sweet Home! — Charles Reade. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 335 Examine the paragraphs in this selection. Yon will find that each paragraph is a unit, — that is, it deals with a particular thing or idea or phase of the subject. It would be easy for you to give a brief title to each paragraph which would indicate its contents. Thus the first paragraph may be entitled " The Expectant Miners " ; the second, " The Song of the Lark " ; the third, " Memories of Home." In other words, the para- graphs observe the principle of unity. Every piece of prose of any length is divided into sections called paragraphs, each of which relates to a particular point or phase of the subject. A paragraph may consist of a single sentence ; but it usually consists of several sentences. A very brief composition, relating to a single point, and not subdivided, is also called a paragraph. Every paragraph should observe the principle of unity. In writing and printing, the first line of every paragraph is indented, --that is, it begins a little farthei to the right than the other lines. The name paragraph comes from two Greek words and means " some- thing written at the side." It was originally applied to the mark H", which was put in the margin to call attention to the beginning of anew section or division of the writing ; later the name was transferred to the section itself. SECTION XIX. Turn to some piece of prose in your reading-book. Read it paragraph by paragraph, and try to give the subject of each paragraph in the form of a brief title. 336 THE MOTHEB TONGUE. In this exercise you are observing the unity of the paragraph. If the paragraph really deals with a single point, one should be able to mention that point. Use the same test in your own writing. To the Teacher. — Exercises of this kind may be multiplied accord- ing to the needs of the pupil. Passages from text-hooks in history and from works of English literature may be used in the same way. The comparison of the paragraph with the stanza will be found useful. But the pupil should be reminded that most stanzas are rigidly fixed as to their form, — whereas the length and form of the paragraph depend largely on the purpose of the writer, — and further, that the poet is not bound to observe unity in his stanza. The difference consists, of course, in the fact that the stanza is primarily a division with respect to form, and the paragraph a division with respect to thought. SECTION XX. WRITTEN CONVERSATION. In reporting a conversation, each speech, however short, is usually written or printed as a single para- graph. Thus, — A FURLOUGH. The children had been reading about the war in Cuba. " Does any one know what a furlough is ? " asked the teacher. " Yes," replied a small boy. " A furlough is a mule." The children smiled. " Why do you think so ? " asked the teacher. " I know it is," answered the small boy. " I have a picture to prove it." The lad produced his picture. It was called " Off on a Fur- lough " and represented a soldier riding on a mule. Copy the anecdote, giving special attention to the paragraphs and the punctuation. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 337 SECTION XXI. Write a short paragraph about the War with Spain. Take care that your paragraph does not include too much. Criticise your own paragraph with regard to unity. SECTION XXII. THE PARAGRAPH AND THE STANZA. Observe that the paragraph in prose is very much what the stanza is in verse, though its form and length are not fixed as in the case of the stanza. Find in your reading-book some poem that is com- posed of separate stanzas. Examine each stanza as you examined the paragraphs in Section XVIII, and try to give a brief title to each. SECTION XXIII. Tell the story of some poem with which you are familiar. Write the story carefully, point by point, taking care that each paragraph deals with one particular point or incident in the narrative. Compare your prose story with the poem and see if the paragraphs correspond to the stanzas in number and contents. If they do not, tell why. 338 THE MOTHER TONGUE. SECTION XXIV. Write two or three paragraphs about one of the fol- lowing subjects * : — Some pet animal ; a walk ; a visit to the city ; a visit to the country ; the Romans ; the North American Indians ; war and peace ; football ; tennis ; boating ; swimming ; rivers ; the sea ; a mountain. SECTION XXV. You are called upon to describe your town or city to a stranger. What points ought you to mention ? Write down these points as they occur to you, giving a sentence to each. Arrange the points in an orderly manner, beginning with the name and situation of your town. Write a single paragraph on the first of these heads ; on the second ; on the third. SECTION XXVI. Observe that paragraphs are not formed by cutting up continuous discourse into mechanical lengths, any more than stanzas are made by cutting up poetry. On the contrary, continuous discourse grows by add- ing paragraph to paragraph, as our thoughts pass from point to point of the subject in orderly succession. Copy carefully the following extract from Ruskin.f * The teacher may use this material for several lessons. f In this exercise the pupil should he led to observe the growth of the author's thought and the correspondence between the paragraphs and the development of the meaning. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 339 THE SOCIETY OF GOOD BOOKS. We cannot know whom we would ; and those whom we know, we cannot have at our side when we most need them. Yet there is a society continually open to us, of people who will talk to us as long as we like, — talk to us in the best words they can choose, and of the things nearest their hearts. And this society, because it is so numerous and so gentle, and can be kept waiting around us all daylong, — kings and statesmen lingering patiently, not to grant audience, but to gain it ! — in those plainly furnished and narrow anterooms, our bookcase shelves, — we make no account of that company, — perhaps never listen to a word they would say, all day long ! Suppose you could be put behind a screen, should you not be glad to listen to their words, though you were forbidden to advance beyond the screen? And when the screen is only a little less, folded in two instead of four, and you can be hidden behind the cover of the two boards that bind a book, and listen all day long, not to the casual talk, but to the studied, determined, chosen addresses of the wisest of men, — this station of audience, and honorable privy council, you despise ! This eternal court is always open to you, with its society wide as the world, multitudinous as its days, the chosen, and the mighty, of every place and time. Into that you may enter always ; in that you may take fellowship and rank according to your wish; from that, once entered into it, you can never be an outcast but by your own fault. It is open to labor and to merit, but to nothing else. No wealth will bribe, no name overawe, no artifice deceive, the guardian of those Elysian gates. In the deep sense, no vile or vulgar person ever enters there. " Do you deserve to enter ? Pass. Do you ask to be the com- panion of nobles? .Make yourself noble, and you shall be. Do you long for the conversation of the wise? Learn to understand it, and you shall hear it. But on other terms ? — no. If you will not rise to us, we cannot stoop to you." 340 THE MOTHER TONGUE. SECTION XXVII. Write in your own words the substance of the extract that you copied in Section XXVI. When you have written your version, see if you have divided it into paragraphs properly. If the paragraphs are correct, tell why they are cor- rect. If they are incorrect, make them right. SECTION XXVIII. Write an account of a real or imaginary excursion to some interesting place. Let your story consist of several paragraphs : (1) the object of the excursion, (2) your party, (3) your journey, (4) the place, (5) your return. SECTION XXIX. Examine the sentences in two paragraphs of the com- position in Section XXVIII and tell whether they are units. If any of the sentences do not observe the principle of unity, see if you can correct them. SECTION XXX. Examine the composition of some other member of the class and tell whether his paragraphs are units. SECTION XXXI. Describe the appearance and habits of some animal. Your description will contain at least two paragraphs. What will be the subject of the first ? of the second ? LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 341 SECTION XXXII. Make notes for a composition of three or four para- graphs about England. Exchange your notes with your neighbor. Write the paragraphs suggested by his notes. SECTION XXXIII. Your study of Ruskin (pp. 338-9) has shown you that the arrangement of the paragraphs in a composition is a matter of great importance. The principle is simple : — The succession of paragraphs should agree with the natural order of the thought. This same principle applies to the arrangement of sentences within the paragraph. Study the first paragraph on page 339. What thought does it express ? Of how many sen- tences does it consist? What is the thought contained in each? Does the arrangement of the sentences bring- out these thoughts in a natural order ? Study the other paragraphs in the same way. You have now arrived at three important prin- ciples : — i. Every sentence should be a unit. 2. Every paragraph should also be a unit. The sentences in a paragraph should follow the order of thought. 3. The paragraphs in a composition should also follow the order of thought. Try to observe these principles in everything that you write.* * The study indicated in this section should be extended to other short pieces of prose in the pupil's reading-book, history, and geography. 342 THE MOTHER TONGUE. SECTION XXXIV. Write ten sentences concerning some poet with whose writings you are familiar. Combine some of these sentences into a paragraph, taking care not to violate the principle of unity. Note that in combining the sentences you must change the form of some of them (perhaps of all), in order that your paragraph may not seem rough and disjointed. SECTION XXXV. - Write a brief account of the life of some historical character of whom you have read. Let your sketch consist of a number of paragraphs each of which relates to some particular point in the person's life. SECTION XXXVI. NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION. We are frequently called upon to describe what we have seen or to tell what we have heard. Description is one phase of composition. Narration, or telling, is an equally important phase. A description should be orderly, com- plete, and clear. A narrative should be orderly, direct, clear, and interesting. We may describe a scene as we see it, or tell a story as it appears to us in our own individual fashion or style, but we should maintain the qualities which make description and narration effective and pleasing. Read the following description carefully, observing the sentences and paragraphs. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 343 MY AUNT AND MR. DICK. (From " David Copperfield.") My aunt was a tall, hard-featm-ed lady, but by no means ill- looking. There was an inflexibility in her face, in her voice, in her gait and carriage, amply sufficient to account for the effect she had made upon a gentle creature like my mother ; but her features were rather handsome than otherwise, though unbending and austere. I particularly noticed that she had a very quick, bright eye. Her hair, which was gray, was arranged in two plain divisions, under what I believe would be called a mob-cap ; I mean a cap, much more common then than now, with side-pieces fastening under the chin. Her dress was of a lavender color, and perfectly neat ; but scantily made, as if she desired to be as little encumbered as possible. I remember that I thought it, in form, more like a riding-habit with the superfluous skirt cut off, than anything else. She wore at her side a gentleman's gold watch, if I might judge from its size and make, with an appropriate chain and seals ; she had some linen at her throat not unlike a shirt-collar, and things at her wrists like little shirt-wristbands. Mr. Dick, as I have already said, was gray-headed and florid : I should have said all about him, in saying so, had not his head been curiously bowed — not by age ; it reminded me of one of Mr. Creakle's boys' heads after a beating — and his gray eyes prominent and large, with a strange kind of watery brightness in them that made me, in combination with his vacant manner, his submission to my aunt, and his childish delight when she praised him, suspect him of being a little mad ; though, if he were mad, how he came to be there, puzzled me extremely. He was dressed like any other ordinary gentleman, in a loose gray morning coat and waistcoat, and white trousers ; and had his watch in his fob, and his money in his pockets ; which he rattled as if he were very proud of it. — Dickens. Describe Mr. Dick in your own words. 344 THE MOTHER TONGUE. SECTION XXXVII. COMPARISON". It is sometimes easier for the young student to com- pare two objects than to describe either of them alone. Practice in comparison will help you to observe and to describe. Study the objects, etc., mentioned below and be ready to make careful oral or written comparisons.* In making your comparison, note the different points in which the objects may be compared. In No. 1, for example, such points are : — 1. Appearance: color, form, size, odor. 2. Structure : skin, pulp, seeds, seed cells. 3. Sources from which the fruit is obtained. 1. An apple and an orange. 2. The tomato and the grape. 3. The lily and the violet. 4. An English sparrow and a crow. 5. The canary and the parrot. 6. A rope and a chain. 7. Iron and gold. 8. Night and day. 9. A holiday and a school day. 10. The automobile and the horse. 11. A tugboat and an ocean steamer. 12. An express train and a freight train. 13. May and October. 14. Washington and Lincoln. 15. Courage and cowardice. 16. Colonial life in New York and in Virginia. * Each of these exercises will serve for a single lesson. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 345 SECTIONS XXXVIII-L. ORAL COMPOSITION. Prepare to talk for two minutes upon the following subjects. Your preparation may consist in observing the thing which you are to describe, in reading about it, or in talking about it with people who know more than you do. Make notes of what you see, hear, and read, and be ready to talk clearly in the order presented in the outline. 38. Describe the post-office in your town. 1 . General appearance — situation, size, material, style of architecture. 2. Interior — equipment, employees. 3. Describe the arrival and departure of the mails. 39. How a bridge is made. 1. Where. 2. Of what. 3. How. 40. A day's sport. 1. What you planned to do. 2. What you did. 41. How a highway is built. 1. How the land is secured and paid for. 2. How the road is laid out. 3. How the roadway is cleared. 4. How the road is made. 346 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 42. Uses of glass. Name common things in which glass is used, stating at the same time what qualities in the glass make it useful for the purpose named. 43. How many people worked to prepare your breakfast? 1. Trace each article of food back to its source and think of the labor involved in making it ready for you. 2. What people were engaged in this labor? 3. Compare the preparation of your breakfast with that of an Indian's two hundred and fifty years ago. 44. Describe some favorite book. 1. Tell its name. 2. Tell what you know of its author. 3. Briefly outline the story of the book. 45. Describe some picture which you have seen and enjoyed. 46. In England boys play cricket. In the United States they play baseball. Describe the game of baseball so that your English cousin will understand how you play the game. 47. Describe some house in your neighborhood. Write about its situation ; its general appearance ; the detailed features which make it pleasing or remarkable. Add any other items which seem interesting to you. 48. Describe a co n iiry road or a city street with which you are familiar. 49. Visit a blacksmith's shop and write a description of the place and of the work which is done there. 50. Describe some character in history so that your class- mates will be able to guess the name of the character from your description. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 347 SECTION LI. VARIETY AND SMOOTHNESS. Read the following description aloud. EVENING AT THE DOCTOR'S. The clock of St. George's had struck five. Mrs. Dove had just poured out the Doctor's seventh cup of tea. The Doctor was sitting in his armchair. Sir Thomas was purring upon the Doctor's knees. Pompey stood looking up to Mrs. Dove. He wagged his tail. Sometimes he whined with a short note of impa- tience. Sometimes he gently put his paw against Mrs. Dove's apron. This was to remind her that he wished for another bit of bread and butter. Barnaby was gone to the farm. Nobs was in the stable. You observe that this passage is grammatical and written in good pure English. It is so vivid that, although you may know nothing of the story, you can- not fail to understand the situation. You can have no doubt that the Doctor lived near St. George's Church and that his name was Dove. It is equally clear that " Sir Thomas " was the Doctor's cat, " Pompey " his dog, "Barnaby" his servant, and "Nobs" his horse. Yet the passage is not quite agreeable to read. It is chopped up into a number of short sentences of about the same length, and no attempt is made to enable you to pass easily from one to another. To read a whole book written in this style, or even a dozen pages, would be pretty hard work. Now read the same passage in the form in which it was actually composed by the author, Robert Southey. 348 THE MOTHER TONGUE. The clock of St. George's had struck five. Mrs. Dove had just poured out the Doctor's seventh cup of tea. The Doctor was sitting in his armchair. Sir Thomas was purring upon his knees ; and Pompey stood looking up to his mistress, wagging his tail, sometimes whining with a short note of impatience, and some- times gently putting his paw against her apron to remind her that he wished for another bit of bread and butter. Barnaby was gone to the farm ; and Nobs was in the stable. This is something quite different. The description is no clearer than it was before, but the effect is much better. Compare the two versions, and try to discover wherein the improvement lies. If you succeed, you will have learned a valuable lesson in variety and smoothness of style.* SECTION LII. Study "The English Lark" (p. 334) and observe the variety in the length of the sentences and in their structure. To the Teacher. — Several exercises of this nature may follow, based on descriptive and narrative passages in the pupil's reading-book or his- tory. The principle involved should also be illustrated in the teacher's criticism of the pupil's own compositions. SECTION LIII. Review Sections XI-XVII, observing how they illustrate the principle of variety. * The teacher may properly give the pupils a hint of the principle of sentence-structure involved in this problem, if they seem to be quite at a loss. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 349 SECTION LIV. VARIETY IN DESCRIPTION. The following passages illustrate the scope of variety in descriptive writing. 1. The lofty houses ; the stately, though narrow and gloomy, streets, the splendid display of the richest goods and most gor- geous armor in the warehouses and shops around ; the walks crowded by busy citizens of every description, passing and repass- ing with faces of careful importance or eager bustle ; the huge wains, which transported to and fro the subject of export and import, the former consisting of broadcloths and serge, arms of all kinds, nails and iron-work, while the latter comprehended every article of use or luxury intended either for the consumption of an opulent city or received in barter and destined to be trans- ported elsewhere — all these objects combined to form an engross- ing picture of wealth, bustle, and splendor, to which Quentin had been hitherto a stranger. — Scott. 2. Black night lay over the city, and silence ; the river flowed unseen through the darkness ; but a thousand golden points of fire mapped out the lines of the Embankment and the long curves of the distant bridges. The infrequent sounds that could be heard were strangely distinct, even when they were faint and remote. There was a slight rustling of wind in the trees below the window. — William Black. In the first passage an enumeration of different objects is so managed, in the compass of one long sentence, as to convey a vivid impression of prosperous activity. In the second passage there are three sentences of different length, skillfully varied in their structure, and combining to produce a wonderful effect of night and stillness, 350 THE MOTHER TONGUE. SECTION LV. We have already studied variety in sentences (Sections X-XVII) * and have seen that different forms (simple or complex) produce very different effects. We may observe similar differences in the compara- tive effectiveness of declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory sentences. Study the exercise on page 32. No. 5 (interrogative) is more effective than if it were a declarative sentence. In Nos. 9 and 10 the imperative enlivens the passage. No. 12 would be less powerful if it were "You may rest," etc. In Xos. 13, 14, 20, note the effectiveness of the exclamatory form. Change the following sentences in form, and see whether each gains or loses in effectiveness. 1. What a frightful road this is for me to travel ! 2. How quick the change from joy to woe ! How checker'd is our lot below ! 3. Will you be patient ? Will you stay awhile ? 4. What a dignity there is in the Roman language ! 5. Will you forgive me if I have pained you? 6. Where is the packet? Why should you lose a moment? 7. Was there ever anything so delightful? 8. And yet what harmony was in him ! What music even in his discords ! 9. How bright and happy this world ought to be ! 10. When others praise him, do I blame ? 11. The songs of spring have departed. 12. " Luckless man that I am ! " said the notary. 13. Ah ! well-a-day ! what evil looks Had I from old and young ! 14. •• How T should like to see that ! " said Alice. * These sections may now be reviewed in whole or in part. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION 351 SECTION LVI. Commit this description to memory. Give an oral account of its contents. A HAPPY LIFE. How happy is he born and taught That serveth not another's will; Whose armor is his honest thought, And simple truth his utmost skill ! Whose passions not his masters are ; Whose scul is still prepared for death — Untied unto the world by care Of public fame or private breath ; Who envies none that. chance doth raise, Nor vice ; hath never understood How deepest wounds are given by praise, Nor rules of state, but rules of good ; Who hath his life from rumors freed ; Whose conscience is his strong retreat ; Whose state can neither flatterers feed, Nor ruin make oppressors great ; Who God doth late and early pray More of his grace than gifts to lend. And entertains the harmless day With a religious book or friend. This man is freed from servile bands Of hope to rise or fear to fall : Lord of himself, though not of lands. And, having nothing, yet hath all. Sir Henry Wotton. 352 THE MOTHER TONGUE. SECTION LVII. Study the following description ; then try to rewrite it from memory. Compare your description with the original. SUNSET. (From " The Lady of the Lake.") The western waves of ebbing day Roll'd o'er the glen their level way ; Each purple peak, each flinty spire, Was bathed in floods of living fire. But not a setting beam could glow Within the dark ravines below, Where twined the path in shadow hid, Round many a rocky pyramid, Shooting abruptly from the dell Its thunder-splinter'd pinnacle. Aloft, the ash and warrior oak Cast anchor in the rifted rock ; And, higher yet, the pine tree hung His shatter'd trunk, and frequent flung, Where seem'd the cliffs to meet on high, His boughs athwart the narrow'd sky. Highest of all, where white peaks glanced, Where glist'ning streamers waved and danced, The wanderer's eye could barely view The summer heaven's delicious blue ; So wondrous wild, the whole might seem The scenery of a fairy dream. Scott. To the Teacher. — Further study of this kind should he encouraged. The pupils may he directed to suitahle passages in their reading-books or advised to hring to school similar descriptions which they may find at home. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 353 SECTION LVIII. Study the following narrative. CONSCIENCE. When a little boy in my fourth year, one fine day in spring my father led me by the hand to a distant part of the farm, — but soon sent me home alone. On the way I had to pass a little " pond-hole " then spreading its waters wide. A rhodora in full bloom — a rare flower in my neighborhood — attracted my attention and drew me to the spot. I saw a little spotted tortoise sunning himself in the shallow water at the foot of the flaming shrub. I lifted the stick I had in my hand, to strike the harmless turtle ; for, though I had never killed any creature, I had seen other boys destroy birds, squirrels, and the like, out of sport, and I felt a disposition to follow their example. But all at once something checked my little arm, and a voice within me said, clear and loud, " It is wrong ! " I held my uplifted stick in wonder at the new emotion, — the consciousness of an inward check upon my actions, — till the tortoise and rhodora both vanished from my sight. I hastened home and told the tale to my mother, asking what it was that told me it was wrong. She wiped a tear from her eye and, taking me in her arms, said, " Some men call it con- science, but I prefer to call it the voice of God in the soul of man. " If you listen to it, and obey it, then it will speak clearer and clearer, and always guide you right. But if you turn a deaf ear and disobey it, it will fade out little by little, and leave you all in the dark and without a guide. Your life depends upon heeding this little voice." I went off to wonder and to think it over in my poor childish way. But I am sure no other event in my life has made so deep and lasting an impression on me. — Parker. 354 THE MOTHER TONGUE. SECTION LIX. Study the following narrative ; then try to rewrite it from memory. Compare your narrative with the original. THE WHISTLE. When I was a child of seven years old, my friends, on a holi- day, filled my pocket with coppers. I went directly to a shop where they sold toys for children, and, being charmed with the sound of a whistle that I met by the way in the hands of another boy, I voluntarily offered and gave all my money for one. I then came home, and went whistling all over the house, much pleased with my whistle, but disturbing all the family. < My brothers and sisters and cousins, understanding the bar- gain I had made, told me I had given four times as much for it as it was worth ; put me in mind what good things I might have bought with the rest of the money ; and laughed at me so much for my folly that I cried with vexation ; and the reflection gave me more chagrin than the whistle gave me pleasure. This, however, was afterwards of use to me, the impression continuing in my mind ; so that often, when I was tempted to buy some unnecessary thing, I said to myself, " Don't give too much for the whistle ! " and I saved my money. As I grew up, came into the world, and observed the actions of men, I thought I met with many, very many, who " gave too much for the whistle." — Franklin. Observe the paragraphs. Give an appropriate title to each (as in Section XVIII). Study each paragraph with reference to unity and variety. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 355 SECTION LX. THE INTRODUCTION IN NARRATIVES. A story may begin with an introductory paragraph naming and describing the characters, telling where the scene is laid, or giving some other information which the reader needs. In "The English Lark" (p. 341), for example, the first paragraph describes the scene and tells the occasion of the miners' meeting. In Longfellow's •' Wreck of the Hesperus," * the introduction consists of two stanzas. The first informs us that the story con- cerns a schooner named " Hesperus," and adds that the skipper had taken his daughter with him on the voyage ; the second describes the daughter. The tale of the wreck begins with the third stanza. Study the following poems with reference to the introduction : — " Paul Revere's Ride," by Longfellow. " In School Days," by Whittier. " Lucy Gray," by Wordsworth. "The Pied Piper of Hamelin," by Browning. To the Teacher. — Several other poems and prose narratives with which the pupils are already acquainted should now be discussed by the teacher and the class, with reference to the length and the contents of the introduction, as well as its function in the story. . The pupil should observe that the introduction must not be so long as to dwarf the composition itself, and that it need not include details that will inevitably suggest themselves to the reader as he proceeds. * If the poem is unfamiliar to the pupils, they should read it in the class-room as an introduction to this lesson. 356 THE MOTHER TONGUE. SECTION LXI. THE INTRODUCTION IN DESCRIPTIONS. In describing an object or a scene, an introductory paragraph may be needed to tell the reader what it is that you mean to describe, or to give him some infor- mation about it that does not properly belong to the description itself. Thus, in describing your own city or town to a stranger (p. 338), you would naturally begin by telling him the name and situation of the town. If it is a small place, you might tell why you think of describing it at all, — because it is beautiful, perhaps, or important historically, or because you have been asked about it. The purpose of the description and the other circumstances must determine these details. Write such an introductory paragraph as would be appropriate in describing a football game ; a school exhibition ; an election ; a sleigh-ride ; a piece of woods.* The length and character of the introduction will of course vary considerably. If the object to be described is well known, no introduction may be needed, or the first sentence of the opening paragraph may suffice. Prosiness and excessive formality should be avoided. Proportion must also be kept in mind. Young writers sometimes spend more time and ink in introducing a subject than in discussing it. * Each of these topics may be used for a single exercise. Section LX also contains material for several lessons. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 357 SECTION LXII. INTRODUCTION OMITTED. A narrative often begins, so to speak, in the middle. The first sentences may introduce us to the characters in action or in the midst of an exciting conversation. In such cases the introductory matter is given later, when the opening scene has been concluded. Thus, in Shakspere's " Julius Csesar," the first scene shows us the Roman workmen making riotous holiday, and the magistrates rebuking them. It is not until the second scene that we learn the real subject of the drama, — the plot against Csesar and its results. Find some tale or drama which begins in this way, and show at what point the explanatory matter is brought in. SECTION LXIII. THE CONCLUSION. It is often hard to bring a composition to a fitting and graceful close. The difficulty varies with the nature of the subject and the manner of treatment. A narrative naturally comes to an end when there is no more to be told and the characters have been properly dismissed. Observe the way in which your favorite story-books end. A short anecdote ends with the " point " for the sake of which it is told (see Section XX). A description may require a more formal conclusion. Sometimes a paragraph is necessary to sum up the main 358 THE MOTHER TONGUE. points of the composition. Sometimes a general remark about the subject makes a fitting conclusion. Very often, however, nothing of the kind is necessary. Above all things, one should avoid the practice of concluding with a commonplace moral or a feeble bit of sentiment. The conclusion ought to seem natural and inevitable. Otherwise it is usually better to "stop when you get through," even at the risk of a little abruptness. In a letter, however, an abrupt ending may suggest discourtesy and thus give a false impression of the writer. SECTION LXIV. Study the conclusions of four or five pieces of prose or poetry in your reading-book, and try to discover the reason for each and for the differences between them. SECTION LXV. TRANSITION. A good writer does not force his readers to jump from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph. He smooths the path for them, so that they go on by easy stages, without great effort or undue delay. In other words, a good writer is careful about transition. Transition (from the Latin trans, "across," and ire, "to go") means simply " the act or process of crossing " (as a stream or mountain range). Read over » The Society of Good Books " (p. 339), and observe how easy you find it to follow the writer's thought. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 359 SECTION LXVI. MEANS OF TRANSITION. Transition is assisted by a careful arrangement of words, so that the end of one sentence leads up to the beginning of another ; or, in paragraphs, by similar care in the arrangement of sentences. Frequently, too, a whole sentence is needed, not for anything new that it has to tell, but merely for the help it gives in showing the connection of thought. In a long essay, a paragraph may be needed for precisely the same purpose. An easy passage (transition) from sentence to sen- tence is often effected by the use of words and phrases like however, nevertheless, thus, hence, also, so, in this way, such. These connectives, however, should not be used idly, — merely " to fill up " or " make the sentence smooth." They have their several meanings and assist in expressing the connection of thought. A pronoun referring to a noun in the preceding sen- tence often serves the purpose of transition. Careless speakers and writers have a habit, in telling a story, of tacking their sentences together with and's. A moment's thought will show how slovenly this habit is, even in ordinary conversation. But is also over-used by many persons. To the Teacher. — The principle of transition should now be studied in passages of some length, and for this purpose the reading-book (or the particular piece of literature which the pupils are reading) may be uti- lized. The bad effect of omitting transitional particles, phrases, and sen- tences from a smooth piece of connected prose may be made clear to the youngest pupils by experiment. 360 THE MOTHER TONGUE. SECTION LXVII, EMPHASIS. In speaking we use emphasis to assist the hearer in understanding exactly what we mean. In writing it is not always easy to indicate such emphasis. Yet, unless the reader knows which words or phrases are meant to be emphatic, he may lose the effect of a whole sentence. In verse the metre is of assistance. In prose we must trust much to the reader's intelligence, but some help is given by the order of words. Study the following passages and indicate such words, or groups of words, as seem to you emphatic. Test your opinion by reading each sentence aloud. Do you see anything peculiar about the position of these words? 1. These, therefore, I can pity. 2. In the night it blew very hard, and a great sea tumbled in upon the shore ; but, being extremely fatigued, we in the boats went to sleep. 3. Even in sleep, however, my fancy was still busy ; and a dream, so vivid as to leave behind it the impression of reality, thus passed through my mind. 4. Think, when we talk of horses, that you see them Printing their proud hoofs i' the receiving earth. 5. Never was such a sudden scholar made. 6. A black day will it be to somebody. 7. Some war, some plague, some famine they foresee. 8. The fur that warms a monarch, warmed a bear. 9. What a delicious veranda is this to dream in I LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 361 10. By good luck I got an excellent place in the best part of the house. 11. There fell a thick and heavy rain, and the ground on which the beleaguering army must needs take up their position was muddy and intersected with many canals. 12. Tier beyond tier, height above height, the great wooded ranges go rolling away westward, till on the lofty sky-line they are crowned with a gleam of everlasting snow. 13. With blackest moss the flower-pots Were thickly crusted, one and all. 14. Far as the eye can reach up the glen, and to the right, it is one horrid waste of gray granite ; here and there a streak of yellow grass or a patch of black bog ; not a tree or a shrub within the sky-line. SECTION LXVIII. METHODS OF EMPHASIS. Your study of the sentences in Section LXVII has shown you that every variation from the simplest order of words makes a difference in emphasis. Thus, in the first example, the object is put before the subject and the verb ; in the fifth, an adverb comes first, and the subject follows was ; in the tenth, the adverbial modifier " by good luck " begins the sentence. To the Teacher. — Such variations cannot be reduced to hard-and- fast rules. The student should "read authors" and observe how they arrange their words and clauses. He may then try to reproduce the simpler effects in his own writing. The hints that follow will be of some assistance. From the outset, however, he should be warned against violent or affected distortions. A word, phrase, or clause is often emphasized by coming before the subject of the sentence. 362 THE MOTHER TONGUE. The simple subject and the predicate verb may both become emphatic when they change places in the sen- tence or clause. The object may be emphasized by making it precede the verb. The end of a clause or sentence is often an emphatic position. Study the following sentences and notice the position of the emphatic words. 1. Be secret and be safe. 2. Then would come a fit of despondency, almost of despair. 3. Here giant weeds a passage scarce allow To halls deserted, portals gaping wide. 4. It 's hard to part with the old farm and the old faces now. 5. Few parliaments have ever been more memorable, or more truly representative of the English people, than the parliament of 1654. 6. False face must hide what the false heart doth know. 7. His eyes grew brighter, his bearing more majestic, his heart softer towards his fellow-creatures. 8. This house is mine. Go ! I will never forget and never forgive. Go ! 9. A vast confusion of formless rocks crosses the stream, torturing it into a hundred boiling pools and hissing cascades. 10. Young men are fitter to invent than to judge. 11. We are no tyrant, but a Christian king. 12. A wise man changes his mind, a fool never will. 13. Next to being too late, being too soon is the worst plan in the world. 14. I heard the owl scream and the crickets cry. 15. His features are strong and masculine, with an Austrian lip and arched nose ; his complexion olive, his bearing erect, his body and limbs well proportioned, all his motions graceful, and his deportment majestic. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 363 SECTION LXIX. You observe that each of the passages in Section LXVIII contains two or more words or phrases that stand in the same position in the sentence. Such an arrangement indicates emphasis. You note also that the parallelism of arrangement is often emphasized by a repetition of the same word. Finally you observe that in some of the passages the emphatic words are contrasted with each other. Such a contrast is called antithesis. If you have missed any of these points, review each sentence and observe them carefully. To the Teacher. — Sections LXVII and LXVIII may be used as the material for several lessons. SECTION LXX. Study the style and the matter of this poem. AN APRIL DAY. Ail day the low-hung clouds have dropped Their garnered fullness down ; All day that soft, gray mist hath wrapped Hill, valley, grove, and town. There has not been a sound to-day To break the calm of nature ; Nor motion I might almost say, Of life, or living creature ; Of waving bough, or warbling bird, Or cattle faintly lowing ; I could have half believed I heard The leaves and blossoms growing. 864 THE MOTHER TONGUE. I stood to hear — I love it well — The rain's continuous sound : Small drops, but thick and fast they fell, Down straight into the ground. For leafy thickness is not yet Earth's naked breast to screen ; Though every dripping branch is set With shoots of tender green. Sure since I looked at early morn, Those honeysuckle buds Have swelled to double growth ; that thorn Hath put forth larger studs. That lilac's cleaving cones have burst, The milk-white flowers revealing , Even now, upon my senses first Methinks their sweets are stealing. The very earth, the steamy air, Is all with fragrance rife ; And grace and beauty everywhere Are flushing into life. Down, down they come — those fruitful stores, Those earth-rejoicing drops ! A momentary deluge pours, Then thins, decreases, stops. And ere the dimples on the stream Have circled out of sight, Lo ! from the west a parting gleam Breaks forth, of amber light. But yet behold ! abrupt and loud, Comes down the glittering rain ; The farewell of a passing cloud, The fringes of her train. Caroline Southey. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 365 SECTION LXXI. LETTER- WRITING. Every educated person practises the art of composi- tion whenever he writes a letter. This, indeed, is one of the reasons why composition should be studied. Such study enables us to express our thoughts freely, clearly, and in a pleasing manner, and thus to make our letters effective as well as agreeable. On the other hand, a neglect of the principles of composition not only betrays the writer's ignorance, but often hope- lessly confuses the reader, and thus defeats the whole purpose of letter-writing. An illegible and badly spelled letter, not divided into paragraphs, and defying all sense of unity, is a disgrace to the sender and an annoyance to the recipient. There are two main lines of study and practice which are essential to letter-writing. These are readily shown by the analysis of the following letters. i. [An informal letter from a sister to her brother.] 260 Caroline St., Saratoga, N. Y., Jan. 7, 1901. Dear Frank, I reached Saratoga yesterday, after a very pleasant ride through the Berkshire Hills. The railroad follows the bed of a wind- ing mountain stream, which proved a very agreeable travelling companion. Saratoga is quite as attractive in the winter as in the summer. One seldom sees such aspiring pines. You know I like trees. 366 . THE MOTHER TONGUE. I forgot my trunk key, like a goose. I left it on the hall table. Can yon send it to me by return mail ? Possibly you have sent it already. That would be like you. This letter goes in haste, — merely to assure you of my safe arrival. But there is time to remind you that the best part of being here will be the letters from home. Write as often as you can. * Your loving sister, Margaret. II. [A friendly letter from a gentleman to' a business acquaintance.] 13 Chestnut Terrace, Auburn, N. Y., Oct. 15, 1900. Dear Mr. Thompson, In our conversation last Tuesday, you referred to your son Robert, and mentioned his desire to make a bicycle tour through England and Wales. To-day my cousin, Frank Meade, tells me that he intends to spend next summer in England, and that he is looking for a travelling companion. Frank is a fine fellow, — well-bred, sensible, and trustworthy, a good comrade and an excellent traveller. He graduated from Cornell in '86, and has been abroad three times since. It at once occurred to me that Robert might wish to accompany Frank. They would like each other, I am sure. If you care to consider the matter, I will ask Frank to call upon you, and you can talk it over together. He tells me that he intends to be in Rochester early next week. Sincerely yours, John F. Morgan. Arthur S. Thompson, Esq., 1120 Main St., Rochester, N. Y, LEU SONS IN COMPOSITION. 367 III. [A business letter, ordering books.] Oakview School, Syracuse, N. Y., Sept. 11, 1900. Messrs. Abbot, Carnes & Co., 21 Astor Place, New York City. Gentlemen : Please send me, by express, C. O. D., fifty (50) copies of Stuart's " Note Books," Xo. 3. We need the books at once, and have just discovered that our supply is exhausted. Very truly yours, Marshall T. Brown. These three examples illustrate the common charac- teristics of all letters. Observe, in the first place, that each letter is written for the purpose of conveying a message. That is its main business. It follows, then, that the writer must know how to compose his message, or express his thought, in an appropriate manner — clearly, so that it may be understood, and courteously, so that it may be agreeably received. It is evident that the relation of the writer to the reader determines the style of each letter. No. 1, a letter from a sister to a brother, is altogether informal. The writer speaks of personal pleasures and tastes, assumes her brother's interest in her pleasant journey and safe arrival, asks his help in recovering the key of her trunk, and gracefully acknowledges his thoughtfulness. Though the note is brief, she has time 368 THE MOTHER TONGUE. to express her sisterly affection in the phrase which re- minds her brother of the pleasure which his letters always give her. No. 2 is a friendly letter of a business nature, and is more formal than No. 1. It definitely presents a matter of interest to the recipient. Observe the manner in which young Mr. Meade is introduced to Mr. Thomp- son. Study the letter as a composition. No. 3 is a business letter pure and simple, such as pass between people who have business relations merely. It is brief and concise. The second sentence explains the necessity for rapid delivery, and gives the reason for the comparatively small order. Personal allusions are omitted. The statement is brief, definite, and busi- ness-like. Study all three letters carefully. Observe the sen- tences and the paragraphs as well as the general style. SECTION LXXII. THE PARTS OF A LETTER. The principles which govern all composition apply to letter-writing. The writer should have clearly in mind what he wishes to say, should make his meaning clear, and should express himself in a style appropriate to the occasion. He is helped to do this by the general principles of unity, clearness, and the like, and, further, by certain rules or customs of arrangement. These rules or customs enable us to make our letters intelligible with the least possible trouble to ourselves and our correspondents. A study of the three letters in Section LXXI will make this perfectly clear. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 369 For example, we find at the right-hand upper corner of each letter a " heading," which includes the address of the writer and the date of writing. From this heading the recipient can tell at a glance how to address his reply. He is not forced to search through the letter to find out where his correspondent resides or is staying. If Margaret omits the address in writing to her brother Frank, she may fail to receive her key. If Mr. Morgan omits his address, Mr. Thompson may be put to the trouble of consulting old letters, or the Directory, before he can reply to the letter. If Mr. Brown omits his address, he may prevent the early delivery of the books which he needs so much. The date is equally important, even in friendly letters. " I shall be in town to-morrow," writes Mr. Adams to his son, "and shall take luncheon at the Astor House at one o'clock. Come and lunch with me." But the date is omitted from the heading, the letter is delayed, and the son has no means of knowing what day is referred to as " to-morrow." Thus a brief study will suffice to show that the for- mal customs which are followed in letter- writing are dictated by convenience. Certain forms are generally agreed upon, and these are followed by the careful writer. Brief notes to intimate friends may dispense with ceremony ; but even in these the settled customs of letter-writing are followed in the main. The following summary will serve as a review of the essential rules which govern the formal arrangement of letters. 370 THE MOTHER TONGUE. A letter consists of the following parts : — I. The heading, which should contain the writer's address and the date. Thus, — 260 Caroline St., Hobart College, Saratoga, N. Y., Geneva, N. Y., Jan. 7, 1901. Oct. 8, 1900. Waco, Kas., Marshfield, Mass., Feb. 3, 1901. Dec. 2, 1900. For the position of the heading, see the letters on pp. 365-7. II. The salutation, which takes various forms accord- ing to the relation between the writer and the recipient. Thus, Dear Madam, My dear Sir, My dear Madam, Dear Sirs, Dear Sir, Gentlemen : are appropriate salutations in business letters. " My dear Sir " is more formal than " Dear Sir." Dear Mr. Jackson, My dear Mrs. Hatch, Dear Mrs. Erroll, My dear Miss Fernald, are proper in friendly letters, or in business letters addressed to a person whom one knows well. Dear James, Dear Uncle, My dear John, Dear Edith, Dear Cousin Mary, My dear Elizabeth, are proper in familiar letters. The salutation may be followed by a comma, by a comma and a dash, by a colon, or by a colon and a dash. The comma is least LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 371 formal. In business letters, the colon (with or without the dash) is often preferred, especially after " Gentlemen." In formal business letters the name and address of the recipient often come before the salutation. See this arrangement in No. 3, on p. 367. For the position of the salutation, see pp. 365-7. III. The body of the letter, which consists of the mes- sage itself. This should be legibly and clearly written, in paragraphs. It should also be carefully punctuated, and expressed in a style appropriate to the occasion. IV. The form§Lj:losing. This is merely a courteous phrase, indicating the relation in which the writer stands to his correspondent. Thus, in business letters, — Yours truly, Yours sincerely, Very truly yours, Sincerely yours, Respectfully yours, Very sincerely yours, Or, in familiar or affectionate letters, — Faithfully yours, Your loving son, Yours cordially, Yours, with love. Observe that the forms given in the first list are not all suitable for every kind of business letter. " Yours truly" or "Very truly yours" will fit almost any such letter. The ferns with " sincerely " are more intimate and less formal. " Respectfully yours " should never be used unless special respect is intended. It is proper in writing to a high official or to a person much older than one's self. I;i an ordinary business letter, how- ever, it should not be used. It is in very question- able taste to add " Yours respectfully " to an order, for 372 THE MOTHER TONGUE. example, like that in No. 3, p. 367. When in doubt, write " Very truly yours," which is always safe. V. The signature. Except in very familiar letters, this is the name of the writer in the form which he habitually uses in signing a document. If the writer is a lady, she should indicate whether she is to be addressed as Miss or as Mrs. This may be done by prefixing the title (in parentheses) to the signature : — (Miss) Alice Atherton. Or the proper form may be written below the signature, and at the left of the page. The name and address of the person for whom a letter is intended are usually either placed above the salutation (as in No. 3, p. 367), or below the signature and at the left of the page (as in No. 2). In familiar letters the latter arrangement is usual, but the address is often omitted. VI. The superscription or the direction, which is written on the envelope, consists of the name and address of the person to whom the letter is sent. Mr. John Eliot Newell 65 State Street Richmond V lrginia [Or, — John Eliot Newell, Esq.] SECTIONS LXXIII-LXXXII. FRIENDLY LETTERS. 73. You have just taken a tour through Georgia and Florida and are now at St. Augustine. Write to a friend at home. Describe the country through which you have passed and the cities which you have visited. Add anything else of interest. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 373 74. Imagine yourself to have taken an ocean voyage from Liverpool to Calcutta, by way of the Isthmus of Suez. Write a letter from Calcutta to your friend George Koester, describing the voyage. 75. Write to your friend Harold Starr, who lives in Grafton, Nebraska, asking him to spend the Christmas holidays with you. Tell him what you will do to make his visit agreeable. 76. Your friend Richard Upham, who lives at Winchester, Pennsylvania, writes to ask for directions which will help him to get from the railroad station in your city to your house. Write -to him, giving him careful directions. 4— 77. Imagine yourself in Honolulu. Write to some member of your family. Tell how the climate differs from that of your own city, what fruits are raised, of what races the population consists, and add anything else which may be of interest. 78. Write from London to your friend Jane Atherton in Syracuse, and describe some of the interesting places that you have visited. 79. Write a descriptive letter from one of the places named below : — Yokohama, Constantinople, Hongkong, Paris, Melbourne, Edinburgh, Cape Colony, Sitka, Rome, Chicago. 80. Your friend Edith Graham writes to ask you about a boarding school in your town which she thinks of attending next year. Reply appropriately. 81. Write to your cousin Robert giving an account of some adventure which happened to you in your recent visit to Niagara Falls. 82. Write Robert's reply, recounting an experience of his own. 374 TEE MOTHER TONGUE. SECTIONS LXXXIII-XCII. BUSINESS LETTERS. 83. The Evanston Gazette is a weekly paper printed in your town. Write to the publisher, asking him to send the paper for one year to your friend, John S. Stewart, Aberdeen, Colorado. Enclose a check for two dollars in payment. 84. Write to Mr. John S. Swift, head of the publishing house of Swift Brothers, Toledo, Ohio, asking him for a position in his employ. Tell him what you can do and what you prefer to do. 85. Write to a farmer in a country town not far from your home, asking him to send you, by express, twenty-five pounds of good butter. 86. There is a mistake in a bill which you have just received from your coal dealer. Write to him, calling his attention to the mistake and asking to have the bill corrected. 87. Write a letter to your teacher, telling her that you are suddenly compelled to leave school without completing your course. Ask for a letter of recommendation to help you in securing employment. 88. Write a letter to the Superintendent of Schools in your town, asking him to be present at a gymnastic exhibition. 89. Write to Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, asking them to send you by express a copy of " Virginia and her Neigh- bors," by John Fiske. 90. Write a letter of recommendation for a boy who has been in your service. Assume that you are at the head of a bank or of a large business house. 91. Write to the agent of a steamship company, asking for information about the steamships of his line, — the time of sail- ing, the cost of passage, the nature of the accommodations, etc. 92. Write to the Chairman of the Civil Service Commission in some large city, asking him to tell you when the next examination will occur and to send you a circular of information regarding it. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 375 SECTION XCIII. INVITATIONS. Invitations and replies are either formal or informal. The reply should accord with the style of the invitation. An informal invitation is written like any other familiar letter, except that the heading is often less exact in designating the date and place. Sometimes the heading is omitted altogether. A formal invitation is always in the third person. It has no heading, no salutation, and no v * Yours truly " (or the like) at the end. It is also unsigned, for the writer's name appears in the body of the invitation. In both formal and informal invitations the date and the address of the sender may be written below and at the left. The day of the month is often written out in full, and the year may be omitted. If the invitation is very formal, it may be arranged in lines of different lengths, as in the example. This is the practice when it is engraved. Mr. and Mrs. Egbert request the pleasure of Mr. Johnston's company at dinner on Wednesday, January 14th, at seven o'clock. 43 Grantham Street. A formal reply is also in the third person, and conforms to the style of the invitation in other respects. It should not, however, be " displayed " like an engraved invitation,- 376 THE MOTHER TONGUE. SECTION XCIV. ^ Copy the following letters and observe the parts of which they are composed. i. [A formal invitation and a reply.] Mrs. John T. Lawrence requests the pleasure of Miss Ainslee's company at dinner on Wednesday, February twenty-seventh, at seven o'clock. 239 Main Street. Miss Ainslee regrets that a previous engagement prevents her accepting Mrs. Lawrence's kind invitation for Wednesday evening. 13 Chestnut Terrace, February twenty-fourth. Miss Ainslee accepts with pleasure Mrs. Lawrence's kind invi- tation for Wednesday evening, February twenty-seventh, at seven o'clock. 13 Chestnut Terrace, February twenty-fourth. II. [Informal invitations and replies.] 5 Clifton Road, Thursday morning v Dear Miss Adams, May I have the pleasure of taking you and your sister to drive in the Park this afternoon ? The day is a beautiful one, and I do not like to have you return to the west without seeing the prettiest thing our town has to show. If it is convenient for you, I will call at three o'clock. The bearer will wait for your reply. Most cordially yours, Charlotte L. Fanshaw. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 377 My dear Mrs. Richards, Will you and Mr. Richards give us the pleasure of your company at dinner on Friday, August tenth, at seven o'clock ? Sincerely yours, Mary Sanderson. 9 Hilton Place, August third. My dear Mrs. Sanderson, It will give us great pleasure to dine with you on Friday, the tenth, at seven o'clock. Sincerely yours, ' Helen Richards. 10 Alton Street, August fourth. My dear Mrs. Sanderson, I am very sorry that a previous engagement will deprive us of the pleasure of dining with you on Friday. Sincerely yours, Helen Richards. 10 Alton Street, August fourth. SECTION XCV. BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS. A business transaction may require much correspond- ence before its details are settled. There are usually preliminary inquiries, definite propositions, an agree- ment, and the performance of the agreement. All these " items " require letter-writing. 378 THE MOTHER TONGUE. Mr. John T. King desires to send his twelve-year old son to a summer camp for boys. He corresponds with Mr. Elmer E. Ells- worth, 25 Cudworth St., Albany, New York, in regard to the matter. Write the necessary letters. 1. Mr. King makes preliminary inquiries. 2. Mr. Ellsworth replies, sending a circular and answering Mr. King's questions. He asks for a description of the boy, and a definite statement of the father's purpose in sending him to the camp. 3. Mr. King replies, and makes inquiries as to the acquaint- ances his son may make in camp. 4. Mr. Ellsworth replies. 5. Mr. King engages a place for his boy. 6. Bill rendered by Mr. Ellsworth at the end of the session. 7. Check sent by Mr. King in payment of Mr. Ellsworth's bill. 8. Letter from Mr. King to Mr. Ellsworth, expressing his appreciation of the treatment his boy has received, and his cordial approval of the camp. SECTION XCVI. Mr. John Smith is the teacher of history in the Oakview School. There are eighteen pupils in his class and he wishes to secure for them copies of Green's " Short History of the English People." It is necessary for him to learn the cost of the books; whether a discount will be allowed to his class; how and when the books can be delivered. 1. Write a letter asking the publishers to send a sample copy of the book to show to the class. 2. Write the publishers' reply which accompanies the book. 3. Write the order for eighteen copies, asking to have the books sent by express. 4. Prepare the bill which should accompany the books. 5. Write a letter announcing the safe arrival of the books and enclosing a check in payment. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 379 SECTION XCVII. TELEGRAMS. Important messages requiring haste are frequently trans nutted by telegraph. This means of communi- cation is very commonly employed by business men. The composition of telegrams is, therefore, an essential part of a business training. A telegram should be brief and definite. The cost of the telegram is proportioned to the distance. Ten words are allowed for a given rate, and every additional word means additional cost. It is therefore necessary to learn how to limit the cost of the telegram by writing as concisely as possible. To the Teacher. — Practice in writing telegrams is valuable in devel- oping power of discrimination as well as conciseness. Pupils should be taught to select the essential points of a message and to express them in the most telling words within the limit allowed. EXERCISES.* 1. You have travelled from Buffalo, New York, to San Francisco, California. Telegraph home from San Francisco to announce your safe arrival. Add some assurance of the comfort and pleasure of your journey. 2. Telegraph to Robert S. Mills & Co., Newark, New Jersey, ordering a certain piece of machinery which is needed in your manufactory. 3. You were present in a railroad accident, but were unhurt. Send a telegram to your friends, so that they may not be alarmed by the report of the accident. * These may also be used as subjects for letters, and the pupil may be required to condense each letter into a telegram. 380 THE MOTHER TONGUE. 4. You intend to sail from New York on the "City of Rome," on June 3, 1901. Telegraph to a friend in Poughkeepsie to meet you at the steamship an hour before sailing. 5. You leave an important parcel in the train and discover your loss just as you enter the station. Telegraph ahead to the next station, asking the conductor to secure the parcel and retain it for you. 6. You are a thousand miles from home. On the birthday of your father, mother, or intimate friend, send a congratulatory telegram. 7. You are making a journey and discover, in looking over the time-table, that you are to pass through the town where your brother is at school. Telegraph ahead, telling him when your train will arrive and asking him to come to the station to see you. 8. A friend has asked you to buy a certain farm in Vermont if a satisfactory agreement can be made. You have completed the purchase. Telegraph the important items to your friend. 9. You have been away from home upon a business tour and have arranged to return earlier than you had anticipated. Tele- graph home announcing your coming. 10. Telegraph to a caterer in the nearest city, asking him to send, by two o'clock express to-morrow, ice cream enough to serve one hundred persons. SECTION XCVIII. BUSINESS FORMS. Brief papers of a business character, like bills, notes, receipts, and checks, are drawn up in accordance with certain well-established forms. For these forms the pupil may properly consult his arithmetic or his copy-book. For convenience, however, specimens of such papers are given on pp. 381-2. LESSONS IN COMPOSITION. 381 [Time Note.] $375.25. Philadelphia, Pa., April 2, 1901. Six months after date, I promise to pay Benjamin Parker three hundred seventy-five and -f- ^ dollars, with interest at 5%. Value received. Robert Overton. [Demand Note.] $375.25. Philadelphia, Pa., April 17, 1901. On demand, I promise to pay Benjamin Parker three hundred seventy-five and T 2 o 5 jj dollars, with interest at 5%. Value received. Robert Overton. These are promissory notes. They are payable to Benjamin Parker only unless they bear his signature on the back (endorsement). In either note the name of Benjamin Parker might be followed by the words or bearer, in which case the note would be payable to any one having lawful possession of it. Or the name might be followed by the words or order, when the note would become payable to the bearer if endorsed by Benjamin Parker. [Bank Draft.] $600.25. New York, N. Y., August 12, 1900. Pay to the order of James Drew six hundred and -$fo dollars, value received, and charge to account of Shoe & Leather National Bank, Smith, Leland & Co. Boston, Mass. [Bank Check.] $310.50. Boston, Mass., March 27, 1901. Third National Bank, Boston, Mass. Pay to the order of John Hill three hundred ten and ^-fo dollars. John Enderby. [Receipt on account.] $520. Chicago, III., Dec. 22, 1900. Received of James L. Williams five hundred twenty dollars on account. George M. Lyman. 382 THE MOTHER TONGUE. [Receipt in full.] 1325. San Francisco, Cal., July, 1901. Received of John Cotton three hundred twenty-five dollars in full of all demands to date. Gerald Norton. Mr. Alfred Lee, [Hills.] Boston, Mass., March 12, 1901. Bought of Henderson & Lewis. 40 tons Coal 20 cords Wood @ $4.75 @ 3.25 1190 65 00 00 $255 00 Mr. Henry Fitzgerald, New York, Jan. 1, 1901. To James Brown, Dr. 1900 Nov. 3 To 10 lbs. Coffee 22 " 11 lbs. Lard Dec. 5 " 25 lbs. Sugar 12 « 2 lbs. Tea Jan. 12, 1901. @ 35 c. @ 9 c. @ 5 c. @ 65 c. i i 50 99 25 30 Received Payment, $7 04 James Brown. When a bill is paid, it is receipted by writing at the bottom the date of payment and the words Received Payment, followed by the name of the person or firm rendering the account. If a clerk lias authority to sign his employer's name, he signs his own name (preceded by the word by or per) under that of his employer. APPENDIX. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. The English language has a history that extends back for some fifteen hundred years. In the fifth century of the Christian era, England was inhabited by various tribes of the ancient Britons, who spoke a language altogether different from Eng- lish. They had been for four centuries under the rule of the Roman Empire, and consequently Latin, the lan- guage of the Romans, was used to some extent in the larger cities. In the main, however, the Britons spoke a tongue resembling that of the modern inhabitants of Wales, who are their descendants. In the fifth century the island was invaded by several wild, piratical tribes, whose home was in northern Ger- many, in the low countries on the eastern and southern shores of the North Sea. Of these tribes the most important were the Angles and the Saxons, whose language was similar to that tongue which has since become Dutch. In a long war, or rather a series of wars, the Angles and Saxons made themselves masters of Britain. They became civilized and began to cultivate literature. Their language, which they usually called " English " (that is, "the tongue of the Angles"), gradually spread 383 384 THE MOTHER TONGUE. through most of the island. In Wales, however, the ancient Britons continued to use their own language, which is still spoken by their descendants, the Welsh ; and in the northern part of Scotland, Gaelic, which is akin to Welsh, and identical to all intents and purposes with the native language of Ireland, has never died out. The oldest period of our language is commonly called either Anglo-Saxon (from the Angles and Saxons) or Old English. In the year 1066, England was invaded by the Nor- mans, a Scandinavian tribe who had got possession of Normandy (in northern France) about a hundred and fifty years before. At the time of the Norman Con- quest, the Normans had given up their native Scandi- navian and spoke a dialect of French. From the middle of the eleventh century to about the year 1400, two languages were common in England : (1) English, which was spoken by the majority of the people, and which was a descendant of the language of the Anglo-Saxons, and (2) French, which was the language of the court and of high society. Gradually, however, the speaking of French died out amongst the inhabitants of England, except as an ac- complishment, and the English tongue became the only natural language of Englishmen, whether they were of Anglo-Saxon or of Norman descent. Meantime, however, the Old English or Anglo-Saxon language had become very much changed. By the year 1400 it had lost most of its inflections, and had adopted a large number of new words from French and Latin. Thus, in the following passage, most of the words printed in Roman type are of Anglo-Saxon APPENDIX. 385 origin, whereas the italicized words come from Latin or French. While he was divided betwixt these reflections, and doubtful of •what he should do, Bruce was looking upward to the roof of the cabin in which he lay ; and his eye was attracted by a spider, which, hanging at the end of a long thread of its own spinning, was endeavoring, as is the fashion of that creature, to swing itself from one beam in the roof to another, for the purpose of fixing the line on which it meant to stretch its web. The insect made the attempt again and again without success ; and at length Bruce counted that it had tried to carry its point six times, and been as often unable to do so. The period of English from about 1200 to 1500 is usually called the Middle English period, to distinguish it from Old English or Anglo-Saxon on the one hand, and, on the other, from Modem English, the form of the language with which we are now familiar. Even within that period which we call the Modern English period, our language has undergone many changes in pronunciation, in form, and in construction. Both Shakspere and Tennyson, for example, are counted as Modern English writers, but we do not need to be told that Shakspere's language is considerably different from that of Tennyson. The explorations, discoveries, and conquests of the people of Great Britain have resulted in the spread of their language to all parts of the world, so that it is now not merely the language of England, but, to a considerable extent, that of Scotland, Ireland, North America, Australia, and India. Besides this, there is no quarter of the globe where English-speaking persons cannot be found. 386 THE MOTHER TONGUE. LISTS OF VERBS. In lists I and n, only such verb forms are given as are indisputably correct in accordance with the best prose usage of the present day. The pupil may feel perfectly safe, therefore, in using the forms registered in these lists. 1 Strong Verbs in which the Preterite and the Past Participle Differ in Form. [A few verbs (marked *) which are seldom or never used in ordinary language are included in this list. These have various irregularities. A few verbs are partly strong and partly weak.] Present Tense Preterite Tense Past Participle arise arose arisen am (subjunc, be) was been awake awoke, awaked awaked bear bore borne, born 2 beat beat beaten beget begot begotten begin began begun bid, command 8 bade bidden bite bit bitten blow blew blown 1 The omission of a form from the lists, then, does not necessarily indi- cate that it is " wrong " or even objectionable. There is considerable diversity of usage with regard to the strong verbs, and to state the facts at length would take much space. An attempt to include archaic, poetical, and rare forms in the same list with the usual modern forms is sure to mislead young students. Hence the lists here presented are confined to forms about whose correctness there can be no difference of opinion. Archaic and poetical tense-forms are treated later (pp. 389, 391-393) . 2 Born is used only in the passive sense of " born into the world." 3 For bid (at an auction), see p. 389. APPENDIX. 30 I Present Tense Preterite Tense Past Participle break broke broken chide chid chidden choose chose chosen * cleave, split x cleft, clove (clave) cleft, cleaved (cloven, adj.) come came come do did done draw drew , drawn drink drank drunk (drunken, adj.) drive drove driven eat ate eaten fall fell fallen fly flew flown forbear forbore forborne forget forgot forgotten forsake forsook forsaken freeze froze frozen give gave given go went (weak) gone _grow grew grown hew hewed (weak) hewn hide hid hidden know knew known lade 2 laded (weak) laded, laden lie, recline 3 lay lain ride rode ridden ring rang rung rise rose risen *rive rived (ivec ik) riven, rived run ran run see saw seen 1 Cleave, "to adhere," has cleaved in both preterite and past participle, and also an archaic preterite clave. 2 Load has loaded in both preterite and past participle. Laden is some- times used as the past participle of load. 3 Lie, "to tell a falsehood," has lied in both preterite and past participle. 38 THE MOTHER TONGUE. Present Tense Preterite Tense Past Participle * seethe, transitive sod, seethed seethed (sodden, adj.) 1 shake shook shaken shave shaved (weak) shaved (shaven, adj.) show showed (weak) shown shrink shrank shrunk (shrunken, adj.) * shrive shrove, shrived shriven, shrived sing sang sung sink sank sunk slay slew slain slide slid slid, slidden smite smote smitten sow sowed (iveak) sowed, sown speak spoke spoken spring sprang sprung- steal stole stolen strew strewed (weak) strewn stride strode stridden strike struck struck (stricken, adj.) 2 strive strove striven swear swore sworn swell swelled (toeak) swelled, swollen swim swam swum take took taken tear tore torn thrive throve, thrived thriven, thrived throw threw thrown tread trod trodden wear wore worn weave wove woven write wrote written i Seethe, intransitive, has usually seethed in both preterite and past participle. It is in rather common literary use. 2 Stricken is also used as a participle in a figurative sense. Thus we say : "The community was stricken with pestilence," — but "The dog was struck with a stick." APPENDIX. 389 Bear, break, drive, get (beget, forget), speak, stink, swear, tear, have archaic preterites in a : bare, brake, drave, gat, spake, etc. Beat, beget (forget), bite, break, forsake, hide, ride, shake, speak, weave, write, and some other verbs, have archaic forms of the past parti- ciple like those of the preterite. The participles in -en, however, are now the accepted forms. Chid and trod are common participial forms. Bid, " to command," has sometimes bid in both preterite and past par- ticiple ; bid, " to offer money," has these forms regularly. Begin, drink, ring, shrink, sing, sink, spring, swim, often have in poetry a w-form (begun, sung, etc.) in the preterite as well as in the past participle. This form (though good old English) 1 should be carefully avoided in modern speech. Some verbs have rare or archaic weak forms alongside of the strong forms. Thus shined, preterite and past participle of shine; showed, past participle of shoio. Ate and eaten are preferred to eat (pronounced et). Miscellaneous archaisms are writ for wrote and written, rid for rode and ridden, strewed and strown for strewn. Quoth, " said," is an old strong preterite. The compound bequeath has bequeathed only. n. Strong Terbs and Irregular Weak Verbs having the Preterite and the Past Participle Alike. [The strong verbs are italicized.] RESENT Preterite and Present Preterite and Tense Past Participle Tense Past Participle abide abode bind bound behold beheld bleed bled bend bent breed bred bereave bereft, bereaved 2 bring brought beseech besought build built bet bet burst burst bid (money) bid buy bought 1 It is a remnant of the old preterite plural. In Anglo-Saxon, the principal parts of begin were: present, beginne; pret., began; pret. pi., begunnon ; p. p., begunnen. 2 The adjective form is bereaved : as, " The bereaved father." ;$yo THE MO Til EB TUNG UK. PRESENT Preterite and Present Preterite and Tense Past PARTICIPLE Tense E ast Participle cast cast lead led catch caught leave left cling clung lend lent cost cost let let creep crept light lighted or lit 4 cut cut lose lost (leal dealt make made '/'.'/ dug mean meant dwell dwelt i 't met Iced fed pay paid feel felt put put Jig Itt fought read rSad find found reave (archaic) reft, reaved flee fled reeve rove jling flung rend rent gel got 1 rid rid grind ground say said hung hung, hanged 2 seek sought have had sell sold hear heard .send sent heave hove, heaved 8 set set hit hit shed shed hold held shine shone hurt hurt shoe shod keep kept shoot shot lay laid shut shut 1 The archaic participle gotten is used in the compounds begotten and forgotten, and as an adjective ( "ill-gotten gains " ). Many good speakers also use it instead ef the past participle got, but got is the accepted modern form. - Hanged is used only of execution l>y hanging. '■'■ Usage varies with the context. We say, " The crew hove the cargo overboard," but not " She hove a sigh." 4 So both light, " to kindle," and light, " to alight." The verb alight has usually alighted in both preterite and past participle. APPENDIX. 3 'RESENT Preterite ANI> Present Preterite and Tense Past Participle Teh Past Partk iple sit sat stink stunk sleep slept string strung sling slung sweep swept slink slunk . wing wung slit slit teach taught spend spent tell told spin spun think thought, spit spit thrust thrust split split wake woke, waked spread .spread weep \\ept stand stood \\ct wel stave, stove, staved win won stick stuck wind wound stiny slung wring wrung :>>u\ Observe that the following verbs have all three of the princi- pal parts alike: bet, hurst, rust, rust, cut, hit, hurt, let, put, rid, shut, slit, spit, split, spread, thrust, wet. Bend, beseech, bet, build, burst, catch, dwell, rend, split, wet, I archaic or less usual forms in -ed : bended, beseeched, betted, etc. Builded is common in the proverbial " He builded better than be knew." Bursted is common as an adjective: " ;t bursted bubble." Miscellaneous archaisms are the preterites sate for sat, trode for trod, spat for spit. Dive has dived; but dove (an old form; is common in America. Plead has preterite and past participle pleaded. Plead ''pronounced plSd) is avoided by careful writers and speak' Blend, leap, lean, have usually blended, leaped, leaned; but blent, leapt, leant are not uncommon. Clothe has commonly clothr-d ; but dad is common in literary use, and is regular in the adjectives well-clad, ill-clad '. Time 94 297 Place and time 577 50 same adverb in different how introduced 579 classes 97 299 Purpose 585 586 58S 52 test for distinguishing VI N. 281 infinitive phrase 538 589 274 Conjunctive 525 312 tenses 622 277 Interrogative 532 291 with subjunctive 568 307 in indirect questions 609 299 Result 585 587 588 296 " subordinate clauses 574 ;;m with infinitive 589 200 Numeral 368 297 Time 577 202 once, tivice, etc. 376 how introduced 579 274 Relative 524 71 Adverbial Phrases 124 132 as connectives 525 310 Classed, see Phrases, 296 list of 574 p. 402. 121 Relative clauses 206, 578,579 281 infinitive as adv. phrase 72 of degree 128 " time and place 126 127 INFLECTION. 7'.'i rule 129 184 Comparison (see Adjectives) 337 idioms 130 Analytical, more, most 338 noun phrase 131 Inflectional, -cr, -est 339 185 irregular 340-342 two forms 341 Analysis, see Sentences. no comparison 342 Appositives, see Adjectives. 1.S7 Comparative, Superlative 343 Articles, " " distinguished 344 Aii.ciliitrirs, see Vcrhs. idioms 345 Case Relations, see Syntax of historical note 345 Nouns and Verbs. 188 Double comparison 346 piore,most with adj. phras e 347 SYNOPSIS. 399 CLAUSES. 113 Defined 190 133 Elements of 230 301 Compound 230 309 113, 114 Coordinate 193 122 115 Dependent 195 121 113, 115 Independent 133 133 Subordinate 229 296 '.396 Classified 576 120 Adjective, p. 397 115 Adverbial, p. 398 Appositive, p. 402 Conditional, p. 404 Infinitive, p. 406 Noun or Substantive, p. 402 Relative, p. 297 Dependence 229 Introduced how 574 See Conjunctions, p. 401. " Pronouns and Adverbs. COMPOSITION. 319 Introduction 363 Antithesis- 824 Antonyms vi, vn 380 f. Business Forms, drafts, notes, etc. Business Letters, see below. 377 f. " Transactions 319 f ., 342 clearness 344 Comparison 357 Conclusion lxiii, lxiv 332 f . Condensed Expression 359 connectives 319, 325 Constructive vin 363 Contrast 336 Conversation, written xx xxii " spoken criticism of literary style, see pp. 335-338, 340-343, 348, 358. 342 Description; also pp. 349, 352, 356,357 Discourse, continued vm, xxvi 304 " Indirect 602,603 360 Emphasis 361-363 methods 328 See Variety. 328 Equivalent Constructions 329 Ana'ysis xm 332 condensation xvn infinitives xvi nominative absolute XI participles xm, xv phrases XI, xv See throughout the book. 355 Introduction 356 in Description 355 " Narration 357 omitted 356 Proportion 365 Letter Writing 365-368 Analysis Exercises, pp. 372-378 368 Form 372 address or direction 371 body of letter close 370 heading salutation 372 signature 367 f . Business letters 374 Exercises 370 form 372 Descriptive letters 365, 367 Familiar 375 Formal 372 Friendly 375 ff. Invitations and Replies 376 Social 379 Telegrams Literature, studies in, pp. 321, 334, 337, 339-343, 347-349, 351- 355, 357, 358, 3G5 342 Narration, also pp. 353-355, 357 319 obscurity, ambiguity, etc. 345 Oral Composition 294 organizing thought; see Para- graph and Sentence. 334 Paragraphs 341 Arrangement XXXII] VI in IV i ii V III II, IV IV, VII I, II 400 THE MOTHER TONGUE. Composition, Paragraphs (con- tinued) 338 coherence xxv 357 Conclusion 358 caution Exercises xvin-xxxv 355-357 Introduction 338 sequence XXVI 337 stanza 358 f. Transition 335 f . Unity xxi, xxm, xxxiii-xxxv 363 Parallelism 3G3 Repetition 352 Reproduction lvi-lix ; also xxm, xxvii 325 Sentences, see p. 404. 341 Arrangement xxxiii, xxxiv 341 coherence xxxm (2) 360 tf. Emphasis 328 Equivalents, see above. Exercises, pp. 326-333, 350, 360-363 350 Forms, Effectiveness of de- clarative, interrogative, etc. 294 independent and complex ; see Equivalents and Va- riety ; also p. 327. 347-349 length ; also p. 133, 231 361 order 329 Structure, see p. 404. 294 f . Thought in sentence 358 f . Transition 325 Unity vm 328 Variety ; also pp. 347-350 311 Sequence of Tenses 338, 341 " " Thought 337 Stanza 328 f . Style xxii colloquial, pp. 199, 319 332 condensation 333 use of 333 expansion xvii good style and grammar 328 monotony 166 o/-phrase 309 xxii poetical ; also pp. 129, 154, 166, 184, 199, 202, 287 347 f . Smoothness xxii solemn 328 f. Variety; also pp. 347,348-350 322 Synonyms rv, v, x 328 Syntax, freedom in 320 Technique ; also pp. 365, 371 320 Thought ; also p. 144 Topics from environment, pp. 338, 340, 345 f. 358 Transition 359 " means of 326 Unity in Composition ; also p. 341 xvi Usage 129 adverbs N. xx changes 216 collective nouns 406 179 comparison 149 compound nouns 143 gender 166 genitives xvii Idioms, 130, 345, 497 n., 571 234 infinitive 441 260 nominative absolute 494 141 Personification 262-254 149 plurals 252 progressive N. 270 relatives 512-516 199 self-pronouns 287 subjunctive 554 183, 187 superlatives 328 Variety 349 in description 350 " sentences 347 f . in style 320 Words, see Style and Usage. 321-325 Analysis 324 Antonyms VI, VII xix, xxii archaic ; pp. 129, 386 If. xix changes 322 definitions N. 360 Emphasis xvi, xxi forms xix new xix, xxii obsolete 361 Order 125 parts of speech alike xiv relations, how shown xx Slang 322 Synonyms iv, v 321 Use of words ii-vn 323 " " Dictionary 320 Vocabulary SYNOPSIS. 401 CONJUNCTIONS. 59 as connectives 107 113 Clauses 190, 195 59 Defined 108 60 list 110 prepositions distinguished 111 59 use 109 f. CLASSES. 132 Coordinate 228 108 use 182, 186, 187 114 with coordinate clauses 193, 194 108 Correlative 182 n. 328 Equivalent Constructions, p. 399 Infinitives, p. 406 136 Inflections, Summary 304 Indirect Discourse constructions introduced 602 604 601 116 Subordinate 296 122 289 304 307 200 in subordinate clauses, list 574 that in noun clause 210 " " subjunctive 561 though, concession 563, 583 if, unless, condition 564, 594 as, as if, than, comparison 599 that, lest, before, purpose 568,586 because, since, cause 581 so that, result 587 that, indirect discourse 601 whether, if, question 609 Interjections 63 Defined 132 in analysis 64 list Modal Auxiliaries, p. 406 Modifiers, see Sentences. 113, 114 226 116 NOUNS. 4 Denned 11 164 genitive plural 304 305 11 Substantives 29 nouns ending in s 306 f. CLASSES. 21 Nominative 51 7 Abstract 19 157 Objective 286, 287 8 Collective 21 Possessive, see Genitive. sometimes proper 22 33 Vocative 71 •216 singular or plural 405, 406 138 Gender 246 247 4 Common IS !, 14 141 Special rules 251 -258 148 Compound 268 Personification 252 -254 149 how written 269 77 NUMBEI 133 134 148 plural 268 78 singular, plural 135 195 Indefinite 357 145 rules 260 261 4 Proper 12,13 146 Irregular plurals 237 Verbal (p. 402) 443 445 147 foreign 266 6 groups of words 16 146 in -en 262 8 single words 23 149 no plural " singular 270 271 INFLECTION. 146 same form as singula! r 264 136 Declension 238 239, 241 148 single letters, etc. 267 157 CASE (Syntax, p. 402) 283, 284 149 singular sense 272 80 Genitive or Possessive 137 138 215 verb with 403 apostrophe 140 150 titles, Mr., etc. 273 81 forms 139 140 147 two plurals 265 163 historical note 146 vowel changed 263 402 THE MOTHER TONGUE. Nouns (continued) SYNTAX. 217 Agreement of Verb 411 Person 4 OS, 409 87 Appositives 149 168 case of 310 Appositive clauses, pp. 123, 300,305 89 Appositive phrases, p. 397 CASE RELATIONS, see pp. 406, 407. 163 Genitive or Possessive 299 86 analysis 169 appositive 312, 313 85 0/-phrase 144 166 uses 308, 309 usedforliving beings 307,and>\ Nominative 285 as subject of sentence 51 Absolute 492-494 157 21 259 260 33 161 99 159 157 90 170 263 f, 309 66 113 75 ^—68 71 89 224 65 55 60 56 278 without participle 495 Direct Address 7 1 Exclamatory 297 compared with vocative 298 Predicate Nominative 171 rule 289 Objective 286 Direct object 156 Indirect object 314-320 Predicate Objective (or Objective Attribute) 499-502 Subject of infinitive 612 Possessive, see Genitive. 33 Vocative 70-74 33 analysis 74 161 compared with exclama- tory nominative 298 34 with imperative 73 278 Infinitive, used as noun 533 127 Nouns and adjectives 215, 217. 201 Numerals 373, 374 125 Nouns in form like verbs 214 121 Noun as antecedent 207 122 Noun Clauses 208 133 Substantive clauses 229 122 as subject 209, 604 " object 211, 588, 604 " pred. nom. 211, 588, 604 Appositive clause 211,588,604 304 in Indirect Discourse 602, 604 308 " " Questions 299 Purpose or result 588 f . 122 with that 210 65 Noun Phrases 118, 119 73 as adverbs 131 237 Verbal Nouns 443 238 construction 445 239 like Infinitives 448 237 distinguished fr. participles 444 239 equivalents 447 238 historical note 252 instead of Progressive 479 238 with adj. and adv. 446 (2) " object 446 (1) PHRASES. Defined 119 distinguished from clauses 190 as modifiers 132 Adjective, p. 397 Adverbial, p. 398 Appositive, p. 397 infinitive, p. 406 Noun or Substantive (above) Prepositional (below) 14 316 317 316 Verb Phrases, p. 406 Classified Accompaniment 633 Agency 631 Instrument or Means 632 Limit of Motion 630 Place from which 629 " to " 630 " in " 628 PREPOSITIONS. Defined 103 distinguished from Conj's. Ill object of 104, 105 Infinitive as object 536 68 Phrases, Adjective 122 73 " Adverbial 130 316 Classified, see Phrases, above. 56 Suffixes, adverbial 106 SYNOPSIS. 403 PRONOUNS. 10 Defined 25 267 list 505 11 Substantives 29 268 Number 508 121 Antecedent 207 269 268 omitted Person 511 509 CLASSES. Adjective Pronouns, see Pro- nominal Adjectives, p. 397. 274 Conjunctive, see Relative. 190 Demonstrative 348 192 Inflection 352 525 349 353 271 272 punctuation Restrictive that, and ivho, which what, that which antecedent Self-Pronouns, see Personal. 515 514 516 517 518 194 Indefinite 195 one, one's 354 357 GENERAL RULES 276 Interrogative 307 indirect questions 276 Inflection 526 527 609 528 For special rules of Inflect and Syntax, see Classes ion 27 276 interrogative sentence wliom 65 529 87 1GS Appositives case of 148, 310, 149 311 152 Personal 274 157 Case 283 196 Compound (Self-Pronouns) Intensive 360, 364 358 365 84 Genitive predicate forms 141 142 142 197 construction Reflexive 362 361 366 157 161 Nominative in exclamations 285 287 296 199 154 construction with oicn Gender and Number 279 362 363 ,281 29 157 171 " imperative Objective indirect object 6( 286 5,67 287 318 153 Inflection 278 84 Possessive, see Genitiv* 152 Person 275 159 Predicate Nominative 289 classes 154 use of thou and you 278 " " it as Expletive 84 Possessive 280 276 281 535 142 105 159 263 ;;in compared with object pronouns Predicate Objective Predicate pronoun 290 176 292 500 615 117 Relative 202 13S Gender 247 267 agreement Antecedent 504 503 139 143 agreement hi\ it, for animals 24 S 249 255 268 Case 510 144 it and his 257 258 121 296 Clauses introduced 574 206 578 139 141 pronoun forms Personification 252 250 25 1 273 of place and time Compound antecedent 578 519 521 143 special words, pp. 136 153 N. irlio, which ST., 256 inflection 520 78 Number 134 135 271 272 Descriptive Double construction 518 514 521 213 •J17 agreement Person 399 408 400 409 268 267 Gender inflection 507 512 505 agreement 219 Personal Endings 414 411 417 404 THE MOTHER TONGUE. SENTENCES. 325 See Composition, p. 400. ANALYSIS. 311 " Sequence of Tenses ,p.407 22 Defined 52 21 Defined 51 134 Form of Analysis 131 Structure of sentences CLASSES. Subject and Predicate 221 300 Conditional 591 21 complete and simple 48,49 301 apodosis 592 23 copula conditional clause 591 594 108- 110 simple 181, 185 form and order 592 595 compound 181, 183, 186, 188 main clause 593 132 Modifiers (seepp.53,75,86,89) 222 negative 596 Adjective, p. 397 223 protasis 592 Adverbial, p. 398 224 18 Declarative 44 Complementary elements 225 31 Exclamatory 69 106 predicate adj. and nom. 161 Nominative 296 n. 94 direct object 161 276 with what 531 170 indirect object 314-320 29 Imperative 67 263 predicate objective 499-502 30 prohibition II 162 Exclamatory Nominative IV 29 subject 66 63 Interjection 115 34 with Vocative 73 34 Vocative 74 265 See Imperative Mood. 132 Sentences 227-230 25 Interrogative 61 17 Simple or Independent 42 27 do in predicate 64 113 Independent 191, 195 276 Interrogative pronouns etc. Compound 189-194 307 Introduced how 609 114 Coordinate clauses 193 27 order 63-65 115 Complex 195, 196 241 with shall and will 452 453 456 115 Main clause 195 284 " may and can 544 133 Subordinate Clauses 229 306 Direct Questions 606 609 296 Classed, p. 399 306 Indirect " 607 609 133 Compound clauses 230 307 dependence 608 Elements of clauses 230 not relative clauses 610 Compound Complex 231 (2) VERBS. 13 Denned 32,33 CLASSES. 14 Auxiliary, p. 405 35 23 Copula, Be 55,56 394 f . conjugated 310 in infinitive clause 615 287 " subjunctive 554,555 " verb phrases, p. 406 97 with predicate adjective 169 99 " " nominative 171 393 Defective v 90 Intransitive 156, n 159 See Predicate Nominative. 291 206 Irregular (Strong) 385t Regular (Weak) 385t Strong, see Preterite, p. 405. 90 Transitive 156,1 92 also Intransitive 157 used Absolutely 158 Intransitive distinguished 159 170 two objects 315 Weak, see Preterite, p. 405. SYNOPSIS. 405 Verbs (continued) INFLECTION. 220 Conjugation 420 224 Infinitive, p. 406 137 MOOD or MODE 244 255 Imperative 483 conjugated 484, 485 256 Emphatic 487 289 Exhortations, let us 562 255 form like Indicative 485 256 Negative 490, 491 29 sentences 66 256 subject of 488, 489 34 Vocative with 73 137 Indicative 244 246 conjugated 463 f . 251 Progressive 474,477 291 used for Subjunctive 569 290 " in concessions 663 283 Potential,. p. 406 543 287 Subjunctive 553, 554 conjugated 555 if, use explained 555 288 form like Indicative 556 n. Future 559 Preterite 555, 558 Progressive 558 289 Syntax, p. 407 219 NUMBER 413, 414, 415 213 agreement 400 226 Participles, p. 407 217 PERSON 408, 409, 411 219 Personal Endings 414, 418 236 Principal parts 442 204 TENSE 377 Simple 379 246 conjugated 249 Compound, or Complete 467-473 240 Future 449 241 conjugated 240 formed how 450 242 shall, will, p. 406 453, 456 249 Future Perfect 470 Past, see Preterite. Past Perfect or Pluperfect 469 Perfect 468 Pluperfect 469 205 Present 381 246 conjugated 219 Personal Endings 414,418 205 Preterite or Past 382 220 conjugated 421 233 errors in form 219 Personal Endings 416,418 206 formed, classed 3S3, 386 208 Strong or Irregular formed 387 importance of 388 386 f . lists 206 Weak or Regular 384 209 Endings in d and ed 390,391 exceptions 391,392 210 Endings in t 393-396 211 like present 398 no endings 397 392 two endings ill 389 " Irregular Weak " II 211 Weak and Strong 398, N. historical notes, pp. 206, 211, 386 f . 251 f. Progressive form 475 conjugated 477 252 Passive 4/8 288 Subjunctive 558 95 VOICE 163-165 96 Active 165 246 conjugated 248 made passive 465 245 Passive 460 248 active made passive 464, 465 246 conjugated 250 Compound or Complete 473 245 formed how 462 255 Imperative 486 246 Indicative 463 248 intransitives, no passive 466 252 Progressive 478 252 -dng phrase 479 248 subject of 465 288 Subjunctive 557 SYNTAX. 14 AUXILIARIES defined 34, 86 place 36 Verb Phrases 34 40G THE MOTHER TONGUE. Verb Phrases (continued) Classes, with Auxiliaries 249 Compound or Complete tenses, Have Emphatic Do, forms Future Shall and Will inflection Errors in use questions shall, subjunctive shall, command will, willingness 453, 456, 559 Interrogative, Do 6 * Modal Auxiliaries in Poten- tial Phrases »** inflections (see p. 393) o43, »5- 253 240 288 243 242 283 467 481 482, 487 449 450 451,452 452-457 453,456 559 457 538 t. also 589 589 280-281 complementary 281 infinitive of purpose ; 3Q0 « " result 234 modifiers of 223 noun, properties of 224 historical note 234 object of Infinitive 309 subject of " 278 used as a Noun as subject l " object 8 " pred. nom. after it " object of preposition used in Verb Phrases, p. 406 i3 emphatic 10 future 33 potential 09 Infinitive Clauses 611 '"" equivalent to noun clause 439 425 440 612 533 534 N. 535 536 481 450 542 312 291 284 291 284 285 256 245 283 251 252 288 Sequence, p. 407 used for Subjunctive Can, ability May, permission » possibility " purpose Must, necessity Omjht, obligation never with had Should Would Negative, Do 621 569 544 544 545 569 546 548, 549 550 651, 552, 569 552, 561 490 462 Passive, Be (Copula, p. 404) potential, see Modal. Progressive, Be *' 6 ' *" „ . 4< 8 Passive Subjunctive °° 301 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES 591-594 See Sentences, p. 404. 290 with Subjunctive &6 222 INFINITIVES ***> *"* 224 defined 328-331 Equivalents subject of 310 verbs governing construction predicate pronouns without to 90 OBJECT 262 Cognate case of distinguished from direct 49b 263 Complementary object 600 n „. 156, 161 91 Direct > 157 case of 934 infinitives with ob 3 ect 44U infin. clause as ' 612,614 612 614 614 N. 615 616 154 497 497 223 Sign of, to 240 omitted 234 rule 222 Syntax of 280 as modifier 281 of noun and adj " verbs 424, 426 450,481,542,616 441 424 537 540 639 participles with " reflexive pro. as " Substantive clause transitive verbs unexpressed Indirect case of place of recognized how verbs with without direct object with reflexive pronoun Objective attribute Predicate Objective with noun " adjective 440 362 211 156 159 315 318 317 319 316 320 362 500 >'. 500 499 501 SYNOPSIS. 4 Verbs (continued) 217 Agreement of verb 411 414, 264 Appositive distinguished 502 213 Number 266 in passive V 216 collective nouns 310 " infinitive clause 615 analysis of rule 226 PARTICIPLES 427 215 compound subj. 401, adjective, like an 428 nouns sing, in sense " verbal 428 n. historical notes 402, 231 preterite distinguished 217 Person 328 f . Equivalents 122 Substantive clause 233 errors in use 311 SEQUENCE OF TENSES 234 modified how 439 312 definition 62 object of 440 311 principle 230 Past Participle universal truth, present 619, 249 compound tenses 467,473 312 with modal auxiliaries 230 form 435 may, might, should Regular or Weak 436 313 can, will, shall 232 Irregular or Strong 437 could, would, should changes in 438 after wish 386 lists i-rv must 245 Passive, use in 462 291 as if 255 " Imperative 486 290, 291 concession, condition 563- 230 Preterite compared 436,437 285 ought 249 Perfect Participle 471 289 SUBJUNCTIVE 229 Present Participle 430 302 Comparison 597, 251 progressive form, used in 476 290 Concession 229 time of 431-433 Condition 237 verbal nouns dist in- 301 conditional clauses guished 443 290 doubt 283 POTENTIAL PHRASES 541-543 287 if See Modal Auxiliaries P- 290 supposition not a fact 406. tenses 20 PREDICATE 47,48 291 without if 97 Predicate Adjective 16S with as if verbs with 169 f. 289 Exhortation, poetry 159 Predicate Nominative 2S9 let us, in prose 101 direct object compared 172, 173 292 for would be and would h We 278 infinitive as 535 been 310 infinitive clause compai ed 615 had rather, etc. 160 passive verbs 293 289 may and would 56 with as 294 291 Purpose 102 rule 175 replaced by indicative and 123 substantive clause 211 potential 159 verbs with 291,295 289 use is declining Predicate Objective, see Wishes and prayers under Object VERB PHRASES, see A ux- 21 SUBJECT 48,51 iliaries, pp. 405, 406. 157 case of 285 21 as simple predicate 407 ,415 400 405 406 402 403 ,403 410 208 20 N. 618 625 621 622 623 624 626 567 -569 548 59S 563 564 591 565 555 565 565 566 567 562 562 570 571 SI K. 568 569 560 561 49 INDEX. [For Synopsis of Classes, Inflections, and Syntax, see p. 397. The references below are to pages; f. signifies " and following page " ; ff. signifies " and following pages."] A or an, 41 ff. Ablative absolute, 260, note. Abstract nouns, 7 ff. ; personifica- tion, 141 f. Accompaniment, 316 ff. Active voice. See Voice. Adjective clauses, 120 f., 133; phrases, 68 ff., 75; pronouns, 190 ff., 274 ff. ; modifiers, 53 f., 68 ff., 75, 86, 89, 281 f. Synopsis, 397. Adjectives, 37 ff. ; descriptive, etc., 39 ff. ; attributive, 37 ; appositive, 89 ; articles, 41 ff. ; numeral, 39, 200 ff. ; proper, 39 ; demonstrative, 190 ff. ; in- definite, 194 f. ; relative, 274 ; interrogative, 276 f. ; predicate, 97 ff. ; nouns as adjectives, ad- jectives as nouns, 127 ; com- parison, 174 ff. Synopsis, 397. Adverbial clauses, 1 1 6, 1 33, 295 ff. ; phrases, 71 ff. ; classified, 310 ff. ; modifiers, 75, 132, 281, 295 ff. Synopsis, 398. Adverbs, 45 ff..;. form, 45, 51 ; without ending, 129 ; modify- ing verbs, 45 _f. ; modifying adjectives, 47 ; modifying ad- verbs, 48 ; classification, 49 ff. ; numeral, 200 ff. ; relative or conjunctive, 274, 295 ; interrog- ative, 277, 307 ; comparison, 184 ff. ; and prepositions, 130. Synopsis, 398. After, 274, 297. Agency, 316 ff. All, 39, 194. Although. See Though. Analysis, 22, 34, 75, 86, 89, 94, 131 ff. ; formula of, 134 ; modi- fiers, 53, 234. See Clauses, Modifiers. See Composition, 319 ff., and Synopsis, 404. Anglo-Saxon, 384 f. Another, 194. Antecedent of pronoun, agree- ment, 267 ff., 310; what, 272; compound relatives, 273 ff. ; omitted, 272 f. 409 410 THE MOTHER TONGUE. Antithesis, 363. Antonyms, 324 ff. Any, anything, etc., 194. Apodosis, 301. Apostrophe, 80 ff., 163 ff. Appear, with predicate adjective, 97. Appositive adjective, 89. Appositives, 87 ff., 264 ; analysis, 89 ; case of, 168 f. ; phrase, 89 ; clause, 123, 300, 305, 397. Archaic language. See Old forms. Articles, 41 ff. As, conjunction, 116, 298; rela- tive pronoun, 267 ff., 296; ad- verb, 274, 296, 302. Attribute. See Predicate adjec- tive, Predicate noun. Attributive adjectives, 37. Auxiliary verbs, 14, 240 ff . , 245 ff . , 249 i, 251 ff., 255 ff., 283 ff., 288, 312 ff., 393. See Modal auxiliaries. Synopsis, 406. Be, 23 f., 97 ff., 245, 251, 287 f., 310, 394 f. Become, with predicate nomina- tive or adjective, 97 ff. Before, with subjunctive, 291. Both, 194. Both . . . and, 60, 110, 114. Business forms, 380 ff. ; letters, 367 ff., 374, 378; transactions, 377 f. Can, 284, 312 f., 393. Capital letters, 5, 39. Cardinal numerals, 200 ff. Case. See Nominative, Genitive, Objective, Vocative. Synopsis, 401. Case relations. See Nouns, 402 ; and Verbs, 404. Cause, clauses of, 298. Classification. See Synopsis, 397. Clauses, 113 ff. ; adjective, 120 ff., 133 f., 295 ff. ; adverbial, 116 ff., 133 f., 296 ff. ; relative, 120 ff. ; as nouns, 122 ff., 296 ff. ; coordi- nate, 114; subordinate, 115 ff., 294 ff.; classified, 296; depend- ence of, 296 ff. ; place and time, 297 ; causal and conces- sive, 298 ; purpose and result, 299 ff. ; conditional, 300 ; com- parative, 302 ; manner, 302 ; degree, 302 ; direct and indirect discourse, 304; indirect ques- tions, 306 ff. ; infinitive clauses, 309 ff. Synopsis, 399. Cognate object, 262. Collective nouns,8; verbs with, 216. Colloquial English, xxii. Common nouns, 5 ; personifica- tion, 141 f. Comparative and superlative, use of, 187 ff. See Comparison. Comparative clauses. 302. Comparison: of adjectives, 174 ff. ; of adverbs, 184 ff. ; in compo- sition, 344. Complementary elements, 131 ff. Complementary object, 263. Complements. See Predicate ad- jective, Predicate noun, Direct object, Predicate objective. Complete tenses, 249 f. Complex sentences, 115 ff., 132 ff. ; analysis, 134 ; sequence of tenses, 311 ff. INDEX. 411 Composition, 319 ff. ; oral, 345 f. ; classified Synopsis, 399. See Antonyms, Conclusion, Con- versation, Description, Empha- sis, Equivalent constructions, Introduction, Letter writing, Narration, Paragraphs, Sen- tences, Synonyms, Transition, Unity, Variety, Words. Compound complex sentences, 133 f. y Compound nouns, 148 J. Concession, 290, 298. Conclusion, 357 f. Condensed expression, 332 f. Conditional sentences, 290, 300 ff. Conjugation, 136. See Inflection. Conjunctions, use, 59 ff. ; distin- guished from prepositions, 60; coordinate, 108, 110, 114; sub- ordinate, 110, 289 ff., 295 ff. Synopsis, 401. Conjunctive adverbs. See Rela- tive adverbs. Conjunctive pronouns. See Rela- tive pronouns. Connectives, 359. See Conjunc- tions, Relatives, Relative ad- verbs. Construction, xv, 1. See Analy- sis. Conversation, written, 336. Coordinate clauses, 144- : conjunc- tions, 108. 110, 114. Copula (to be), 23 1 See Be. Correlative conjunctions, 108. Could, 283 ff., 312 f., 393. Dative case, 171. Declarative sentences, 18. Declension, 136. See Inflection. Defective verbs, 393. Definite article, 41 ff. Degree, clauses of, 302. See Comparison. Demonstratives, 190 ff. ; inflection of, 192. Dependent clauses. See Subor- dinate clauses. Description, 342, 349, 356, 357. Descriptive adjectives, 39 ; rela- tives, 271. Did, 14 ; in questions, 27. See Do. Direct discourse, 304 ; quotations, 304 ; object, see Objective. Do, 14 ; in questions, 27 ; in im- peratives, 256 ; in emphatic verb-phrases, 253 f. Double construction, 272 ff. Each, each other, 39, 194 f. Either, 194. Either . . . or, 60, 108, 110, 114. Elements of sentence, 131 ff. Emphasis, 360 ; methods, 361 f. Emphatic verb-phrases, 253. English language, xiii ff., 383 ff. Equivalent constructions, 328 ff. Synopsis, 399. Errors in use, see each chapter. Every, 39, 194. Exclamation point, 63. Exclamations, nominative in, 161. Exclamatory sentences, 31, 276 f. Exercises. See after each chapter. Exhortations, 289. Expletive it, 278.„_ Feel, with predicate adjective, 98. Few, 39, 194. For, 60, 114. 412 THE MOTHER TONGUE. Foreign plurals, 147. Future perfect tense, 249 f. Future tense, 240 ff. Gender of nouns and pronouns, 138 ff. ; special rules, 141 ff. ; of relatives, 270; personifica- tion, 141 f. Synopsis, 403. TGenitive, 80 ff., 163 ff. ; analysis, 86; of-phrase, 85 f., 164, 166; appositives, 168 f. Gerund, 239. Grammar, principles of, xiii ff. - T definition, xv. Had rather, 292. Had to, 284. Have, had, conjugation, 209, 315; auxiliary, 14, 249 f., 290 f. History, 383 ff. See each part of speech. How, 116, 274, 277, 296, 307. Hyphen, 149. Idioms, xvii. If, 287, 290 f., 300 f., 302, 307. Imperative mood, 255 ff. Imperative sentences, 29 ; subject of, 256. Indefinite article, 41 ff. ; pronouns and adjectives, 194 ff. ; nouns, 194. Indicative mood, 137, 245 f. Indirect discourse, 304 ; quota- tions, 304 ; questions, 306 f . ; object, 170 ff. ; infinitive phrase, 310. Infinitive, 222 ff. ; as noun, 278 ; as object of preposition, 278 ; as modifier, 280 ; perfect, 249 ; complementary, 281 ; of pur- pose, 281 ; equivalents of, 328 f. , 331 ; modifiers of, 234 ; object of, 234 ; sign of (to), 223 ff. ; without to, 240, 253, 283, 310 ; subject of, 309 ; infinitive clauses, 309 ; in verb-phrases, see Future, Compound tenses, Emphatic, Potential. Synop- sis, 406. Inflection, 135 ff., 267 ff., 287 f . ; nature of, xiv f. ; defined, xv ; loss of, xxi ; summary of, 136 f. ; of nouns and p onouns, 138 ff., 196 ff.; of eljectives, 174 ff.; of adverbs, .84 ff. ; of demonstrative wortiV, 192 ff. ; of verbs, 204 ff., 287 f. ; of rel- atives, 267 ff. ; of interroga- tives, 276. See Syr >psis, 397. In order that, 299. Instrument or means, ; 16 ff. Intensive pronouns, 196 f. Interjections, 63 f. Interrogative pronouns and adjec- tives, 276; adverbs, 277, 307; sentences, 25 ff. Intransitive verbs, 90 ff. Introduction, 355 ff. Invitations, 375 ff. Irregular verbs, 206 ff., 386 ff. It, as expletive, ^78 ; as cognate object, 262. Language, thf expression of thought, xiv ff. ; defined, 1 ; rules of, xvi f. ; changes in, xviii ff. ; styie, xvii, xxii ; his- tory, xviii, 3£3 ff. Latin, xvi, xvii . Lest, with subjunctive, 291. Let us, 289. INDEX. 413 Letter writing, 3_£5- ff. ; form, 368 f. ; TmqinPB^ "ftQj f , 374 ; social, 375 ff. ; telegrams, 379 f. Literature. See Composition, 399. Logic, xvi ; 183, N. 2. Look, with predicate adjective, 98. Manner, clauses of, 302. Many, 39, 194. May, auxiliary, 283 f., 312, 393. Means or instrument, 316 ff. Middle English, 385. Might, auxiliary, 283 f., 312, 393. Modal auxiliaries, use and mean- ing, 283 ff. ; sequence, 312 f. Mode. See Mood. Modifiers, 53, 131 ff., 294 ff. ; ad- jective, 53, 68 ff., 75 f., 86, 89, 120 f., 281, 296 ff. ; adverbial, 45 ff., 531, 71 ft'., 75, 115 ff., 234, 280 ff., 296 ff. Synopsis, 397. Mood, 137. See Indicative, Im- perative, Subjunctive, Poten- tial. Synopsis, 405. More, most, comparison with, 178 f., 183 f. -most, 181. Must, auxiliary, 283 ff., 313 f., 393. Narration, 342 f. ; 353 ff. Negative commands, 257 ; adverb, 50. Neither, 194. Neither. . . nor, 60, 108, 110, 114. Next, 181. No, 39. Nomenclature, v. Preface. Nominative case, 21, 157 ; predi- cate, 99 ff., 159 f. ; in excla- mations, 161 ; absolute, 259 ; vocative, 33. None, 194. Norman French, 384. Noun clauses, 122 ff., 299 f. Synopsis, 402. Nouns, 4 ff. ; common and proper, 4 ff. ; abstract and collective, 7 ff. ; compound, 148 f . ; verbal, in -ing, 237 ff. ; as adjectives, 127 ; in adverbial phrases, 73 ; inflection, 136 ff. Synopsis, 401. Number of nouns and pronouns, 77 ff., 145 ff. ; of verbs, 213 ff. Numerals, 200 ff. Object, of preposition, 56, 60 ; of verb, direct, 90 ff., 94, 101, 157, 170 ff. ; clause, 123, 305 ff.; in- direct, 170 ff. ; of infinitive or participle, 234 ; of -ing noun, 238 ; cognate, 262 ; predicate objective, 263 ff. ; infinitive as, 281 ; analysis, 94. Objective attribute, 263. Objective case. See Object. Objective clause. See Object. Obsolete words, etc., xiii f. 0/-phrase, 85 1, 164, 166. Old English, 384. Old forms and constructions, xix, 27, 129, 149, 153, 154, 163, 166, 171, 179, 181, 187, 188, 199, 202, 211, 219 1, 232 1, 252, 253. 273, 287 ff., 389, 391, 393. One another, 104 f. One, one's, one's self, 195, 196. Oral composition, 345 f. Ordinal numerals, 200 ff, 414 THE MOTHER TONGUE. Or, either . . . or, 60, 108, 110, 114. Other, another, 194. Ought, 284 f., 393. Own, 199. Paragraph, 334 ff . Synopsis, 399 f. Parsing. See Exercises at end of chapters, Summary, 136 ff., and direction, 203, x. Participles, 226 ff., 393 ff. ; pres- ent, 229, 237, 251 f. ; past, 230 ff., 245, 249 i, 255; per- fect, 249 ; object and modifiers of, 234 ; equivalents, 332 ff. Synopsis, 407. Parts of speech defined, 2 f. ; same word as different, 125 ff. Passive voice, 95 f . , 248 ; how- formed, 96, 245 ff. ; in com- plete tenses, 250 ; in progres- sive form, 252 ; in imperative, 255 ; in subjunctive, 288 ; sub- ject of, 248. Past participle, 230 ff ., 245, 249 f . , 255. Past perfect. See pluperfect. Perfect infinitive, 249 ; participle, 249. Perfect tense, 249 f. Person, 152 ff. ; of verbs, 217 ff. Personal endings, 219>f. Personal pronouns, 11; inflection, 152 ff. ; gender, 136, 138 ff., 154; in predicate, 105, 159 1, 310 ; se^-pronouns, 196 ff. Personification, 141 f. Phrases, 65 ff. ; as nouns, 65 ; prepositional, 68 ff. ; adjective, 68 ff. ; adverbial] 71 ff. ; as modifiers, 75 ; classification (place in which, place from which, limit of motion, agency, instrument or means, accom- paniment), 316 ff. See Synop- sis, 402. See Verb-phrases. Place and time, adverbs of, 49 ff . , 274, 277, 297 ; clauses of, 297 ; phrases (in which, from which, limit of motion), 316 ff. Pluperfect tense, 249 f. Plural of substantives, 77 ff. ; ir- regular, 146 ff. ; of compounds, 148 ; of titles, 150 ; genitive, 81 ff., 163 ff. ; of verbs, 213 ff. See Synopsis, 401. Poetical uses. See Old forms. Positive degree, 174. Possessive case. See Genitive. Possessive pronouns, 84. Potential verb-phrases, 283 ff. Predicate, 17 ff., 131 ; simple and complete, 20 ff. ; compound, 110 ff. See Modifiers. Synop- sis, 404. Predicate adjective, 97; analysis, 106. Predicate nominative, 99 ff., 159 L, 266 ; analysis, 106 ; clause, 123, 305. Prepositional phrases, 68 ff. Prepositions, 55 ff., 60 ; object of, 56 ; see Phrases. Synopsis, 402. I 'resent participle, 229,237, 251 f. Present perfect. See Perfect. Present tense, 204 f., 246; per- sonal endings, 219 ff. ; partici- ple. 229. Preterite present verbs, 393. INDEX. 415 Preterite tense, 204 ff . , 236 ; weak and strong, 206 ff. ; personal endings, 219 f. Principal parts, 236. Progressive verb-phrases, 251 f. Pronominal adjectives. See De- monstrative, Indefinite, Rela- tive, Interrogative. Pronouns, 10 ff. See Personal, Demonstrative, Relative, Inter- rogative, Indefinite. Synopsis, 403. Pronunciation, xx. See Geni- tives, 164 ff. Proper nouns, 5, 141 f. ; adjec- tives, 39 ff. Prose forms. See Composition, 319 ff. Protasis, 301. Punctuation. See special rules throughout the book. Purpose, 291, 299, 300. Questions. See Interrogative sentences, Indirect questions. Synopsis, 404. Quotation marks, 804. ^ Quotations, direct, indirect, 304. Reciprocal prono'uns. See Each other. Reflexive pronouns, 196 f. Relative adjectives, 274 ; adverbs. 274 ; pronouns, 117 ff., 267 ff. ; relative omitted, 269; antece- dent implied, 272 f. ; compound relatives, 273 ff. Reproduction. 352 ff. Result, 299. Root infinitive. See Infinitive, without to. Seem, with predicate nominative or adjective, 97 ff. »S'eZ/-pronouns, 196 ff. Sentences, 16 ff. ; structure, 131 ff. ; declarative, 18 ; inde- pendent, 113; negative, 256; interrogative, 25 ff. ; impera- tive, 29, 255 ff. ; exclamatory, 31 f., 276 ff.; conditional, 300 f. In Composition, 325 ff. ; effect- iveness of different forms, 350. See Analysis, Compound, Com- plex, Clauses. Synopsis, 400 and 404. Sequence of tenses, 311 ff. ; of modal auxiliaries, 312 f. ; 407. Several, 194. Shall. See Will. S/jouZtf,auxiliary,283ff.,291,312f. Since, adverb, 274, 297 f. ; con- junction, 298. Singular. See Number. Slang, xx. Smell, with predicate adjective, 98. Smoothness, 348 f. So . . . that, 299. Solemn style. See Old forms. Some, ::<>, 194. Sound, with predicate adjective, 98. Spelling, xx. Stanza, 337. Strong verbs, 205 ff., 380; par- ticiples, 232 ff. Structure. See Sentences. Style and grammar, xvii. See Synopsis', 400. Subject, 17 ff., 131 ff ; simple and 416 THE MOTHER TONGUE. complete, 20 ff. ; compound, 107 ff. ; clause as, 122 f., 305 ff. ; infinitive as, 223 f. ; of infini- tive, 310 ; agreement with verb, 213 ff. See Analysis, Modifiers. Synopsis, 404, 407. Subjunctive mood, 287 ff. ; uses of, 289 ff. Su bo rdi n ate clauses, 115 ff., 267 ff., 289 ff., 294 ff. ; conjunc- tions, 116, 289 ff., 295 ff., 307. Synopsis, 399. Substantive clauses. See Noun clauses. Substantives, 11. See Nouns, Pronouns. Such, 194. Superlative. See Comparison. Synonyms, 322 ff. Syntax, xv ; 328. See each part of speech. Synopsis, 397. Taste, with predicate adjective, 98. Technique, 320. Tense, 204 ff. See Present, Pret- erite, Future, Complete tenses, Sequence of tenses. Synopsis, 405. Than, 302 ; case after, 302. That, conjunction, 122 1, 299 f., 304 f. ; with subjunctive, 291 ; demonstrative, 39, 190 ff. ; rel- ative, 117 ff., 267 ff. The, 41 ff. This, 39, 190 ff. Though, conjunction, 290. Thought, sequence of, 338, 341 ; in sentence, 294. Till, 274, 297 ; with subjunctive, 291. Time, clauses of, 297. Titles, plural, 150. Transition, 358 ; means of, 359. Transitive verbs, 90 ff. Unity, 325 1, 335 ff. Unless, 290, 301. Until, 274, 291, 297. Usage and grammar, xvi. See Synopsis, 400. Variety, 328, 347 ff. Verbal nouns in -ing, 237 ff. Verb-phrases, 14 ; to supply in- flection, 137. See Future, Complete tenses, Passive, Pro- gressive, Emphatic, Potential. Synopsis, 406. Verbs, 13 ff. ; copula, 23 f. ; tran- sitive and intransitive, 90 ff. ; inflection, 137, 204 ff. ; strong and weak, 205 ff. j irregular, 206 ff., 386 ff. ; defective, 393 ; agreement "with subject, 213 ff. See Mood, Tense, Voice, Verb- phrases, Principal parts. Syn- opsis, 404. »» ' Vocabulary, 320. Vocative, 33 f., 161. Voice, 95 f., 245, 248. See Passive. Synopsis, 405. Weak verbs, 205 ff., 389 ff. ; parti- ciples, 230 ff. ; list, 389 ff. What, 267 ff., 272, 274 ff., 307. Whatever, 273 ff. Wlien, 274, 297. Whence, 274, 297. Where, wherever, 274, 297, 307. Whether . . . or, 307. Which. See Relative, Interroga- tive. INDEX. 417 While, 274, 297. Wishes, 289, 313. Whither, 274, 297. Words, signs of thought, xiii ff. ; Who, whose, whom. See Rela- use of, 320 ff. See Synopsis, tive, Interrogative. 400. Whoever, 273 ff. Would and should, 283, 285, 289, Why, 307. 291, 292, 312 f., 393. Will and shall, auxiliaries, 240 ff . , Written and spoken language, 249, 285, 288, 313, 393. Synop- xiii ff. sis, 406. ADVERTISEMENTS THE MO THER T ONGUE FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS BOOK I. Lessons in Speaking, Reading, and Writing English'. 121110. Cloth. 320 pages. Illustrated. List price, 45 cents ; mailing price, 55 cents. BOOK II. An Elementary English Grammar, with Les- sons in Composition, nmo. Cloth. 417 pages. 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