THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES .,... <;m9jBeiHBiHfflaillH^ J. A TEXTBOOK ON INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS SCRANTON, PA. GEOMETRICAL DRAWING FREEHAND DRAWING HISTORIC ORNAMENT SCRANTON INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK CO. A-2 4900 Copyright, 1901, by INTERNATIONAL TEXTBOOK COMPANY, under the title of THE ELEMENTS OF ORNAMENTAL DESIGN. Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. Geometrical Drawing: Copyright, 1893, 1894, 1896, 1897, 1898, 1899, 1900, 1901, by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY. Freehand Drawing : Copyright, 1900, by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY. Historic Ornament: Copyright, 1900, by THE COLLIERY ENGINEER COMPANY. All rights reserved. dl Press of EATON & MAINS NEW YORK Art Library -*//*: /G/o AV PRE FAC E All the Instruction and Question Papers of our Orna- mental Design Course are contained in two volumes and the accompanying' portfolio, in which will be found facsimiles of all the drawing plates that the student is required to execute. These volumes and portfolio together form a com- prehensive treatise on the theory of ornamental design, and can be used as a work of reference by the practical designer in the solution of the numerous problems that confront him in his every -day work. The geometrical considerations that lie at the foundation of all good designs, the proper understanding of historic style and detail, the origin and influence of certain ele- mentary forms, the practical considerations that govern the final arrangement of all designs, and the influence of mate- rial and the ultimate purpose are all dwelt upon in detail in this volume, and practical examples of them are shown in the accompanying portfolio of plates. The method of numbering the pages, cuts, articles, etc. is such that each paper and part is complete in itself; hence, in order to make the indexes intelligible it is necessary to give each paper and part a number. This number is placed at the top of each page on the headline opposite the page number; and to distinguish it from the page number it is preceded by the printer's section mark (). Consequently a reference such as 4, page 29, would be readily found as follows: look along the inside edges of the headlines until 4 is found, and then through 4 until page 29 is found. iii 1418285 IV PREFACE. The Examination Questions are divided into sections, which have been given the same section numbers as the Instruction Papers to which they belong and are grouped together at the end of the volumes containing the Instruction Papers to which they refer. The papers on Geometrical Drawing, Freehand Drawing, and Historic Ornamental Drawing are not accompanied by Question Papers. The portfolio contains copies of all the plates sent to students in this Course. INTERNATIONAL CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS. CONTENTS. GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. Section. Page, Instruments and Materials Lettering Plates l % FREEHAND DRAWING. Introduction The Plate Exercises . Linear Elements Surfaces and Solids Natural Leaves 2 Flowers and Conventionalized Leaves . Brush Work Applied Design HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Introduction Ancient Ornament Egyptian Ornament Assyrian Ornament Classic Ornament Greek Ornament Etruscan Ornament Greco-Roman Ornament The Five Orders of Architecture ... -4 v vi CONTENTS. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Continued. Section. Page. The Greek Orders 4 2 The Roman Orders 4 17 Byzantine Ornament 4 39 Asiatic Ornament 4 59 Chinese and Japanese Ornament ... 4 59 Indian Ornament 4 64 Arabian Ornament 4 69 Turkish Ornament 4 76 Persian Ornament 4 78 Moorish Ornament 4 80 Western Art 4 95 Celtic Ornament 4 95 Gothic Ornament 4 99 Renaissance Art '5 1 Italian Renaissance 5 4 French Renaissance 5 24 German and English Renaissance . . 5 51 Conclusion 5 56 Historic Lettering 5 61 Antique Egyptian Alphabet .... 5 63 Light Antique Egyptian Alphabet . . 5 65 Heavy Antique Egyptian Alphabet . . 5 69 Medieval Roman Alphabet 5 69 Light and Heavy French Roman Alphabet .5 71 Gothic Alphabet 5 75 Old English Alphabet 5 79 QUESTIONS AND EXAMPLES. Section. Historic Ornament 3 Historic Ornament (Continued) 4 Historic Ornament (Continued) 5 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS. 1. A drawing is a representation of objects on a plane surface by means of lines or lines and shades. When done by the use of free hand only, it is called freehand drawing or sketching; when instruments are used, so that greater exactness may be obtained, it is called instrumental, or mechanical, drawing. 2. All of the instruments and materials required for the courses in drawing are mentioned in the following descriptions: The drawing board should be made of well-seasoned, straight-grained pine, the grain running lengthwise. For this course, the student will need a board of the following dimensions: length over all, 22 \ inches; width, 1G inches. The drawing board illustrated in Fig. 1 is the one furnished in our students' drawing outfits and can be fully recom- mended as possessing the qualities a good and accurate board should have. It is made of several pieces of pine wood glued together to the required width of the board. A pair of hard- wood cleats is screwed to the back of the board, the screws passing through the cleats in oblong slots with iron bushings, which allow the screws to move freely when drawn by the contraction and expansion of the board. Grooves are cut through half the thickness of the board over the entire back side. These grooves take the transverse resistance out of 1 For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. GEOMETRICAL DRAWING, the wood and allow it to be controlled by the cleats, at the same time leaving the longitudinal strength nearly unim- paired. In order to provide a perfectly smooth working FIG. 1. edge, for the head of the T square to slide against, a strip of hard wood is let into the short edges of the board, and is sawed through in several places, in order to allow for the contraction and expansion of the board. The cleats also raise the board from the table, thus making it easier to change the position of the board. When in use the board is placed so that one of the short edges is at the left of the draftsman, as shown in Fig. 2. 3. The T square is used for drawing horizontal straight lines. The head A is placed against the left-hand edge of the board, as shown in Fig. 2. The upper edge C of the blade /> is brought very near to the point through which it is desired to pass a line, so that the straight edge C of the blade may be used as a guide for the pen or pencil. It is evident that all lines drawn in this manner will be parallel. GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. Vertical lines are drawn by means of triangles. The tri- angles most generally used are shown in Figs. 3 and 4, each of which has one right angle. The triangle shown in Fig. 3 FIG. 3. FIG. 4. has two angles of 45 each, and that in Fig. 4 one of 60 and one of 30. They are called 45 and 60 triangles, respect- ively. To draw a vertical line, place the T square in posi- tion to draw a horizontal line, and lay the triangle against it, so as to form a right angle. Hold both T square and triangle J lightly with the left hand, so as to keep them from slipping, and draw the line with the pen or pencil held in the right hand, and against the edge of the triangle. Fig. 5 shows the tri- angles and T square in position. 4. For drawing parallel lines that are neither vertical nor horizontal, the simplest and best way, when the lines are near together, is to place one edge of a triangle, as ab, Fig. 6, on the given line c d, and lay the other triangle, as /?, FIG. 5. 4 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 1 against one of the two edges, holding it fast with the left hand; then move the triangle A along the edge of B. The edge a b will be parallel to the line c d ; and when the edge a b reaches the pointy, through which it is desired to draw the parallel line, hold both triangles stationary with the left hand, and draw the line ef by passing the pencil along the edge a b. Should the triangle A extend too far beyond the edge of the triangle B after a number of lines have been drawn, hold A stationary with the left hand and shift B along the edge of A with the right hand, and then proceed as before. 5. A line may be drawn at right angles to another line which is neither vertical nor horizontal, as illustrated in Fig. 7. Let c d be the given line (shown at the left-hand side). Place one of the shorter edges, as a b, of the triangle B so that it will coincide with the line cd\ then, keeping the triangle in this position, place the triangle A so that its long edge will come against the long edge of B. Now, holding A securely in place with the left hand, slide B along the edge of A with the right hand, when the lines // i, m n, etc. may be drawn perpendicular to c d along the edge bfot the triangle B. The dotted lines show the position of the tri- angle B when moved along the edge of A. I GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 6. The right-hand portion of Fig. 7 shows another method of accomplishing the same result, and illustrates how the triangles may be used for drawing a rectangular figure, when the sides of the figure make an angle with the T square such that the latter cannot be used. Let the side c d of the figure be given. Place the long side of the triangle B so as to coincide with the line c d, and bring the triangle A into position against the lower side of B, as shown. Now, holding the triangle A in place with the left hand, revolve B so that its other FIG. 7. short edge will rest against the long edge of A, as shown in the dotted position at B'. The parallel lines c e and df may now be drawn through the points c and d by sliding the triangle B on the triangle A, as described in connection with Fig. 6. Measure off the required width of the figure on the line c e, reverse the triangle />' again to its original position, still holding the triangle A in a fixed position with the left hand, and slide B upon A until the long edge of B passes through c. Draw the line ef through the point e, and cf will be parallel to cd. The student should practice with his triangles before beginning drawing. GEOMETRICAL DRAWING 7. The compasses, next to the T square and triangles, are used more than any other instrument. A pencil and pen point are provided, as shown in Fig. 8, either of which may be inserted into a socket in one leg of the instrument, for the drawing of circles in pencil or ink. The other leg is fitted with a needle point, which acts as the center about which the circle is drawn. In all good instruments, the needle point itself is a separate piece of round steel wire, held in place in a socket provided at the end of the leg. The wire should have a square shoulder at its lower end, below which a fine, needle-like point projects. The lengthening bar, also shown in the figure, is used to extend the leg carrying the pen and the pencil points when circles of large radii are to be drawn. The joint at the top of the compasses should hold the legs firmly in any position, and at the same time should permit their being opened or closed with one hand. The joint may be tightened or loosened by means of a screwdriver or wrench, which accompanies the compasses. It will be noticed in Fig. 8 that each leg of the compasses is jointed; this is done so that the compass points may always be kept perpendicular to the paper when drawing circles, as in Fig. 11. The style of compasses shown in Fig. 8 have what is called a tongue joint, in which the head of one leg has a tongue, generally of steel, which moves between two lugs on the other leg. Another common style of joint is the 1 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 7 pivot joint in which the head of each leg is shaped like a disk and the two disks are held together in a fork-shaped brace either by means of two pivot screws or by one screw penetrating both disks. The brace that forms a part of this FIG. 9. joint is generally provided with a handle, as the shape of the joint makes it rather awkward to hold the compasses by the head as is usual with instruments provided with tongue joints. In Fig. 9 is shown a common style of pivot joint. 8. The following suggestions for handling the compasses should be carefully observed by those who are beginning the subject of mechanical drawing. Any draftsman who handles his instruments awkwardly will create a bad impression, no matter how good a workman he may be. The tendency of FIG. 10. all beginners is to use both hands for operating the com- passes. This is to be avoided. The student should learn at the start to open and close them with one hand, holding them as shown in Fig. 10, with the needle-point leg resting 8 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 1 between the thumb and fourth finger, and the other leg between the middle and forefinger. When drawing cir- cles, hold the compasses lightly at the top between the thumb and forefinger, or thumb, forefinger, and middle finger, as in Fig. 11. Another case where both hands should not be used is in locating the needle point at a point on the drawing about which the circle is to be drawn, unless the left hand is used merely to steady the needle point. TIG. 11. Hold the compasses as shown in Fig. 10, and incline them until the tinder side of the hand rests upon the paper. This will steady the hand so that the needle point can be brought to exactly the right place on the drawing. Having placed the needle at the desired point, and with it still resting on the paper, the pen or pencil point may be moved out or in to any desired radius, as indicated in Fig. 10. When the lengthening bar is used, both hands must be employed. 1 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 9 9. The compasses must be handled in such a manner that the needle point will not dig large holes in the paper. Keep the needle point adjusted so that it will be perpendicular to the paper, when drawing circles, and do not bear upon it. A slight pressure will be necessary on the pen or pencil point, but not on the needle point. 10. The dividers, shown in Figs. 9 and 12, are used for laying off distances upon a drawing, or for dividing straight lines or circles into parts. The points of the dividers should be very sharp, so that they will not punch holes in the paper larger than is absolutely necessary to be seen. Compasses are sometimes furnished with two steel divider points, besides the pen and pencil points, so that the instrument may be used either as compasses or dividers. This is the kind illustrated in Fig. 12. When using the dividers to FIG. 12. space a line or circle into a number of equal parts, hold them at the top between the thumb and forefinger, as when using the compasses, and step off the spaces, turning the instru- ment alternately to the right and left. If the line or circle does not space exactly, vary the distance between the divider points and try again; so continue until it is spaced equally. When spacing in this manner, great care must be exercised not to press the divider points into the paper; for, if the points enter the paper, the spacing can never be accurately done. The student should satisfy himself of the truth of this statement by actual trial. 11. The bow-pencil and bow-pen, shown in Fig. 13, are convenient for describing small circles. The two points of the instruments must be adjusted to the same length: 10 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. otherwise, very small circles cannot be drawn. To open or close cither of these instruments, support it in a vertical posi- tion by resting the needle point on the paper and bear- ing slightly on the top of it with the forefinger of one hand, and turn the adjust- ing nut with the thumb and middle finger of the same hand. Fin. 13. 12. Drawing Paper and Pencils. The draw- ing paper recommended for this series of lessons is the T. S. Co. 's cold-pressed demy, the size of which is 15"X20". It takes ink well, and withstands considerable erasing. The paper is secured to the drawing board by means of thumbtacks. Four are usually sufficient one at each corner of the sheet (see Fig. 7). Place a piece of paper on the drawing board, and press a thumbtack through one of the corners about ^ or f of an inch from each edge. Place the T square in posi- tion for drawing a horizontal line, as before explained, and straighten the paper so that its upper edge will be par- allel to the edge of the T square blade. Pull the corner diagonally opposite that in which the thumbtack was placed, so as to stretch the paper slightly, and push in another thumbtack. Do the same with the remaining two corners. For drawing in pencil, an HHHH pencil of any reputable make should be used. The pencil should be sharpened as shown at A, Fig. 14. FIG. 14. GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 11 Cut the wood away so as to leave about ^ or |- of an inch of the lead projecting; then sharpen it flat by rubbing it against a fine file or a piece of fine emery cloth or sandpaper that has been fastened to a flat stick. Grind it to a sharp edge like a knife blade, and round the corners very slightly, as shown in the figure. If sharpened to a round point, as shown at B, the point will wear away very quickly and make broad lines; when so sharpened it is difficult to draw a line exactly through a point. The lead for the compasses should be sharpened in the same manner as the pencil, but should have its width narrower. Be sure that the compass lead is so secured t/iat, when circles are struck in either direction, but one line will be drawn with the same radius and center. 13. Inking. For drawing ink lines other than arcs of circles, the ruling pen (or right-line pen, as it is some- times called) is used. It should be held as nearly perpen- Fio. 15. dicular to the board as possible, with the hand in the position shown in Figs. 15 and 1C, bearing lightly against the T square lo GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. or triangle, along the edge of which the line is drawn. After a little practice, this position will become natural, and no difficulty will be experienced. 14. The beginner will find that it is not always easy to make smooth lines. If the pen is held so that only one blade bears on the paper when drawing, the line will almost invari- ably be ragged on the edge where the blade does not bear. When held at right angles to the paper, as in Fig. 16, how- FIG. 16. ever, both blades will rest on the paper, and if the pen is in good condition, smooth lines will result. The pen must not be pressed against the edge of the T square or triangle, as the blades will then close together, making the line uneven. The edge should serve as a guide, simply. In drawing circles with the compass pen, the same care should be taken to keep the blades perpendicular to the p;i]>er by means of the adjustment at the joint. In both the ruling l )( -'!i an', Fig. Ill, will coincide with the 18 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. line forming one side of the angle to be laid off or measured, and the center O must be at the vertex of the angle. FIG. 19. For example, let it be required to draw a line through the point C, making an angle of 54 with the line E F, Fig. 20. Place the protractor upon the line E F, as just described, with the center O upon the point C. With a sharp-pointed pencil, make a mark on the paper at the 54 division, as indicated at D. A line drawn through C and D will then make an angle of 54 with E F. Greater exactness will be secured FIG. 30. if the line E F be extended to the left, so that both zero marks (A and B, Fig. 19) can be placed on the line. This should always be done when possible. 1 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 19 LETTERING. 2O. In mechanical drawing, all headings, explanatory matter, and dimensions should be neatly printed on the drawing. Ordinary script writing is not permissible. It is usually difficult for beginners to letter well, and unless the student is skilful at it, he should devote some time to practicing lettering before commencing the drawing. In correcting the plates, the lettering will be considered as well as the drawing. Many students think that it is only neces- sary to exercise special care when drawing the views on a plate, and that it is not necessary to take particular pains in lettering. This, however, is not the case, for, no matter how well the views may be drawn, if the lettering is poorly done, the finished drawing will not have a neat appearance. In fact, generally speaking, more time is required to make well-executed letters than to make well-executed drawings of objects. We earnestly request the student to practice lettering, and not to think that that part of the work is of no importance. The student should not be too hasty in doing the lettering. It takes an experienced draftsman consider- able time to do good lettering, and no draftsman can per- form this work as quickly as he can ordinary writing; therefore, no beginner should attempt to do what experi- enced draftsmen cannot do. In order to letter well, the work must be done slowly. Very frequently more time is spent in lettering a drawing than in inking in the objects repre- sented. Instructions will be given in two styles of freehand lettering, both extensively used in American drafting rooms. With the exception of the large headings or titles of the plates, the style and size of all lettering used on the original ABCDEFGJtlJJCLMNOPQRSTWWXYZ adcd,e/ytiijJtl?nnopqr stuvivx yz & /83456789O /sassersso 2 L 6i'otia,.Cast Iron drawing plates of this course are shown in Fig. 21. This style, although a little more elaborate and difficult in exe- cution, was selected on account of its greater neatness and GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. FIG. 22. legibleness. The two styles are very similar in the forma- tion of the letters, and although the student is advised to select and use only one of the two on his drawings in this course, he will find, after having mastered one of the styles, little difficulty in practicing the other. When lettering, a Gillott's No. 303 pen should be used. The height of the capital letters should be -j\", and of the small letters two-thirds of this, or T y. This applies to both styles of freehand lettering. Do not make them larger than tJiis. 21. Before beginning to letter, horizontal guide lines should be drawn with the T square, to serve as a guide for the tops and bottoms of the letters (see Fig. 22). The out- side lines should be -/%" apart for . the capitals, and the two lower lines T V/' apart for the small letters. The letters should be made to extend fully up to the top and down to the bottom guide lines. They must not fall short of the guide lines, nor extend beyond them. Failure to observe this point will cause the lettering to look ragged, as in the second word in Fig. 22. 22. It is very important that all the letters have the same inclination. For example, by referring to Fig. 23 (a), it will be seen that the backs of letters like />', E, /, -, d, i, t, etc. are parallel and slant the same way. This is also true of both sides of letters like H, M, 11, u, h, y, etc. To aid in keeping the slant uniform, draw 1 parallel slanting lines across the guide lines with the 00 triangle, as in Fig. :.'.'! (A), and, in lettering, make the backs or sides, of the K -l U-rs parall'-l with these lines. FlG ' 1 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 21 23. A few points regarding- the construction of the letters are illustrated in Fig. 24, in which the letters are shown upon an enlarged scale. The capital letters A, V, Y, M, and W must be printed so that the other letters. To print the A. draw the / , , 1- 7 i uu,u ll*hqq rrrdb S?+ center line a d, having gcrw */" *yr* the common slant; from a draw the sides a c and a b, so that points c and will each be -fa" distant from point d. The side a b will be nearly perpendicular to the guide lines. The Fis like an inverted A, and is drawn in the same way, the line bd being nearly perpendicular. To make the Y, draw the center line a d, having the com- mon slant, which gives the slant for the base of the letter. The upper part of the Y begins a little below its center, and is similar to the F, though somewhat narrower, as the letter should be only -fa" wide at the top. Points b and c should be at equal distances from point a. The two sides be and ef of the J/are parallel, and have the common slant. The M is made as broad as it is high, or ^j". Having drawn the two sides, mark the point ', /., E, etc. should be printed so that their top and bottom lines will be i:\-tjctly 22 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 1 horizontal. This is illustrated in the two examples of the word problem in Fig. 24. In the first example, it will be noticed that the tops of the /'and R, the bottom of the L, and the tops and bottoms of the B and E, all run in the same direction as the guide lines, and coincide with them. In the second example, these lines are not horizontal, which makes the word look very uneven. It is also to be noticed that these lines extend beyond the upright lines in the first word, and that cross-lines are used on the bottom of the P and R, on the top of the L, and on the M. In the second word, these lines are omitted at the points indi- cated by the arrows. These features are found on most of the other capitals. The small letters n, u, //, /, i, etc. should have sharp cor- ners at the points indicated by the arrows in Fig. 24. They look much better that way, and are less difficult to make, than when they have round corners. Following these letters are five groups of letters containing ;/, u, l,g, and r. The first letter of each group is printed correctly, while the letters following show ways in which they should not be printed. In the case of the^, point 2 should fall in a slanting direc- tion under point 1, the slant being the same as a d of the preceding letters. The difference between d and b and the construction of the s are also shown in the same figure. The b should be made rounding at the point indicated. As a guide in making the s, draw the two lines a b and c d, having the common slant. The s should now be drawn so that it will touch these lines at points 1, 3, and 4, but not at point 2. It will be an additional help if the line ex is also drawn as a guide for the middle portion of the s; but care should be taken not to have it slant more than shown in the copy. The letters a, o, />,-, etc. should be full and round; do not cramp them. It will be necessary to follow the copy closely until familiar with it. Notice that the figures are not made as in writing, particularly the 6?, 4, 8, and 9 (see Fig. 21). Try to space the letters evenly. Letter in pencil first, and, if not right, erase and try again. 1 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 23 25. Another style of freehand lettering is shown in Fig. 25. This style is extensively used for the lettering of working drawings. It is more easily and rapidly ABCDEFGH/JKL MMOPQRSTL/l/WXYZ at? c c/e fgh/jfr/m n opqrsfu v wxyz A /234S678 9/O /234567890 2-6t FIG. 25. made than the style previously described, and although not productive of as high degree of neatness in appearance will be found very useful and acceptable for general office work. A comparison between the two systems will disclose a great similarity in the detail formation of the letters. 26. The horizontal and slanting guide lines are drawn exactly in the same man- ner as for the style prc- Horizontal Hor/zonfal .. , -i-i -IT FIG. 26. viously described, and if not followed the results will be similar. See the uneven appearance of the second word in Fig. 26. 27. By studying the formation of the letters carefully, it will be found that many of them are formed on the same principle, as shown in Fig. 27. The ovals of the letters a, b, if, g, />, and q are formed exactly E> &>(^O alike an( j have a slant of 45 wjth the horizontal. These ovals should C 6 L> "> be made a little wider at the top r n ffl h / / than at the bottom. Care should be taken that the straight downward / strokes are made parallel to the slanting guide lines. The letters r and e are commenced in the same FIG. 27. way, but the upper loop in e should be formed in such a manner that its axis will be at an angle if 24 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 1 of 4.5 with the horizontal. The r is made by having' the down stroke parallel to the slanting guide line and the up stroke slightly curved in the same way as in the letter n (see Fig. 2T). The strokes in the letters j and / are the same, with the position of the hooked part reversed. 28. The eapital letters shown in Fig. 28 are formed very nearly in the same manner as those shown in Art. 23, FIG. as. but differ slightly by omitting the short spurs that give to the letters a more finished appearance. In the capital J7, however, there is a decided variation. The M is made with four strokes, putting in the parallel sides first. The two other strokes should join midway between these sides and at a distance from the top of about -i of the height of the letter. These strokes, as will be seen, are straight and not curved. 2J). The numerals should be -fa" high and of the style shown in Fig. 25 ; fractions should be \" high over all. In Fig. 2! the numerals are illustrated to a larger scale, and a comparison with the style shown in Fig. 21 will disclose several variations. The loops of the , ?, 5, G, and 9 should be formed so that will be at an angle of 45 with the horizontal. It I be noted that the 7 differs widely from the style shown in Fig. 21, the down stroke not curving but having a straight The axis of the and the loops of the 8 should slant at an anirle of r,o rr 1 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 25 Diligent practice for a short time and careful observation of the forms of letters and numerals as shown in Figs. 21-29 will soon enable the student to acquire skill and speed in this branch of drawing. 30. The alphabet shown in Fig. 30, called the block letter, is to be used for the large headings or titles of plates, as shown on the copy plates. This alphabet is not to be used on the first five geometrical drawing plates. The letters and figures are to be made y^-" high and \" wide, except^/, which is -$" wide, and W, which is f " wide. The thickness of all ABCDEFGHI J KLMNDPOR S TU V W X YZS IE345B7B3D FIG. 30. the lines forming the letters is y 1 ^, measured horizontally. The distance between any two letters of a word is y 1 ^", except where A follows P or F\ where V, W, or F follows L; where / follows F, P, T, V, W, or F; where T and A are adjacent, or A and F, W, or Fare adjacent; in this case, the bottom extremity of A and the top extremity of /*, 7", F, T^are in the same vertical line, etc. 31. Since these letters are composed of straight lines, they can be made with the T square and triangle. In lettering the title of the drawing plates, the student should draw six horizontal lines y 1 ^" apart in lead pencil, to represent the thick- ness of the letters at the top, center, and bottom; then, by use of the triangle, he should draw in the width of the letters and the spaces between them in lead pencil. Having the 20 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 1 letters all laid out, he can very easily ink them in. Use the ruling pen for inking in the straight outlines of the letters, and the lettering pen for rounding the corners and filling in between the outlines. It is well to ink in all the perpen- dicular lines first, next the horizontal lines, and then the oblique lines. PLATES. 32. Preliminary Directions. The size of each plate over all will be 14" X 18", having a border line \" from each edge all around, thus making the size of the space on which the drawing is to be made 13" X 17". The sheet itself must be larger than this when first placed upon the board, so that the thumbtack holes maybe cut out; the extra margin is also very convenient for testing the pen, in order to see whether the ink is flowing well and whether the lines are of the proper thickness. The first five plates will consist of practical geometrical problems which constantly arise in practice when making drawings. The method of solving every one of these problems should be carefully memorized, so that they can be instantly applied when the occasion requires, without being obliged to refer to the text for help. Particular attention should be paid to the lettering. Whenever any dimensions are specified, they should be laid off as accurately as possible. All drawings should be made as neat as possible, and the penciling entirely finished before inking in any part of it. Great care should be taken in distributing the different views, parts, details, etc. on the drawing, so that when the drawing is completed, one view will not be so near to another as to mar the appearance of the drawing. The hands should be perfectly clean, and should not touch the paper except when necessary. No lines should be erased except when absolutely necessary; for, whenever a line has once been erased, the dirt flying around in the air and con- stantly falling on the drawing will stick to any spot where an JL. PROBLEM t: To bisect a straight fine. PROBLEM 3: To draw a perpendicu/ar to a straight CASE 1. PLA1 PROBLEM 2: To draw a CA. //ne from a point without CASE cutar to a straight l^ne from a given point in that line. CASE II. PffOBL EM 4: Through a given point to draw a straight line para lie/ to a given straight fine JOHN SMITH. CLASS N? 4529. 1 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 27 erasure has been made, and it is then very difficult, if not impossible, to entirely remove it. For this reason, all con- struction lines that are to be removed, or that are liable to be changed, should be drawn lightly, that the finish of the paper may not be destroyed when erasing them. When it is found necessary to erase an ink blot or a line that has been inked in, only an ink eraser or sand rubber should be used. After the erasure has been made, the roughened part of the surface of the paper can be smoothed by rubbing with some hard, smooth substance, as a piece of ivory or the handle of a knife. PLATE I. 33. Take a sheet of drawing paper 15" wide and 20" long (demy size), and fasten it to the board as previously described. On this draw the outlines of the size of the plate, 14" X 18", and draw the border line all around \" from the edge of the outline, leaving the space inside for the draw- ing I3"Xl7 ff . When the word draiving is used hereafter, it refers only to the space inside the border lines and the objects drawn upon it. To understand clearly what fol- lows, refer to Plate I. Divide the drawing into two equal parts by means of a faint horizontal line. This line is shown dotted in Plate I, above referred to. Divide each of these halves into three equal parts, as shown by the dotted lines; this divides the drawing into six rect- angular spaces. These division lines are not to be inked in, but must be erased when the plate is completed. On the first five plates, space for the lettering must be taken into account. For each of the six equal spaces, the lettering will take tip one or two lines. The height of all capital letters on these plates will be ^j", and of the small letters | of this, or T V'. The distance between any two lines of lettering will also be -fa". The distance between the tops of the letters on the first line of lettering and the top line of the equal divisions of the drawing is to be \"\ an< i the space between the bottoms of the letters and the topmost point of the figure represented on the ;>8 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 1 drawing within one of these six divisions must also be not less than -.',"- This makes a very neat arrangement, if the figure is so placed that the outermost points of the bounding lines are equally distant from the sides of one of the equal rectangular spaces. Consequently, if there is one line of lettering, no point of the figure drawn should come nearer than i"+ aY' +|" = 1-jV' to tne top line of the space within which it is represented; or, if there are two lines of lettering, nearer than \" -\- %" -\- ^" -j-^V -j- .V" = l-jV'. The letter heading for each figure on the first five plates will be printed in heavy-faced type at the beginning of the directions explaining each prob- lem. The student must judge for himself by the length of the heading whether it will take up one line or two, and make due allowance for the space it takes up. This is a necessary precaution, because the lettering should never be done until the rest of the drawing is entirely finished and inked in. PROBLEM 1. To bisect a straight line. See Fig. 31 ; also 1 of Plate I. CONSTRUCTION. Draw a straight line A B, ?>\" long. With one extremity A as a center, and a radius greater than one- half of the length of the \i/ line, describe an arc of a circle on each side of the given line ; with the other extremity B as a center, . a and the same radius, de- scribe arcs intersecting the first two in the points C and D. Join C and D by the line CD, and the point P. where it FIG. 3i. intersects A B, will be the = />/?, and Pis the middle point Since CD is perpendicular to A B, this construction also gives a perpendicular to a straight line at its middle point. 1 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 29 A- J FIG. 32. PROBLEM 2. To draw a perpendicular to a straight line from a given point in that line. NOTE. As there are two cases of this problem, requiring two figures on the plate, the line of letters will be run clear across both figures, as shown in Plate I. Case I. When the point is at or near the center of the line. See Fig. 32; also 2, Case I, of Plate I. CONSTRUCTION. Draw A B 3f long. Let P be the given point. With P as a center, and any radius, as P D, describe two short arcs cutting A Bin the points Cand D. With C and D as cen- ters, and any convenient radius greater than PD, describe two arcs intersecting in E. Draw P, and it will be perpendicular to A B at the point P. Case II. When the point is near the end of the line. See Fig. 33; also 2, Case II, of Plate I. Draw AB 3|" long. Take the given point P about f from the end of the line. With any point O as a center, and a radius O P, describe an arc cut- ting A B in P and D. Draw D O, and prolong it until it intersects the arc in the point C. A line drawn through C and P will be per- pendicular to A B at the point P. PROBLEM 3. To draw a perpendicular to a straight line from a point -without it. FIG. 83. As in Problem 2, there are two cases. 30 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 1 A B 31 r Case I. M'hcn the point lies nearly over the center of the line. See Fig. 34; also 3, Case I, of Plate I. CONSTRUCTION. Draw long. Let P be the given point. With P as a center, and any radius P D greater than the dis- tance from P to A />', de- scribe an arc cutting A B in C and D. With C and D as centers, and any con- venient radius, describe FK.. ;. short arcs intersecting in R. A line drawn through Pand R will be perpendicular to A B at /". Case II. When lite point lies nearly over one end of the line. See Fig. 35; also 3, Case II, of Plate I. Draw A B 3V' long, and let P be the given point. With any point C on the VP line A B as a center, and the distance C P as a radius, describe an arc P P. D cutting 4 , | \E A B in R. With R as a center, and the dis- tance R P as a radius, describe an arc cut- * ting the arc /'/: D in D. The line joining the points P and D will be perpendicular to A />. PROBLEM 4. Througli a given point, to draw a straight line parallel to a given straight line. See Fig. 30; also 4 of Plate I. CONSTRUC-I ION. Let P be the given point, and A B the given straight line \}\" long. With P as a center, and any FIG. 35. 1 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 31 convenient radius, describe an arc CD intersecting A B in D. With D as a center, and the same radius, describe the arc PE. With D as a center, and a radius equal to the chord of the arc PE. f, .0 descnbe an arc intersect- ing C D in C. A straight line drawn through P and C will be parallel to A B. /2> 34. These four prob- lems form Plate I. They should be carefully and accurately drawn in with lead-pencil lines and then inked in. It will be noticed that on Plate I, and Figs. 31 to 3(j, the given lines are light, the required lines heavy, and the construction lines, which, in a practical working drawing, would be left out, are light dotted. This system must also be followed in the four plates which are to follow. A single glance enables one to see at once the reason for drawing the figure, and the eye is directed immediately to the required line. In the first five plates, accuracy and neatness are the main things to be looked out for. The student should be certain that the lines are of precisely the length that is specified in the description. When drawing a line through two points, be sure that the line goes through the points; if it does not pass exactly through the points, erase it and draw it over again. If a line is supposed to end at some particular point, make it end there do not let it extend beyond or fall short. Thus, in Fig. 36, if the line P C does not pass through the points Pand C, it is not parallel to A B. By paying care- ful attention to these points, the student saves himself a great deal of trouble in the futiire. Do not hurry your work. First ink in all of the light lines and light dotted lines (which have the same thickness); then ink in the heavy required lines after the pen has been readjusted. Now do the lettering (first read carefully the paragraphs under the head " Lettering "), and finally draw the heavy border lines, which 32 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 1 should be thicker than any other line on the drawing. The word " Plate " and its number should be printed at the top of the sheet, outside the border lines, and midway of its length, as shown. The student's name, followed by the words "Class" and "No.," and after this his course letter and c/ass number should be printed in the lower right-hand corner below the border line, as shown. Thus, John Smith, Class No. C 4529. The date on which the drawing was completed should be placed in the lower left-hand corner, below the border line. All of tliis lettering is to be in capitals ^" high. Erase the division lines, and clean the drawing by rub- bing very gently with the eraser. Care must be exer- cised when doing this, or the inked lines will also be erased. It is best to use a so-called " Sponge Rubber " for this pur- pose, as it will not injure the inked lines. If any part of a line has been erased or weakened, it must be redrawn. Then write with the lead pencil your name and address in full on the back of your drawing, after which put your drawing in the empty tube which was sent you, and send it to the Schools. HINTS FOR PLATE I. 35. Do not forget to make a distinction between the width of the given and required lines, nor forget to make the con- struction lines dotted. When drawing dotted lines, take pains to have the dots and spaces uniform in length. Make the dots about -^" long and the spaces only about one-third the length of the dots. Try to get the work accurate. The constructions must be accurate, and all lines or figures should be drawn of the length or size previously stated. To this end, work carefully and keep the pencil leads very sharp, so that the lines ivill be fine. The lettering on the first few plates, as well as on the suc- ceeding plates, is fully as important as the drawing, and should be done in the neatest possible manner. Drawings sent 1 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 33 in for correction with the lettering omitted will be returned for completion. The reference letters like A, , C, etc. , as shown in Fig. 31, are not to be put on the plates. Do not neglect to trim the plates to the required size. Do not punch large holes in the paper with the dividers or com- passes. Remember that the division lines are to be erased not inked in. PLATE II. 36. Draw the division lines in the same manner as described for Plate I. The following five problems, Nos. 5 to 9, inclusive, are to be drawn in regular order, as was done in Plate I, with problems from 1 to 4. The letter headings are given in heavy-faced type after the problem number. PROBLEM 5. To bisect a given angle.* Case I. When the sides intersect within the limits of the drawing. See Fig. 37. CONSTRUCTION. Let A O B be the angle to be bisected. Draw the sides OA and OB 3" long. With the vertex O as a center, and any convenient radius, describe an arc D E intersecting O A at D and O B at E. With D and E FIG. 87. as centers, and a radius greater than the chord of half the arc D E, describe two arcs intersecting at C. The line drawn through C and O will bisect the angle ; that is, A C COB. * Since the letter heading in this problem is very short, it will be better to place it over each of the two cases separately, instead of running it over the division line, as was done with the long headings of the two cases in Plate I. Put Case I and Case II under the head- ing, as in the previous plate. 34 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. Case ll. U'/ifn the sides do not intersect within the limits of the drawing. See Fig. 38. Draw two lines, A B and CD, each 3" long, and inclined towards each other as shown. With any point E on CD as a center, and any convenient radius, describe arc FIGH', with G as a center and same radius, describe arc H LEF, intersecting FIG N in //and F. With L as a center, and same radius, describe arc KGJ\ with / as a center, and same radius, describe arc J E K, intersecting KGJ in K and ./. Draw HF and J K\ they intersect at O, a point on the bisecting line. With as a center, and the same or any convenient radius, describe an arc intersecting A B and CD in M and TV. With J/ and N as centers, and any radius greater than one-half M N, describe arcs inter- secting at P. A line drawn through O and P is the required bisecting line. PKOHI KM 0. To divide a given straight line into any required number of equal parts. See Fig. M (a\ CONSTRUCTION. // /> is the given line 3 1 5 S - // long. It is iv<|uiml to divide it into eight equal parts. Through one extremity A of the line, draw an indefinite straight line A C, making any angle with A />'. Set the dividers to any 1 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 35 K T R PON FIG. 39 (a). M L n convenient distance, and space off eight equal divisions on A C, as A K, K I, I H, etc. Join C and B by the straight line C B, and through the points D t E, F, G, etc. draw lines D L, E M, etc. parallel to CB, by using the two DS\ triangles; these parallels in- ^'''\ > tersect A B in the points rt %' \ \ \ *Y * \ \ > L, M, N, etc., which are u^' \ \ \ \ equally distant apart. The spaces L M, M N, NO, etc. are each equal to A B. Proceed in a similar way for any number of equal parts into which A B is to be divided. An important modification of the method just described is shown in Fig. 39 (b}. Draw A B as before, and erect the perpendicular B C. Now divide 3 T 7 F ", the length of , o A B, by 8, the number denoting the number of equal parts into which A B is to be divided, obtaining 3 7 " Q -. 3 " I 7 JF 1 I x ^ " x"' JJ r 7,- " K i 1 R i i * C 'IG. > Jl (*) / J t f L ding the whole number and the fraction separately. Now considering |" -f- ^\^" to be approximately equal to ^", multiply \" by 8, the number of parts into which A B is to be divided; the result is "X8 = 4", which is the length of A C. With A as a center and a radius equal to 4" describe an arc cutting B C in C, and draw A C. Then with a scale lay off A K = K I etc. = |", and project K, /, //, etc. upon A B, in 7", A', P, etc., the required points. The advantage of this method over the other is that the T square and triangle can be used through- out, thus making it very much easier to draw the parallels D Z, E M, etc. The student, when drawing this plate, is at liberty to use cither of the two methods given in this problem. 36 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. PROBLEM 7. To draw a straight line through any given point on a given straight line to make any required angle with that line. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 40, A B is the given line 3" long, P is the given point, and E O F is the given angle. With the vertex as a center, and any convenient radius, de- scribe an arc EF cutting O E and OF in E and F. With P as a center, and the same radius, describe an arc CD. With D as a center, and a radius equal to the chord of the arc E F", describe an arc cutting CD in C. A line drawn through the points P and C will make an angle with A B equal to the angle <9, or CPD = EOF. PROBLKM 8. To draw an equi- lateral triangle, one side being given. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 41, A B is the given side 2f" long. With A B as a radius, and A and B as centers, describe two arcs intersecting in C. Draw C A and C B, and C A B is an equilateral triangle. PROBLEM $. The altitude of an equilateral triangle being given, to draw the triangle. CONSTRUCTION. InFig.42, A B is the altitude %\" long. Through the extremities of A B draw the parallel lines CD and F. F perpendicular to A B. With B as a cen- ter, and any convenient ra- dius, describe the semicircle C H K D intersecting CD in FIG. 41. GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 37 C and D. With C and D as centers, and the same radius, describe arcs cutting the semicircle in H and K, Draw B H and B K, and prolong them to meet E F in E and F. B E F is the required equilateral triangle. This problem finishes Plate II. The directions for inking in, lettering, etc. are the same as for Plate I. PLATE III. 37. This plate is to be divided up like Plates I and II, and the six following problems are to be drawn in a similar manner: PROBLEM 10. Two sides and the included angle of a triangle being given, to construct the triangle. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 43, make the given sides MN 2|" long and PQ \\" long. Let O be the given angle. Draw A B, and make it equal in length toPQ. Make the angle C B A equal to the given angle O, and make C B equal in length to the line M ' N. Draw CA, and CA B is the required triangle. PROBLEM 11. To draw a parallelogram when the sides and one of the angles are given. CONSTRUCTION. In .o Fig. 44, make the given sides MN 2 /r long and PQl^"\ong. Let O be the given angle. Draw A B equal to M N, and * draw B C, making an angle with A B equal FIG. 44. to the given angle O. FIG - 43 - GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. Make B C equal to PQ. With C as a center, and a radius equal to J/A T , describe an arc at D. With A as a center, and a radius equal to PQ, describe an arc intersecting the other arc in D. Draw A D and CD, and A B C D is the required parallelogram. PROBLEM 12. An arc and its radius being given, to find the center. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 45, A C D B is the arc, and M N, If" long, is the radius. With M Na.s a radius, and any point C in the given arc as a center, describe an arc at 0. With any other point D in the given arc as a center, and the same radius, describe an arc intersecting the first in O. Flo 45 is the required center. PROBLEM 1.3. To pass a circumference through any three points not in the same straight line. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 46, A, />', and C are the given points. With A and /> as centers, and any convenient radius, describe arcs inter- secting each other in K and /. With B and C as centers, and any convenient radius, describe arcs intersecting each A other in D and R. Through / and K and through D and /:, draw lines inter- secting at O. With O as a center, and OA as a radius, describe a circle; it will pass through A, B, and C. FIG. JG. PROBLEM 14. To inscribe a square in a given circle. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 47, the circle A BCD is 3-J" in diameter. Draw two diameters, A C and D B, at right angles to each other. Draw the lines A B, B C, CD, and DA joining the points of intersection of these diameters ! GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. with the circumference of the circle, and they will be the sides of the square. FIG. 48. PROBLEM 15. To inscribe a regular hexagon in a given circle. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 48, from O as a center, with the dividers set to If", describe the circle A B C D R P. Draw the diameter D O A, and from the points D and A, with the dividers set equal to the radius of the circle, describe arcs intersecting the circle at E, C, F, and B. Join these points by straight lines, and they will form the sides of the hexagon. This problem completes Plate III. PLATE IV. 38. The first four problems on this plate are more diffi- cult than any on the preceding plates and will require very careful construction. All the sides of each polygon must be of exactly the same length, so that they will space around evenly with the dividers. The figures should not be inked in until the pencil construction is done accurately. The preliminary directions for this plate are the same as for the preceding ones. GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 1 PROBLEM 10. To inscribe a regular pentagon in a given circle. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 40, from O as a center, with the dividers set to If", describe the circle A B CD. Draw the two diameters A C and D B at right angles to each other. Bisect one of the radii, as B, at /. With / as a center, and I A as a radius, describe the arc A J cutting DO at /. With A as a center, and A J as a radius, describe an arc J H cutting the circumference at H. The chord A H is one side of the pentagon. PROBLEM IT. To inscribe a regular octagon in a given circle. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 50, from O as a center, with the dividers set to If", describe the circle ABCDhFGH. Draw the two diameters A E and G C at right angles to each other. Bisect one of the four equal arcs, as A G at //, and draw the diameter// O D. Bisect another of the equal arcs, as A C at B, and draw the diameter B O F. Straight lines drawn from A to B, from B to C, etc., will form the required octagon. PROBLEM 18. To inscribe a regular polygon of any number of sides in a given circle. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 51, from O as a center, with the 8 1 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 41 dividers set to If", describe the circle A 7 C D. Draw the two diameters D7 and A C at right angles to each other. Divide the diameter Dl into as many equal parts as the polygon has sides (in this case seven). Prolong the diameter A C and make 8' A equal to three-fourths of the radius O A. Through 3' and 2, the second division from D on the diameter D 7, draw the line 3' 7, cutting the circumfer- ence at /. Draw the chord D /, and it is one side of the required poly- gon. The others may be spaced off around the circumference. PROBLEM 10. The side of a regular polygon being given, to construct the polygon. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 52, let A Cbe the given side. If the polygon is to have eight sides, the line A C should be, for this plate, \\" long. Pro- duce A C to B. From C as cen- ter, with a radius equal to C A, describe the semicircle A 123 4 567B, and divide it into as many equal parts as there are sides in the required polygon (in this case eight). From the point C, and through the second division from B, as 6, draw the straight line C6. Bisect the lines A C and C6 by perpendiculars intersecting in O. From O as a center, and with O C as a radius, describe the circle CAHGFED6. From C, and through the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in the semicircle, draw lines C H, C G, CF, etc. meeting the circumference. Joining the points 6 and D, D and E, E and F, etc. by straight lines, will complete the required polygon. FlG. 52. i : GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. PROI.I.IM ^o. To find an arc of a circle having a known radius, which shall be equal in length to a given straight line. NOTK. There is no exact method, but the following approximate method is close enough for all practical purposes, when the required arc does not exceed J of the circumference. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 53, let A C be the given line At A, erect the perpendicular A O, and make it equal in length to the given radius, say 4" long. With OA as a radius, and O as a center, de- scribe the arc ABE. Divide A C into four equal parts, A D being the first of these parts, counting from A. With D as a center, and a radius D C, describe the arc C B intersecting ABE in B. The length of the arc A B very nearly equals the length of the straight line A C. PROBLEM 21. An arc of a circle being given, to find a straight line of the same length. This is also an approximate method, but close enough for practical purposes, when the arc does not exceed ^ of the circumference. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 54, let A B be the given arc; find the center O of the arc, and draw the radius O A. For this problem, choose the arc so that the radius will not exceed 1|". FIG. 54. At A, draw A C perpen- dicular to the radius (and, of course, tangent to the arc). GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 43 Draw the chord A />, and prolong it to D, so that A D = \ the chord y2 Z>. With D as a center, and a radius D B, describe the arc B C cutting A C in C. AC will be very nearly equal to the arc A B. PIRATE V. 39. On this plate there arc five problems instead of six. It should be divided into six equal parts or divisions, as the previous ones. The two right-hand end divisions are used to draw in the last figure of Plate V, which is too large to put in one division. which PROBLEM 22. To draw an egg-shaped oval. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 55, on the diameter A is 2f" long, describe a circle ACBG. Through the center O, draw O C perpendicular to A B, cutting the circumference ACBG in C. Draw the straight lines B C F and A C E. With B and A as centers, and the diameter A B as a radius, describe arcs termina- ting in D and //, the points of inter- section with B F and A E. With C as a center, and CD as a radius, describe the arc D H. The curve A D H B G is the required oval. Fin 55 PROBLEM 23. To draw an ellipse, the diameters being given. The exact method. CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 56, let B D, the long diameter, or major axis, which is 3-|" long, and A C, the short diameter, or minor axis, which is 2^" long, intersect at right angles to each other in the center (?, so that DO OB and A O O C. With O as a center, and O C as a radius, describe a circle; with the same center, and O D as a radius, describe another circle. Divide both circles into the same 44 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. FIG. 56. number of equal parts, as 1-2, 2-3, etc. This is best done by first dividing the larger circle into the required number of parts, beginning at the center line A C, and then draw- ing radial lines through the points of division on this circle, to the center O of the cir- cles, as shown in the upper right-hand quarter of the figure. The radial lines will divide the smaller circle into the same number of parts that the larger one has been divided into. Through the points of division on the smaller circle, draw hori- zontal lines, and, through the points of division on the larger circle, draw vertical lines; the points of intersection of these lines are points on the ellipse. Thus, the horizon- tal line 3 c and the vertical line Sc intersecting at c give the point c of the ellipse. Trace a curve through the points thus found by placing an irregular curve on the drawing in such a manner that one of its bounding lines will pass through three or more points, judging with the eye whether the curve so traced bulges out too much or is too flat. Then adjust the curve again, so that its bounding line will pass through several more points, and so on, until the curve is completed. Care should be taken to make all changes in curvature as gradual as possible, and all curves drawn in this manner should be drawn in pencil before being inked in. It requires considerable practice to be able to draw a good curved line in this manner by means of an irregular curve, and the general appearance of a curve thus drawn depends a great deal upon the student's taste and the accuracy of his eye. PKOHLKM 24. To draw an ellipse by circular arcs. This is not a true ellipse, but is very convenient for many purposes. GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 45 CONSTRUCTION. In Fig. 57, use the same dimensions as before. On the major axis A B, set off A a C D, the minor axis, and divide a B into three equal parts. With as a center, and a radius equal to the length of two of these parts, describe arcs cutting A B in d and d '. Upon d d' as a side, construct two equilateral triangles dbd'on&db'd'. With b as a center, and a radius equal to b D, describe the arc gDf intersecting b df and b d' g in f and g. With the same radius, and b' as a center, describe the arc c C e intersect- ing b'd'c and b'de in c and e. With A and B as centers, and a radius equal to the chord of the arcs A c or B e, describe arcs cutting A B very near to d' and d. From the points of intersection of these arcs with A B as centers, and the same radius, describe the arcs c A g and e B f. PROBLEM 25. To draw a parabola, the axis and long- est double ordlnate being given. EXPLANATION. The curve shown in Fig. 58 is called a parabola. This curve and the ellipse are the bounding line of certain sections of a cone. The line O A, which bisects the area included between the curve and the line B C, is called the axis. Any line, B A or A C, drawn perpendicular to OA, and whose length is included between O A and the curve, is called an ordinate. Any line, as B C, both of whose extrem- ities rest on the curve, and is perpendicular to the axis, is called a double ordinate. Point O is called the vertex. CONSTRUCTION. Make the axis O A equal to 3|", and the longest double ordinate BC equal to 3*. Z>A, of course, equals A C. Draw D E through the other extremity of the 40 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 1 axis and perpendicular to it; also draw B D and C Ji par- allel to OA and intersecting/^/: in D and /:. Divide DB and A B into the same number of equal parts, as shown (in this case six); through the vertex 'O, draw 1, O2, etc. to the points of division on D B, and through the corre- sponding points J, 2, etc., on A />, draw lines parallel to the axis. The points of intersection of these lines. #, b, c, etc. , are points on the curve, through which it may be traced. In a similar manner, draw the lower half O fg)i il C of the curve. PROBLKM 20. To draw a helix, the pitch and the diameter being given. EXIM.ANA nox. The helix is a curve formed by a point moving around a cylinder and at the same time advancing along its length a certain distance; this forms the winding curved line shown in Fig. 50. The center line A O, drawn through the cylinder, is called the axis of the helix, and any line perpendicular to the axis and terminated by the helix is of the same length, being equal to the radius of the cylinder. The distance /> /..' that the point advances lengthwise during one revolution is called the pitch. 1 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 47 CONSTRUCTION. As mentioned before, this figure occupies two spaces of the plate. The diameter of the cylinder is 3^-", the pitch is 2", and a turn and a half of the helix is to be shown. The rectangle FB E D is a side view of the cylinder, and the circle 1' 2' 8' 4', etc. is a bottom view. It will be noticed that one-half of a turn of the helix is shown dotted; this is because that part of it is on the other side of the cylinder, and cannot be seen. Lines that are hidden are drawn dotted. Draw the axis O A in the center of the space. Draw FD, 3" long and 4* from the top border line; on it construct a rectangle whose height F B *r. Take the center O of the circle 2f * below the point // on the axis A O, and describe a circle having a diameter of 3^" equal to the 48 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 1 diameter of the cylinder. Lay off the pitch from B to 12 equal to 2", and divide it into a convenient number of equal parts (in this case 12), and divide the circle into the same number of equal parts, beginning at one extremity of the diameter 12' O 6", drawn parallel to BE. At the point 1' on the circle divisions, erect I'-l' perpendicular to B E\ through the point 1 of the pitch divisions, draw 1-1' parallel to B E, intersecting the perpendicular in 1', which is a point on the helix. Through the point 2', erect a perpendicular 2' -2', intersecting 2-2' in 3', which is another point on the helix. So proceed until the point 6 is reached; from here on, until the point 12 of the helix is reached, the curve will be dotted. It will be noticed that the points of division 7', 8', 9', 10 f , and 11' on the circle are directly opposite the points 5', 4', $', 2', and 1 '; hence, it was not necessary to draw the lower half of the circle, since the point 5' could have been the starting point, and the operation could have been conducted back- wards to find the points on the dotted upper half of the helix. The other full-curved line of the helix can be drawn in exactly the same manner as the first half. FREEHAND DRAWING. INTRODUCTION. 1. History of Ornament. The history of ornament in architecture and the technical arts antedates all written his- tory. One of the strongest characteristics of even the most savage tribes is their attempt at ornamental design, expressed in rude carving, or in the painting of their bodies, weapons, or utensils. To this instinct may be ascribed the habit of tattooing practiced by many uncivilized nations, whereby they essayed to increase the expression of terror of coun- tenance, and create what appeared to them an additional beauty. Uncivilized man has always been a warrior, and as such he ranked with his fellow man according to the bravery he exhibited before his friends, and the fear with which he inspired his enemies. For this reason nothing appeared beautiful to the savage, unless it possessed some element of the terrible or the supernatural. As man becomes civilized his tendency in ornamental design leans toward the reproduction of natural forms, and his self-glori- fication gives way to the desire to glorify the works of his Creator. Therefore, we always see some attempt to com- bine in the design some form from the animal or vegetable world, suggestive of the beneficence of Providence. Ornamentation is thus seen to precede architecture histor- ically, but it was the art of building that afforded the grand- est field for its development and application. The noblest achievements in the technical arts have been produced 2 For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 in the service of architecture; and in all art industries, even wherein ornamentation seems to follow an independent existence of its own, its products are in harmony with the contemporary taste and tendency of architecture. The his- torical style and development, and the technical execution of ornament, whether carved, painted, or woven, are thus seen to be inextricably interwoven with the history of archi- tecture and the sister arts. *2. A JJmwinjjr. A drawing is the expression of an idea by means of a picture ; therefore, to draw an object is to represent it with all its characteristic features. Some ideas can be expressed clearly in writing, but others require a drawing in order to convey them to the mind. Drawing is not designing but is the means by which we express our ideas in design to one another. It would thus appear that, to teach the drawing of ornament in a comprehensive way, we should at the same time teach all about its design and application; but experience has proved that such a course complicates the work of elementary instruction, and is only adapted to those that have already learned to draw well, and that know something about design in general. The subject must be divided, and for those that just enter upon its study it is best to first learn how to draw, and then devote their energies entirely to the study of how to design. This is the scope and aim of this Paper. In a series of carefully graded exercises, the student is led from the simple straight line to the more difficult problems, and the lessons are confined at first to outline drawing, the object being to develop, in the shortest possible time, such ready facility of the hand and judgment of the eye as will enable him to correctly draw any outline whatever. Notwithstanding this program of making this course essen- tially one of draining Itssons, the text is enriched with expla- nations of the problems presented, to stimulate the student's interest in his work. Information thus obtained, gradually gn.ws together in the student's mind, and enables him to more readily comprehend the subject he has in hand. 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 3 3. Ornament is either the embellishment of a structural feature, accentuating its form and purpose, in which case it is usually carved or molded in relief, or the ornament con- sists of a flat-surface decoration, such as a carpet pattern, wall paper, or a painted design. Ornament consists of a combination of straight and curved lines, independent, or joined with vegetable or animal forms, or exclusively of the latter with or without color decoration. Some ornament is purely geometrical in character, and can be drawn entirely with instruments; other is partly freehand and partly geo- metrical work; and the remainder is entirely freehand work. Ornamental drawing includes the rendering of form itself, being the representation of such graceful lines as exist in the animal and vegetable world, and also those of man's own invention, as seen in the architectural moldings, in the sweeps and curves of furniture, in the scrolls and twists of wrought-iron -work; and in the outlines of pottery, glass- ware, cutlery, vehicles, ships, machinery, etc. For instance, in an ornamental vase or a wrought-iron grille, the general form and the graceful lines and proportion of its parts are as much subject for ornamental drawing as is any individual ornament with which a part of either of these objects may be decorated. 4. How to Draw. The making of a drawing can be said to consist of two parts, namely, the making of the indi- vidual lines and the composition. Straight and curved lines must be drawn in strokes, and not in dots nor in a suc- cession % of short scratches. The strokes must not be jerky nor detached, but continuous, each one being a continuation of the preceding one, and as long as one unconstrained move- ment of the finger joints will make them, which is about | inch. No other method maintains so well the direction of the lines to be drawn, nor develops so readily the pliability of the hand and the judgment of the eye by fastening the attention of both on the making of a continuous line, instead of on the making of the pieces of a line. In ordinary drawing the elbow may be rested on any part 4 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 of the drawing board that the case may require; but the ball of the hand should be as free as possible, in which position the hand will rest and travel along lightly on the first joint of the little finger. The pencil recommended for practice is one corresponding to grade " S M " of the Dixon brand, but the final work on the drawing plates should be executed with a harder pencil. For aiding in the work, a soft waffle, or multiplex, rubber may be used to advantage, to clean up the drawing after the sketch is completed and just previous to the process of inking in. The final pencil lines must be firm and clean, but not heavy; and, if any corrections are necessary, an ordinary white Fabcr's rubber should be used. The student should keep a uniform round pencil point, of medium length, and avoid frequent sharpening, but maintain a good point by turning the pencil as he works. Avoid cheap pencils; they are a delusion as to economy, and their. common lead smears up the drawing. Three golden rules to be observed by the student are : Never wet the pencil ; never use a very hard pencil ; never use a short pencil. The pencil should not be less than 5 inches long, in order that it may rest against the knuckle of the forefinger. The eye must guide the hand in drawing, but should not be riveted too closely upon the pencil or drawing pen ; a glance forwards and backwards over the work, to compare the form of the design and the direction of the lines, will enable the student to keep his work close to the original, which is all that is at present desired. The draftsman, sitting at work, should avoid bending over the drawing in a cramped position, as it is likely to injure his eyesight, and will in no way benefit his work. An easy, natural attitude is the best. All subjects should be outlined in their normal aspect, not upside down nor sideways, the paper being straight in front of the draftsman ; but, in the final rendering, especially when a drawing is to be inked in, there is no objection to turning the sheet or the body around, to make the work more convenient and thus produce perfect lines. 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 5 5. Composition. This element of a drawing consists of the general grouping of the lines and masses of the design, according to the size or scale to which the drawing is made. Before beginning to draw a figure, its general effect and characteristic shape as a whole should be carefully observed. The individual forms, the curves, and scrolls, and the cut of the foliage should then be studied ; and its symmetry and the proportion of its parts, and the direction of its move- ment, should be borne in mind during the entire process of sketching it in. As to the size of the drawing in relation to the copy, model, or natural object, it is sufficient to say that some definite scale of enlargement or reduction should be followed, so that every- thing shall be maintained in equal relative propor- tion. In beginning to draw an object, first lay out the extreme outline, as in Fig. 1 ; then locate all the principal points of extent and position by measuring from the base and center lines. The extreme outline should be composed of a few straight lines so arranged as to enclose the object in an irregular geo- metrical figure. The curves and other details of the object may then be rounded in at the angles of the geometrical figure, as shown. For this measuring and locating, extreme exactitude is not required; there should, in fact, be as little mechanical measuring as the student can get along with, all minor details being gauged by the eye. Use the eye as much as possible, in order that it may become trained to judge correctly of absolute and relative sizes, of form and proportion. The value of this accomplishment to the drafts- man and designer cannot be overestimated. Since the object of the student is to learn to draw, and, in a measure, to obtain a knowledge of ornament, the above points are of G FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 far greater importance to him than the mere act of repeat- ing- or copying of lines, and the purpose of this course is not to make copyists of the students, but to make draftsmen and designers of them. The same spirit applies to the drawing of the two halves of any symmetrical ornament. Except in the main points of the design, no absolute identity of the two halves is to be attempted; there is no artistic necessity for such, either in drawings or in executed work. If some little inequalities appear in the two halves of some scroll or foliage work, leave them alone and remember that good ornament is enhanced in value, rather than depreciated, by the absence of constraint or of stiff regularity. The individuality of the designer, carver, or painter shows itself in such matters, and gives character to his work. There is another very important point to be observed in the drawing of symmetrical figures. Never draw one half complete by itself and then the other half; lay the whole ornament out as one figure and finish it up simultaneously. Above all, never trace ^one half of an ornament to produce the other half. This method of working is permissible in offices and shops, on the part of experienced draftsmen, and will be explained in future work, but must be absolutely avoided by the student in freehand drawing. Let him remember that he is learning to dra r ^>, and nothing will train either hand or eye as well as constant practice and redrawing the same thing. (>. While the use of drawing instruments and mechanical appliances is necessary in blocking out the preliminary work of any design, the design itself must in nearly all cases be executed freehand, or at least partially so. For this reason, the work in this course will be entirely freehand. The stu- dent is urged to practice constantly on other work than these plates, so that his hand may become subtle and his style systematic and individualized. In hvdiand drawing, the work may be executed with one i-f several materials, as explained below, but only three S ;> FREEHAND DRAWING. ? methods will be considered herein, as these three are the ones most frequently used and the only ones necessary except in special cases. The most common method of drawing is with lead pencil, and the object is either drawn in outline, as indicated at (a) and (If), Fig. 2, or shaded as at (f). If an outline drawing, the object may be expressed in lines con- forming to the actual contour of the object itself, as at (a), or it may be drawn as it appears to the eye, as at (b). In (a) the former case the drawing is called an elevation of the object, and the latter is a. perspective view. Now, though the elevation of an object is of vast impor- tance to the designer, he rarely expresses an object that way in design ; unless the character of the work actually demands it for instance, where the design is of a vase or pitcher that is to be thrown or spun in metal, it is sometimes necessary that the spinner should have an elevation of the object in order that he may spin it to the proper outline; but, where a design is to be reproduced by printing, weaving, carving, etc., the original drawing represents the design just as the reproduction is to appear. Elevations are usually drawn mechanically, while perspectives are in nearly all cases exe- cuted more or less freehand. Mechanical drawings are exe- cuted to scale, or in exact proportion according to measured dimensions. Freehand drawings are executed entirely with the unaided hand, and measured by the judgment of the 8 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 eye. The expert designer uses eye measurement almost exclusively, and the student is here advised to pay particu- lar attention to this branch of his study, as it will be indis- pensable to him hereafter. Drawings are also executed with pen and ink, in which case the general appearance is the same as in pencil; the method of execution is different, however, as will be explained later on. In fact, in the majority of cases a drawing is outlined in pencil, and then inked over and shaded with the pen. The third method of drawing, described in this course, is with the brush. This is the method used most extensively by all designers. Its use is limited to freehand work, but its application is extended to designs in color and mezzotint. THE PLATE EXERCISES. 7. The plates are to be drawn on the same size of paper (14 in. X 18 in.) as was used in Geometrical Dr diving. The student should draw each of the exercises several times before he attempts the plate he will send in to the Schools for correction, as these plates are considered examinations to determine how carefully the student has studied the text and practiced his exercises. This preliminary work need be drawn in pencil only, on a good quality of brown paper that will withstand rubbing. Draw all the figures of one plate and complete it before beginning to ink it in, and do not attempt to ink it until you have practiced ink- ing on separate pieces of paper. For fine lines in freehand work, use a Gillott's No. 404 pen, in a smooth, round, long holder without swell or taper. For heavy lines a coarser pen should be used. In regard to curves, it is generally best and easiest to ink them freehand, but in some cases, which will be pointed out as we progress in the work, they may be inked with instruments by combining arcs of circles with the lines of irregular curves. When inking, keep the hands and tools clean, wipe the pen 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 9 clean before each dip into the ink, and keep the bottle corked to exclude dust. When using stick India ink, ground on a slab, occasionally add a drop of water to keep it of equal shade and fluidity. The prepared ink provided with the designing outfit will require no diluting if it is kept constantly corked. 8. To the Student. We realize that this work goes out to young men and women of varying degrees of ability, diligence, and opportunity; the exercises that will appear simple to one will prove difficult to another. To those of decided natural ability, we say; "Be diligent; keep at it in the regular order; do not think too soon that you know it all, or that you can disregard our instructions, or become care- less." To those others whom nature has not so kindly endowed, but who have an earnest wish to learn, we say: "Be not discouraged by early difficulties; you are learning everyday; your hand is becoming more supple and your eye more observant with each new exercise; try to realize that you are studying not only a useful, but an artistic, and also a difficult accomplishment, something worthy of your greatest efforts and unswerving perseverance. These staying qualities, joined to but a medium grade of talent, often succeed where greater abilities, joined to indolence and restlessness, result in failure. It sometimes takes years for the child to learn to write, but he finally learns, while the adult, better appre- ciating the value of the accomplishment, may acquire the same knowledge in a few months. Patience, perseverance, and constant practice are necessary in all cases, and lie wJio can learn to write can learn to draw, as the principle is the same in both accomplishments." DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: LINEAR ELEMEXTS. 9. This drawing plate consists of 21 figures, each of which the student should be able to execute perfectly with- out other aid than the directions herewith given. The suc- ceeding plates will each contain some detail or element, the 10 FREEHAND DRAWING. instruction for which can be traced back through the prece- ding plates to this one. // is absolutely necessary, therefore, that the student should be perfect in every detail of each plate before attempting the next one. The figures on this plate are simple lines and combinations of lines to produce some of the elementary forms that enter largely into all classes of design. The exercises on this plate are to be drawn by the student to train his eye and hand to work together, and thereby become sufficiently practiced to execute the problems that follow. The drawing of a single line is of as much impor- tance as the execution of an entire design, and the student must practice constantly and patiently, until he masters each simple problem, before he attempts the next. If each lesson is thoroughly learned, the next one will invariably prove easier. In Fig. 1 of the plate is shown the method of drawing per- pendicular straight lines. The pencil should be held lightly between the thumb and forefinger, with its upper end rest- ing against the finger between the second and the third joint, while the end of the middle finger rests on top of the pencil alongside of the forefinger, and not underneath the pencil, as is sometimes erroneously done in writing. The drawing board should be squarely in front of the student, and his elbow should rest near the bottom of the board, somewhat to the right of the drawing on which he is at work. A short straight line is then drawn, as from a to b in Fig. 3, and the arm shifted a little lower down on the board, and another line, as be, drawn, care being taken that there is a space of at least ^.j inch between the end of the line a b and the beginning of the line b c. A third section of the line is then drawn from c downwards, and so on, .until the line is of the desired length. Having practiced this sev- eral times, the student should gradually decrease the spaces between tin- sections of the line until it appears as a straight Fir,. 3. FREEHAND DRAWING. 11 unbroken line, as shown at d c. It is necessary to be still more careful in doing- this, lest the lines overlap one another or curl out at the ends. The former error causes the fin- ished line to appear somewhat as at (a) in Fig. 4, while the line composed of strokes whose extremities are curled would appear ragged, as at (b). The strokes with which these lines are made are not short, quick dashes of the pencil or pen, but slow, even marks, each of which is started carefully, drawn slowly, and finished abruptly, so as to show a clean, even stroke, the same weight and color through- out, and clean cut from end to end. The second stroke must never lap over the first, and it is better to let a hairbreadth space remain between the ends of the lines than to have the least suggestion of a line like (a). Practice this simple line exercise repeatedly as in it lies the whole key to successful free- hand drawing. When the student has acquired proficiency in this exercise, he may commence work on his drawing plate. Draw the border line enclosing a space 13 in. X 17 in., and then draw three light horizontal pencil lines A B 5 inches, CD 7 inches, and E F 9| inches above the lower border line. This will divide the. ( a ) (*>) drawing plate into four horizontal bands. Divide the length of one of these bands into five equal parts, and through the points of division draw light vertical lines, thus converting the surface of the drawing plate into twenty rectangles. This may all be done with the T square and triangle ; but, from this point on, the student must abandon the use of instruments for this plate, and execute the prob- lems freehand. Each figure, except Figs. 17, 18, 10, and 20, must be drawn as nearly as possible in the center, between the vertical lines of its respective rectangle, and each figure, except Figs. 11 to 15, must rest on the lower horizontal line of its rectangle. Now draw the first figure of the drawing plate. This consists of seven perpendicular lines, each of which is 2 inches long and spaced as shown, either \ inch or !>. FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 \ inch from its neighbor. Only one of them need be an absolutely solid line, the others being composed of dashes about 5 inch in length. The drawing of horizontal lines should now be practiced in a similar manner, except that the elbow should be drawn nearer the body. When the strokes forming the horizontal lines are drawn, the whole arm should be moved toward the right, in order to prevent the lines from becoming arched, as would be the case if the elbow remained fixed and the hand were moved only so far as the swing of the arm would permit. The strokes forming the horizontal lines may be somewhat longer than those composing the vertical lines, but the method of forming one straight line, by the careful union of several smaller ones, remains precisely the same for both cases. In drawing the horizontal lines, see that perfect parallel- ism is maintained; the spacing between the lines, however, may be gradually increased or decreased in order to better train the eye as well as control the hand. In drawing Fig. 2 of the drawing plate make the upper and lower three lines \ inch apart, and -?,- inch from the middle line, all the lines being 2 inches long. Figs. 3 and 4 show two sets of parallel oblique lines, the former being drawn from right to left, and generally called right-oblique lines, and the latter drawn from left to right, and usually designated as Icft-obhquc lines. Fig. 3 is much the easier to draw, as the slope of the lines corresponds in direction to the inclination of the letters in ordinary handwriting, and the hand is more accustomed to the angle. After practicing the right-oblique lines until the student feels assured he can do as well with them as with the two previous sets, he should draw a series in the direction shown in Fig. 4. To do this it will be necessary for him to change the position of his arm, so as to bring the elbow toward the right end of the board and the hand above, and to the right of the lines to be drawn. The lines in Figs. 3 and 4 should incline at an angle of 4/1, and should be arranged in pairs, as shown, with \ inch between the individual lines of each FREEHAND DRAWING. 13 pair, and a distance of 2 inches between the -extreme outside lines of each figure, the lines each being 1 1 inches long. Figs. 5 and G involve no new principle in drawing, and are jimply a combination of the previous problems. Observe, however, that though these two figures contain exactly the same number of lines and nearly the same lengths of lines, they are, in appearance, entirely different. This difference of appearance is due to the composition of the figures, and many changes of arrangement can be effected without alter- ing the number or size of the lines. In line composition the designer has but two elements to consider the lines and the spaces. Subsequently he may darken some of the spaces, FIG. s. thereby entering into surface composition, wherein he has at least two more elements to consider liglit and shade. Fig. 5 of the text shows six different problems in com- position, all based on the line elements as arranged in Fig. 5 of the drawing plate, but treated differently as to light and shade, thus illustrating the fact that even with a few elements of composition a great variety of design may be produced. The blackening, or shading, of certain parts of a line composition, in this manner, is technically termed spotting, and when a plain line drawing is thus treated it is said to be spotted. To draw Fig. 5, first erect a perpendicular line in the center of the last rectangle, and from its intersection with the line E F y draw right and left oblique lines each at an angle of 14 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 45, and I :| inches in length. Let these two lines be the lower sides of a square standing' on its corner. Having completed the square, draw -\ inch within each of its sides, a line parallel to that side, and through the center of the square draw parallel lines ]- inch apart, as shown. The small inscribed square may then be drawn, each side of which is I inch. The square enclosing Fig. G is 2 inches on each side, and rests on the line CD directly below Fig. 1. The lines of its composition are spaced \ inch, ^ inch, ^ inch, 1 inch, 1| inches, and l\ inches from the left side and top, respect- ively. The same number of lines and nearly the same lengths of lines are used in both Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, but, as said before, the student can readily see the variation of effect that may be obtained by the simple arrangement of a few lines. The exact sizes and dimensions of the several interior squares are not matters of importance to us now, and the student's drawing- of this figure will be judged by the care of his execution rather than by the accuracy of his eye measurement. The angles of the square must be 90, and not more nor less, and opposite sides must be perfectly parallel, while adjacent sides must be perpendicular to each other. The straightncss of the lines or their exact length as to this description will not be considered. For instance, a drawing- like Fig. 6 of the text would be considered as satisfactory at this stage of the work, for, though the lines are somewhat irregular, their directions are correct and they intersect at right angles; and though the inner rectangles arc larger than the corner ones, they are perfect squares and are all the same size one as another. They thus preserve harmony in the figure and avoid the appearance of irregu- larity and carelessness shown in Fig. 7, wherein the lines themselves arc more nearly perfect but their direction and parallelism extremely faulty. Draw Fig. 5 several 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 15 times on a separate piece of paper before executing it on the drawing sheet. These simple line exercises are of the utmost importance to the student, as on them will depend much of his future freehand work. He should practice each set repeatedly, on a sheet of ordinary brown Manila paper, until he feels confi- dence in his ability to produce, at will, perpendicular, hori- zontal, or oblique lines, and then, but not till then, should he attempt to draw them on the sheet that he willsend to the Schools for correction. Each of these exercises should be drawn as carefully and as accurately as though it were a part of a compli- cated design. Haste will only produce slovenliness and impede the progress of the student to the end he seeks to attain, namely, that of becoming a good draftsman. Neatness, accuracy, and rapidity are the three qualifica- tions of a good draftsman, in the order of their importance, and the last is of no value unless accompanied by the other two, while the second is impossible without the first. Fig. 7 is an equilateral triangle, the base of which is 2 inches long. The inclination of the sides is not so easy to judge by the eye as were the 45 lines in Figs. 3, 4, and 5, but if the student will bear in mind that the apex must be exactly over the center of the base, he will expe- rience little trouble. After the triangle is drawn, bisect the sides and draw the enclosed triangle as shown. The triangle is a very important figure to the designer of certain classes of goods, such as wall papers, carpets, etc. , as the facility with which it can be repeated, and still retain its original form, makes it extremely valuable as the guiding principle of several classes of patterns. Figs. 8, 0, and 10 are examples of borders taken from Greek pottery, and are composed entirely of straight lines, that when spotted, as explained in connection with Figs. 5 10 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 and 6, can be made very interesting and complicated. For instance, on looking at Fig. 8 of the text we observe that the pattern consists of two outline forms identical in every respect, and so shaped that one fits exactly into the other, that the lines a are all of the same length and at right angles to each other, and the lines b are all twice the length of lines a. For Figs. 8, 9, and 10, the student may draw with his T square three horizontal lines at x, y, and s, about 1 inch apart, and extending through the three right-hand divisions of the sheet. Fig. 8 is then executed by draw- ing a vertical line x z across the three lines thus ruled ; and at a distance to the right of this vertical, equal to the space between the horizontals, another vertical line u t is drawn between the two lower horizontals. A third vertical line U'V is then drawn the same distance to the right of the second one. and extending between the upper two lines. The horizonal lines xw and it v are then drawn, connecting the ends of x z and wv, and ivv and 11 /, as shown, and with t s equal to xw the outline of one of the sections of the fret is complete. The vertical line a', drawn to the right of w v, will then start a second section of the fret, and, at the same time, complete the inverted outline that is to follow the contour of the first section. A peculiarity of all the best Greek frets is that the outline of the fret and the outline of the background are identical, as shown in Fig. 8. Having drawn the meandering outline of the fret, draw the horizon- tal border lines above and below, so as to make the whole design about > inches wide, and erase the pencil lines ,r, y, and z- where they have not been inked in. Fig. !) is somewhat similar to Fig. 8, but is capable of more variations in spotting, as shown in Fig. 9 of the text. At (a) we have the ground and the pattern of the fret spotted in con- trasting colors, while the effect at (V) is produced simply by increasing the weight of the constructive lines. Both systems FREEHAND DRAWING. 1? produce frets wherein the ground and pattern are similar in outline. At (b] the line of separation between the dark and light portions of the design is thickened into a white band and the other elements are left in black. To design Fig. 9, a number of perpendicular lines are drawn across the center line y equal in length and spacing to the distance between the three horizontal guide lines x, y, and .y. The tops r and bot- toms q of each alternate pair of the verticals are then connected with a horizontal line equal to the verticals. This forms the mean- dering outline of the figure. Above and below this meander- ing outline, at a distance equal to half the space between the lines, two horizontal lines are drawn, from which perpendicu- lars extend into the open parts of the meander as far as the middle horizontal guide line y. The border lines above and below are then drawn to make the entire width about 2 inches. Fig. 10 is more complicated. It is a combination of Figs. 8 and 9, and, when analyzed, shows two entirely separate and distinct but identical outlines so inter- woven as to form one harmonious design. This design may be made very complicated by spotting, as shown in Fig. 10 of the text. - To design Fig. 1<> of the drawing plate, the simplest method is to draw across the central guide line a short vertical line equal in length to the verticals in Fig. 9; then, through the center of this vertical, draw a horizontal line of the same length, thus forming a simple cross, a b, c d, Fig. It (, 2 inches in length, and extending 1 inch each side of A B. Carefully lay off the length of c c, 1 inch each side of SOLIDS. 1 (). The figures on this plate consist of a series of objects, the drawing of which will involve all the principles learned in the execution of the previous plate. The first four figures are designs of surface ornament or details wherein the con- sideration of depth or thickness forms no part. The last 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 25 five figures are sketches in perspective of familiar objects drawn so as to accustom the student to the representation of objects where the dimension of thickness or depth must be expressed. In drawing this plate, lay out the border line as before and divide the plate lengthwise by a horizontal pen- cil line through the middle, and above this line divide the space as follows : Draw four vertical lines, 1^ inches, 4 inches, ?| inches, and llf inches to the right of the left border line. The first three of these will be the center lines of Figs. 1, 2, and 3, and the fourth will be the line of the wall a b, Fig. 1 is a baluster and its moldings, according to the architectural proportions set forth for such details. The student will first draw a vertical line xy, ^ inch to the right of the border, to serve as a measuring line. This line will be divided into 68 equal parts, as shown, each part being y 1 ^ inch, thus making the.height of the baluster 4^ inches. All the measurements for the proportioning of the baluster will be given in parts, each part being, as above stated, y 1 ^ inch. The width of the abacus a is 22 parts, the thickest part of the vase at b is 25 parts, and the diameter of the neck at c is 10 parts. The vertical measurements can be determined by counting the number of parts between each division, and when all the horizontal lines are located the contour may be carefully sketched in. The vertical measuring line may then be erased before the figure is inked in. Although these proportions are subject to slight relative alterations under different circumstances, they are practically uniform in nearly all cases where the oiitlines of a stone baluster are required. Fig. 2 is a panel of an iron railing the design of which con- sists of a series of scrolls and radiating ornament, based on the outline of the baluster just drawn, but changed to suit the circumstances required by working in strap iron, in con- trast to the requirements of stone. The student's attention is called particularly to the fact that there is propriety in the ironwork design in making its outline resemble the outline of the solid baluster, inasmuch as it is to serve a similar pur- pose in a balustrade of different material. The center line and enclosing rectangle of Fig. 2 may be FRKKIIAXI) DRAWING. drawn precisely the same as in Fig. 1, exeept that the rect- angle itself and the center line will be inked in solid, as it is intended to form a part of the ironwork. The center line is located 4 inches to the right of the border line, and the con- tour of the inside ironwork follows as closely as possible the contour of the stone baluster. In Fig. 3 we have a design for another device in ironwork, but one of an entirely different character. Fig. 3 is a car- touch made of sheet iron, the design of which is based on the ellipse. Cartoncli is the term applied to circular or shield- shaped devices, whose surface is represented in relief, and the border of which is usually more or less ornate with scrolls or strap work. In order that the student may understand the char- acter of Fig. 3, he should give his atten- tion to Fig. 17 of the text, which is a devel- oped outline of the piece of sheet iron or other metal from which the cartouch would be made. The wings a are rolled backwards and the wings b rolled forwards, and produce the effect expressed in Fig. 3 of the drawing plate. The stu- dent should lay out the figure first, as shown in the text, and cut it out of heavy paper or thin metal, and then by rolling the wings around his pencil in the direction indi- cated, he can form a model of the device, which, set up before him, will greatly assist him in the representation on his plate. The length of the ellipse from c to d is 3^ inches, while its breadth from c to/ is 24 inches. The interior ellipse is 2J- in. xHin., the circumference of which is practically parallel with the outside. After the wings have been rolled FIG. 17 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 27 over, .they project uniformly from the top and sides of the cartouch, so as to come within the outline of another ellipse shown dotted at g h. There is nothing difficult in the draw- ing of this figure, the ellipses being contoured in the same manner as on the previous plate, and the curled wings being represented by a simple combination of scrolls and straight lines. When the figure is completed, the student may erase all of the guide lines. Cartouches are not only executed in metal work, but are often carved in stone or wood, or modeled in plaster or terra cotta. They are also sometimes drawn, as on this plate, as an ornament at the top, or in the center, of some certificate, or other paper of a documentary character. Its purpose, in nearly all cases, whether carved in stone or wood, or drawn or printed on paper, is to bear a device either a number, a title, or a monogram. There are many forms of it, some being regular, as in this case, and others being irregular and eccentric, according to the purpose for which it is required. In Fig. 4 we have an iron bracket, such as is used in many foreign cities as a sign hanger. It consists of plain straight iron rods bent into scrolls, combining beauty of curve with utility of purpose. The main rod of the bracket c d is 5^ inches long and 2| inches below the upper border line. At e, 3^ inches from c, a hanger extends to the main wall at /, If inches above c, while from the same point c on the under side of the rod c d the main scroll springs and becomes tangent to the wall at g, 1 inch below c. The branch scroll is tangent to the wall at //, 2^ inches below c, and the other tangent points at i and/, inch and 2 inches to the right of c, respectively. The other curves of the scroll, and the small ornamental scrolls on the top and sides of the main bar and hanger, can be proportioned and drawn by the eye, altering and shifting them as the circumstances may dictate. The sign itself hangs below the bar within a rectangle 1^ inches square, the center of which is at , 4 inches to the right of the wall and H inches below the bar cd. The rect- angle containing the sign should be drawn in place and the sign itself then sketched within it. After the figure is inked, FREE II AND DRAWING. all of the guide lines should be erased. The student should take plenty of time and pains in draw- ing- this figure, as its style is not only useful for many devices and designs, but the same design will be used again in this course to illustrate an advanced branch of ornamental ironwork. Not only are hanging signs of this character used over doors and on posts to indicate a public inn or other announcement, but they are fre- quently used on designs for menus and other occasional cards as a device on which to place the date, or a title, or even the initial letter of a sentence. The next five figures on this plate will be sketches of objects in perspective, and, while it is not the intention in any part of this course to teach the theory of per- spective drawing, there are a few simple details concerning perspec- tive representation that are not only useful, but in some instances of design positively necessary. In the first place, the appearance of a circle in perspective is always elliptical, and when the student draws an ellipse, either mechan- ically or freehand, he represents thereby the perspective view of a circle. The student should prac- tice frequently the drawing of ellipses of different sizes, and par- ticularly of different widths on 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 29 the minor axis; for instance, he might start with a circle 3 inches in diameter and then draw an ellipse 3 in. x 2| in. and another 3 in. X 2 in. , thus decreasing the length of the minor axis and maintaining the same length of major axis until this diminishing circle reaches the limit in a straight line. Having done this, he should draw inside of his circle some polygon, as shown in Fig. 18 (a), either an octagon or a hexagon, or even a triangle, and then project horizontally across from the circle, through all the ellipses, lines mark- ing the corners of the polygon where they intersect the cir- cumference of the circle. Short straight lines, connecting successively these points in the circumferences of the ellip- ses, will give a perspective view of the polygon inscribed in the circle, as shown at (^), (c), etc. Fig. 5 of the drawing plate is a perspective view of a cylinder and a cone, the former standing on its base and the latter lying on its side. The top of the cylinder is an ellipse 2^ in.xf in., and the bottom is a semiellipse of the same size. The height of the cylinder is 2^ inches, and straight lines connecting the extreme outside points of the ellipse and the semiellipse complete the drawing of the cylinder and represent it as it would appear in perspective. To draw the perspective view of the cone, a straight line is drawn from a point 1 inch below the right-hand end, the longi- tudinal axis of the ellipse forming the top of the cylinder, to a point ^ inch below and | inch to the left of the right-hand end of the axis of the ellipse forming the bottom of the cylinder. On this line an ellipse 2^ inches long by f inch wide is then drawn, similar to the ellipse forming the top of the cylinder. From the center of this ellipse draw a line 2 inches long perpendicular to its major axis, and consider this line as the axis of the cone. From the right-hand end of this line draw two lines tangent to the curve of the last ellipse, as shown, these lines forming the sides of the cone. This will complete the view of the cylinder and cone in perspective, and the portion of the cylinder that extends behind the cone, which is shown dotted in the drawing, should then be erased. :50 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 Fig. (') represents an octagonal pyramid. The base of the pyramid shows an octagon in perspective, which is drawn within an ellipse 2{ inches high by f inch wide. Perpen- dicular to the major axis of this ellipse a line is drawn 2 inches long, which is the axis of the pyramid, and from the right-hand end of this line, straight lines are drawn con- necting the corners of the octagon with the apex of the pyra- mid, thus representing that figure in perspective. Fig. 7 is a perspective view of an ordinary tumbler, which, though slightly more complicated, and thereby demanding greater care in execution, is no more difficult to draw than either of the previous figures. The top of the tumbler is an ellipse 2f inches long by f inch wide, and the bottom is one- half of a regular :K)-sided polygon drawn within an ellipse 2 inches long by i inch wide. The distance between the major axes of the two ellipses is 3 inches, and the sides of the tumbler are drawn tangent to the extreme ends of the curves. Above the bottom of the tumbler 1^ inches, a third ellipse is drawn lightly, to indicate the point where the fluting starts. Within the two lower ellipses two semi- polygons are drawn in perspective, each with fifteen sides. These semipolygons should first be laid out in a semicircle above and below the major axes of the two lower ellipses, as shown in Fig. 10, and the points of intersection of their sides with the semicircle projected to the ellipses of the tumbler, in order to locate the points to draw the polygon in per- spective. It will be observed that this figure is simply a combination of the essential points of the two previous problems. Fig. 8 is a vase, the outline of which is precisely the same as Fig. 21 of the previous plate, except that this view repre- sents the vase in perspective, while the one on the previous plate was simply its outline in elevation. Where straight horizontal lines mark the details of the previous sketch, ellipses now show those parts in perspective. The ellipse forming the top of the vase is a very thin one, and the student should exercise care to insure the evenness of its curve. Draw all the parts lightly in pencil; make the curves FREEHAND DRAWING. 31 as perfect as possible, in order that the inking process may be carried out neatly and without any irregular breaks. The last figure on this plate (Fig. 9) is another vase with which is combined the border drawn in Fig. 8 of the pre- vious plate. The height of the vase from the center of the ellipse a forming its top to the center of the ellipse b form- ing its base, is 4 inches, and the longitudinal axes of these two ellipses are If inches and If inches, respectively. The length of the neck from the center of the ellipse a to the center of the ellipse c is 1 inch, and from a to the bottom of the bulb d is 3| inches. The diameter of the smallest part of the neck is \ inch, and the lines gradually curve out toward , where the diameter is | inch. The border around the thickest part of the vase (which is 2| inches in diameter) is | inch wide, and the line that forms the axis of the upper ellipse of this border, is 1| inches below a. It will be necessary to divide the band within which the border is drawn into 4 equal parts, horizontally, as the straight band was divided in Fig. 13 of the previous plate. Then above the vase a semicircle must be drawn and divided into 24 equal parts, as shown for the tumbler in Fig. 19. Ver- tical lines drawn from the semicircle across the border band will locate points for the vertical lines in the fret border, and the horizontal lines may then be drawn, connecting them as was done with Fig. 8 of the previous plate; but the horizontal lines in this case will each be part of an ellipse parallel to the top and bottom elliptical lines forming the band around the vase. The vertical lines of the border will curve slightly as they approach the sides of the vase until the extreme outside lines on the right and left, will be practically parallel to the outline of the vase at those points. FIG. 19. 32 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 11. A11 the figures on this plate should be practiced on other sheets of paper until the student is satisfied that he can draw each of them evenly and neatly on his drawing plate. The oftcner he practices the figures in this prelimi- nary work, the easier he will find the subsequent problems. A few extra hours of labor expended in this part of the course will save much time toward the end. When the plate is completed in pencil, the student will draw the border line with his ruling pen and T square, as shown, print in the title in letters j% inch high, and ink in all the figures freehand. The construction lines may then all be erased t leaving nothing but the full lines of the drawings. The name, date, and class letter and number can then be neatly printed in their customary places. DRAWING PLATE, TITLE: NATURATj LEAVES. 155. It is assumed that by this time the student is thor- oughly familiar with the use of his drawing instruments, both mechanical and freehand, and in the following plates he will not be called upon to ink in his drawings with the freehand pen except in special cases. He should keep prac- ticing the making of freehand sketches with the pen, how- ever, in order that he may not lose the dexterity he has already acquired. This plate consists of 12 figures, each representing some form of a natural leaf, and is intended not only to familiarize the student with the characteristics of each kind of leaf represented, but also to accustom him to the study of the botanical and geometrical details of all vegetable forms used in design. Nearly all leaves and flowers are governed in outline by some geometrical figure, and by varying this out- line slightly, various leaf forms are made different, while the leaves are at the same time governed by the same geo- metrical figure. Draw a horizontal line through the plate ~> inches belo\\- the upper border line, and divide the space vecn this line and the border line into six rectangles; 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 33 the ones containing Figs. 1, 2, and 3 will measure 2 inches in width each, and the ones containing Figs. 4 and 5 will measure 2 inches and 2- inches, respectively. Fig. 1 is the leaf of the nasturtium, the governing outline of which is a circle, and the student should first draw lightly a circle about 2% inches in diameter, the exact dimensions being of no great importance. It will be observed that there are seven sides or lobes to the leaf, the lower one of which is the largest, and the others unequal. These lobes are expressed by making slight notches in the circumference Fio. 30. of the circle and then rounding them off into the main curve. The stem joins the leaf not on the edge but at a point about one-third the way up, and from it radiate seven veins, each toward one of the notches in the circumference of the leaf. It will now be observed that two of these veins form an almost straight line across the lower portion of the leaf, above which three of the veins radiate at almost equal angles. These are geometrical characteristics of the nasturtium leaf, and if followed out will enable the student at all times to present a fair portrayal of this class of vegetation. When used for embroidery work and other classes of design wherein a softness of outline is more consistent with the character of the material, the leaf may be expressed more freely, as shown in Fig. 20. In drawing this and the subsequent ;J4 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 figures on this plate, it is not desired that the student shall actually copy the drawing plate. His work will not be judged according to his accuracy compared with the copy, but according to the clearness with which he represents the object portrayed. It would be better for him, if possible, to procure a nasturtium leaf from the plant and make a draw- ing of that, using the characteristics in this description as a guide in the procedure. As said in the early part of this Paper, "A drawing is the expression of an idea by means of a picture," and the student's work on these plant-forms will be judged by the clearness with which he expresses his idea rather than by the accuracy with which he copies the figure. The second figure on this plate is a leaf of the pond lily, also based on the principle of the circle, but with an even circumference that is deeply indented at the bottom. At the point of indentation a long stem joins the leaf, from which thin veins radiate toward the circumference. The length of the stem is a matter of little importance, as in nature it is governed by the depth of the water in which the lily is growing. The leaf in size may be the same or slightly larger than the nasturtium leaf, and the stem may be curled as shown on the drawing, or, if the student works from the actual lily leaf, instead of this copy, the stem may be drawn as he sees it in his original. The leaves shown in Figs. 3 and 4 are characteristic of a number of plants, and vary in size with each plant. Their governing outline is practically an ellipse, as shown by the dotted lines. The student will draw for them two ellipses about 3 inches in length by 2 inches in width, as shown by the dotted lines, and then draw one side of Fig. 3, corre- sponding closely to the circumference of the ellipse. The other side diverges from the ellipse as shown, the leaf being pointed at its upper end and slightly indented at the bottom. A long vein extends from the stem of the leaf, which joins it at the bottom indentation, almost to the point at the top, and the side veins branch to the right and left. After the drawing is completed, the construction lines may be erased. FREEHAND DRAWING. 35 The drawing of Fig. 4 is precisely the same as Fig. 3, except the edges of the leaf are serrated or notched, as shown, and there is no indentation at the bottom, the leaf ending in a point at that end also, but more abruptly than at the top. This is the style of leaf characteristic of the rose and of the elm tree, though on the former plant it forms one of a group of leaflets, and is seldom more than half this size. The spray of leaves in Fig. 5 is from the maple tree, and their governing outline is a pentagon, not a regular pentagon with equal sides, but one whose base is considerably longer than the other four sides. The indentations in the top lobe are more marked than those in the side lobe, and vary in different leaves. In fact, no two leaves are ever exactly alike, though the characteristics are always the same, and there should be no difficulty in portraying a maple leaf so that it is unmistakable for this class of vegetation. The lower lobes of the leaf are some- times rounded, and in the younger leaves the indentations are much less marked than in the mature ones. In drawing the spray shown in Fig. 5, draw the large leaf first, and fit the smaller ones in under it, as shown, not necessarily following this exact arrangement, but placed in such a manner that they will show the characteristics of the leaf. Maple leaves are easily obtained in nearly all communities, and the student should certainly draw this figure from nature, if possible. The maple leaf can be characteristically and conventionally designed within the sides of a regular pentagon, however, as shown in Fig. 21. Fig. 6 is a cluster of one class of horse-chestnut leaves, the governing outline of which is practically a hexagon. Each leaf is complete in itself, but as they always grow in a cluster at the end of a stem, with almost invariably the same num- ber in a bunch, it is proper that they should be so represented, FIG. 21. 36 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 especially in design, as this is one of the geometrical characteristics of their botany. The true horse-chestnut leaf has invariably seven leaves in a cluster, arranged in the same manner as this example, but there is another variety of the same tree that has either five or seven in a cluster. To draw Fig. (5, first construct a general outline of the group as explained in Fig. 1, and then draw in the individual leaflets. The general outline will be somewhat the shape of a hexagon, with the outside points of the leaves and extrem- ity of the stem in each of its angles. In drawing the leaves, observe that they are larger at their outer ends than toward the stem ; that the notches in their edges extend into the leaf toward the stem, and are not sharp, straight lines, but curved in the same direction as the veins of the leaf. The last point at the extreme end of the leaf is considerably longer than the others, and tends to give a spear-like termi- nation. The peculiar form of the leaves permits them to cluster nicely in a bunch, as shown, and enables them to be conventionalized and easily used in certain forms of geo- metrical designs. These six figures, constituting the upper half of the plate, will serve to familiarize the student as far as is necessary with the geometrical and botanical characteristics of these particular forms. He should make it a point, however, to study other forms, and broaden his knowledge as much as possible in the observation of nature. He should frequently draw the leaves of different plants, and if his drawing does not convey a satisfactory idea of the leaf itself, he should analyze his drawing carefully, and also the natural leaf, and learn wherein he has altered or omitted some detail that stamps the character of the original. These leaves have been drawn singly because they are usually seen singly on the trees, or on the ground under the trees, with the excep- tion of the horse-chestnut leaf; they are seldom associated in the mind as clusters. In the next six figures, however, a class of leaves is considered that are associated with the vine or plant on which they grow, and their characteristics must be considered, not singly, but together with the plant and 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 37 surrounding details. Figs. 1 to 6 represent, also, a develop- ment in botanical evolution, the theory being that the funda- mental leaf form was circular, as in Fig. 2. The notches in the outline of Fig. 1 are indicative of a lack of nourishment being conveyed to the margin of the leaf at certain points, thereby retarding its growth ; the serrations in the edges of Fig. 4 are caused by a similar lack of circulation of sap, until finally we come to Fig. 5, where the serrations are so developed as to make lobes on the edges of the leaf, and in Fig. 6 to cause the leaves to grow in clusters at the end of one stem, instead of a single leaf. The different forms of the edges of leaves so developed are due to the system of veining. A study in comparison of different forms of leaves will soon place the student in a position to judge and rec- ognize the proper veining of a great many leaves, according to the indentation of their edges. The nasturtium leaf is indented regularly at the end of each vein, and the veins are regular and straight. In the maple leaf the indentations are very irregular, because the veining of the leaf is irregu- lar and forms a network throughout the whole tissue. In the horse-chestnut leaf the general veining is regular in each individual cluster, thereby causing an even subdivision into a uniform set of individual leaflets, while the edges of each leaflet are serrated, owing to a slight irregularity in their individual veining. Fig. 7 is a spray of the vine and leaves of the convolvulus, which is of the class of vine to which the morning glory belongs, and the student will not attempt to draw the same until he has, on a separate piece of paper, frequently prac- ticed the drawing of the individual leaves of the plant. The number of leaves on the stem will depend on the object from which he draws. If he can secure a slip of the vine itself, he will draw it as he sees it, locating the leaves as he sees them, and not in any way attempting to copy his drawing plate, but referring to same for the expression of the stronger characteristics of the growth. If he cannot secure a slip of the plant, he will have to make his drawing from the plate. The leaves of this example are triangular, slightly 38 FREEHAND DRAWING. FIG. 22. indented at the bottom, and manifest a strong inclination to curl up slightly at the edges. They are a soft leaf, and rarely lie stiff and flat, like the maple. In drawing them, the student will observe the char- acter of the veining, the arrangement on each side of the main stem, noting that they branch alternately, and that no two of them start from the same point. The leaf that is turned over, showing its under side, indicates the method and manner of the stem join- ing the surface, and in making the drawing the student has but to bear in mind that the governing prin- ciple is an isosceles triangle, as shown in Fig. 22, and the arrangement on the stem is an alternation on oppo- site sides. Fig. 8 is a spray of ivy leaves, each of which may be drawn within a pentagon, as shown in Fig. 23, in the same manner as was described for the maple leaf. The edges of the ivy leaf are not serrated, and the sides of each lobe are distinctly curved. Each leaf has five lobes; the stems join them in a stiff, angular way at the lower indentation, and are heavy in proportion to the size of the leaf. The leaves do not show the wavy outline of the morning glory, for they are naturally stiff and somewhat clumsy. The stem from which the leaves branch is of a woody texture, and is much stiffer and harder than the stem of the morning glory; therefore, it does not grow in a wavy line, and care should be taken that, though the ivy is a vine and mani- fests as strong an inclination to climb as does the morning glory, t does so in a stiffer and more regular manner a charac- teristic that should always be expressed when it is used in FIG. 28. a FREEHAND DRAWING. 3<> design. The student will draw Fig. 8 as shown, or from the natural leaves, if such are obtainable. Fig. 9 shows the long stem of the lily. There are several classes of lilies that manifest different characteristics in some of their details. This view shows the principle on which the leaves branch from the stiff stem, their tend- ency being to grow upwards toward the flowers, which bloom at the top. Each individual leaf is a plain straight blade, sometimes with a strongly marked central vein, and at other times with a number of veins running through it. Its lower end wraps itself partly around the stem, and in some classes, such as the tiger lily, the flowers blossom at the juncture of the leaf and the stem, and after the flowers have blossomed, a round seed marks the place where they stood on the stem. Fig. 10 is a branch of the olive tree a very difficult speci- men to get from which to draw from nature, but an impor- tant leaf in design, as it has always been held as the emblem of peace. The leaf of the olive is long and narrow, very slightly widened at its upper end, somewhat after the gen- eral shape of the chestnut, but softer and not so conspicu- ously unequal. The fruit grows on branches under the leaves, with six or eight olives on each branch. In drawing this little spray, it is simply necessary to indicate the main branch about as shown on the plate, and draw the two leaves that terminate at its upper end. The next two leaves below these grow out of opposite sides of the main stem, from the same point in height. They are not directly over the ones below or under the ones above, but take a position half way around the stem from these, so that if the stem were so held that any two of its leaves pointed toward the north and south, the pair next above and below them would point toward the east and west. This is a char- acteristic that should always be borne in mind in represent- ing the plant. Fig. 11 is a branch of laurel introduced, here with the olive on account of its symbolism, the laurel wreath being an emblem of victory. The shape of the laurel leaf is not 40 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 widely different from the olive, but it is much larger, being 3 inches or more in length, while the olive is seldom more than H inehes or 2 inches. The leaves of the laurel grow all around the stem, branching alternately from opposite sides, and the edges, though not serrated like the rose leaf, are indented by a series of rounded notches at the end of each vein. The flowers ot the laurel blossom in the angle between the leaf and the stem. The last figure on this plate (Fig. 12) shows two kinds of the palm a plant emblematic of royalty. The palm leaf is used largely by the Egyptians in many of their designs, and from it were made several devices and utensils important in the ceremonies and customs of the complicated formalities of the ancient Egyptian society. In drawing the palm as shown on the plate, the student will observe that in one example of it the leaf radiates from the end of the stem, and he must bear in mind that though the edge is ragged and broken up into a number of string-like terminations, its nat- ural unbroken form is practically circular, and that the deli- cacy of the tissue composing the leaves causes them to be shredded on the edges when blown together in high winds or handled roughly when taken from the tree. This variety is known as the fan palm. The other form of palm, called the feather pal in, is similar in texture of leaf to the first, but its veins radiate from a line instead of from a point; this difference of radiation will recall to the student Figs. 18, 19, and 20 of his first freehand drawing plate. The student will complete this plate and draw the border line, but ink in none of the figures. It is desired that he should become accustomed to drawing rapidly and readily with the pencil and expressing himself with as few lines as possible. He must bear in mind that he is not to be a copy- ist, that no two leaves in nature are alike, and, therefore, it is unnecessary that he shoiild portray any of the leaves on this drawing plate exactly like the example we send him. However, he must remember that in each case he is solving a problem ; he is endeavoring to express by means of a pic- ture the idea of a certain form of leaf, and that failure to 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 41 express all the characteristics of that particular leaf makes the solution of this problem incorrect. The title may be put on the top of the plate, as shown, and the name, date, and class letter and number printed below the margin line as heretofore. DRAWING PLATE, TITLE : FLOWERS AND CON- VENTIONALIZED LEAVES. 13. On this drawing plate the student is given a few examples of familiar flowers, and the same remarks concern- ing the method of drawing them applies here as with the previous plate. Original flowers are to be preferred rather than printed copies, and whenever such are obtainable, the student should avail himself of the opportunity to draw them. In Fig. 1 is shown the morning glory, its bud, and the method of its branching from the vine. The flower itself is trumpet-shaped, the upper end being practically circular, which makes it elliptical when shown in perspective, as it is here. The sides of the tube forming the lower part of the flower are curved slightly, and gradually approach a straight line toward the stem. Observe that where they join, the little leaves around the bottom of the tube have pointed ends and form a cup called the calyx, in which the trumpet-like flower sets. Observe that the bud of the flower is twisted, producing a screw-like effect, as shown to the right of the open blossom. Before drawing this plate, divide the paper lengthwise through the center, 6f inches above the lower border line, and above this center line construct five rectangles 3^ inches in width and 5 inches high, with the center line as their common base. Proceed to draw Fig. 1 in the first rect- angle by constructing an ellipse about 3 inches above the center line of the plate and about 2^ inches in length on its major axis, and \ inch or a little more on its minor axis. Within this ellipse, describe the slightly scalloped edge of the upper portion of the blossom. Draw the lines 42 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 forming the trumpet-like tube of the lower portion of the blossom, and then draw the stem. The main stem of the vine runs from the lower right-hand to the upper left-hand corner, and by noting where it crosses the upper edge of the blossom, its position on the plate can be determined with sufficient accuracy. The leaves and bud may then be drawn in their relative positions. If the flower is drawn from nature, as heretofore sug- gested, the student need not follow closely these direc- tions, except so far as they apply to inserting each problem in its proper rectangle. Fig. 2 shows two flowers somewhat alike in their general formation but possessing characteristics that stamp them so forcibly that it is impossible to mistake one for the other; these are the phlox and the carnation. Both flowers possess five petals radiating from the center. The petals are larger at their outer ends and taper almost to a point where they come together. They enter the top of an almost straight tube that is held at the bottom by the little green calyx, where it joins them to the stem. This tube, however, is larger in the carnation than in the phlox, and the carnation itself is a larger flower than the phlox. The edges of the petals of the carnation are toothed very sharply and very plainly, while the edges of the phlox are round. The out- line of the ends of the flowers are practically governed by a pentagon, and in drawing them the student should be care- ful to emphasize the characteristics of each, the strongest distinctive characteristics being the round petal of the phlox and the toothed petal of the carnation. In making the final drawing of these flowers on the plate, the student will locate the first carnation of the bunch in the upper left-hand corner of the second square, as shown. He will then draw it so that its stem will pass out of the square near the lower right-hand corner, and then successively draw the other two blossoms in place, to the right and left of the first one. The outline governing the ends of these blossoms is practically elliptical, although the edges of the petals vary more in the carnation than they did in the morning glory. 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 43 In drawing the phlox, observe that the petals of the flower form a part of the tube that connects the flower with the stem, thus differing from the carnation, where the petals grow out of the tube. The outlining of the petals is practically the same, though on a smaller scale, and the governing outline of the top of the flower is an ellipse, as in the previous cases. Observe here that the blossoms of the phlox are all on one stem, while with the carnation each separate stem carries a flower. The exact arrangement of these flowers on the plate is not of importance as long as they are within the second square. In Fig. 3 is shown a couple of sprays of a little flower known as the harebell. The flowers themselves are cup- shaped and hang from fine thread-like stems that grow alter- nately on opposite sides of the main stem. It has no large leaf like most flowers, but a series of little spur-like projec- tions along the stem, as shown. The edges of the flower are indented by fine notches that curve in from the top, and the spaces between these indentations rise to little sharp points, giving the flower a very pretty and strongly charac- terized marking. The bud, as shown at the top of one of the sprays, is formed by the ends of the flowers closing over and folding themselves within, and does not twist around like the buds of .the morning glory. In drawing the figure, try to keep the flowers in a graceful position; also prevent any appearance of stiffness or forced regularity, and especially be careful to draw them with a light delicate touch, avoiding a crude hard line, as one of the strongest characteristics of the flower is its delicacy, and this would be destroyed by too harsh a rendering of the pencil. Fig. 4 shows the ordinary dogrose, the flower possessing five petals, which radiate from the center and are slightly curled up on their outer edges. Where they join, a series of fine hair-like filaments (botanically known as pistils) mark the center. The leaflets grow on opposite sides of a thin stem, usually three on each side and one on the end, and the edges of the leaves are sharply serrated, as explained on the previous plate. The thorn is characteristic of all kinds of roses, and should always be expressed as a characteristic of the plant. FREEHAND DRAWING. Fig. 5 is the common Held daisy a flower easily obtainable during the month of June, and a very interesting subject for various classes of design. It grows at the end of a long stem, at the lower part of which the ragged leaves branch and spread on the ground. The flower itself varies in size from 1 inch to 1\ inches in diameter, is practically circular in outline, and consists of a number of white petals that branch from a central disk or sun in the center, about one- fourth the diameter of the whole flower. The petals vary in number, and branch out thickly on all sides, forming a solid white disk. The side view of the daisy shown on this plate illustrates the tendency of the leaves to grow upwards slightly, and also shows the thickness of the sun or center piece below the petals of the flo\ver. In drawing the daisy, it is well to sketch in the outline as a circle, and to draw the sun as a circle, and then, one at a time, indicate the petals or rays that branch around the edge. The petals are rather wider at their outer end than in the middle, and taper almost to a point where they sprout from the flower; two deep notches in the end cause three teeth to be characteristic of their outer extremities. Now, besides drawing these five examples of wild flowers as shown on this plate, the student should take every oppor- tunity to study the flowers themselves, and after he has drawn the details of each flower as he sees it in blossom, it should be taken apart and analyzed. For example, we take the wild rose and pull it apart, and make an individual drawing of one of the petals, or of all of them, as shown in Fig. 24. Every detail of every part of the plant should be simi- larly drawn, in order that we may become familiar with the characteristics of the plant as separate from the plant itself. The leaves in their arrangement on the stem should be made (c 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 45 the subject of another drawing, and this drawing of the details of the flower preserved as a guide to be used when the flower itself is expressed in a conventionalized design. The practice of thus drawing the details of a flower, or other veg- etable form, is called plant analysis, and is the only way by which the strongest characteristics of every individual plant can be properly studied. In drawing the figures on the upper half of this plate always outline the grouping first, as explained heretofore. Then draw the individual outline governing the extremities of the flowers, etc., and finally fill in and develop the detail. The lower part of this plate contains four figures, and requires that the plate, below the center line, should be sub- divided as follows: The center line of Fig. 6 is 2f inches to the right of the border line, and its top is tangent to the horizontal center line of the plate. The center line of Fig. 8 is 8| inches to the right of the border line, and the rect- angle containing Fig. 8 is 3 inches wide by 6 inches high. Fig. 7 is then fitted in between this rectangle and Fig. 6. The wall on which the bracket in Fig. hangs is about \ inch to the right of Fig. 8. By locating these points on the plate the student will have no trouble in drawing his figures in the proper places. With Fig. of this plate we take up the first part of the subject of conventionalized forms. It is seldom that a plant or other form from nature can be used in a design with reason without reducing it to a plain practical form that is conventional or symbolic more than pictorial. Fig. 6 is a conventionalized form of the acanthus leaf, and as we draw it we will endeavor to get a better idea of the meaning of the word conventional. In the first place, the outline of this figure is based on the ellipse, and the student's first move will be to construct in the corner rectangle of his drawing plate a semiellipse 4.V inches high and 4 inches wide. Within this he will draw the main outline of the lobes of the leaf, as shown in Fig. 25, observing that these lobes are farther apart as he approaches the top of the leaf, or, in other words, are closer together at the wider portions of the FREEHAND DRAWING. leaf. There is a central lobe and three smaller ones on each side. The top lines of the side lobes are curved, but are nearly horizontal in position, and the side lines of the lobe are inclined slightly toward the center of the leaf. The middle vein is a straight line on the major axis of the ellipse, and the side veins curve from the points of the lobe to the bottom line, as shown, and approach the central vein as they reach the bottom ; in other words, if all the veins of the leaf were continued downwards, they would eventually meet in a point like the lines radiating from a point in Fig. 18 of Drawing Plate, title, Linear Elements. The acanthus leaf is now drawn by serrating the edges of these lobes, following the drawing plate as closely as possible. The inner angles of the lobe are then carried into the leaf in the form of loops, the vertical lines usually being the ones that govern the direction of the loop. The leaf lobes are then drawn as though lapping over one another slightly, and extra lines are drawn indicating the sides of the pipes or tubes that are naturally formed in the leaf where these loops exist. This can be more readily understood by referring to Fig. 39, where the surface of the conventionalized leaf is shown as it usually appears when carved in stone or wood or modeled in clay or plaster. It will be seen that the sides of the leaf on this plate are symmetrical, that the leaf is perfectly flat in the drawing, and no attempt is made to shade it. The exist- ence of the last line drawn from the loops down is indicative of the raised surface of the pipes on the leaf. This is the expression of an idea by means of a picture. It is not a picture of the acanthus leaf as it appears in nature, but a 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 47 picture of the characteristics of the leaf characteristics that are themselves emphasized beyond the mere drawing of the leaf itself, and it is the emphasis of these characteristics that distinguish in the -drawing of a leaf or flower the naturalistic and the conventional rendering. Flowers and leaves may be rendered naturalistically if they are painted on canvas or printed on paper, but if woven in cloth or carpet, or used as a part of a wall-paper design, or burned in leather, the details of the process by which they are thus reproduced will not permit of an accurate portrayal of them naturalis- tically. They are therefore conventionalized, and lines indi- cating their strongest characteristics are woven, printed, or carved to stamp the leaf for what it is. In drawing this figure, complete both sides. The example on the drawing plate was left unfinished on the right side in order to show the relation of the semiellipse. Fig. 7 is a side view of the conventionalized acanthus as it is sometimes used in connection with scrollwork on brackets. The S-like outline of the leaf is first drawn about 4 inches high; the lower curve is then drawn to measure %^ inches across, and the upper curve about f inch across. The lobes are then outlined exactly in the same manner as the previous case, and the indentations drawn within these outlines, as before. The veins running from the center of the lobes are then drawn, following the contour of the lobe itself, and finally becoming tangent to the main curve at the outside of the leaf. After the leaf has been drawn, the guide lines, which are shown dotted on the original drawing plate, may be erased by the student, and the drawing of the leaf itself completed. In Fig. 8 is shown a panel in which is drawn a conven- tionalized design based on the growth of the ivy, and which is, with slight alterations, a suitable design for carved wood or burnt-leather work, or even for embroidery. The details are not as conventionally rendered as would be necessary for certain woven work, such as damask linen, or silk, but the two sides of the design are precisely alike, and the details all geometrically arranged so as to reduce the whole to a 48 FREEHAND DRAWING. mathematical principle. In drawing the panel, make its dimensions :5 inches wide by inches high, and divide it into eight equal rectangles each 1 \ inches square, as shown in Fig. W. Within these rectangles then draw a number of pentagons, more or less irregular, according to the outlines __a of the various leaves, and gen- erally indicate the lines of the main stem of the vine where it crosses the dividing lines of the squares. Notice that the center of the main stem crosses the center line of the panel ab about one-fourth of a square above the bottom, and it curves so as to cross the horizontal line cd a little less than one- half a square each side of the center line. The two stems then cross each other on the center line one-third of a square above the horizontal line c d, and they cross the horizontal line e f about one-half a square to the right and left of the cen- ter line. These stems then cross the line gh about one-third of a square each side of the center line a b, and cross each other on the line a b one-fourth of a square below the horizontal line gJi. These measurements are not absolute and should be judged by the student entirely by the eye. A principle to be observed is that the arrangement of the panel is based on the same rules concerning foliated ornament that were given in connection with the Drawing Plate, title, Linear Elements, under Art. 9. The strongest growth should be at the bot- tom, the arrangement of the leaves and area covered by them should diminish toward the top, and though it is not the nature of the ivy that its leaves should grow tangentially 6 PIG. 2f>. 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 49 from the stem, the stems should be so arranged that they appear to grow gracefully and rationally, one out of the other, without abruptness or severity. The main stem, however, should be stiff, rigid, and geometrical, as explained in the instructions for drawing the ivy leaf on the previous plate, as this stem is stiff and woody in its natural growth. Within the pentagons that have been previously drawn to indicate the locations of the leaves, carefully outline the five lobes of the ivy leaf and connect them with a gracefully curved stem with the main lines of the growth. Enclose the whole design in a border line, as shown. In using such a design as this for practical work, the relative sizes of the stems and tendrils may be materially altered. Certain materials and methods of handling will permit a much more delicate treatment than is here shown, while other conditions will demand that all the lines be bolder and that some of the details at the top of the panel be suppressed entirely. For instance, if the design were to be embroidered, the colors to be used would determine largely the strength of the line of the stem, dark colors always looking heavier than light ones. The curve and arrangement of the fine tendrils at the top would also be altered, as the tracing of these lines would be governed by the possibilities of the handling of the thread employed. If the design were to be carved in wood, the tendrils at the top would probably be omitted entirely, and heavier forms replace the smaller leaves. The nature of woodwork would not permit so delicate a treatment at the top, and as the omission of the tendrils would leave a blank space that would look unfinished, the leaves themselves should be enlarged to satisfy the feeling that the proper area at the top had been covered. In the smaller' stems, throughout the body of the panel, the design would probably require strengthening, that it might be better expressed in wood, and their increase would require a general increase in the thickness of the main stem throughout, in order that the pro- portions of one to another might remain the same. After the student has carefully outlined these details he should 50 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 strengthen up the general lines of his drawing, clean off his guide lines, and then finish the figure in pencil. Fig. 9 is a bracket and hanging sign, similar in every respect concerning its general outline to the bracket and sign drawn by the student on Drawing Plate, title, Sur- faces and Solids. The student will draw the outline of this bracket and sign precisely as before, but where the lines of ironwork split and branch into separate scrolls, he will cover the joint with a drawing of a conventionalized leaf, the details of which he has just studied. The length, size, and proportions of the different parts of the leaf he must judge by his eye, observing tnat the outline of the leaf follows closely the outline of the ironwork that it covers, and observ- ing, also, as he draws it, that he is converting a plain strap- iron bracket into an ornamental device, requiring in its execution the greatest skill in the ironworkers' art. It is also well for him to know that in the execution of a design of this character for an ironwork bracket that might be used either as a sign hanger, or as a design for a chandelier or gas bracket, he has to exercise the same judgment in the formation of the leaf as was necessary when he made his drawing of the cartouch on his second freehand drawing plate. The leaf itself must be cut out of plain sheet iron by the ironworker, and hammered into the shape expressed by the designer on his drawing. It is well, then, for the student to study what the developed shape of this leaf would be if it were flattened out. He will probably then find by 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 51 experiment that the leaf can be improved in design by varying some of its dimensions. Referring to Fig. 27, we see a piece of iron scroll projecting from a hammered ornamental iron leaf, while in Fig. 28 a developed form of this leaf is shown in out- line before it is hammered into this shape. It is a simple matter, and a very instructive practice, for the student to experiment in drawing and making these devices of paper or thin metal, as was suggested previously in the drawing of the cartouch. Very thin brass or cop- per is an excellent material to prac- tice with. It may be readily cut to any desired shape with ordinary scissors, and bent and creased with the fingers to bring it up to the finished shape, and the student that can both draw and model his designs will be in better shape to execute satisfactory compositions than the one that is simply satisfied to express his ideas on paper. The student will finish drawing the bracket as shown on the draw- ing plate, and, after drawing the border and inserting in the title at the top, will letter his name, date, and class letter and number below the border line as heretofore. The fig- ures on this plate will remain in pencil. DRAWING PJLATE, TITLE: BRUSH WORK. 14. As expressed in the first part of this course, design in its most elementary state consists of an arrangement of lines, these lines forming the boundaries of several shapes or definite forms; they may be straight or broken, heavy or 52 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 fine, firm or delicate. This variation of the quality of each line, combined with the possibilities of variation in arrange- ment, renders it possible, as already explained, to give a great variety of expression to a design that consists of lines only. Certain classes of work depend entirely on this line arrangement for their value as artistic productions. In dress goods, a great variety of plaids, though influenced by the combination and comparison of their colors, are depend- ent more largely for their beauty on the arrangement, weight, firmness, and delicacy of the lines of color that con- stitute their design. In leaded and stained glasswork the necessity of uniting the multitude of pieces with strips of H -shaped lead, compels the design to assume in its composi- tion a number of irregular black lines that the skill of the designer arranges to form a part of his composition and therefore renders inconspicuous. The design of a window may consist of delicate figures and foliage, or it may be simply a heraldic or symbolic device, but the lines of the lead work must each be considered as a part of the compo- sition; otherwise they will interfere with the repose of the whole and render it inartistic and unsatisfactory. In order to produce lines expressive of beauty, the hands must be well trained to execute the ideas of the mind, and the mind well trained in matters of art and composition. It is for the former of these requirements that the student has been drilled on these simple exercises of freehand drawing, but the latter can be acquired by him only through a persistent study and analysis of the works of art through all ages. In the drawing of lines with a pen or pencil there are limits to the weight, strength, and firmness that can be expressed, but with the brush there are no such limitations, and by varying the size of the instrument, and the shade of the ink, or other medium used, there is no extreme that may not be reached in the matter of boldness, power, and nobility of expression in any design, whether it is composed of indi- vidual lines or of shaded surfaces. In drawing lines with a brush there are many kinds of instruments that will produce the required results, but the Japanese painting brush, shown 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 53 in Fig. 29, is undoubtedly the simplest, after the student has become accustomed to its management and the peculiar method of holding it.* The brush is not held as is an ordinary water-color paint brush, but is managed after the FIG. 29. Japanese method, and held as shown in Fig. 30, in order that there may be perfect freedom of movement to the hand and power to produce even results in all directions. To draw simple lines with the brush, the student should practice according to the following directions until he has a9quired such dexterity in its management that he feels confident of properly executing the problems on the plate. If the student finds he can do better with an ordi- nary brush, there is no objection to his using it. In the general practice with brush work the student should not use his ink in full strength ; in fact, it is a great deal better that his wash draw- ings should be executed with a very dilute ink producing a gray wash, instead of a heavy black silhouette- like effect. For this purpose, Staf- ford's "Not Waterproof" or Hig- ^""' Fl(J ^ gins' "General Drawing" ink may be diluted with four to eight times its bulk of water, and used to produce a tint about the same as that shown on the accompanying plates. A good way to do is to pour a * If the Japanese brush is not used, the student may practice with ordinary camel' s-hair brushes, such as are used in general water-color work. These are held in much the same manner as a pencil, but the hand is not as free as with the Japanese brush. We, therefore, advise the student just beginning to study brush work, to use the style of brush illustrated in Fig. 29. All new brushes should be soaked in water one hour before they are used the first time, and washed clean and wiped after using. After wiping the brush, it should be moistened in the mouth and its hairs drawn to a point between the lips. It may then be put away and allowed to dry. .H FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 small quantity of ink (2 or 3 drops being usually sufficient) in a small saucer and add thereto enough water to reduce it to the desired color. This may be determined, after stirring the brush in it thoroughly, by drawing a light wash of it over a piece of paper and allowing it to dry. If the tint is lighter than that on the drawing plate, or is very much darker, then more ink or water must be added to change its tint to the one required. A very little practice will enable the student to judge the amount of dilution necessary. Drawing ink thus diluted is usually called "color" a term used in brush work, generally, to indicate that there is a variation of tint rather than an even monotone. It may also be pointed out that where a drawing is to be executed in ink and afterwards washed in, in color, as in the wash tint above described, that the outline of the figure should be drawn in waterproof drawing ink, and the wash work done with dilute general ink. The reasons for this should be apparent. If the outline is drawn in general drawing ink, which is not waterproof, the wet color will cause it to spread and become ragged on the edges and con- taminate the tint and destroy the even effect of the outline. Whereas, if the outline is drawn in the waterproof ink, and then waterproof ink is diluted to use for the wash work, the ingredients added to the ink to make it waterproof are antagonistic to its dilution, and the wash of this ink is likely to settle in uneven spots and make an irregular and dirty- looking drawing. 1 5. Whenever a considerable surface is to be washed over with an even tint of color it is necessary that plenty of color be first taken in the brush, and the upper left-hand corner, or other convenient point of the subject, be lightly drawn in with the point of the brush, and the color then spread evenly and generously over the entire surface. The color can be carried to any extent by recharging the brush from time to time and adding it to the surface that is not yet dry, or to the bottom of the previously applied color, which should always be allowed to remain in a slight pool while the brush 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 55 is recharged. Should the color dry, or become nearly dry, it will be impossible to apply a new tint over it of greater extent, without showing a line where the first wash stopped. In applying color in this manner, the student should incline his board so that the color will flow downwards, and can be led in even advances by means of the brush; and each time the brush is recharged with color it should be stirred around in the saucer so as to evenly distribute the pigment, or col- oring matter, through the fluid. The student can readily learn the value of placing one tint over another by drawing in pencil a rectangle 8 inches square, and dividing it by means of vertical and horizontal lines into sixty-four equal squares of 1 inch each. If he will then tint evenly with a very pale shade of color the upper left-hand square of the main rectangle and allow it to dry thoroughly, and then with the same tint of color wash over the two upper left-hand squares within the rectangle, and allow these to dry, and so on repeatedly until he has covered the entire area of 8 in. X 8 in. , he will have in the tipper left- hand corner of the main rectangle sixty-four applications of one tint, and in the lower right-hand corner, one applica- tion. The gradual and almost imperceptible grading of one square into another, from the palest shade to the- darkest, will give him a valuable insight into the use of color for expressing light and shade. In trying this experiment, however, he must be sure that each successive wash dries thoroughly before the next one is applied. As this will take some time, it is well that he should not attempt to execute the whole sixty-four squares at one sitting, but paint a few at a time from day to day until the entire work is completed. 16. Pin a sheet of paper to the board as usual, and hold the brush between the thumb and middle finger, as shown in Fig. 30, steadying it with the forefinger. Dip the brush in the ink and hold it perpendicularly over the paper; draw a vertical straight line with a single movement or sweep of the arm, keeping the hand free from the paper and an even 56 FREEHAND DRAWING. pressure on the point of the brush; never permit the brush to become inclined in any direction, and do not allow any movement of the fingers to change the form or direction of the line, all of which should be controlled entirely by the movement of the arm. Do not draw the line as with a pen- cil, according to instructions given on your first drawing plate draw it slowly and continuously, and never allow the movement to become jerky. Confine the entire attention to the execution of a single line, and pay no heed to any waver- ing, or apparent irregularity, as these are of no importance whatever, and often add character to the work of a designer. The main object sought should be the maintenance of a uniform width of line, by the keeping of a uniform pressure on the brush throughout the entire length of the stroke, thereby avoiding such results as shown at (a] in Fig. 31, which are due to a gradual increase or decrease of pressure as the stroke progresses. At (b] is (c) (d) s ] lown a lme that j s O f imequal thickness, due to varying pressures throughout the stroke. A line such as .shown at (c) is not objectionable, although it is not perfectly straight; it is of uniform weight, and expresses a direct connection between two points, and is, therefore, satisfac- tory for brush-work design. A ruled line like (d), however, has no artistic value whatever, and .should never be used in any other than absolutely mechanical work. Draw these lines repeatedly on separate pieces of paper until you are proficient in making them vertical and horizontal, and par- allel to one another. Now repeat the first six figures execiited on Drawing Plate, title, Linear Elements, carrying them out accord- ing to the rules for brush drawing instead of the rules for pen drawing. Make the lines about i inch in breadth and FIG. 31. 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 57 about (j inches long, and execute them in one even stroke. After acquiring" proficiency in this work of rendering a single even line, the student may attempt the expression of a con- ventional form by a single stroke of the brush. In doing this, the student charges his brush thoroughly with color, laying the point lightly on the paper, and drawing the brush toward him with an even straight stroke, gradually increasing in pressure, until at the center of the stroke he is utilizing the full width of the brush; and then decreasing the pressure until the end terminates in the point, thus producing a leaf-like form such as is shown in Fig. 32. Repeat Fif , this practice, making the forms vertical, horizontal, and inclined; then attempt the drawing of the form shown in Fig. 33 (a). The only difference between this and the previous figure is that its end is round instead 4^ |^ of pointed, and the point of greatest breadth I / is nearer the upper end than the middle of | I the stroke. The regulation of this is by brush \ I pressure entirely, but in starting a stroke of 1 1 this kind it is necessary to draw with the \l point of the brush a short curve, such as n shown in Fig. 33 (), and while this curve FIO. 33. is still wet, the end of the brush is pressed down beneath it until the hairs spread suf- ficiently to include it in the general stroke that follows. This form may also be drawn in the same manner as that shown in Fig. 32, the stroke being- carried only half way and the lower edge being finished with a small curve. This will produce a form like Fig. 33, but upside down. Having drawn these two forms repeatedly until the student can produce them so uniformlv that several f , . . FIG. :w. or them side by side appear to be almost exactly alike, he may attempt to draw the same figures curved instead of straight, following the single and com- pound curves shown in Fig. 34. x ^v iff- 08 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 17. Having practiced this brush work sufficiently to become thoroughly familiar with it, the student may now attempt Fig. 1 of the drawing plate. This consists of the elements of a border, Greek in its origin, but formed entirely of single strokes of the brush ; in fact, a large proportion of certain classes of Greek and Roman mural design is gov- erned in its main characteristics by the limitations of form that cau be derived from single brush strokes. Each section of Fig. 1 consists of a single stroke drawn as above explained. Preliminary to drawing Fig. 1, the student should draw the border line of his plate in pencil, and then divide the plate by a horizontal pencil line a b } \ inch above center of plate. The upper half of the plate should then be divided so as to include five figures, as follows: At distances f inch and If inches from the left border line, and 1 inch and 2^ inches below the top, lines are drawn parallel to the border lines, within which the details of Fig. 1 are drawn, as shown. To the right of the left border line, 3|- inches, a perpendicular line is drawn to form the center line of Fig. 2. Between the center lines of Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 a space of 3f inches is left, and between the center line of Fig. 3 and that of Fig. 4 another space of 4^ inches is left. In the space between the center line of Fig. 4 and the border of the plate, Fig. 5 is drawn, so that its right extremity extends to within \ inch of the border line and its lower left extremity extends to a point hereafter to be described. The part of the plate below a b is again divided by a horizontal line c d, and vertical lines through this lower half of the plate are drawn, dividing it into ten equal rectangles, within which the figures are drawn, as hereafter described. The lines already drawn for Fig. 1 parallel to the border line, may now be divided by light pencil lines into six squares, the corner one being left blank, while in each of the other five is one of the devices characteristic of the border. In the center of each square draw a vertical brush stroke similar to Fig. 32 of the practice strokes just explained, but with its widest part near the top; and alternately on the right and left of this stroke, commencing at a point half way up 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 59 the square and almost touching its sides, draw a curved stroke similar to a of Fig. 34 of the practice strokes. Beneath these, and half way between the second strokes and the bot- tom of the square, draw a third brush stroke on each side the center similar to b of the practice strokes, thus comple- ting one section of the border. Repeat this operation in each of the squares, as shown on the plate, being careful to keep all the strokes of uniform thickness and color with those of the preceding section. To draw Fig. 2, the student has simply to combine a num- ber of brush forms similar to Figs. 33 and 34 of the practice strokes, except that they are considerably larger, the entire height of Fig. 2 being 3 inches. This figure is also of Greek origin, and is used in various positions of mural decoration and border work, as will be seen in the execution of the next drawing plate. The governing outline of the figure is ellip- tical, and the student may lightly sketch an ellipse that is 3| inches wide and 6 inches long as the governing outline of the strokes of this figure. The top and side of the ellipse should be \ inch below and \ inch to the right of the border lines just drawn. The outline of the ellipse above the line a b should then be divided on each side of its major axis into four parts similar to the division of the ellipse for the draw- ing of the conventionalized leaf on the previous plate. The points of division should locate the position of each brush stroke intended to compose this figure. The student, if he so desires, may draw lightly in pencil the outline of each one of these strokes, in order that he may be more accurately guided in laying the stroke with his brush; but the lines thus drawn should be so light that they will not show after the color is applied, but if they do show, do not try to erase them, as it cannot be done without reducing the tint of the color used in the brush work. Fig. 3 is a device commonly known as the flcur-dc-lis, which, though usually considered as typical of French design, is also found in Italian and German work, of the 15th and 16th centuries. The origin of the form is, as its name implies, the lily. The term flcur-dc-lis literally translated CO FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 means "flower of the lily." It is extremely conventional- ized, and resembles but slightly the type from which it is derived, having been reduced to its present form by the lim- itations imposed through brush-work rendering. To draw this figure, the student should lay off at an angle of 45 each side of its center line a distance equal to the height of Fig. 2. He should use this measurement as the side of a square, drawn lightly in pencil with his 45 triangle, as shown by the construction lines. Within this square he may draw lightly in outline the figure as shown, and then fill in the outlined form with strokes of the brush. It will be practi- cally impossible to make each of these strokes with a single stroke of the brush ; but, by charging his brush with plenty of color, and drawing first one side of the large stroke to completion, and then the other side, before the color last laid has a chance to dry, he can produce an even tint through- out the figure, as explained in the preliminary instructions on brush work. 18. After the figure is drawn, strengthen the lines with a liard pencil, and then clean the plate around the figure thoroughly with a soft rubber so that no cleaning up will be necessary after the brush work is done. Mix up a consider- able quantity of wash ink and water in a teacup or saucer and do not be afraid of keeping it pale. Try on a separate piece of paper until the proper tint is attained, and do not determine on the tint until it is thoroughly dry. Keep it lighter rather than darker than the original plate. Be sure that the brush is full of color and lay it on liberally, keeping the board tilted so that it will be inclined to run downwards, but not so much tilted that it will run by itself unless pushed with the brush. Keep a puddle of ink on the plate below the brush at all times so that there will be no chance of its dry- ing when you are dipping the brush in the vessel again, and push this puddle ahead of the brush until the entire surface is evenly covered. Cover each part as you go along, and never under any circumstances go back over it. If it appears wetter in one place than another, tilt the board so 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 61 that this extra moisture may be gradually drained down into the advancing brush fluid. A few trials in this way on a separate piece of paper will surprise you with the simplicity of this operation. It requires knack more than skill, and this knack will come to you sud- denly after repeated practice. Do not work too slowly, nor yet hurry. With this work there is plenty of time to do it carefully, yet one must not work so slowly as to let any por- tion dry until the entire figure is covered, as otherwise the tint will be uneven. When the puddle of color below the brush has reached the extreme end of the figure, the brush may be dried on a piece of blotting paper and then applied to the puddle to take up the superfluous ink, and dried again on the blotter as often as is necessary to tone down the last part. 19. With Fig. 4 we return once more to the conven- tionalized acanthus leaf; this time, however, though ren- dered on the same principle as Fig. 6 of the previous plate, it is varied somewhat to accommodate the brush-work limi- tations. Construct as before, in the drawing of Fig. G of the previous plate, an ellipse, and divide it through the center and sides in precisely the same manner as the ellipse was divided for drawing the first outlines of the acanthus leaf. On the center line of the ellipse, on the present drawing plate, draw the single brush stroke a &, and on each side of this stroke draw the additional brush strokes shown atcd, e f, gh, etc. These strokes have for their center lines the penciled lines drawn in the original subdivision of the ellipse, and the space between them is divided as shown by the sin- gle brush strokes each' complete in itself but not in any way lapping over its neighbor. In drawing this figure, let each stroke dry thoroughly before the one next to it is exe- cuted. This may readily be done by drawing every alternate stroke first, as shown on the left side of the figure, but on the student's plate the figure must be completed on both sides. A very slight lapping over of one stroke on the other will then produce a dark line, due to the double tint, which (tt FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 is not objectionable if not too prominent. On the other hand, the effect of one stroke not quite meeting its neighbor will produce a white line between the strokes, which is also unobjectionable if not excessive. The main object to be sought in putting in the minor strokes is to divide them up in groups with the main stroke, so that, in each case where the main stroke reaches to the oiitside border line, a minor stroke will be on each side of it to fill up the space between it and its neighbor, but not extending so near the outline. The principle expressed in this figure is the same as that of the form illustrated in Fig. 28, in connection with which was explained the necessary development of leaf forms when they are to be executed in wrought- metal work. The prin- ciple of this conventionalized acanthus foliage is identical in each case, and, though many variations in its outline may be practiced, the governing lines will determine the direc- tion and degree of radiation in the several lobes, whether the indentations on the edge of the leaf are based on a regular growth, as in this case, or on an irregular or serrated leaf, as in Fig. 6 of the previous plate. After the student has drawn and brushed in the work on this figure, he may erase the elliptical outline, but should bear in mind that both sides of the leaf are to be finished in the same manner as the right side on the drawing plate, the left side being here left skele- ton in form on the specimen plate in order that the strokes may be correctly delineated. Fig. 5 is a side view of the conventionalized acanthus leaf, rendered in brush work similar to the side view of the pre- vious plate. The student will draw this view, starting with the stroke from a to b, showing the full breadth of the stroke at the commencement and tapering it off until the last two- thirds of it is but a mere line. The next stroke, starting at c. is similar to the first one, though not so sharply curved, and dies away into the first about half way down. The third stroke d, however, is carried all the way to the bottom. The other strokes are laid in succession, one after the other, as indicated, each one being allowed to dry before the follow- If the student should so desire, he may outline 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 63 the general grouping of the strokes with his pencil. In size and general proportion, this leaf is similar to the conven- tionalized form previously drawn, though it does not neces- sarily follow that it is a side view of the same leaf, the object of this work being simply to familiarize the student with his brush and his medium, or color, in order that he may give proper expression to his ideas by the simplest methods. In the following nine figures on the plate, the student uses his brush to express natural forms, some of which he has become familiar with in his designs in pencil, though the essential difference between pencil drawing and brush draw- ing lies in the fact that one deals with lines and the other with surfaces. In Fig. 6 are shown three simple flower forms, two of which are the phlox and the third the carnation. These were drawn by the student in pencil on his fourth drawing plate, and the characteristic differences in their various parts were there explained. In drawing them now, the student has but to observe that each part of the flower consists of one stroke of the brush. He may, if he chooses, draw a light pencil ellipse to limit the outline that will enclose the ends of the petals of each flower, and point off approximately five equal divisions of the circumference toward which these petals will extend. When he starts his flower form with the brush, he will lay one petal at a time, each petal consisting of but a single stroke- in its general form, but it may be shaped or its edges serrated by extra touches before the orig- inal stroke dries. He will then draw the little cup at the bottom of the tubular portion of the flower, showing its characteristic points or prongs that extend upwards and grasp the tube, and then, when both the petals and the cup are dry, he will.draw the connecting tube from the center of the flower to the heart of the cup, and afterwards the stem of the flower. He must be careful to give expression to the edges of the leaves or petals of the two styles of flower, as explained in connection with their original drawing in Drawing Plate, title, Flowers and Conventionalized Leaves. Though it is not necessary that *he student should have 154 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 before him the natural flower from which to draw these forms, it is assumed that by this time he is familiar with the characteristics of at least a few of the principal plants, and can, without copying, give expression to their form on paper. Fig. 6, like all the following figures of this plate, with the exception of Fig. 10, is drawn approximately in the center of the square laid out in the original subdivision of the plate. Fig. 7 is drawn in the square immediately below Fig. 6, and consists of a loose bunch of cattails or flag weed so familiar along the edges of swamps and marshes. This form is much used in many classes of design. Though the stu- dent has not drawn anything like it before, its delineation is so simple that it requires little or no botanical explanation. The stem containing the cattail stroke is nearly straight. The leaves themselves sprout stiffly from the root and curve gracefully away from each side. The stiffness of the leaves causes them to be easily broken, and it is rarely a bunch of cattails is seen that some of its long slender lance-like leaves are not broken off sharply at an angle. This sharp broken leaf therefore becomes as characteristic of the cattail weed as though it were actually a detail of its growth. In Fig. 8 are shown two views of the common butterfly. There is no attempt made to show the gradation of the color or shading of the wings, the idea being simply to express the outline in brush form. At a the insect is shown with its wings spread as though flying, while at b it is shown as it would appear after alighting, with the wings folded up over the back. To draw this figure, the student should con- struct in the upper left-hand corner of his third square a trapezoid, the two parallel sides of which top and bottom shall be 2 and 1 \ inches long, respectively, and spaced If inches apart. The body of the insect may then be out- lined lightly in pencil, \vith its head f inch from the top line and its body | inch in length. The body may then be drawn with a brush and allowed to dry, and when thoroughly dry the student may draw the wings as shown, rounding them in tlie corners of the trapezoid and washing from one pair of wings across the body to the other, thereby producing a 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 65 double tint for the body of the insect, while but one tint is expressed in the wings. This is the first application of brush work wherein the student has been called on to express more than one tone or shade in his wash drawings. By mixing the ink rather pale and making repeated washes over a given spot, allowing each to dry before the following one is laid, a gradation of color can be made from a very faint tint, scarcely distinguishable from white, to absolute black. In some classes of work, finer effects are obtained by repeated washes than by laying the body tint in full strength of color in the beginning. At (b) in Fig. 8 the insect is shown at rest. The wings are folded straight over the back, the front wing and the back wing being brought more closely together than when flying; and, as the wings in this position show their under sides, it is the back wing that is seen lapping over the front wing, instead of vice versa as at (a}. The outline of the individual wings is precisely the same in either case, though there is a slight difference in the body, the legs here seen grasping the twig on which the insect is resting and the full outline of the side of the body more clearly shown. It might be well to suggest that Fig. 8 (b) may be drawn within a tri- angle constructed by drawing a line diagonally through the trapezoid required for the first figure. The base of the tri- angle will then become one of the sides of the trapezoid, and the distance necessary to close the wings in lighting is shown by the amount it projects over the lower line of the above constructed triangle. The body itself of the insect should then be drawn independently, as its outline is quite different from (a). In Fig. 9 at (a) is shown an insect composed entirely of single brush strokes, very familiar in Japanese design, that, though it does not bear any strong resemblance to any spe- cial living form, it combines so many characteristics of a number that for want of a better name it is termed "a con- ventionalized mosquito." The principle of its construction is based on the circle. The student may draw in the xipper left-hand corner of the proper square of the drawing plate a fiG FREEHAND DRAWING. 5COC Sss^ ^s^ ^a^ ^$& t t t t ^ ^ 'i 7 Fir,. circle 1 inches in diameter, and divide its circumference into three equal parts. From the center of the circle to the bottom division point, a single brush stroke is made, being broad at the top and terminating at a point at the bottom. This characterizes the body of the insect. From each of the upper divisions of the circle, a similar stroke is drawn toward the cen- ter, forming the two upper wings; and below these, two similar and parallel strokes are drawn, form- ing the lower wings. The head and legs are then indicated in the most con- ventional manner, simply by two dots for the protruding eyes and four fine filaments for the visible legs. The combination of this design in geometric ornament used for wall decoration is illustrated in Fig. 35. In Fig. 9 (b] is shown a familiar insect seen around swamps and marshes, usually termed the devil's darning needle, or sometimes called a dragon fly. The body of this insect is first drawn lightly in pencil so that it measures If inches in length, and about \ inch in thickness at its thickest part. The outlines of the wings may then be sketched so that they measure 2^ inches across. The wings are arranged so that the foremost edges of the front wings and the tip of the head of the insect are on the same line. The whole surface of the fly is then washed in with a very dilute solution of India ink ; and after this wash is dry, the solution of ink may be strengthened, and the darker portions of the wings and the body of the insect painted a second time. When this is dry, the lower right-hand portions of the articulations of the body may then bo shaded, as shown. This insect is introduced here to illustrate clearly the dif- ference between conventional and realistic rendering. At (tf) is shown a strictly conventional insect; at (b] is shown 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 67 an insect of the same class arranged naturalis'dcally, or as it is usually seen in nature. Fig. 10 is a rather elaborate combination of brush line and wash work familiar in various designs for crests, monograms, and heraldic devices. The governing outline of the figure is a simple shield, 2\ inches wide at the top and 2 inches high at the center. Within this, by single brush strokes, a conventionalized silhouette of a bird is expressed, and around the outside a wavy band to receive the inscription, when such is applied. The student may, if he so desires, outline portions of this suggestively with the pencil, though a careful study of the form will show so conclusively the direction and termina- tion of each stroke that outlining seems hardly necessary. The finer forms may be drawn with a pen, or, by careful handling, the entire figure can be executed with the brush. Fig. 11 is a heraldic silhouette of a lion. The form is purely conventional, but by careful handling can be arranged to be expressive of life and action. The student should first draw a line 3 inches high and extending ^ inch below the lower line of the enclosing rectangle. From the center of this, draw a horizontal line to the right If inches in length, and from the extremities of the vertical line draw lines to the point last located, thus forming an isosceles triangle standing on one corner, as indicated by the construction lines. One foot of the animal then rests in the lower corner of this triangle, while another foot rests about midway between this and the apex. Of the forefeet, the right one crosses the line midway between the apex and the base of the tri- angle, while the left one crosses one-quarter of the distance between the first and the apex above. The ear is in the uppermost corner of the triangle, and the entire face extends outside, so that the side of the triangle passes even with the edge of the lower jaw. The hollow of the back is 1 inches below the top of the ear and ^ inch to the right of the vertical line. By way of checking the measurements, it might be noted that the back of the lion is y\ inch from the vertical line, measured on the horizontal line marking the altitude of the triangle, and on this same horizontal line is f inch in 68 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 thickness. Having outlined the figure carefully in pencil, the student will wash it in with one even tint, allowing the same to dry, and then going over the darkened parts as shown to give expression to the details. If a second wash is not sufficient to accomplish this, he may give a third or even a fourth one; but, as soon as the detail is denned and the drawing expresses what is required, do not apply any further wash work, but consider the figure complete. Fig. 12 is another heraldic device based on a style of design usually termed grotesque. In this work the attri- butes or elements of several different classes of animals are often combined. This example illustrates a figure that might be properly called a dragon, and though there are many different kinds and conceptions of this mythical form, they all usually possess the body of some reptile, the feet and claws of a feline animal, the wings of a bird or occasionally of a bat, and the head of a carnivorous bird or beast. To draw Fig. 12, construct, 4 inches from the right border line, a square 2 inches each way, whose base is 1^ inches above the lower border line; f inch from the right and left sides of this square, and within it, draw two vertical lines, thus converting the square into three rectangles each f inch wide by 2 inches high. Now draw a horizontal line through all three rectangles and \\ inches below the top. These lines are shown on the drawing plate, and by comparison and eye measurement the student may outline in pencil the general proportions of the grotesque figure. The head is located on the right vertical line of those drawn within the square, and the neck curves to the left and just crosses the next line to the left of this. In crossing into the lower right-hand rectangle, the line of the back of the neck practically passes through the intersection of the vertical and horizontal lines, just below which point the out- side of the body comes within \ inch of the' right side of the square. The foot then extends outside of the square \ inch, and \ inch above the horizontal line. The upper portion of the wing is an evenly curved line, extending into the upper left rectangle as shown, but is ragged on its lower edge. 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 69 The tail extends outside of the square, turns over, and ends with a scroll termination 2 inches to the left of the square. After the figure has been outlined, the student may wash it in and shade the individual parts as in the previous figure, indicating a roughness on the under side of the wing in the same manner as he indicated the feathers in Fig. 10, and drawing scales by means of triangular brush marks on the lower part of the body. When the figure is complete and dry, the drawing medium should be thinned down some- what, and the brush strokes that form the background should be drawn in without too much color in the brush, and care taken that their curves follow and radiate from the general curvature of the body. When all is dry, carefully erase the guide lines. Figs. 13 and 14 are additional devices frequently seen in heraldry, and are drawn in precisely the same manner, so far as the brush work is concerned, as the two previous ones. Fig. 13 represents a dolphin, engraved upon a shield. This device is used in various forms as a part of a coat of arms of many foreign families, particularly the ancient royal families of France. The shield on which it is drawn is 2 inches wide at the top and 2|- inches deep to the bottom. The distance from the outline of the dolphin to the nearest point in the outline of the shield at the top and sides is inch, while the extreme height of the fish from top to bottom is 2 inches. The student may outline this figure carefully in pencil, and with a harder pencil strengthen up the lines after it has been drawn to his satisfaction ; and then, after cleaning up the drawing, he may wash in the background to form an evert tint as shown, with the dolphin device silhouetted against it in white. The size of the shield in Fig. 14- is the same as that in Fig. 13. The figure here is a combination of the lion's body with the eagle's head, claws, and wings, and is usually known as a griffin. Another device in heraldry known as the panther is almost precisely the same as the griffin, but without the wings. A vertical line through the center of the shield will pass through the left foot and the center ?0 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 of the top of the head of this figure, while a line through the upper right-hand corner of the shield drawn to the left at an angle of 45 will give the direction of the upper slant of the wing, and pass through the knee and above, and parallel to, the lower extended fore leg and claw. A similar line drawn through the upper left-hand corner toward the right, at an angle of 45, will mark the direction of the upper fore leg and claw, and also the direction of the slant of the upper portion of the left hind leg. These points located, the student should have no difficulty in outlining the general figure in pencil, after which he may erase the guide lines and carefully wash it in with his brush, making it in sil- houette on a white shield the reverse of the one above. The shield may be outlined with a pen, using ink in full strength. There are many variations of all these animals and imag- inary figures that combine the distinguishing characteristics of beasts, birds, and fishes; they all enter largely into the devices used in heraldry, though their more frequent mission in nineteenth-century design has been to suggest subjects for ornament in stone, plaster, and iron, and even to suggest devices for the ornamentation of burnt-leather work and ornamental advertising. Their original purpose in her- aldry they have outlived so far as origin of design is con- cerned, each particular heraldic device or coat of arms requiring a particular form of beast or imaginary figure that is unalterable without varying the characteristics of its own coat of arms. After finishing this plate as above described, the student will carefully erase the construction lines, draw in the border line in ink as before, carefully print the title at the top of the plate, and then insert his name, date, and class letter and number in their usual locations below. DRAWIXG PLATE, TITLE: APPLIED DESIGN. 2O. It is the purpose of this plate to give the student a few examples from actual designs, both classic and modern, wherein the principles taught on the previous plates are 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 71 distinctly applied ; and in studying this work it will be to his advantage, not only to study the application of the different points of design, as they are set forth in the instructions for this drawing, but to study similar applications in other designs, whether he finds them in printed books, in woven cloths or carpets, or on painted vases or chinaware. In Fig. 1, we have a border showing the application of a vine, and although on this plate it is executed as a silhouette design, its application for inlaid woodwork, for embroidery work, or the theme of its design for the border of any printed program or advertising work, is very apparent. This style of ornament is easily executed, and for certain classes of printed work is particularly desirable, because, owing to the absence of any fine lines, it is subject to extensive duplica- tion in the printing process without injury to the original plate. The design may also be executed with the white figure on a dark ground, and it is always left to the design- er's judgment which style of treatment would be the more satisfactory. All the figures on this plate are in black and white, and the student in blacking them in will use his brush well charged with the waterproof drawing ink, using it full strength, and without diluting or attempting to spread it thinly, as on the previous plate. To draw Fig. 1, the student will draw parallel with the left border line, and 1 inches from it, a vertical line from the top to the bottom of his plate ; parallel to the top and bot- tom border lines he will draw horizontal lines about 6 inches in length and 1^- inches from them. Omitting for the present the square formed in the corners by the intersection of these lines, the student will draw horizontal lines through the vertical panel formed on the left of his plate, so as to divide that panel into four equal parts, these lines being indicated by the dotted lines on the drawing plate. The winding of the stem of the morning- glory vine can then be readily traced, and if the subdivisions so marked are repeated horizontally on the top and bottom of the plate, the design may be repeated within their limits, and the curved line through the corner square will connect 72 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 the ends of the stems where, with the corner leaves drawn in as shown, the border repeats itself continuously. No directions are necessary here for the drawing- of the convolvulus or its leaf; the outline and characteristics of each of these the student is supposed to have learned in executing his third and fourth drawing plates. His atten- tion is only called to the fact that, in outlining these leaves and flowers, the lines are arranged somewhat stiffly, and, instead of curves, angular bends are expressed in the leaves, in order to make the design appear somewhat more conven- tional. Where a flower laps over on the leaf or crosses the stem, or where one stem crosses another, it is customary under these circumstances of conventionalism to indicate it by breaking the stem, leaf, or flower on each side of the continuous detail, leaving a fine white line across the stem or flower to indicate which laps over the other. The veins of the leaves and the suggestion of the heart of the flower are also here expressed in white. This white work, how- ever, is not left clear when the design is drawn, nor scratched out afterwards, but after the design has been blacked in solidly from end to end, an ordinary writing pen charged with white water-color paint (usually Chinese or zinc white) is used to mark the veining and the crossings and lapping over of the details. Chinese white may be obtained either in cake form, like ordinary water colors, or in a pasty form in bottles. In the former case, it is prepared for use by grinding in a saucer or on an ink slab in the same manner as stick ink, as described in Geometrical Drawing. In the latter case, it is simply diluted with enough water to bring it to the proper consistency for use; occasionally a drop of dilute ox gall is added to the solution to make the white paint flow easily. The term "repeat" in any form of design is used to express the quality of the design for continuity by extending itself with a given variety over a given surface, and then fitting on to a repetition of itself again so as to form a cor- rect geometrical continuation of the pattern. In carpet and wall paper the quality of repeating is generally termed 2 FREEHAND DRAWING. 73 matching, and is illustrated when the edges of two pieces are brought together so that the design continues unbroken from one of them to another, and the designer of this char- acter of goods is required to give this fact his constant consideration whenever he is laying out any pattern. In Fig. 2 is shown a panel, the design of which is based on the growth of the lily. The size of the panel is 2f inches wide by 7| inches high, and it is located so as to be sur- rounded by the morning-glory border previously drawn, as shown on the plate. In drawing this figure a center line should be drawn vertically through the panel, and on this center line the height of the panel should be divided into fifteen equal parts, through each of which a horizontal line, is drawn, as shown. The dividing of the space on each side of the center line into three equal parts through which other vertical lines are drawn will reduce the surface of the panel to a series of rectangles, by means of which each detail of the design may be accurately located. After the student has outlined all of his work on this panel carefully, he will find it an advantage to ink it in with waterproof drawing ink; then, when he is washing in his black background, he will find the brush less inclined to run over the ink lines and destroy the evenness of his contours than if he had nothing but pencil lines to guide him. After the entire background is washed in and dry, the veining and suggestive shading of the leaves and blossoms may be put in with a fine brush or pen. The stamens may be put in with Chinese white. By comparing this conventionalized design with the draw- ing of the lily on the third freehand plate, the student will observe a variation. In the first place, the leaves are rather broader than on the previous plate, as this class of lily has broader leaves; but their characteristic form is maintained the same, and the blossom, though seen in two different positions, expresses the characteristics of the lily develop- ment so clearly that, there is little or no danger of mistak- ing the design. This design is rather too conventional for embroidery work, but for wood inlay or damask weaving it is easily adaptable. ;4 FREEHAND DRAWING. 2 In Fig. 3 is shown a design that is applicable either to china decoration, embroidery, or linen damask work. The governing form of the design is a circle with its center 44- inches below the upper border line of the plate, and exactly midway between the two side border lines. The student may draw a circle 5 inches in diameter, and divide it into eight equal parts, to each of which he will draw from the center eight radial lines. Then, with a radius of 2f inches, he will strike from the same center a circle that will form the outside of his ornamental design, while a circle drawn from the same center, with a radius of 1^ inches, will limit the inside of the design. On each of the radial lines thus drawn the student will first draw the foliated brush forms a b, c . The [Lotus and Papyrus. The most conspicuous type in Egyptian art is the lotus (Fig. 12), a plant growing on the banks of the Nile, somewhat resembling our pond lily, but differing from it in coloring. The lotus leaves float on the surface of the water at the end of a long stem, in the same manner as do the pond-lily leaves, but the blossom 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 27 stands on a stiff stalk high out of the water, and is of a bril- liant purple color on the border petals, with a heart of deep orange. The lotus was a sacred flower, and as an offering to the gods was conspicuous in the highest forms of worship. It is easy to understand the importance of the lotus in Egyptian religious theories. The deified lotus stands repre- sentative of the homage rendered to the beneficent action of water and sun on the sleeping earth. It is the symbol of the annual evolution of the seasons, causing generation to suc- ceed generation, and the return of life, where everything had seemed barren in the immobility of death. The papyrus plant was also used largely in Egyptian art and associated with the Nile on whose banks it grew, but not to such an extent as the lotus. From the papyrus plant a FIG. 12. kind of paper was manufactured on which the Egyptians wrote many of their sacred legends, and it is from the name of this plant that the modern word "paper" is derived. 37. The Winged Disk. The sun itself was also the object of direct worship, the ceremony of which was varied by the priests in order to make it penetrate more deeply among the masses. The disk, as representative of the sun, is used in many Egyptian hieroglyphs, and received a certain 28 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. share of homage owing to its relation to agricultural devel- opment after the Nile had completed its inundation. A combination of the disk and feathered forms produced an ornament generally known as the winged disk, or the winged globe (Fig. 13). This consists of the solar disk, supported FIG. 13. on each side by an asp (the royal symbol of Upper and Lower Egypt), and the wide outstretching wings symbolize the untiring activity of the sun in its beneficence; hence, a divine protecting power. It is emblematic as a whole of the tri- umph of right over wrong, and an inscription at Edfou says that Thoth, the god of speech and wisdom, ordered that this emblem should be carved over every door in Egypt. It is everywhere apparent in Egyptian sacred painting, but varies slightly in detail according to the place where it is used. Wherever it appeared carved over the doorway of a temple, painted on the walls of a tomb, or woven into a fabric of the vestments of a priest or king, this emblem was a monument of the Egyptian's religious sincerity and appreciation of benefits derived from his god. 38. The Soarabseus. The scara- baeus, or beetle, Fig. 14, was identified with the rising sun, and typified creation and resurrection, or new birth. Its exact significance is somewhat com- plicated, as are in fact all Egyptian emblems; but, owing to the habits of the beetle, slowly developing from a grub through various stages to a full- grown insect, it is emblematic of progress and evolution. In the tombs and ruins of the Egyptian temples are found TIG. 14. 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 29 thousands of models of these beetles that seem to have been worn as amulets. 39. Consistency of Egyptian Ornament. Another type of Egyptian ornament is the palm, from which canopies w r ere made, and also the fans and shades that were held over the heads of royal personages during ceremonies, to protect them from the sun. These few types form the foundation of an immense variety of ornament with which the Egyptian decorated the temple of his gods, the palace of his kings, the covering of his person, and his articles of luxury, as well as those articles of more modest daily use, from the wooden spoon that fed him in infancy to the mournful boat that carried his embalmed body across the Nile to its final resting place in the Valley of the Dead. Following these types in a manner so nearly allied to the natural form, they observed the same laws that the works of nature ever displayed, and, no matter how conventionalized their ornament ever became, it was always true. The Egyptian artist never violated a natural principle, and, on the other hand, he never destroyed the consistency of his conventional representation by too close an imitation of the type. A lotus flower carved in stone, or forming the graceful termination of a column, or painted flat on the walls as an offering to the gods, was never a lotus portrait, and never impressed the beholder as one that might be plucked, but was always the architectural rep- resentation of it suited to the material in which it was cut, or the colors in which it was rendered. 40. Conventionalism. A good idea of the simple con- ventionality of their forms can be obtained from Fig. 15, where at (a) is shown the conventional representation of the lotus blossom, the outside leaves of which, in colored work, were usually painted a deep green. The first low of petals was also green, but of a lighter shade, while the innermost petals were red. The space between the petals was painted a deep yellow. At a distance from the eye, the red and yellow seemed to blend together and form a deep orange 30 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 hue with a suggestion of surrounding green,. characteristic of the general appearance of the lotus flower. The transition from (a) in Fig. 15 to the form shown at (/;) is by no means a difficult matter, the omission of the innermost row of petals being the only radical change. From (b] to (c) is a simple development wherein the calyx (d) of the conventionalized flower has become larger in propor- tion to the petals, and from (c) to (d) is but a step in orna- mentation, showing the gradual growth of design from the conventionalized rendering of the blossom itself to a device that is purely ornamental and derived from, though in no way representative of, the Egyptian lotus. The further development of this form in Assyrian and Greek art will show the importance of this line of study. 41. Classes of Egyptian Ornament. Egyptian orna- ment may be divided into three classes: that which is con- structive, or forms a part of the monument itself; that which is representative, but is at the same time conventionally rendered; and that which is simply decorative. In each class, the ornament is always symbolic, and the few types mentioned, upon which it is founded, we find are but slightly changed during the entire period of Egyptian civilization. 4xJ. The student of historic ornament should familiarize himself with the difference between the terms style, class, and type. The term style is used to indicate the period or nationality of the ornament, as the Early Egyptian style; the term class is applied when we wish to indicate a subdivision of some style, as the constructive class of the Egyptian HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 31 style. The term type is used to refer to the natural form from which the ornament is derived, as the lotus type of Egyptian ornament. 43. Constructive Ornament. Of the constructive ornament are the columns and their terminations,, and the crowning members of the walls. The column base was fre- FIG. 16. quently molded to represent the root, and the shaft was reeded in representation of trie stalk, while the capital was carved similar to the form of a bud or full-blown lotus flower, as shown in Fig. 10, where at (a) is seen the bud 32 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 capital, and at (b) the capital derived from the full-blown flower. All this was symbolic, as the lotus meant much to the Egyptian. In Fig. 17 are shown two square columns standing in the ruins of the temple of Karnak, the one to the left being dec- orated with a lotus flower carved in high relief, while the one to the right is similarly decorated with the papyrus FIG. 17. characteristic of plant. The plain, severe treatment, so Egyptian art, is forcibly illustrated here. Another form of column flares out at the top, and has for its original type the papyrus or palm tree, as shown in Fig. 18. This style was usually placed in the center of the halls of assembly, with the lotus-bud columns on each side, as shown in Fig. 10. All columns were richly colored and sometimes decorated with hieroglyphs. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 33 Feathers were held by the Egyptians as emblematic of sovereignty, and the cornices of their temples were usually decorated with ornaments derived from a combination of feathered forms. 44. Representative Ornament. The second class of Egyptian ornament results from the conventional repre- sentation of commonplace things upon the walls of their temples and tombs. In this kind of ornament each repre- sentation is not only a detail of the wall decoration but is a hieroglyphic record of a fact. Sometimes it was carved in the surface of the walls, and sometimes merely painted ; and occa- sionally, it was both carved and painted. It was always most conventional, and certain details, such as the lotus and papyrus, were represented in the strictest geometrical arrangement, usually sh'ow- ingthe bud, blossom, and fruit in regular order, typifying the development of the entire plant. In Fig. 10 observe the straight, stiff stem and trumpet-shaped blossom, the sharp-pointed petals of the calyx, and the geometrical arrangement of the entire plant, with all its distinguishing characteristics emphasized to produce conventionalism. Egyptian carved ornament of this character is nearly always in low relief, and is sometimes merely incised or outlined in the sur- face of the wall, as shown in Fig. 20. On work executed in a later period, the background is sometimes cut away, FIG. 18. Fio. 19. 34 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. leaving the carved ornament and figures in full relief, as in Fig. 21. This figure represents a statue of the queen, Cleopatra, upon whose head is supported, between the two horns of the sacred cow, the disk, emblematic of the sun. The head-dress consists of a representation of the buzzard, a sacred bird, whose head protrudes from the fore part of the head-dress, and whose wings reach down on each side, as though pro- FiG. 20. FIG. 21. tecting the .wearer. The panel or cartouch in the upper left-hand corner contains the hieroglyphic characters spelling the name Cleopatra. From this figure, a characteristic example of Egyptian ornament of this period, we can obtain a good idea of the contemporary head-dress, of the habit and method of wearing beads and necklaces, and, to a general extent, the cast of features and countenance of this race of people. It must be remembered, however, that these carv- ings are not always portraits, but symbolisms drawn to represent the characteristics of the person portrayed. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 35 45. Decorative Ornament. The third kind of Egyp- tian ornament, that which is purely decorative, is found mostly in paintings on the walls of tombs, on mummy cases and sarcophagi, on dresses and utensils. 46. The Egyptians believed in the immortality of the soul, and also that the soul would return after death and reoccupy the body ; hence, they took every means to preserve the body in order that it should be in a fit condition for the reception of the soul at the time of its resurrection. Death was not regarded by the Egyptian as a great calamity, as he looked on his earthly life as a mere temporary existence during which he made elaborate preparations for the preservation of his body after death. This accounts for the massiveness and per- manency of the tombs, some of which were the life work of those that expected to occupy them. Tfre body was embalmed with great care ; a. scarabseus was fastened to the breast; and the mummy wrapped in cloths or bandages bearing hieroglyphic inscrip- tions. Jn some cases, particularly with the wealthier classes, the mummy thus wrapped was placed in a wooden box, carved inside to fit the form, and generally shaped to conform to the lines of the body on the outside, as shown in Fig. 22. The box was then carefully sealed and the outside painted, or often gilded, and covered with elaborate and complicated hieroglyphs describing the life and deeds of importance connected with the earthly existence of the body within. The mummy case was then deposited in the tomb, frequently in a standing posture, and the walls and columns, and other architectural details of the particular chamber Fin. 22. 3(j HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 where the mummy was placed, were painted with rich ornament and inscriptions. The sarcophagus, or stone box, in which the mummy was sometimes placed, was richly orna- mented both with painting and carving of the same general character as on the walls, and it is from examples of this kind that the following illustrations are taken. In Fig. 23 is a painted wall ornament from the temple of Seti I, and it represents the sacred bark, the ceremonies connected with which were an exceedingly complicated but important branch of the religious devotions of the priests. This device frequently appears in the sculpture and paintings FIG. 23. of the tombs, and usually represents the funeral of one of the gods. Everything is arranged in a most orderly man- ner, as will be observed, and every detail is placed to convey a certain significance. It would be impossible here to go into all the explanations connected with Egyptian hiero- glyphic ornament, and the illustration in Fig. 23 is given to show how completely the walls were covered with an illus- trated idea. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 37 47. The Fret. Fig. 24 is a fret design, sometimes called a labyrinth, and is stated by some to have been sug- gested by the plan of a building known as the labyrinth that was erected in ancient Egypt about 4000 B. C. This was supposed to have been a very complicated structure of many hundred rooms, out of which it was practically impossible for one to find his way without the assistance of a guide. The rosette alternating with the labyrinth pattern was prob- ably derived from the full-blown lotus flower. This orna- ment is found on many mummy cases, and is even used for surface decoration, for it can be repeated in any direction simply by continu- ing the lines, as shown at #, to form a new pattern above and below similar to this one. 48. It may be said here that the rosette form shown in Fig. 24 is but one of many observed in Egyptian orna- ment. In Fig. 25 (a) is shown a simple circle with an inner circle, and the space between them is divided by straight lines into eight equal parts. The transition from this form to the form shown at (b) consists merely of a notching of the edge of the FIG. 25. 38 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. outer circle where the lines intersect the circumference; (c) is the same as (b), except that the dividing lines are made in pairs, thus making each segment independent and by itself. From (c) to (d) the segments are made narrower, until they are very nearly the size of the spaces between them, and at (c) we reach the extreme limit where what might be considered the petals of the floral device are sepa- rated from the center and from one another entirely, and become independent elements of the design. Observe that the central circle has been becoming smaller in the evolu- tion of the device from (a) to (e), and the design has worked itself from a purely geometrical form at (a) to a purely floral form at (f) and back again to a purely geometrical form at (c), entirely different from (a). This principle should be borne in mind, as it is of much importance in the tracing of the Egyptian style in European art. 49. In Fig. 26 is shown a border wherein the scroll is made use of simply as an ornament, in distinction from its character, as emblematic of the waves of the Nile. The lotus also appears at the springing of each scroll line, but, in this case, purely in a decorative sense, and in no way FIG. 26. suggestive of a hieroglyphic record. Below is a stiff conven- tional row of lotus buds and blossoms, so arranged as to form a conventional border and a part of the design above, purely for decorative purposes. In the hieroglyphs, the symbol for the word wafer consisted of a simple jagged line HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 39 suggestive of waves, as shown in Fig. 27 (a). This symbol, when used under certain conditions, was indicative of the Nile also, and in some (a) of the hieroglyphic ornament it is elaborated into what is called the wave border as shown at (b). 5O. In Fig. 28 are shown two borders where the lotus is conventionalized, very much on the lines of Fig. 15. It is (a) used here purely for decorative purposes, and in Fig. 28 (#), where the side leaves of the flower intersect, a bud is 40 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. drawn in order to fill up the intervening space, while at (b] the flower is placed in a horizontal position and shows another application of the lotus to a border that requires little or no explanation, simply being" the conventional rendering of the lotus blossom applied in repetition on the border of a wall surface, and completing the simple geo- metrical forms above and below. 51. Fig. 29 shows an application of the scroll without the lotus, while below is a simple serrated band, the type of FIG. 20. which is suggestive of the hieroglyphic representation of the Nile, though its derivation from this origin is by no means certain. These few borders show the immense variety of detail that the inventive Egyp- tian secured from a few simple types. When he carried his design further, to make com- plete surface decorations, he did not complicate his designs by adding to them any new forms. 52. Fig. 30 shows a wall decoration from a tomb at Thebes. Here the scroll, simi- lar to that used in Figs. 26 FIG. 30. i . and 29, is applied as a repeat- ing ornament in four directions, and, in the space enclosed between the lines of the scroll, conventional representations of the lotus petal are drawn, thereby simply suggesting the 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 41 existence of an idea of lotus origin. It is not a representa- tion of the flower, nor is it intended to be; it is simply a wall decoration, the lines of which, though abstract, owe their origin to the Egyptian ever-present association of the Nile and the lotus with every- day details of importance. 53. In Fig. 31 we have a border, also taken from a tomb at Thebes, wherein the lotus is used in a most conventional manner, but, at the same time, not greatly removed from its original type. The border above and below is a simple rendering of bands varied sufficiently from one another to destroy the . .,, FIG. 31. appearance of stripes in either direction, and at the same time so arranged as to blend with the whole general effect and not attract the eye to any cer- tain point. 54. ration, The Scroll. The use of the scroll as a wall deco- repeating only in two directions, is shown in Fig. 32. Compare this figure with Fig. 30 and observe that the materials used to create the patterns are identical in both designs. We have the scroll and the lotus, and the lines of the scroll run from one end of the pattern to the other, and between the lines the space is filled with a design from the lotus. Not- withstanding this fact, could any two designs be more FIG. vt. unlike ? The fact that the 4-> HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 scroll lines in Fig. 32 extend and repeat only upwards and downwards, would tend to give the pattern the appearance of running in stripes vertically ; this is, to a certain extent, offset by reversing the directions of the scrolls, giving each a letter S pattern, thereby preventing any vertical lines from appearing one over the other. As an additional element to destroy this feeling of stripe, the coloring of the lotus flower has been so arranged that the darkest portions will all blend and give the appearance of stripes in a horizontal direction, although really no stripes exist there. Observe that in each reversed lotus flower, the horizontal line that cuts it off at the bottom of the petals is about on a level with the lines of intersection between the individual petals of the next flower, and this, continued, gives a dark stripe alternating with a lighter stripe, running in a horizontal direction throughout the pattern. This in effect destroys the vertical element. The same result is obtained in Fig. 30 by the changing of the direction of the figures. Each individual element of the design is placed at right angles to the one above and below, or to the one to the left and right of it; a feel- ing of continuity is thereby avoided. 55. Another combination of lines based on the lotus is shown in Fig. 33, wherein the wall surface is divided by a number of circles, from the center of each of which spring four ornamental forms whose outline is based on the three outer leaves of the lotus. Another pattern based on a combination of the circle and the square is shown in Fig. 34. The wall surface is cov- ered with tangent circles, exactly as in the previous case, but from the centers of these circles spring four leaves in HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 43 vertical and horizontal directions, thereby suggesting rectan- gular forms connecting the centers of the circles. Other foliated forms, in the quadrants of the circles embraced by each pair of these leaves, outline the three petals of a lotus FIG. 34. as before, in each quarter of the circle, while the spaces out- side of the circumference of the circles are ornamented with a figure smaller than, but almost identical with, the one springing from the centers. A careful analysis of Figs. 33 and 34 will again show that the elements, types, materials, and forms of both figures are as near identical as it is possible for any two patterns to be, and yet no two designs could be more unlike in appearance. 5(>. Referring now to Fig. 35, we have a wall deco- ration composed of the wave lines associated with the Nile, running in different direc- tions. Trace any one of these lines out and you will see that it simply runs across the pattern in a di; direction from top to bottom, or from bottom to top. line that intersects with it runs practically at right FIG. 35. igonal The 44 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. to it and intersects at every wave. The small irregular figures thus enclosed in the wave line are colored distinctly in alternate stripes, and a contrasting figure identical with the figure drawn outside the circumferences in Fig. 34 is then stamped in them. 57. Fig. 36 might be at first considered a double render- ing of Fig. 35, but, strictly speaking, such is not the case. The heavy black lines of Fig. 36 in general direction run vertically and horizontally, and the spaces enclosed by each pair of verticals are painted alternate colors, the effect of which is not to give that of stripes, but of a general blend- ing of wall surface. Observe that the- colored or shaded portions of the pattern are broad, alternating with a con- necting link of narrow color, while opposite this connecting link, on each side, are the broad portions of the contrasting color. A study of Fig. 36 in comparison with Fig. 30 will show that the effort to prevent continuity or the effect of a stripe is the same in each case, and the principle by which this appearance is prevented is identical in each case, though the patterns themselves are utterly unlike in principle, type, and manner of execution. 58. In Fig. 37, taken from a tomb at Thebes, we have a combination of the scroll and the lotus as the running ele- ments of the design, and the scarabseus and lotus rosette as surface elements or inlays. In this design, five sets of scroll lines spring from each center, the two tipper ones branching out to form the top of an enclosing panel and to form the continuity from one scroll to another, while of the three lower ones, one connects in a horizontal direction the twu lower scrolls, and the other two serve to form a bottom of a panel and preserve the line of continuity to the scroll below. FIG. 36. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 45 Simple as this arrangement is, it illustrates the ingenuity of the designer. From every springing point, the three characteristic petals of the lotus flower are exhibited, while from the bottom of each pair of scrolls the spreading petals of the full-blown blossom are used to fill the space. In each alternate panel, both vertically and horizontally, the scara- baeus appears in its character- istic hieroglyphic form, and in each alternate panel between is a rosette based on the lotus blossom. FIG. 37. 59. It will be unnecessary to describe all the character- istics of the design in Fig. 38 ; the student will simply observe that the scroll here consists of but four springing lines, and these are apparently made to serve the same purpose as five in the previous case. The panels enclosed between the lines of the scroll are of a different character, and, though filled with devices similar to the ones in Fig. 37, the general appearance of the design is totally different. We have one element in this design, however, that differs from any of the previous ones dis- cussed, and makes a portion of it belong to the second class of Egyptian ornament, heretofore described ; that r IG. So. is, the hieroglyphic represen- tation of a fact, the little devices in alternate spaces being hieroglyphic writings descriptive of some of the acts and doings connected with the life of the person to whom the 40 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 tomb was erected. All this ornament was richly colored, and the effect of it on the walls was due as much to its system of coloring as to the design itself. 60. It is impossible here to express in each case, without means of color, the characteristic appearance of each design, but the main point is to exhibit the ingenuity and invention of the Egyptian artist in his portrayal of a multitude of different designs, all based on exactly the same idea, and using less than half a dozen different forms. In spite of their simplicity, a careful study of each one of the designs here illustrated will always bring forth a new point so subtle that, though when once discovered it appears most promi- nent, it has for a long time previous remained undiscovered. 61. Egyptian Coloring. In general effect, Egyptian ornament was brilliant and many-colored. The reason for this must be borne in mind: the interiors of the Egyptian's temples and tombs were pervaded by a deep sepulchral gloom fittingly symbolizing the mysterious character of his religious belief, and, in order that the decorations on the walls should stand out amidst this gloom, it was necessary that the brightest of colors should be used, or the decoration would fade into insignificance. While the Egyptian ornament may be said to be thoroughly polychromatic, there are many cases where it depended as much for its expression on carving as on painting. How- ever, Egyptian ornament may be considered, in a multitude of cases, as being painted ornament. In their rendering, the Egyptians used no shades or shadows, and laid their colors in flat tints only; yet they found no difficulty in conveying to the mind the identity of each object they desired to repre- sent, without a suggestion of shade or shadow. 62. The palette of the Egyptian artist contained seven depressions for seven colors, arranged in the following order : white, yellow, green, blue, red, dark brown, and black. There were two kinds of yellow a bright yellow and yellow ocher. There were three kinds of blue an azure blue, a 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 47 greenish blue, and a dark blue. The reds were made of burnt ocher, and the general tone of Egyptian ornament seems to have inclined more to yellow than to any other color. Green was used less than red, yellow, and blue. The Egyptian oriental blues are more greenish in hue than a strictly normal blue, and their reds partook of an orange tinge. They appreciated the fact that colors were affected much in their appearance when in juxtaposition to one another, and they made use of this detail to emphasize or detract from the strength of some particular hue. ASSYRIAN ORNAMENT. 63. Development. Although the early architecture of Western Asia is of little importance so far as its direct influence on the styles of later periods is concerned, it must be given a certain amount of consideration in order that the development and growth of certain subsequent forms may be properly understood under the different conditions. 64. The ornament of Assyria was probably borrowed from Egypt, as there are many points of resemblance in the two styles. The sculpture of the Assyrians seems to have been a development of that of the Egyptians, but descended from it rather than advanced in scale of perfection. Egyp- tian sculpture degenerated toward the end of the fourth century B. C. , as it expressed an unnatural swelling of the limbs that was at first but lightly indicated and gradually became almost exaggerated the conventional having been abandoned for an imperfect attempt at the natural. In Assyrian sculpture, the attempt was carried still further, and, while the general arrangement of a subject and the pose of a single figure was still conventional, an attempt was made to express the muscles of the limbs and the rotundity of the flesh to an extent that destroyed all conventionalism. In all art, this is a symptom of decline. Nature should be idealized, not copied. 43 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 65. Assyrian ornament is not based altogether on the same types as the Egyptian, but is represented in the same way. In both styles, the ornaments appear in relief, as well as painted, in the nature of hieroglyphic diagrams. With the exception of the pineapple, and the adaptation of the Egyptian lotus, Assyrian ornament does not seem to be based on any natural type, and the natural laws of radiation and FIG. 39. tangential curvature that we find in Egyptian ornament are, in the Assyrian, observed more as a traditional or borrowed idea rather than an instinct of the people themselves. Fig. 39 shows an example of Assyrian sculpture supposed to illustrate a scene where the king on horseback is hunting, attended by his servants and arrow bearer. The pose of the figure and the character of the work is strongly suggestive of Egyptian origin, but the attempt to express in stone the muscular roundness of the limbs and other parts is indicative of a decline in art. 66. The Assyrian religion differed widely from that of the Egyptians, and, though their combinations of forms HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 49 resembled, somewhat, certain of the Egyptian deities, the style in which they sculptured them was below the standard of art and practice in Egypt. Fig. 40 is an example of this work representing the winged deity Asshur, in which may be seen the excessive effort to FIG. 40. represent the rotundity of muscular developments. The attempt to represent the muscular characteristics of this figure is exceedingly inartistic, and, though the attempt to present an appearance of power and strength is well carried out, it is done with much less delicacy and refinement than we would expect if the work were an example of Egyptian art. Asshur was the supreme deity in the Assyrian group of gods, and in the conception of his form there is much that is suggestive of Egyptian origin. The hawk head and wings 50 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. are surely borrowed from Egypt, and the pose of the body and limbs is strongly suggestive of Egyptian ideas. The position of the hands seems to be repeated in nearly every example of Assyrian ornament where the figure represents a deity, and is similar to certain Egyptian productions of the kind, except that the limbs are clumsy and the molding possesses much less refinement. 67. In Fig. 41 is shown the Assyrian rendering of the Egyptian lotus, and, in fact, this border, which comes from FIG. 41. FIG. 42. Persepolisin Assyria, might easily be considered an attempt to copy the example of Egyptian ornament shown in Fig. 28 (a). Fig. 42 shows another example of lotus ornament from the same city in Assyria, wherein the detail is almost identi- cal with Fig. 41, but the lotus bud between the two blos- soms is replaced by a device repre- senting the pineapple a fruit that was sacred in Assyrian art. The close resemblance of these forms to those seen in Egypt is almost indisputable evidence that they were derived from the latter country, and the rosette form shown in Fig. 43, while it appears fre- quently in borders of Assyrian orna- ment, must undoubtedly have been developed or adapted from the Egyptian device shown in Fig. 25 (d). A still Fir,. 13. FIG. 44. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 51 cruder adaptation of the Egyptian lotus to carved ornament in Assyrian work is seen in Fig. 44, wherein the surface of the petals is simply indented in a harsh, crude manner, and the outline is carved into seven pointed terminations of the leaves. The use of this ornament in borders, in combination with another crude ornament, is shown in Fig. 45, wherein the outline of the lotus-derived figure shows a little more refinement, as its lines are more grace- fully curved, but where the connecting lines between it FIG. 45. and the interposed device are arcs of a circle, making the entire composition crude and inartistic. The circu- lar forms with the three-leaved blossom on top may be representative of pomegranates, the designs of which were used largely in Assyrian decoration. However, it is of little importance in itself what types were used in this art. The lotus and rosette were undoubtedly borrowed from Egypt; the latter, both as shown in Fig. 43 and modified in Fig. 45, are easily traceable to designs seen on the banks of the Nile. 68. These few ornaments will suffice to trace the art of Egypt into Asia Minor and show in subsequent styles how their altered introduction into European coun- tries was able to harmonize with the style already existing. 52 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. CLASSIC ORNAMENT. GREEK ORNAMENT. 69. Greece and Egypt Compared. Before entering on the study of the characteristics of Greek ornament, let us for a moment compare the conditions and surroundings of Greece with those of Egypt. Although modern Egypt covers a considerable extent of country, ancient Egypt included only the section that bordered on the Nile. In fact, as we have already suggested, it may be considered simply as the country that was watered by the annual inundations of the Nile. The climate here was mild, there being but two seasons spring and summer and there was very little variety in the daily life of the inhabitants, except what may have been experienced in the celebration of some national or religious festival. 70. Greece, on the contrary, presents entirely different conditions. It is on the sea, and throughout its long broken shores, the tide ebbs and flows and penetrates far inland through the long clefts in its coast. Greece has many moun- tains, too, and this affected her climate inasmuch as they served as watersheds, carrying the rains down and fertilizing the valleys. The country, however, is far enough south to receive a tropical sun, and, although its climate ranges from severe -cold in winter to a fierce heat in summer, the majority of the time its temperature is warm and comfortable. 71. Character of the Greeks. The people of Greece were brave, active, and athletic ; their Olympian games were world renowned. Their bodily culture was extremely fine, but did not compare with their intellect, which was more developed than that of any other nation. The Greek lan- guage is rare and complete in structure, and Greek literature is unsurpassed. The Greek religion was polytheistic, but the Greeks did not devote as much attention to the worship 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 53 of their gods as did the Egyptians. True, they erected vast temples and costly monuments to Athena, Apollo, Zeus, Erectheus, and other deities, and these temples, exquisite in form, proportion, simplicity, and perfect harmony, are examples of the finest architecture that the world has ever seen. Notwithstanding this mark of reverence to their gods, the Greeks did not embody into every branch of their art some detail or reminder of their religious duties and inclina- tions as did the artists of Egypt. The form of the Greek's worship was, in some respects, almost as complicated as that of the Egyptian, but his intellect seemed to be more advanced and he was bound less by a superstitious interest in the future condition of his soul, and his fancies naturally sought ideas that in themselves were beautiful to think of and to look at, rather than suggestive of gloom and forebo- dings concerning an uncertain future existence. The development of Greek art then takes place along an entirely different line from that of Egypt, and though it goes as directly and intelligently to a point of climax, the result- ing forms are totally different in their character, meaning, and influence on subsequent styles. 72. We have seen how the Egyptian artists derived their ideas for ornamental design directly from nature, that their types were few, and that they remained unchanged throughout the entire course of Egyptian civilization, except in the degree of perfection of execution; and, in this detail, the greatest perfection existed in the most antique examples. We have studied that the Assyrian was a borrowed style and possessed no characteristics of an inspired art, but appeared to have been suggested by the art of Egypt, and that the suggestions borrowed from the Egyptian style were during its decline, and the Assyrian artist, instead of advan- cing on the style, carried that decline still further. With Greek art, however, we find a vast difference. It was undoubtedly borrowed from both Egypt and Assyria, but was developed in an entirely new direction, and, imre- stricted by any complicated religious laws, as both Egyptian 54 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 and Assyrian art seem to have been, the Greek adoption rose rapidly to a high degree of perfection. Though the influence of Egyptian and Assyrian art can be traced in many details of Greek designs, those influences are entirely subordinated to the Greek feeling applied in their introduc- tion. Neither the art of Egypt or Assyria can be considered to play an important part in the styles of subsequent gener- ations, but the art of Greece pervades all subsequent history. 73. It must be considered, in the study of the Greek styles, that the remarkable development was due to their introduction into Greece at a critical period of the art devel- opment of that country. Greek art carried the perfection of pure form to a point that has never since been reached, and the abundant remains of Greek ornament compel us to believe that refined taste was universal, and that the country was overflowing with skilled hands and minds so trained as to enable them to execute these beautiful ornaments with unerring precision and truth. The beauty of Greek ornament, however, lies almost exclusively in its symmetry and form. It is lacking in one of the greatest charms that should always accompany orna- ment, viz. , symbolism ; and, despite the pleasure we experi- ence in its beautiful gradations of form and color, Greek ornament is meaningless, purely decorative, never repre- sentative, and in few cases it is, in the stricter sense, hardly even constructive. 74. Architecture. In the architecture, the various members of a Greek monument presented exquisitely designed surfaces to receive ornament, which at first was simply painted and in later times carved and painted, but the ornament formed no such essential part of the construc- tion as did that of the Egyptians. It could often be removed and the structure remain unchanged. On the Corinthian capital (Fig. 50), the ornament is applied to the surface and is hardly constructed as a part of the capital itself. Remove the scrolls and foliated 56 HISTORIC ORNAMENT, 3 ornament and there still remains sufficient substance and material for the pier to carry out its purpose. On the Egyp- tian capital, however, Fig. 16, the whole capital is an orna- ment, and to remove any portion of it would be to destroy both the ornament and structural purpose of the column itself. 75. Sculpture. In addition to the skill of the Greek artist as a designer, his unerring truth in the use of his chisel renders the work of the earlier periods remarkably interesting to us, but the monumental sculpture of the Greeks frequently went beyond the bounds of ornament. For instance, in the frieze of the Parthenon, Fig. 46, though composed of a series of groups of draped figures, the orna- ment was so far above the eye that it became a mere diagram an ornamental band around the top of the building, the beauties of which are simply astonishing when observed more closely. Every detail of each of the panels was as minutely wrought as though it were to receive the closest inspection. The folds of the garments and the molding of the limbs, even on the side away from the eye, that could never be seen unless the panel was removed from the monu- ment itself, are as carefully modeled as those most prom- inently in sight. Conscientious as this treatment may appear to be, sys- tematic and honest as is the execution of a design that was dedicated to one of their gods, we are bound to consider this an abuse of means as a work of art design, and that the Greeks were, in this respect, inferior to the Egyptians, whose system of broad conventionalized ornament for mon- umental sculpture served its purpose to better effect. 76. Representative Types. The examples of Greek representative ornament are few. In the earlier wall paint- ing, there is a wavy ornament a fret, somewhat similar to the Egyptian, used to distinguish water from land and a few conventional renderings of trees, but nothing of impor- tance was done in this line in the later history of Greek art. In the decorative ornament of the Greek vases, however, there is abundant material to assure us that we have examples 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 57 of every type of Greek ornament in all its phases. The types are few, but, in their conventional rendering, are so far removed that it is difficult to recognize any attempt at imitation. An examination of the wall paintings and vases leads to the belief that the forms of the leaves of the Greek flowers A ^ are due more to the limitations of brush work than to any direct imita- F i tion of the natural flower. I I The six forms shown in Fig. 47 FIG 47 constitute about all the leaf strokes that are found throughout Greek ornament, but these six forms were applied to a variety of purposes, the extent of which is almost past belief. 77. The Three Great Laws of Nature. That the Greek artists carefully observed the principle on which cer- tain plants grew, and carried that principle out conscien- tiously in the execution of their designs, cannot be doubted. They were close observers of nature, and although they did not copy or attempt to imitate or make true portraits of any natural forms, they never violated a natural principle. The three great laws of nature radiation from the parent stem, the proportionate distribution of areas, and the tangential curvature of the lines are always obeyed; and it is the unerring perfection with which they are carried out in the most humble works, as well as those of the greatest impor- tance, that fills us with astonishment at the conscientious scruples of the Greek artist. Before we analyze examples of Greek ornament, we must first consider the architecture. The Greek, like the Egyp- tian, spanned his architectural opening with a lintel, and though the width of the opening was, like that of the Egyp- tian, governed by the length of the lintel that could be con- veniently quarried, the Greek's knowledge of statics and his highly intellectual mind rendered him more inclined to develop artistic proportions, between the support and the material supported, than is found in any Egyptian work. 58 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 78. Orders of Design. As before stated, the capitals of the Egyptian columns were of but three styles the lotus bud, the lotus blossom, and the palm. These were varied more or less in different locali- ties, but all being the devel- opment of a single principle, can hardly be called different orders of design from one another. In the Greek, how- ever, we have three distinct orders, or systems, of design, the distinguishing character- istic of each being the capital of the column ; these orders are the Doric, whose column is topped with a capital con- sisting of a simple slab over a thumb-shaped molding, as shown in Figs. 46 and 48; the Ionic, whose capital consists of a pair of scrolls, or volutes, supported upon a thumb mold- ing similar to a dimin- ished form of the Doric, as shown in Fig. 49 ; and the Corinthian order, Fig. 50, whose capital has been before referred to. In the last named, the top of the column is swelled out into a bell shape, not unlike the palm column of Egypt, but is decorated with leaves and vines and scrolls, and other forms based on types from the vegetable world. The volute, or scroll, of the Ionic capital some authorities endeavor to trace back to the lotus blossom; / HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 50 other authorities claim that its origin is in Assyria or Persia, certain forms of column there being treated with the scroll. However, it matters little whence came the idea, inasmuch FIG. 50. as it is so elaborated as to bear scarcely any resemblance to its original type. The bottom, or foot, of each of these columns differs somewhat from the Egyptian type also. 79. Bases. It will be remembered that the Egyptian column was usually roimded off so that it was smaller at the bottom, and painted or carved, representative of the root of a growing plant. The Doric column sits flat on the ground 60 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 or plinth without any molded base whatsoever, and its sides are cut in channels, or grooves, each pair of which meet in an edge, or arris, that extends all the way to the capital. These may have been derived from the reedings of the Egyptian columns, imitative of the reeds of the growing plant. In fact, it has been practically conceded by nearly all authorities that the Doric column is a development of a certain form of Egyptian column; but, as said before, though the Greeks borrowed ideas from the Egyptians, they carried them to a higher state of perfection, and in nothing is this more evident than in the columnar elements of their architecture. The bases of the Ionic and Corinthian columns are regu- larly molded, and though it is difficult to trace any direct origin to the system of moldings that appear so uniformly on these bases, it is simply necessary to bear in mind the fact that, in the three orders of Greece, two of the columns possess bases, and one of them the Doric is without that detail. The mathematical proportions of these orders we will consider later, when we can compare them with their Roman modifications. 80. Classic Moldings. In Greek architecture all of the moldings are profiled on the curve of some conic section. Before analyzing the outlines of these Greek moldings and the methods of contouring them, let us first give our atten- tion to the conic sections from which they seem to have been derived. 81. In Fig. 51 are shown two similar cones a be and adc, which are in contact with each other at their vertexes a, and whose bases b c and de are circular and at right angles to the axes af and af. If either of the cones be intersected or cut by a plane, which is parallel to one of its elements or sides, as be, the line of intersection will be a. parabola, as at ghi\ but, if, instead of being parallel to the side be, the cutting plane makes an angle with it, the curve formed by the intersection will be either an ellipse or a hyperbola, HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 61 according to the angle. It will be an ellipse when the cut- ting plane is more nearly parallel with the base of the cone than it was in the case of the parabola, and passes through both sides asat/; and the line of intersection will be a hyperbola when the cutting plane is more nearly perpen- dicular to the base than it was in the case of the parabola, as shown at / m n and op q. 82. In the case of the hyperbola, the plane will always cut both cones, thereby giving two branches to the curve, and these branches will be farther apart as the cutting plane recedes from the axes of the cones. The nearer the plane approaches the axes of the cones, the straighter will become the sides of the inter- secting curve, and as the plane recedes from the axes, the rounder and nearer circular will be the intersection, though no matter how closely the curve of intersection may approach the arc of a circle, it can never become absolutely circular in form. The hyperbola becomes two intersecting straight lines when the plane passes through the vertex; these two lines are most divergent when the plane is parallel with the axes of the cones, and gradually become closer together as the plane approaches a position parallel with the side of the cone, where the hyperbola reaches its limit in a straight line. This straight line is the common limit of both hyperbola and parabola, as any deviation from it will produce one or the other of these curves, according to the direction of that deviation. 83. As the plane of the ellipse becomes more nearly parallel to the base of the cone, the ellipse approaches the FIG. 51. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. form of a circle, which it finally becomes, when the axis of the cone and the cutting plane are perpendicular to each other, as at r st, and as the plane of the ellipse approaches the vertex of the cone the ellipse diminishes in size until it reaches its limit in a point. From a point to a circle, then, is the limit of curvature of the ellipse. 84. In Geometrical Drawing, methods are given in examples '23 and 25 for drawing an ellipse and a parabola of any desired proportions, and it is only necessary to add here the method of contouring the hyperbola. To draw a hyperbola of a given width and height, the axis a /', Fig. 52, is laid down perpendicular to the width c d, in the same manner as for the parabola, and the rectangle cdfe is constructed with cd equal to the base of the hyperbola, and the height ce equal to the axis a b. Divide one half the base and also each side into any number of equal parts, and con- nect the points of division on the sides with the vertex a by means of the lines a 1, a 2, a 3, etc. The points of division on the base are connected by lines to some point x on the line of the axis a b extended ; the points of intersection of these two series of lines will determine points on the hyperbolic curve, taking the lines in the order as they recede from point c; x can be at any distance above a, and the curved lines ac and ad will approach more nearly the curves of the parabola as the point x becomes more remote. On the other hand, the nearer the point x is to the vertex , the more a c and a d will approximate to a straight line, and when points x and a coincide, the line ac will be a straight line. 12345 FIG. 52. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 85. To draw a tangent to any point of the hyperbola, first draw a line from the desired point g perpendicular to the axis a b, and on the extended axis ax, describe the semi- circle akx, with a radius la equal to \ ax\ then, with a radius equal to \ Ih, describe the semicircle / k It intersecting akx at k\ draw ki per- pendicular to a x, and __f I 1 A ' connect ig\ then igm will be the tangent required. 80. There are, gener- ally speaking, eight mold- ings used to separate different members and surfacesfrom one another, and these eight are shown in Fig. 53. The fillet A is simply a square-edged band used to separate individual members of a group of moldings. The cyma recta B is more commonly known as a crown molding, as it is used in the uppermost portions of a composition ; at C is the cyma revcrsa, the contour of which is the direct opposite of /?; at D is the cavetto, or hol- low molding ; at R is the echinus, or egg - shaped molding , at F is the bead, a small molding similar in use to the fillet, but with a round, instead of rectangular, section. At G is the scotia, the contour of which is practically the reverse of the echinus; and at // is the torus molding, used almost exclusively around the bases of the columns, as shown in Figs. 4!> and 50, Fu;. 53. 64 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. wherein the bases of the Ionic and Corinthian columns each consist of two torus moldings, separated by a scotia and fillets. In Fig. 48, the principal molding at -the top of the Doric column, it will be observed, is the echinus. The application of the other moldings will be discussed as exam- ples of them occur. 87. Doric Order. As seen in the illustration of the Parthenon, Fig. 4G, there is little carved ornament in the Doric order, except such as appears in the sculpture of figures and animals, and, though in the Ionic order there are a few examples of relief ornament, it is in the Corinthian order we find the greatest relief and broadest demonstration of surface work. 88. Ionic Order. In Fig. 54 is shown a frieze from the principal Ionic temple in Athens, the Erechtheum, the style of which is typ- ical of this class of relief ornament throughout Greek design. It is plainly a development, in relief, of the brush forms shown in Fig. 47 ; and the addition of scrolls at the bottom, and leaves, from which the forms appear to spring, is due to a conventionalization of the acanthus leaf, which first makes its appearance in art through its introduc- tion into Greek architecture. 89. Corinthian Order. In Fig. 55, however, is shown a section of ornament from the choragic monument of Lysic- rates at Athens. This is the principal structure of Greek origin designed in the Corinthian order. Fig. 55 is an orna- ment from the top of the above monument, and shows not only the elaboration of ornament characteristic of this order, but also a principle of ornamental design that is of the FIG. 54. 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 65 utmost importance in its relation to the lack of invention of new forms and the restraining influences of certain art periods. It will be observed here that the various parts of FIG. 55. the acanthus scroll grow out of one another in a continuous line. This is a principle of design that originated with the Greeks, and was continued by the Romans, after which, as we shall see, it was abandoned, and the abandonment of this simple principle was sufficient to gen- erate an entirely new order of forms and ideas. In Fig. 56 is shown a form of the acanthus leaf taken from the Tower of the Winds at Athens. It is purely conventional in form, pos- sessing a broad, bold treatment, nec- essary for its execution in stone, and following closely the principles of the growing plant, as do all other developments in Greek ornament. Gi; HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 These few examples of Greek constructive ornament are most important just now, as they contain the principles from which certain later forms were developed, though they are of no great importance in subsequent history, except so far as they were developed and extended by the more voluptuous though degraded art of Rome. DO. Surface Ornament. Of the surface ornament, purely decorative in character, we have a great variety in Greece, though all of it is based on a few simple types, and restricted almost entirely to variations of the brush forms shown in Fig. 47. The first exceptions to this, however, are the fret forms used extensively both in the architecture and (a) FIG. 57. ceramics, of which Fig. 57 (a) and (/>) are typical examples. The meandering line of Fig. 57 (a] is continuous and forms the entire pattern, while in (b] the pattern is composed of two lines that are carried through the fret parallel, to its center, where they cross each other and retrace their steps out of the labyrinth. i)J . In Fig. ,").s is a portion of a repeating 1 border consist- ing of a number of brush strokes in the form of zpalmette or HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 67 anthemion, and then enclosed in a single stroke, by which it is joined to a repetition of the same form. This is typical in certain classes of Greek pottery, and is usually executed in a reddish color on a black ground. 92. Aiitliemion. The anthemion is one of the most characteristic of Greek forms. It exemplifies- most perfectly the beauty of radiation, of tangential union, and of the proportionate distribution of areas. In Fig. 59 is shown at (a) an ornamental form occasionally met with in the earliest examples of Greek work, whose identity can be readily traced back to the lotus by comparison with Fig. 15 (d). The Greek development of this form into Fig. 59 (b) is not hard to comprehend. The radiating leaves are made larger and fewer. The calyx, from which they spring, is diminished to a couple of conventional scrolls, and a sweeping out- line encloses the whole device. The figure is sufficiently like that in the design shown in Fig. 58 to establish the origin of the latter; and, in fact, numerous cases of the appli- cation of the anthemion or palmette ornament, both in sculptured and painted work, will be met throughout the study of Greek art. 93. Greek "Lily. In Fig. GO is shown another pattern where the palmette is formed of brush strokes in black upon a reddish ground, with a form somewhat resembling the Greek lily between each pair. The palmette form in this figiire is rather more densely drawn than the anthemion in FIG. 58. 08 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Fig. 58, and is representative of the class of ornament usually termed the Greek honeysuckle. The conventional form between these anthemions just referred to the Greek iflflfl FIG. 60. lily is traceable back to the old Egyptian lotus form, as are many other Greek details. Fig. 61 shows at (a) an outline form of the lotus seen in many of the hieroglyphs. Variations of the form shown at (b) are seen in both Egyptian and Greek work, while at (c) (c) is the brush-stroke device, usually distinguished under the name of the Greek lily. The foliated form between the palmettes in Fig. 60 is undoubtedly an adaptation of the lily to fit around the brush strokes of the intermediate figures, and the reaching of the outward leaves back toward each other is suggestive of the treatment of the lotus flower, both as used in Assyria, Fig. 41, and in Egypt, Fig. 28 (a). 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 69 94. In Fig. 62 we have a rosette pattern, repeated at intervals in reddish color on a black ground, that is almost undoubtedly of Egyptian origin, as shown in Fig. 25, although its development on a similar line of thought may have been reached in Greek art. It is painted around the necks and bases of many vases, however, and is used so much in Greek ceramics that we associate it very largely with that style of art. 95. Fig. 63, another pattern undoubtedly of Egyptian origin, brings us to the consideration of the scroll in the surface decoration of Greek work. This pattern must cer- tainly have been borrowed from the symbol of the Nile seen FIG. 63. in the Egyptian hieroglyphs, and though there has been little change in the idea, we find a refinement of its propor- tion and lines, and an improvement in its details from an art, standpoint, even though it has lost all its symbolic character. 96. Fig. 64 is another adaptation of an Egyptian idea, as may be seen by referring to Fig. 26, wherein the scroll is ;o HISTORIC ORNAMENT. :> repeated as growing out from a device of the same kind, and a foliated form, slightly suggestive of the lotus, fills the space between each pair. The rosette, similar to that shown in Fig. 02, is also used as a termination of this scroll, and this combination of the scroll growing out of the scroll and terminating in a rosette or flower, is of vast importance in Roman art, although on this simple vase border is the first place we find it among the Greeks. 07. Guilloclie. In Fig. Go is shown an interlaced ornament used almost entirely in carved work on the torus moldings at the base of a column. It represents, supposedly, the woven bands around the bottom of a shaft composed of a bunch of reeds, and serves to bind them together. The name of the ornament is a jyuilloohe, and different forms of it, varying in complexity, are found throughout Greek art. 98. Fig. 00 shows examples of raised or relieved orna- ment, as seen in the details of the temple of Athena Polias, HISTORIC ORNAMENT. FIG. 66. in the Erech'thcum at Athens. The enrichment on the cyma recta / is thelotus-flower ornament, and is carved in very low relief; that is, cut so as to be raised slightly above the surface of the mold- ing, and not sunk into it, as was customary with the Egyptians (see Fig. 20). As we examine later monuments of Greek architecture, we find the relief of the carvings increasing, until, when we reach the Greco- Roman period, the stems and stalks are in many instances so under-cut as to be almost clear of the molding. The waterleaf carving on the cyma rcversa occurs three times in this entablature, and is of varied form, according to its location. Up under the corona at a, where the shadow is deep and dark, the waterleaf is cut broad and bold, but imme- diately below the cyma at b, and above the upper facia at c, the lines of the leaf are drawn longer and narrower, so that the moldings appear in more 72 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 delicacy of outline, where the full strength of the light strikes it. The same thing may be said of the bead mold- ings under the corona at d and under each of the two lower cymae reverses at e and f. The one in the shadow of the corona, as at d, is cut into long beads, while the one above the corona, as at ^, is divided into much more minute divisions; and the one on the top of the upper facia, as at f, being in the strongest light of all, is turned into forms where the bead is simply a tiny sphere between two pairs of disks of the same diameter. The egg-and- dart ornament of the ovolo occurs here above the corona of the entablature at g and under the guilloche and volutes of the capital, the only difference in these two examples being that the One above the corona is carved upon a straight ovolo extending along the top of the corona, while the other is carved in the circular echinus surrounding the top of the column. The honeysuckle ornament cut on the neck of the column is in low relief, the same as that upon the crown molding/. The guilloche immediately under the lines of the volute is carved as a thin strap, loosely braided, around the top of the column, and the same ornament is cut on the upper torus of the base. 99. Polychromy is the term applied to the ornamenta- tion of sculptured and architectural works by means of colors. In ancient buildings these colors were made to cover both flat surfaces and architectural details, while in statues or individ- ual portions of the human figure and drapery, and in other products of plastic art, separate features of a sculptured ornament were colored in a manner characteristic of the subject. Egyptian polychromy, on columns, bases, capitals, entab- latures, wall spaces, and, in fact, almost everything of an architectural character, expressed itself in a series of highly colored designs in low relief, consisting mostly of figures and hieroglyphs, and often of purely decorative ornament. In Greek architecture a complete system of color had been developed at an early period, particularly as applied to Doric HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 73 JBJC 1*-4|^\^^^ [UjiMlMI@IU@I^Mi h \ __- - --.-r /L -r C 1 U ' L_ l ^J ^ u _J _i i_J u u \ temples, upon numerous remains of which traces of this coloring are distinguishable. The principal use of color in architecture is to bring out decoration. Surfaces may be relieved by a rich play of color without actual relief, and ideas may with facility be expressed by colors, when the object they embellish calls for the widest possible range of imagination and fancy. Still, color has its own province, and to a certain extent its own series of forms, and must therefore be treated in its own manner. A harmonious inter- play of colors, with correct propor- tion in the distribution of each, is characteristic of a fine work of art. In truly artistic periods, color has never been made use of to produce artificial shadows or to bring out artificial depths and reliefs; nor has it in any way been employed as a makeshift for -them. 1OO. Figs. 67 and 68 show a num- ber of examples of Greek painted ornament in which the fret and the lotus and honeysuckle ornament are both prominent. Red, yellow, blue, and green were the principal colors used by the Greeks in these decora- tions, but they were so toned down and softened that the glare and harshness of such brilliant colors were blended into one delightful monotint as one viewed their struc- tures from a distance. Fig. 67 is a portion of the capital. FIG. or. 74 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 entablature, and pediment of the Greek Doric order, with the characteristic polychromatic ornamentation. The fret- work on the abacus at a was uBrally executed in a dark red or black, while the groundwork was pale yellow or orange. The egg-and-dart ornament on the echinus of the capital b was generally printed in red on a dark-blue ground. The triglyphs c were nearly always blue, and any ornament e on them was executed in red. The metopes f were generally red, and the sculptured figures with which the metopes were ornamented were painted in tints that represented the color and texture of their garments. The fret drawn on the taenia, or fillet, g and those on the corona and epitithidas, as at Ji and d, were usually executed in gold, though occasionally in red. The regulae j were blue with red drops, or guttae k, as were also the mutules /, but the soffit of the corona ;;/, shown in Fig. 68, was red. The small moldings n forming the finish to the corona were generally painted in light colors, siich as red and blue, with spaces of white alternating FIG. 08. between. 1 he honeysuckle or lotus ornament, usually found on the cyma recta or ovolo 0, shown in Fig. 07, when either was the top molding of the pediment, was carefully outlined in gold, and was always drawn very lightly and delicately when used to embellish this top member of the entablature. 1O1. In Fig. 69 we arrive at a more complicated pattern of the honeysuckle ornament, taken from the temple of Theseus at Athens. In this example, the palmette forms, composed of nine brush strokes, were executed in green, and the scrolls and connecting fine lines between members of the pattern were worked in gold. The intermediate blossom between the palmettes, or conventionalized floral form, was in red, and the whole executed on a creamy 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 75 ground. The effect was naturally very brilliant, the red and green colors standing out very sharply on the creamy ground, and contrasting beautifully with each other. FIG. CO. In their colored ornament, the Greeks appreciated the strengthening effect of placing one color beside another, and in much of their work made use of this combination of red and green on account of its superiority of effect. In Figs. 70 and 71 are two panels taken from the ceiling of the Parthenon. While these at first seem somewhat sim- FlO. 70. ilar in appearance, and though both are plainly executed with purely brush forms, a second examination will show HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 that they are entirely different as a whole, and unlike in their detail, except the form of their individual strokes. The lines of the pattern itself were executed in gold, that of Fig. 70 being on a red ground with a blue border around it, while the pattern in Fig. 71 was on a blue ground with a red border. This difference of coloring emphasized not only the difference in pattern of the two panels, but, at the same time, clearly marked the dividing line between them. 102. In Fig. 72 is shown a frieze ornament wherein the entire design is executed in the contrasting colors of red and green on a ground of cream. The central stroke of the honeysuckle ornament and of the figures on each side are green, and each alternate brush stroke from them is green also, with intermediate strokes of red. The genera- ting line, which encloses the honeysuckle ornament and curves into the base of the intermediate figure, is green, but the triangular stroke at the base of the honeysuckle is red. This design, like the two previous ones discussed, is depend- ent entirely on the limitations of brush work for the char- acter of its form, while the contrast of color in the different strokes of its composition gives to the design the brilliancy of effect in no way obtainable in a pattern executed in a monotint. 103. Aiitefixre. Referring back to Fig. 46, it will be observed that all along the edge of the roof are a number of small vertical ornaments. These are anteflxse, and are so placed to close the end of each row of tiles with which the roof was covered. Though they were carved in marble, and designed to fit the end of the tile, they were modeled after the palmetto, whose characteristics were governed, as is so much other Greek ornament, by the capabilities of the brush stroke. FIG. 72. 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 77 In Fig. 73 is shown one of these antefixae, the scrolls and vertical strokes of which were green, and the space between the two scrolls and each alternate stroke above them were painted red. 1O4. Endless examples could be recalled exhibiting one or more of the numerous characteristics of Greek orna- ment, but, like the Egyptians, their types were few, and it is the repetition of a single idea, or its combination with not more than one other idea, that lends FIG. 73. what variety there is to Greek ornament. There are one or two forms used in later art that undoubt- edly had their origin on Greek soil, but they were developed to so much greater extent in a later period that their details will be considered in the later style. ETRUSCAN ORNAMENT. 105. The Etruscans were a people inhabiting the middle part of Italy from a period of most remote antiquity. It is probable that they came originally from the same Asiatic race as did the Greeks, and their occupation of Italy seems to date from about the same period as the settlement of Greece. Their language has never been translated, how- ever, and we therefore have no written history to verify this belief. 106. In the settlement of Rome, the Etruscans played an important part. They were a highly artistic people, while the early Roman was a warrior and had no art taste what- ever. The Etruscans introduced the arch into the construc- tions of public utility, and in that way it found a place in the architecture of Rome. Besides their skill as builders, the Etruscans were particularly deft in ceramics and goldsmith- ery, and, though the character of their designs bears a strong 78 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 resemblance to those of Egypt and Greece, their style was unique, and was developed on independent lines. In designs and workings for jewelry, they were original and skilled, and Etruscan jewelry was much sought even in artistic Greece. Under their skilful hands, every conceivable object was worked into the design. Flowers, fruits, figures, vases, cornucopia, rose work, crescents, ellipsoidal balls, and chains of all sorts and sizes found a place in their jewelry designs. They used the emerald a great deal more than any other of the precious stones, on account of a superstition that it possessed medical qualities, but pearls, glass paste, cameos, and intaglios were used also, and the variety and taste in this line of ornament exceeded that of any other nation. 1O7. There are many objects of Etruscan design that are still considered masterpieces of art ; and diadems, crowns, necklaces, ear drops, bracelets, hairpins, and rings are still designed on the lines originated by the Etruscan goldsmiths. Scarabaei are very frequently introduced in these designs, and are sometimes used as a link to unite two parts. In fact, this device appears so frequently in their jewels, uten- sils, sword hilts, etc. that it would appear probable that the FIG. 74. Etruscans worshiped this insect, or associated it with some superstitious idea. The scarabaeus of the Etruscans differed materially from that of the Egyptians, inasmuch as it was usually carved of precious stone, or metal, whereas the Egyp- tian device was most frequently painted, though many of them were worked in metal and worn as rings and jewelry. 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 79 1O8. In Fig. 74 is shown a necklace, the centerpiece of which consists of an elaborate piece of goldsmith's work, set with precious stones, the central stone being a large emerald carved in the form of a face. The connecting links of the chain are designed in gold with intermittent precious stones. This is characteristic of all Etruscan ornament, and only one illustration is introduced here, as it is simply necessary to consider Etruscan art briefly, in order to preserve the thread of history, that we may better understand the influence of these people on the art of Rome. GRECO-ROMAN ORNAMENT. 109. Historical Relations. In the year 146 B. C., Greece was conquered by Rome, and the progress of pure Greek art suddenly ceased. The invasion of Greece and her colonies, by Roman workmen, caused the art, after this period, to become more and more tainted with the unrefined taste of the conquering nation. On the other hand, Greek artists executed vast w'orks on Roman soil, and the subjected nation became the leaders of fashion in matters of art. The subtle refinement of the Greek, however, became lost in the extravagant demands of Roman taste, and the result- ing Roman art possessed none of the finer characteristics - of the Greek style. Greek art was delicate, refined, and poetic Roman art was voluptuous, vulgar, and extravagant. Greek art was an expression of pure beauty Roman art was an ostentatious display. 110. During the period of transition when Greek forms were undergoing degradation at home, and conquering Roman art abroad, the style assumed a peculiar form that was neither Greek nor Roman. This style we will now con- sider under the name of Greco-Roman, though in modern times it is more often termed Pompclan from the fact that we derive the bulk of our information concerning it from the recently excavated city of Pompeii, which was destroyed through an eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in the year 79 A. D. 80 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 111. After Greece came tinder Roman dominion, the ever increasing' introduction of Greek art into the Roman school caused the productions from Etruria to assume pecul- iar characteristics, as the local works of art yielded entirely to the influence of the conquered country. The ancient Romans possessed nothing of their own worthy of the name of art. In their earliest period, they borrowed ideas from the Etruscan builders, and it is from them that the use of the vault and arch are introduced for the first time in archi- tecture. This introduction of a new architectural principle naturally wrought a change in the character of the ornament, and the workmen from Etruria, under the influence of, and association with, the workmen from the Greek colonies, naturally combined the art of Greece with the structural and engineering devices of their native country. When the gen- erals of the Roman army returned from conquered Greece and brought back as plunder the objects of art that decorated Greece and her temples, they converted Rome into a museum of Greek antiquities, the presence of which changed and directed the Roman taste. 11'-. Mural Painting. In decorative painting, par- ticularly that applied to the walls of dwelling houses, the Romans borrowed everything they could from Greece, and Greek art became the ruling fashion of Rome. We know little of the plan of the Greek residences, and nothing of their decoration, but it is safe to assume that the decorations of the houses of Pompeii and Herculaneum were patterned after the decorations of the Greek dwellings seen by the Roman generals in their campaign in that country. These two cities were suburbs of Rome, and possessed much the same character as a modern summer resort. The decora- tions of the walls, ceilings, and pavements are totally differ- ent from anything we find in Rome, and, at the same time, show elements that must undoubtedly have originated in Greece. These wall paintings are not all of the same value, and a number of them seem to have been executed by inferior 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 81 artists, but the beauty of others has led to the belief that they were copies and repetitions of Greek work of great celebrity. 113. Besides decorative painting at Pompeii, we find a more or less imperfect polychromatic coloring in mosaic. This branch of Roman art, therefore, became subjected to serious modifications. The Romans already possessed a rudi- mentary knowledge of mosaic work and they now received examples of it from the hands of the Greeks, in a more advanced state; but the inherent love of luxury in wealthy Rome, and the general contempt for matters of expense, caused the taste for mosaic work to increase and acquire real progress. The Romans, however, were not long perverting the nature of the art that the Greeks had transmitted to them. The exquisite taste possessed by the Greeks, and displayed in their distribution of ornament, together with their advanced imitative science, would have enabled them to have realized charming conceptions in mosaic, and the Greeks would never have attempted to place mosaic in competition with the high- est prerogatives of painting. 114. The Greeks are supposed to have designed the compartment of their own paved floors to represent such ornaments as branches, scrolls, festoons, and interlacings, and possibly passed onwards from these capricious forms somewhat of the nature of arabesques to more significant symbols and attributes, such as griffins, chimeras, tragic and comic masks, signs of the zodiac, birds, fruits, etc. It may even be inferred that the idea must have occurred to them to inlay a scene in the center panel of some of their richer pavements. At any rate, whatever the Greeks saw fit to work in their mosaic, must certainly have been designed in temperance, good taste, and with the highest artistic feeling. 1 15. It was characteristic of the Romans to carry every- thing to excess; and, as the Romans admired mosaics, they wished to have them everywhere. S3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 They were no longer satisfied to floor their courts and lower rooms with them, but inserted them in the sides of their walls, in the soffits of their arches, and in their ceil- ings. In fact, it is probable that they made more use of them in the latter positions than in the floors, as they soon became to be deemed of too great beauty and value to be trampled under foot. Now, with the introduction of mosaic pictures in the side walls, ordinary pebbles, stones, natural or colored marbles, paste, and terra cotta were unable to contend with the bril- liancy of paintings, especially as the taste of painters seemed to be impelled by a mad love of gaudy color and richness, so they introduced red, purple, and azure pigments, and metallic gold and silver to produce a deceptive glitter and striking contrast. Mosaic consequently demanded fresh resources, and various precious stones, such as agate, jasper, carnelian, sardonyx, emerald, turquoise, and lapis lazuli, were pressed into service, in order to produce the required effects. Thus, Roman mosaic work became an ornamental untruth. Its productions claimed to be portraits of various objects, executed solely to please the eye, and of materials best suited to the purpose; while, as a matter of fact, they were incapable of portraying natural forms, and the materials were more suitable for pavements than for side walls. The idea was false, and even if the mosaic worker had had more shades at his command, and the painter had had fewer colors, the strife would certainly have been much in favor of the latter. Mosaic could never rationally supersede painting. 1 1 6. Pompeian Ornament. The system of Pompeian ornament was carried to the very limit of caprice, and almost any theory of coloring and decoration could be supported by authority from Pompeii. The general arrangement of the decoration of the walls in the interior of a Pompeian house consisted of a dado about one-sixth the height of the room, on which stood broad pilasters half the width of the dado, thus dividing the walls into three or more large panels. The pilasters were united by a frieze at the top, varying in width, 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 83 but usually about one-fourth the height of the wall. The space above the frieze was frequently left white, and always subjected to most delicate treatment, representative of clear sky or open air; and on the background were painted fan- tastic architectural buildings that form a component part of the character of the style. In the best examples there was a gradation of color from the ceiling downwards, ending usually with black in the dado ; but this is far from being a fixed law. 117. The colors used were mostly yellow, green, red, and black, and these were used almost indiscriminately for the various parts. Black or blue was occasionally used for the panels, but, as a rule, these colors were confined to the dado. Pilasters of yellow or green seemed to be the more popular tints, and red, green, and blue, with an occasional example of black, predominated in the panels. The most effective arrangement seems to have been a black dado with red pilasters and frieze, and with yellow, blue, or white panels, the upper part above the frieze being white with colored decorations on it. The best arrangement of color for ornament on the ground appears to have been masses of green and blue, with sparing use of red and yellow on the black grounds; white in thin lines and yellow in masses on the blue grounds; and white and blue in thin lines on the red grounds, with a limited use of yellow, as this color is not very effective on red. The Pompeian yellow approaches orange in hue, and the red is strongly tinged with blue. The neutral character of the colors thus enabled them to be used violently without discord. 118. The whole style of this system of decoration is so capricious that it is beyond the range of true art, and strict criticism cannot be applied to it. It generally pleased the eye by its novelty, but, though it was not absolutely vulgar, it oftentimes approached vulgarity, and owed its greatest charm to the light, sketchy, freehand manner of its execu- tion, which is quite impossible to render in any modern drawing. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. (PART 2.) CLASSIC OENAMEKT. ROMAN ORNAMENT. 1. Comparison of Roman and Greek Art. --The real greatness of the Romans seems to be expressed more in their theaters, public baths, aqueducts, and other works of a public character, rather than in the decoration of their tem- ples. The latter were but the outward expression of a religion they had acquired largely from the Greeks, and in which they had little faith, and therefore showed a corre- sponding want of earnestness in the art worship. In the Greek temple, it is more than apparent that the great struggle was to attain a perfection worthy of the gods. In the Roman temple, the aim was self-glorification. From the base of the column to the apex of the pediment, every part of the structure was overloaded with ornament, tending more to dazzle the eye by the quantity than to excite admiration by the quality of the work. True, the Greek temples when painted were as elaborately ornamented as those of the Romans, but with a different effect. The ornament was arranged so that it threw a colored bloom over the 4 For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 2 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 whole structure, and in no way disturbed the exquisitely designed surfaces that received it. The Romans ceased to value general proportions and con- tours, and destroyed them by elaborate surface modeling, and extensive molded ornament. The chief fault of this system of decoration lies in the fact that it does not seem to grow naturally from the structure, but is applied directly to the surface in the same way that was suggested in connec- tion with the foliage on the Greek-Corinthian capital, only in the present case it is exaggerated to a greater extent. THE FIVE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. THE GREEK ORDERS. 2. Classic Architecture. The orders heretofore re- ferred to furnish us with a standard of proportion with which we can measure all the classic monuments, and by which the work of the Renaissance was, and much of the modern archi- tecture is still, proportioned. As we have already seen, the structures of the classic ages were nearly all columnar either with lintels connecting the tops of the columns, as the Greeks built, or with arches, according to the Roman custom. Now, the architects of the classic ages had reduced to an exact system the proportions of lengths to thickness in columnar work, and down to the present day we have been unable to improve on their pro- portions. This system is universally known as the "Five Orders of Architecture, " and it embraces every combination of lines and masses seen in the classic monuments. In it we find the fundamental principles of proportion, and only by the most careful study of these principles can we appreciate the importance of architecture as a fine art. \\. Architectural Meaning? of Order. In its archi- tectural meaning, the term order refers to the system of 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 columniation practiced by the Greeks and Romans, and is used to denote the column and entablature together that is to say, the upright supporting piers, and the horizontal roof beams or trabeation supported by them. These two divisions constitute an order, and so far all orders are alike ; but the form and proportions of the subdivisions of both the col- umn and the entablature make it necessary to divide the original Greek orders into three classes, and when these three were adopted by the Romans, they again divided two of them, making five in all. Hence, it has become customary, in referring to the Five Orders of Architecture, to mean the Roman forms. The three original orders of the Greeks are the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, as explained before. Each order is an assemblage of parts subject to uniform, estab- lished proportions, and is regulated by the office each part has to perform. This so called ' ' assemblage of parts " refers to the base, shaft, capital, architrave, frieze, etc., while the " uniform, established proportions " are the comparative sizes of these parts to one another in the same order. " The office each part has to perform " governs its size, shape, and position, and thus completes the expression of character in the order. 4. Greek-Doric Order. The general character of the Greek- Doric order is expressive of grandeur, dignity, and simplicity. Hence, we find it used almost exclusively in temples dedicated to the most revered of the Greek deities, such as the Parthenon, at Athens. This is the most ancient of all the classic orders, and the proportions of its parts vary considerably in the different periods of its history. However, it reached the zenith of its perfection in the Parthenon, as shown in Fig. 46 of Historic Ornament, 3, and it is from the portico of that temple we take the example illustrated in Fig. 1. It has already been observed that the Greek- Doric column consisted only of the shaft B filling the space between the stylobate A and the capital C. The latter is composed merely of an echinus molding under an abacus, which is the plain square slab upon which the architrave D rests. The 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 Greek-Doric order never possessed a base, but stood upon a stylobatc A, which is the substructure or foundation usually disposed in three steps or divisions that extend entirely around the building, and by spreading the ground line of the structure, FIG. 1. give a proper feeling of solidity and support. In the outline of the column, we first observe contraction and then expan- sion ; the former where the echinus converges to the neck of the column, and the latter where the column swells out to form a firm and substantial support at the bottom, which is 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 larger than the top. With few exceptions, the column of the Greek-Doric order is fluted ; that is, its surface is grooved perpendicularly by a series of concave channels that touch each other and form a series of ridges, or arrises, upon its surface a mode of decoration that is the direct opposite of that practiced by the Egyptians, some of whose columns exhibit, not channels, but a series of convex ridges, like a bunch of reeds or stems bound together. In the Doric order, the number of channels is either sixteen or twenty, though in the other orders there are usually twenty-four. The number varies, but it is invariably divisible by 4. Doric flutings are much broader and shallower than those of the Ionic or Corinthian orders broader for two reasons, first, because they are fewer in number, and therefore divide the circumference into larger parts; and, second, because there are no separating fillets between them. The shallowness of the Doric flutes is due to the fact that the arrises, or edges where the flutes come together, would be thin and liable to breakage if the flutes were deeply cut. This manner of fluting Doric columns, leaving arrises between the grooves instead of fillets, has been retained in modern practice as one of the characteristics of the order. In the Greek-Doric, every detail is marked by its breadth or flatness, or by its sharpness. There are no curved moldings or surfaces except the cpititJiidas (a term given to the upper- most member of the corona) and the echinus, the latter being almost flat on its under side and finished with a sharp turn against the abacus. The breadth and shallowness of the channels, and the flat curves in which they are formed, are therefore in perfect keeping with the style, as are also the sharp arrises between the flutings, which are expres- sive of a severe simplicity. The horizontal rings, or annu- lets mere grooves cut around the neck of the column to form lines of separation between the capital and the shaft are again expressive of the most extreme simplicity, and are in direct contrast to the projecting astragal, or convex molding, of the Doric capital as modified by the Romans. 6 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 The echinus is a simple convex molding, and, from its shape, is often called a thumb molding. Its form is sug- gestive of strength, as it expands to connect the dimin- ished upper end of the column with the overhanging abacus. 5. Doric Entablature. The entablature of the Doric order is, like the column, the embodiment of dignity and simplicity. Its lowest division, the architrave D, is a plain beam, whose height, including the taenia, or fillet, is a trifle less than the upper diameter of the column. The middle division, or frieze E, constitutes a very characteristic feature of the Doric order, being invariably ornamented with its triglyphs and metopes. The former of these consists of upright blocks about one-half the width of the mean diam- eter of the column, having their faces grooved with two V-shaped channels, and their edges chamfered off with two half channels, thus making three channels altogether, from which the ornament derives its name of triglyph, or three-channeled, A portion of the triglyph, called the fillet, extends below the taenia of the architrave, and depending from it are six drops, or guttae, which repre- sent the heads of treenails or pins used in the early wood construction. In regard to the arrangement of the triglyphs, one was placed over every column, and one or more over the space between each pair of columns, but always so spaced that the metopes, or spaces between the triglyphs, should be exactly square; in other words, the height of the_ triglyph was always equal to the distance between them. In the best Greek work, there was only one triglyph between each pair of columns, and this arrangement is usually called monotri- glypliic, or single-triglyphed intercolumniation. A peculi- arity of the Greek-Doric frieze was that the end triglyphs, instead of being, like the others, in the same axis, or cen- tral line, as the columns beneath, were placed quite up to the edge or outer angle of the frieze. This is accom- plished by making the extreme intercolumniation less by HISTORIC ORNAMENT. one-half a triglyph than the intermediate ones, thereby imparting an expression of strength to the angles of the building. The triglyphs are thus seen to govern the spacing of the columns, and as the spacing or intercol- umniation governs the diameter, and the diameter gov- erns the height, etc. , we see that nearly all the proportions of a Doric temple can be traced from the size of its tri- glyph. There is one exception to this, however, and that is the little choragic monument of Thra- syfius, on the south slope of the Acrop- olis, at Athens. This monument has no triglyphs, but a series of wreaths ornament the frieze in their stead. The guttae are never- theless retained, but, instead of being grouped at intervals, they are continued across the lower side of the taenia unin- terruptedly, as shown in Fig. 2. 6. The Cornice. The third and last division of the Doric entablature, the cornice F, though extremely simple, is strongly characteristic and boldly marked. It is in height about two-thirds the height of the frieze, and it is divided into three principal parts, the corona^ with the mutulcs beneath it, and the echinus above it. The mutules are thin plates or tablets worked on the soffit, or under side, of the ! * 1 u o o o o is I) j ';_ '." ' ' "" *"" tr "-r.^ BBS , -! ^ r 7 M^K FIG. 2. 8 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 corona, directly over each triglyph and each metope. With the former, they correspond in width, and their soffits, or under surfaces, are set with a rake, or slant, which makes them parallel with the line of the pediment. They repre- sent the under side of the wood roof beams that extended over the eaves in the earlier construction. Three rows of gutt. 14 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. FIG. 8. 11. The Greek- Corinthian Order. The Corinthian order is the lightest and most delicate of the three, but it is almost impos- sible to determine for what class of builders the Greeks considered it best adapted, as there is but one perfect example left for us to judge at the present day, and that is the choragic monument of Lysicrates, at Athens, shown in Fig. 8. Like the Ionic, the prin- cipal characteristic of the Corinthian order is its capital tall, bell- shaped, and richly foli- ated, as shown at C, Fig. 9. As was said with regard to the entablature of the Ionic order, the capital of the Corinthian column is higher in proportion to the diameter of the column than is either the Ionic or the Doric; but, as the shaft is longer and more slen- der than either of the others, it is able to carry a higher capital. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 15 12. The Corinthian capital has two rows of leaves, eight in the upper row, and sixteen in the lower row, so dis- FiG. 9. posed that, of the taller ones, composing the upper row, one conies in the center, beneath each face of the abacus, and the lower leaves alternate with the upper ones, coming both Hi HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 between and under the stems of the latter, so that in the first, or lower, tier of leaves there is, in the middle of each face, a leaf between each two leaves of the upper row, and also a leaf under the stem of the central leaf above them. Above these two rows is a third series of eight leaves, turned so as to support the small volutes, which in turn support the angles of the abacus. Besides these outer volutes, which are invariably turned diagonally, as in the four-faced Ionic capital, there are on each face of the capital two other smaller ones, termed caulicnli, which meet each other beneath a flower on the face of the abacus. The abacus itself is different in shape from that of either of the other two orders. In the Doric, it is, as we have seen, merely a thick slab resting on the echinus beneath it, and left absolutely plain ; in the Ionic, also, it is square, but the sides are molded and sometimes carved, while the Corinthian abacus is, strictly speaking, not even square, except in general form. True, it has four equal sides, but instead of being straight, they are deeply concave in plan, and the acute point that would be formed by the meeting of these concave sides is usually cut off straight, thus making the abacus an eight-sided figure, four of whose sides are short and straight, while the other four are long and curved. 13. The base A of the Greek-Corinthian column is of the Attic type, almost the same as that of the Ionic order; and the shaft /?, like the Ionic also, has twenty-four flutes separated by fillets, but these flutes and fillets terminate at the top very differently from the way they do in the Ionic. Here we have a row of leaf-like ends curling out from the column, with the fillets forming their central ribs. The edges of these leaves intersect in an angle, and this angle gradually flattens out until it disappears entirely in the surface of the flute. Above these leaf-like ends, and below the lower row of leaves in the capital, is a groove, cut entirely around the column, to emphasize the starting point of the capital, and which is said to have originally served as a receptacle for a braided band of bronze laurel 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 17 leaves, contrasting beautifully with the white marble of the monument. The entablature is very similar to that of the Ionic order, with the exception of the cornice, which is larger and some- what richer than the uppermost member of the order from the Erechtheum. The architrave is divided into three facias, as in the previous order, but their surfaces are not perpen- dicular. On the contrary, the faces are battered back so that the three arrises, or edges, are perpendicular over one another, and the offsets are formed by the batter. The molding at the top of the architrave is a simple cyma reversa, resting on a bead and surmounted by a rather heavy fillet. The frieze is shown here with the carved figures in relief, as it appears in the original monument, although, as said before, this carving does not form a component part of the order itself. Above this frieze is a small torus and an ovolo supporting the dentil course. These dentils are small rectangular blocks, spaced about two-thirds their width apart, and, in all proba- bility, are the stone representations of projecting ceiling joists, which existed in an early system of wooden construction. Above this dentil course is a cyma recta, supporting a cyma-reversa bed molding under the corona. The corona projects more in the Corinthian than it does in the Ionic order; and the crowning member, instead of being a cyma, as in the previous order, consists of a series of antefixce sup- ported upon a serrated band, which is separated from the corona by a small echinus. This completes the general description of the Greek orders, a description that has been here given somewhat in detail, in order that the student may fully comprehend the liberties that were taken with these orders when the Romans converted them to their own uses. THE ROMAN ORDERS. 14. The Five Orders of Architecture, according to the Italian architect and writer, Vijjnola, \yill now be analyzed and described, and the attention of the student is called 18 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. J FIG. 10. 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 19 particularly to the unrefining influence of the Romans expressed in their interpretation of the Greek art forms. The Romans were not an imaginative race, and had few original ideas in architecture. Their early works were copied from the Etruscans, and their later efforts were bor- rowed from the Greeks. In nothing is this fact more evident than in the first of the five Roman orders, namely, the Tus- can, Fig. 10. 15. The Tuscan order is but a modified form of the Greek- Doric, or, perhaps, more strictly speaking, it is an undeveloped form of the Roman-Doric. It takes its name from the Etruscan people, who are supposed to be its orig- inators, though it is not improbable that the Etruscans received their ideas from the same source as did the Greek- Dorians, both nations having emigrated from Asia about the same time. One thing is certainly true, the Tuscan column and entablature bear a closer resemblance to the proportions of the Greek-Doric than they do to the Roman-Doric, which was admitted to be more or less copied from it; and the Roman-Doric resembles more the Tuscan column and entab- lature than it does the Greek order, whose name it bears. Hence, we see that the Tuscan is a sort of connecting link between the Greek and the Roman orders. It contains many Greek details that the Roman-Doric does not, while, on the other hand, the Roman-Doric possesses many Tuscan fea- tures unheard of in the Greek. The characteristics of the order are its crudcness and plainness, combined with its heavy moldings and lack of refinement in outline. It has, like all other Roman orders, a regularly proportioned and molded pedestal B, which, though not a specific part of the order itself, is generally drawn with it when the order is shown alone. 16. The pedestal is simply a square block B, with an apophyge, or escape to the fillet, resting on the plinth A at the bottom, and with a cyma reversa and a fillet at the top. Upon this stands the base of the column /?, which consists of 20 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 a torus and a fillet resting upon a square plinth. The capi- tal F is in some respects similar to the Doric, but lacks both the refinement of the Greek-Doric and the delicacy of the Roman. It consists of an abacus, ovolo, and necking. The abacus is square in plan similar to the Greek-Doric, and is composed of a fillet resting upon a plain facia that has an apophyge, or curved escape to the fillet. The ovolo is a plain molding, often referred to as a quarter round, as its section is exactly a quarter of a circle. The entablature is subdivided into an architrave G, a frieze //, and a cornice /, in proportions nearer to the Greek-Doric than is the Roman order of that name. But the triglyphs and mutules so characteristic of the Doric order are omitted entirely, while the moldings are large and heavy and out of proportion to the surfaces they are intended to ornament. The shaft of the Tuscan column is never fluted, and no carv- ing or enrichment of its moldings or surfaces is ever practiced. 17. Comparison of Greek and Roman Orders. Before making a comparison of the Greek and Roman orders, let us first consider some of the conditions that made alter- ation necessary, before the art creations of the Greeks could be adopted by the Roman builders. The distinguishing characteristic of all Roman architecture is the persistent use of the arch. The Greeks spanned their openings with lintels simple stone beams laid across from one column to another and the width of the openings they could thus span was limited by the length of the stones they could conveniently quarry. But, by means of the arch, the Romans could span any width desirable ; but the pressure of the arch at the abutments was in the character of a hori- zontal thrust, which would overthrow any ordinary column, and especially such columns as were used by the Greeks, laid up in several courses and devoid of mortar or cement. Heavy masonry piers laid up in strong mortar with securely bonded courses, became necessary, therefore, to withstand this thrust, and the Romans, having no structural use for the Greek orders, applied them as ornament to their masonry HISTORIC ORNAMENT. abutments. This is a very important point and sliould be remembered. The orders, thus backed up by heavy piers, did not require that appearance of sturdy independence that the Greeks instilled into their supports, and they were consequently drawn out longer and thinner, and embellished with much carving and enrichment, as though endeavoring to attract the attention to their false beauty, while the piers and arches did the real mechanical work of holding up the building. This will, perhaps, be more clearly understood by refer- ring to Fig. 11, which is a portion of the facade of the Thea- ter Marcellus, at Rome. The arches resting on the piers support all the mason work above them, while the col- umns and the entablatures are applied to the structure sim- ply as ornament. Strip these columns off, and the building will stand as well as with them, but in appearance it will be simply a structural edifice, entirely utilitarian, and in no way esthetic. Greek designers made their architecture beautiful by orna- menting the construction itself remove the column, or en- tablature, and you remove the essentials of the structure but the Romans designed the structure entirely apart from the ornament, and the latter might easily be removed with- out injury to the strength of the fabric. 18. Description of the Roman-Doric Order. The Doric column, as used by the Greeks, was from five to seven diameters in length, and the bottom of the shaft, being of the greatest diameter, it required no base to stand on, and HISTORIC ORNAMENT. FIG. 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 23 was beautiful in its simplicity. The Doric of the Romans, as shown in Fig. 12, was, on the contrary, eight or more diameters in height, and the bottom of its shaft was so small in proportion, that a regular molded base became necessary to give it an appearance of stability. There are instances where the column was used without a base, and the first story of the Theater Marcellus, at Rome, Fig. 11, is a most excellent example of the struggle to apply the Tuscan details to the Greek form. The lower order of the Theater Marcellus presents the Tuscan entablature with triglyphs in the frieze and guttse under the taenia, while the mutules are omitted entirely, and a row of dentils and bed moldings is inserted under the soffit of the corona. It will also be observed that in this case the column is not fluted, and stands upon the stylobate or plinth with- out a base, while the capital is molded after the Tuscan model. 19. In the typical Roman-Doric, Fig. 12, the pedestal is higher in proportion to its width than the Tuscan, and its base exhibits more moldings than does the latter. The addition of a subplinth serves to raise the die B above the ground line without producing too broad a band under the base. The cornice moldings of the pedestal are much like the members of the Tuscan entablature, and show another point of resemblance between these two orders. The base of the column D is almost identical with that of the Tuscan order, with the slight addition of a bead molding between the torus and the fillet. The column is fluted with shallow grooves that meet in an arris, as in the Greek order, but, unlike the latter, they die out or terminate below the line c d, which marks the apophyge of the shaft at the base. The capital F of the column is decidedly more Tuscan than Greek. It is separated from the shaft by a projecting fillet and bead, which in this position is called an astragal. Instead of the annulets beneath the echinus, as in the Greek capital, we have simply three projecting fillets, and the echinus is rounded out until it becomes in section a mere 24 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 quarter circle. The abacus is square, but has a crowning member, and it has panels sunk in the corners of its soffit, as shown by the dotted lines. 20. Doric Entablature. There are, in fact, two dis- tinct systems of grouping the members of the Roman-Doric entablature : one, as in the Greek, with mutules in the frieze, and the other an entirely Roman invention with a course of dentils under the corona. The mutular Doric is the order shown in the drawing plate ; and, as will be at once observed, its entablature bears but a slight resemblance to the Greek model. The archi- trave G is divided into two facias, the upper one projecting slightly over the lower one, somewhat in the manner of the Greek-Ionic. The triglyphs of the frieze // are always cen- tered over the axes of the columns, and, consequently, the metopes, which were always square in the Greek order, are often oblong in the Roman, with the longer axis set either vertically or horizontally. The mutules, which in the cornice of the Parthenon were set over each triglyph and metope, existed over the tri- glyphs only in the Roman- Doric structiires, and the soffit of the corona between them was paneled as shown by the dotted lines. The cornice 7 is lighter and more delicate than in the Tuscan order, and its epitithidas is a cyma recta instead of an echinus. 21. Roman-Ionic Order. The result of the Roman- izing of the Ionic order is shown in Fig. 13, and is scarcely more successful than the Doric. The Romans never seemed to understand the possibilities of the order from the Erech- theum, and, as a consequence, only three accredited exam- ples of the Roman-Ionic column are known in Rome today. These are the temple of Fortuna Virilis, the temple of Con- cord, and the second story of the Theater Marcellus. The first of these is by far the best, its volutes retaining much of the Greek character, while the last is the simplest and HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 25 'f ,J -+- the plainest, and also the smallest in its proportions; but second is remark- able for its ugliness in general, and the inar- tistic arrangement of its volutes in partic- ular, which spring out diagonally so as to pre- sent four equal and sim- ilar faces. The example shown in Fig. 13 is taken prin- pally from the first of those just mentioned, with only such altera- tions as are necessary to bring it down to a gener- al type. In it we find the pedestal slightly longer in the die than was the Doric, while the cor- nice C and base A of the pedestal are more richly molded than in either of the previous orders. The base D of the column, however, is of the famil- iar Attic type that has already been described in connection with the Greek- Ionic order, and exhibits the first point of strong resemblance to the Greek ancestor. The shaft of the column is nearlv of the same FIG. 13. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. height as the Greek; and, in many examples, is grooved by twenty-four flutes separated by fillets, though in this exam- ple there are but twenty. By a strange perversity, however, when we arrive at the capital, we meet a striking difference from the Athenian order. In the columns of the portico of the Erechtheum, we have a necking, between the echinus of the capital and the astragal of the column; but in the Roman-Ionic, the flutes of the shaft extend almost to the eyes of the volutes. In their Doric order the Romans inserted a necking above, which did not exist in the Greek order and must have been borrowed from the Attic- Ionic, or, possibly, from the Tus- can ; but when they adopted the Ionic order, they seem to have taken especial pains to omit the detail that, according to previous appearances, they particularly admired. For some reason, they omitted this necking, and the Roman- Ionic capital has a flat, crushed appearance in consequence, as shown. The Roman- Ionic volute contains but one band, while that of the Greeks possessed three, though there are instances where a single band was coiled in the capital of the Greek order, as in the temple on the Ilissus River, Fig. 6. But the Ionic order reached the ze- nith of its perfection in the Erechtheum, and it is with the details of that building we must compare any subsequent Ionic constructions. The architrave G and frieze H of the Roman order are very similar to those of the Greek, but between the frieze // and corona of / is inserted a row of dentils with upper and lower bed moldings, which cast a serrated shadow and emphasize the projection of the corona. FIG. 14. 4= HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 27 22. The Ionic capital above referred to in the temple of Concord is illustrated in Fig. J4. It is shown here, not on account of its architectural beauty, for it has none, but because in certain classes of early Renaissance work, this style of cap was redesigned by Palladio and used in com- binations where its defects were not so glaring. The prin- ciple on which this cap is designed is that the volutes a are growing out and curling over the edge of the contracted echinus , while the whole is covered with an eight-sided abacus c, strongly resembling the Corinthian. The space under the abacus and between the volutes is filled with a carved rosette, or, in a few instances, with an animal's head. 23. Roman-Corinthian Order. We now come to the Corinthian, which we may consider a typical Roman order. There is but one example of richly foliated capitals in all Greek art, and the modern Corinthian order, though prob- ably taken from it, bears but a general resemblance to its prototype. We have gone into the details of the Greek- Corinthian capital, and the Roman style will only be dwelt upon where it contrasts with the details of the Greek. The Roman-Corinthian capital, shown at /% Fig. 15, has two rows of leaves, eight in each row, so disposed that of the taller ones composing the upper row, one comes in the mid- dle, beneath each face of the abacus, and the lower leaves alternate with the upper ones, coming between the stems of the latter; so that, in the first, or lower tier of leaves, there is in the middle of each face, a space between two leaves occupied by the stem of the central leaf above them. 24. Fig. 15 is not taken from any particular edifice, but is compiled from a number of different structures, in order to get a general type of the order. . The shaft here is fluted with twenty-four flutes, though in many of the best examples it is not fluted at all. The portico of the Pantheon possesses one of the handsomest examples of the Corinthian order in HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 7 f- h r JJiJUULTLOJULd h f 7 Rome, but the granite columns are left unfluted, and their surfaces are highly polished, to com- pensate for the omission. The base of the Corinthian column varies somewhat in dif- ferent examples, but is most frequently an en- riched variation of the Greek-Attic. It is scarce- ly necessary to comment on the pedestal of either the Corinthian or Com- posite orders, as there is no change from the ped- estal of the previously described orders, except an elongation of the die and an increase of the number of the moldings that ornament its top C and base A. The same may be said of the base D of the column, the only change from the previous orders being an increase of the members between the two torus moldings. The shaft E of the col- umn is but slightly longer than in the Ionic order, but the increase in the height of the capital makes the entire column ten diameters high. The entablature, however, is very different from any we have yet described. The architrave G is divided into three FIG. 15. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. horizontal bands, or facias, as was the Ionic, but instead of i a plain projection / of one facia beyond 7 I the other, they are separated by a number AJpJJLOXIlJUUIJLfU of different small mold- ings, which, in nearly every instance, were carved and enriched al- ^-, most to excess. The frieze H is here shown as plain, but the ma- jority of examples show it carved in high re- lief. The cornice / exhibits the greatest alteration from the pre- vious orders that we have yet seen. A row of dentils are support- ed by a cyma reversa immediately above the frieze, similar to the Ionic arrangement; but immediately above this we have a heavy ovolo supporting a row, of course, of modi/lions.' 25. A modillloii is the projecting bracket supporting the corona of the Corinthian en- tablature. These brack- ets possess a volute somewhat similar to that of the Ionic capi- tal, but curved in the opposite direction. 30 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 2(>. Composite Order. Between the Corinthian and Composite orders there is very little difference except in the size of the volutes, and, with the exception of the cap- ital of the column, there is scarcely any difference in the proportions of their parts. Fig. 1C shows the general form of this essentially Roman composition, but omitting entirely the ornamentation of the frieze and moldings, which is as much a part of this order as the triglyphs are of the Doric. Ornamentation, as a rule, forms no part of the order that it enriches, and, consequently, should not be considered a part of the structure of the order, but the Composite order was invented by the Romans for no other purpose than to carry heavy ornamentation; in fact, it was the excessive and extravagant ornamentation of the Corinthian order that caused the Composite to spring into existence, and our example is, therefore, not com- plete until it receives such ornamentation as may be appropriate to its purpose. The general form is here given, and the application of ornament will be discussed later, in its proper place. The pedestal of the Composite order is almost identical with that of the Corinthian, there being but a few slight changes in the moldings of its base and its cap, while the die is a trifle longer. The base, shaft, and capital of the column are the same height as the Corinthian, and with the exception of the capital are almost the same in design. The architrave, frieze, and cornice have the same rela- tive proportions as in the previous order, but are treated somewhat more elaborately in the subdivisions of their parts. The Composite capital is a combination of the Cor- inthian and the Ionic capital from the Roman temple of Concord, heretofore referred to. It is not an artistic combination, but its broad, strong volutes give an unus- ual surface on which to carve florid ornament, and, as such, it suited exactly the later-day admirers of every- thing strictly Roman. It suits its place in modern art very well, when in proper handling, but the Renaissance 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 31 architects were conspicuous in Italy by the interior appli- cation of the Composite order in every spot where it did not belong. 27. The Roman Acanthus. The acanthus leaves under the Roman modillions and those around the bells of the Corinthian capitals are placed, one before the other, stiffly and inartistically ; they are not even bound, together by the necking at the top of the shaft, but appear to have been cut off to rest directly upon it. It will be remembered that in the capital of the Egyptian column, where the stems of the flowers are arranged around the bell, they appear to be continued through the necking of the column, and at the same time express a beauty and a truth. The great facility that the Roman system of decoration affords for the application of this acanthus ornament to any form and in any direction, is the lamentable cause of the invasion of this ornament into most modern work. Its design requires little thought and is so easily manufac- tured that it has encouraged designers in an indolent neg- lect of one of their especial provinces that of invention. In the use of the acanthus leaf, the Romans showed but little art. They received it from the Greeks most beauti- fully conventionalized, and though they went nearer to the general outline of the leaf, they exaggerated the siirface decoration. The Greeks confined themselves to expressing the principles of the foliation of the leaf, and bestowed great care in the delicate undulations of its surface. 28. Character of Roman Ornament. As said here- tofore, Roman ornament consists essentially of one scroll growing out of another and encircling a flower or a groiip of leaves, as shown in Fig. 17, which is a characteristic piece of Roman ornament. This is the principle of Greek ornament, and though the Romans borrowed the pinnciplc, they omitted the Greek refinement. 32 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. The most characteristic method of using the acanthus leaf in Roman art can be seen in the Roman concep- tion of the Corinthian capital, Fig. 15. The amount of design that can be obtained by working on this prin- ciple of Roman orna- ment of leaf within leaf and leaf over leaf is very limited, and it was not until the principle of one leaf growing out of an- other in a continuous line was abandoned, for the adoption of FIG. 17. a continuous stem throwing off ornaments on either side, that the pure conventional ornament received any development. 29. Painted Decorations. The painted decorations of Roman art arc comparatively few; the style was some- what similar to what we see at Pompeii an adoption from the Greek, executed in the hands of the Roman artists. The coloring is hardly worth great consideration, as it possessed nothing of an original character, and the stu- dent should bear in mind that all art forms of Rome are borrowed forms. Her construction she inherited from Etruria, and combined it with the art obtained in Greece. In fact, it might be said that there is no true Roman style, that is to say, executed by Romans themselves, for the Roman was essentially a warrior and a politician, and his art works were designed by the subjugated Greek and his structural works put into effect by descendants from the Etruscans. The transition of Greek ornament into the styles of Europe was simply delayed by the conquest of Greece 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 33 by Rome, and, during the delay so caused, the style was degraded, and spread throughout the country in that condition. ROMANESQUE ORNAMENT. 30. Development of tlie Romanesque Style. In considering the Romanesque style, it must be borne in mind that the Roman Empire covered almost the entire continent of Europe, and that Roman art had penetrated as far west as Spain and as far north as England and the Baltic Sea. After the downfall of the Western Roman Empire, the conquering races from the North attempted to carry out the Roman style of building as they found it in different parts of the country, and the endeavor to apply these art forms under a new system of religion, and influenced by different conditions of government and living, together with the necessity of practicing a rigid economy in material, caused an alteration of the original Roman style and brought about the style that we now consider Romanesque. 31. The fall of the Western Roman Empire, in 470 A. D., therefore marked the beginning of a new architec- tural era throughout all Europe (except possibly in the East- ern Empire, with its capital at Byzantium), and the so called dark ages that followed this event may be considered as a formative period of western civilization during which the barbaric conquerors of Rome became gradually Christian- ized and were subjected to the authority and educational influences of the Church. Under these conditions a new architectural style was developed, founded on the traditions of the earlier Chris- tian builders, but modified in different regions by local influences. The prevailing characteristics of the style were at first essentially Roman, for Rome soon recovered her antique prestige as the leading city of Europe, and the Roman monuments covering the soil of Southern 34 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 Europe were a constant object lesson to the builders at that time. 32. Influence of the Chui-ch. Romanesque archi- tecture was distinctly ecclesiastical. Civilization and culture emanated directly from the Church, and the requirements and discipline of the religious orders gave form to the builders' art. Corinthian columns, marble incrustations, splendid mosa- ics, etc. were not to be obtained in the forest lands of France and Germany, and the priests caused to be erected with unskilled labor churches of stone, and the struggle with this structural problem underlies the entire system of Roman- esque design. 33. System of Building Under Roman Domination. The Romans, when they wished to erect grand monuments of public utility, could send to the spot, no matter how remote, an army of soldiers, and, by their tyrannical system of government, compel the very inhabitants of the locality to desist from all their employments and work for the emperor of Rome. They thus achieved by a multitude of hands those prodigious results that today stand monuments not only of their enterprise but also of their despotism. Had the builders of the Middle Ages desired to pursue this course, where would they have found the army of w r ork- men ? In countries not only without stone but without money to buy it, without beasts of burden to transport material if they could buy it, without even roads over which to travel, how could these people make any attempt to follow the course of their Roman predecessors? Bearing these facts in mind as we study Romanesque ornament, we will readily see in the earlier examples an attempt to copy Roman art an attempt that failed as a duplication of an antique style, but was eminently successful in the development of a new style that was much more rational than the one back to which the Middle-Age builder had been looking. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 35 34. In Fig. 18 is shown the capital of a column, the moldings of which and the crude formations of whose leaves are easily traceable to the Roman-Corinthian order; FIG. 18. FIG. 19. and the capital shown in Fig. 19, though entirely different from that shown in Fig. 18, also illustrates the influence of classic art and the Corinthian order in the formation of the style at this period. More clearly, perhaps, than either of these is the base shown FIG. 21. in Fig. 20, which dates back to the eleventh century. Here the moldings are almost identical with those seen on the classic columns. In Fig. 21 is shown a base of later date, which exhibits a radical departure from the classic lines. 36 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 35. The frieze shown in Fig. 22 is taken from an exam- ple in Southern Germany, dating back to the twelfth century FIG. 22. FIG. 23. FIG. 24. The treatment of the leaf forms there clearly shows a classic origin, but the boldness of the treatment shows an inclination HISTORIC ORNAMENT. to become independent of the traditions of the classic- style, and in Fig. 23 the ornament, taken from a French church of the twelfth century, shows a decided freedom from the governing rules of classic design, although the character of the curves and proportions of the surface covered is strongly suggestive of the Greek anthemion. -In Fig. 24 is shown a most independent example, where we have the main running stem and the branches from alternating sides, while the small pyramid forms cut in the main stem appear here and are characteristic of the Romanesque period. In Fig. 25 is shown an example of German twelfth-century art that shows the possible influence of Celtic work. Observe that, complicated as this design at first appears, it is really very simple in construction and contains only one leaf form arranged in two positions. The entire free flowing lines are then woven around these forms to produce a most satisfactory effect. 3(>. In repeating ornament and diaper patterns, Fig. 26 shows a simple arrangement of circles from the church of St. Denis, at Paris, dating back to the twelfth century, while Fin. 90. 38 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 Fig. 27 shows a diaper pattern from the Lincoln Cathedral, in England, of the same period, showing a radical difference in style on account of the remote- ness from Rome. In Figs. 28 and 29 are shown two patterns taken from stained- glass windows, the former of Ger- man design and the latter French. The simplicity of the design in each case is its distinguishing characteristic, and, though in ap- pearance somewhat complicated, a little study eliminates all FIG. FIG. 29. 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 39 complications, and shows the geometrical principle on which it is constructed to be of utmost simplicity. 37. Origin of Gothic and Byzantine Ornament. From these few examples, with which the artists of the Romanesque period decorated their structural details, we see that the application of Romanesque forms was simple simple from a necessit)?- of economy, and simple on account of a freedom of mind devoid of any art traditions. The builder and designer of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries had no memories of Rome or Greece to follow, and no historical forms that had been handed down from genera- tion to generation, to copy which was almost required by law, and to depart from which would have been a sacrilege in the eyes of his country. The medieval builder attacked his problem with no other tools than his eye and his brain, and gradually developed the form of art that we call Romanesque, and that culminated in two entirely new styles', both in construction and ornamentation the Gothic in the West and the Byzantine in the East. BYZANTINE OKNAMENT. 38. Oriental Influence. In the East, around the city of Byzantium, Romanesque ornament was influenced by the art of Assyria and Persia. In fact, its entire character became tinged with an oriental spirit, and, in the course of the next three or four centuries, it developed into a new and entirely different style of architecture and art, known as Byzantine. The old Roman forms became obsolete and gave place to new forms, original, beautiful, and artistic. It will readily be understood that there would be a period of transition between the slowly developing Romanesque and the finished Byzantine style, and it is with such exam- ples of ornament as date from this period of transition that uncertainty as to their proper classification arises. It is more difficult to distinguish between these styles, whose 40 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 transition took place peacefully, than between the Greek and Roman styles, where the transition was sudden. 39. The Romans had wealth, ambition, and, to a certain extent, taste, but their taste was tainted with vulgarity, through their ostentatious display and desire to express their power as a nation. Consequently, they seized boldly upon the Greek art forms and elaborated them indiscriminately in their Roman designs. The refinement and delicacy of the Greek style was thus immediately wiped out, and there is little difficulty in distinguishing between the ornament of Greece and that of Rome ; whereas, between the ornament of the Romanesque 'and that of the Byzantine period there is such a gradual change that distinction is in many cases impossible. 40. llagia Sophia. Byzantine art, though spread to a greater or less extent throughout the continent of Europe, originated in and around the city of Constantinople, formerly called Byzantium. The great church of Hagia Sophia was built by the Emperor Justinian, in the year 532 A. D., and is the earliest monument purely Byzantine in style. A peculiarity of this monument and its style is the fact that we find so perfect an example of an original style with so little transition toward it. The emperor declared that he would erect a church, "That should be the grandest monument ever built by man, " and the governors of even the most distant provinces of the empire were ordered to ransack all the ancient Roman buildings for sculptures, precious marbles, and works of art, to be used in this edifice. Eight columns of pure white marble were brought from Palmyra, and eight more of deep- green marble were stripped from the temple of Diana, at Ephesus, and shiploads of costly relics were brought from all sections of the empire to become a part of this great structure. Ten thousand men toiled night and day for six years, and the royal, treasury and private purse of the emperor were HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 41 42 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. exhausted by the prodigious expense. But the church was built, and is certainly one of the grandest architectural monuments , the world has ever seen. The plan and con- struction of this edifice is no more remarkable than the scale and treatment of its interior decoration (see Fig. 30), and it stands to Byzantine architecture as the Parthenon stood to the Greek. Unfortunately it is now converted into a Moham- medan mosque, and the severity of the Mohammedan religion required that its beautiful interior decorations should be covered from sight by repeated applications of whitewash. However, we have been able to secure reproductions of some of these great ornaments so characteristic of the Byzantine style. 41. Examples of Byzantine Style. At Ravenna, which was the seat of government of the Eastern Empire under Justinian, the church of San Vitale is also a fine example of the Byzantine style, and at Ravenna, Byzantine art reached its height in this edifice. Venice also felt largely the Byzantine influence, and the church of St. Mark, built in the eleventh century, is a monu- ment patterned largely after the plan and decoration of Hagia Sophia ; and, extending as far south as Sicily, we have the cathedral of Monreale, near Palermo, showing strong Byzan- tine influences, but at the same time possessing many details that are so strongly character- istic of the Romanesque style that it is difficult in many cases to classify them. 4:2. The capital shown in Fig. 31 is from one of the columns in the first tier of arches in the church of Hagia Sophia, at Constantinople. The scrolls in the upper part of this column undoubtedly have their origin in the Ionic order, and, though the entire capital is FIG. 31. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 43 FIG. 32. decorated with the conventionalized acanthus leaf, observe how widely different it is from any Roman model. Here the block of the capital is sound and heavy, and at its bot- tom is a foliated ring that seems to bind it together, while the carved leafwork grows out of the top of the column and enters materially into the construction of the capi- tal itself. Another Byzantine capi- tal, shown in Fig. 32, is taken from another church in Constantinople, built about the same time as Hagia Sophia, but less original in detail. Here the heavy scrolls project from the angles of the capital very much in the same man- ner as the volutes in the temple of Concord at Rome, and the place usually occupied by the abacus is filled by a heavy semipyramidal form on which the ornament seems to be applied as a surface decoration more than a component part of the construction. The effect of this illustrates, however, a radical departure from the traditions that limitated the architectural designs in Roman art ; and even when we arrive at Byzan- tine capitals of the eleventh century, as seen in St. Mai k's, at Venice, Fig. 33, we can still observe the influence of Roman art, but thoroughly subservient to the Byzantine school of design. In Fig. 33, the volutes at FlG 33 the top of the column, the shape of the capital as it swells out to the abacus, and the general character of the 44 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. entire detail are strongly suggestive of its Roman- Corinthian origin; but the strictly conventional treatment of the leaves, the character of the scroll around the abacus, and the bind- ing together of the ornament in the construction show plainly the influence of the work in the East. Fig. 34 is another example of Byzantine capital, from Italy, and is even more freed from Roman influence than that of the previous example. The long elliptical curves formed by the leaves, the sharp-pointed lobes, and the deep indentations are all suggestive of its Byzantine origin, while the little row of dentils so uselessly arranged around the top show the difficulty of producing any work in Italy without some taint of classic spirit. 43. The running- ornament is illustrated in Fig. 35, which example is taken from the same church as Fig. 32, where the leaf form is thoroughly conventional, and, though FIG. 34. FIG. 35. tending slightly toward a scroll, is governed by a continuous wavy line, from opposite sides of which the leaf forms branch. Fig. 36 is an example of geometrically arranged running ornament from Hagia Sophia. The main geometrical forms, as will be observed, are circles, but these circles are not formed complete in themselves, but result from the crossing HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 45 and intersection of two wavy lines precisely the same in general character as the wavy line that forms the governing- element of Fig. 35. Instead of branching foliage from oppo- FlG. 3f>. site sides of the lines, in the latter case, however, geometrical figures are arranged within, and foliated forms that have the cross of St. George for their guiding element are used to form prominent details of the design. 44. Going back again now to the church of St. Mark, built in the eleventh century, we have a wall decoration 46 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. between two arches, shown in Fig. 37. Tracing out the outline of this running surface ornament, it will be observed that the same wavy line governs its principle and direction, as in the case of Fig. 35 ; but a close study will show that the branching of leaves from one side is accompanied by a branch from the opposite side, so near that the general feeling is of a scroll growing out of a scroll, somewhat after the order of classic art. Above this ornament, however, the semi- circular ring is ornamented by geometrical devices within a governing outline, precisely similar to that seen at Hagia Sophia, Fig. 36, In all these examples, the student will observe that the character of the leaf is particularly uniform, that it is in the principle of the decoration that we find the greatest variation, and that the variation in this character only amounts to a greater or lesser display of oriental or classic influence. FIG. 38. 45. Examples of Byzantine art found in "Greece are usually purer than any found in Italy, as Roman art and influence never secured a thoroughly characteristic foothold in the conquered country. Byzantine art was built on Greek HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 47 art in the first place, and examples of it on Greek soil are usually of excellent character. Besides this, Greek examples have not been mutilated by Mohammedan invasion to the extent that we find them in other eastern countries, and the color treatment and contrast can be best studied there. 46. Ceiling Decoration. Fig. 38 shows an example of ceiling decoration from the church of St. George at Thessa- lonica. The circular ornament within the border was exe- cuted in red on a blue ground, though the hollow-sided square in the center of it was gold, as were also the triangles at the four corners. The peculiar outline of the device adja- cent to the four sides of the interior rectangle is suggestive of Arabian origin, and is exceedingly ingenious in its method of preserving symmetry and preventing awkward repetition. The border around this was executed entirely in gold on a blue ground, with the exception of the extreme outside line, which was red. 47. Wall Decoration. Fig. 39 is an example of wall FIG. 39. decoration from the same edifice, the rectangles and circles containing the leaves and crosses, all being worked with a 4S HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 plain gold round, while the figures and half of the smaller crosses were green and the outlines of the larger crosses and the remaining smaller crosses were red. The effect is very rich, and the arrangement of the rectangles and smaller circles shows a knowledge of surface division that is well carried into effect. The student's attention is particularly called to the fact that the .shape of the groundwork between the rectangles is also crucial, and that every effort is made to bring that symbolic detail into prominent display. 48. In giving examples of Byzantine ornament, nothing could be more characteristic than the stone panels herewith illustrated. The style of the ornament itself, the character of the carving, and the development of the geometrical pat- tern are all details that are shown here in a most character- istic Byzantine form. FIG. 40. 49. The pierced screen shown in Fig. 40 is from Ravenna, and illustrates the geometrical pattern based on an arrangement of circles (somewhat after the style of the Celtic ornament), in which is carved the typical Byzantine HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 49 leaf. The cross outlined in the center was emphasized in the original by a plating of gold, and the spaces around the foliage were filled with birds whose peculiar modeling and conventional outline is characteristic of the Byzantine style. Another characteristic of the style, shown clearly in this illustration, is the sharp angular cutting of the leaves, the deep circular and elliptical openings between the lobes of two adjacent leaves, and the tendency of the whole panel to appear in high relief on a dark ground rather than to be pierced through entirely. In Fig. 41 is shown another screen of the same character, where the interlaced bands that form the geometrical outline FIG. 41. of the foliated ornament were originally gilded, and the leaf forms carved between them are similar to those in Fig. 40. 5O. Fig. 42, however, shows a trend in a different direc- tion. Here the openings in the screen are larger, the exterior portion of it being outlined with a design undoubtedly derived from the Grecian fret, while in the center a large Latin cross divides the panel into four smaller rectangles, 50 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. each filled with a particular device symbolic of Christianity and characteristic of the Byzantine style. Observe also the running; foliage around this panel, and its branching leaves and fruit, alternately from opposite sides, and note the differ- FlG. 42. ence between this style of treating foliage and that of the Roman and Greek artists, where continuous foliage was accomplished by growing one spray or stem out of a calyx or cup from which a scroll emanated. 51. The capital of the column shown in Fig. 43 is also from Ravenna, and the peculiar looking birds on the upper part, as well as the sharply indented foliage, are character- istic of this style. Here, also, is seen that same geometrical pattern as the governing outline to which we called atten- tion in Fig. 40, and also the wandering-vine border line, HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 51 throwing off its leaves on alternate sides in a similar manner to the outline in Fig. 42. That the capital of the column is cut in full relief is clearly shown by the fact that the light shines through the screen work on to the stone interior, as may be seen. This style of capital will be found throughout Northern Italy where FIG. 48. any example of Byzantine style exists. The dark portions of it were originally gilded, and must certainly have pre- sented a most remarkable effect. 52. Turning to St. Mark's, at Venice, Fig. 44, we find a frieze such as shown in Fig. 45, the lines of which are based on identically the same motives as the screens we HISTORIC ORNAMENT. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 53 have already studied; but the carving-, though in high relief, does not pierce the screen, and the border of the panel, as well as the treatment of the foliage within the panel, shows a highly developed Byzantine feeling. Observe, however, FIG. 45. the influence of its proximity to Rome on the treatment of the scroll forms. In the central part of the panel we do not have the running vine, with its leaves branching from each side, but a partly controlled tendency to grow one 54 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 scroll out of another a tendency that is so well kept in submission that it does not materially affect the delicacy of the design. In the same church, we find the panel shown in Fig. 46, the rounded forms of which are not often found in this style. Note, however, the severe conventionalism of the foliage treatment, and also the independence of the artist concerning the preservation of absolute symmetry. On one side, the vine runs off the panel both at the top and edge, and, on the other side, runs off the panel on the top only. One of the two central leaves extends over the molding of the panel frame ; the other is carved entirely within it. 53. In Fig. 47 is shown a well at Venice, the details of which illustrate clearly the strong, bold, outline effect char- acteristic of Byzantine carving. The guilloche border around the top and the leaves patterned after inverted anthemions are suggestive of classic origin, but are treated with such HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 55 strong Byzantine effect that the classic taint is fairly obliterated. 54. Ingenuity of Byzantine Ornament. The geo- metrical arrangements in Byzantine ornament are exceed- ingly ingenious, and especially remarkable in mosaic work, FIG. 47. the monotony of which they destroy by well planned and complicated constructions based usually upon a variation of the straight line and the right angle. In Fig. 48 is shown one of the doorways in the cathedral of Monrcale, near Palermo, around which mosaic patterns are inlaid in the jambs and also in the flanking walls. The pattern of this mosaic is typical of examples of that art in the Byzantine style, as the Byzantine mosaics can nearly always be distinguished from the Roman mosaics by the 56 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. fact that the geometrical construction forms an integral part of the design. There is one style of this mosaic ornament that is also typical of the Romanesque period, particularly FIG. 48. in Italy. This consists of a geometrical arrangement of lozenge-shaped pieces of glass in a complicated series of diagonal lines, the directions of which are defined and terminated by means of pieces in different colors. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 57 The examples of this work in Central Italy are much simpler than those of the southern provinces of Sicily, where the influences of Saracenic art are very much felt; and this mosaic work, as observed in the southern provinces, is very difficult to classify positively, either in the Romanesque or the Byzantine style. 58 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 55. In Fig. 49 are shown some clustered columns from the cathedral of Monreale. One group of four columns is richly carved with the interlaced ornament so familiar in the examples of Byzantine art, while the adjacent columns, inlaid with zigzag lines of mosaic, are more suggestive of Roman- esque art, and the capitals and bases of both sets of columns are more in accordance with the Romanesque idea than with the Byzantine. This, however, may be largely accounted for when we consider that both styles were merged together in Sicily at about the close of the twelfth century, and the examples in Figs. 48 and 49 are here given in order that the similarity of styles may be carefully studied. 56. Sculpture in Byzantine Art. Pure Byzantine ornament is distinguished by broad-toothed and acute- pointed leaves, which in sculpture are beveled at the edge and are deeply chiseled throughout and drilled with deep holes at the springings of the teeth. The running foliage is generally thin and continuous. The ground, whether in mosaic or painted work, is almost universally gold. Thin interlaced patterns are usually preferred to geometrical designs, and the introduction of animal or other figures is very limited, especially in sculpture, and in painted work is confined principally to holy subjects in a stiff conventional style, exhibiting little variety of feeling. In fact, in Byzan- tine art, sculpture is a very secondary importance. 57. Sculpture in Romanesque Art. Romanesque ornament, on the other hand, depended mostly on sculpture for its effect. It is rich in light and shade, deep cuttings and massive projections, and a great intermixture of figure subjects of every kind with foliage and conventional orna- ment. The place filled by mosaic work in the Byzantine art, in the Romanesque is supplied generally by paint. In colored ornament, animals are as freely introduced as in sculpture, and the ground no longer confined to gold, but composed of blue, red, or green. In other respects, how- ever, the two styles are very much alike. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 59 ASIATIC OKNAME:NT. 58. Characteristics of the People. Before studying the style of the ornament of this section of the eastern hemisphere, let us consider how different are the character- istics of this people from the European nations whose ornament we have so far analyzed. Oriental people are traditionally immobile in character and unprogressive in their methods of business and manufacture. The processes of weaving, carving, and other practices of art design are trans- mitted carefully and faithfully in the oriental nations from generation to generation, and it is therefore practically impossible to assign a precise date to any one production, so similar are the designs. The study of oriental art is there- fore freed from any minute chronological examination, and the student is able to consider the subject in a broad sense, considering only primary and original styles that predomi- nate over lesser divisions and personal modifications. These styles can be divided into three general groups: (1) Chinese and Japanese, (2) Indian, and (3) Arabian. CHINESE AND JAPANESE ORNAMENT, 59. The Chinese are a nation of great antiquity, and we can discover no detail of art training that they have ever given to or received from any other civilization. This nation has been ever satisfied with itself, and this lack of progression and consequent isolation have given it an originality of character devoid of any detail that we find of the art works of other nations, unless we except those general geometrical formations that instinct seems to have implanted uniformly in the minds of every known race. GO. Prlinltlveiiess of Chinese Ornament. Chinese ornament does not seem to have gone beyond the very earliest stages of design that we find among the most prim- itive people. They are even behind the New Zealander in CO HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 their theory of applied art, and are plodding along- in the creation of fresh designs at a fixed point that is neither pro- gression nor retrogression. Like all oriental nations, they possess a wonderful faculty of color harmony, but they have never expressed an appreciation of pure form a condition that must necessarily be arrived at by a subtle process and result from highly endowed natural instincts, or from the development of primitive ideas through successive gen- erations of artists, each improving on the work of its predecessor. In their decorative and woven patterns, the Chinese pos- sess only just such talent as might be expected of a most primitive people. Their most successful efforts are those in which a geometrical pattern forms the basis of a design, and even in these they depart from patterns formed by the inter- section of equal lines, and seem to have a very imperfect idea of the distribution of space. Their taste for color, which amounts almost to an instinct, enables them in some measure to balance form, but in designs deprived of color they seem to be almost helpless. The Chinese are certainly colorists, and are able to balance with equal success both the fullest tones of color and the most delicate shades. They are not only successful' in the use of the primary colors, but also in the secondaries and tertiaries, and they are particularly deft in their management of the lighter shades of pure color, such as pink, light blue, pale green, etc. (>i. Lack of Idealism in Chinese Ornament. In their printed paper hangings, the treatment of both figures and landscape and of ornament is so conventional that, no matter how inartistic we may consider it, we feel that it is within the bounds of decoration. In all cases, their instinct thus restrains them within the true limit, and although the arrangement is generally unnatural and inartistic, they never by shades or shadows violate consistency, as is repeatedly clone in work at the present day. In their floral patterns, they always observed natural laws 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 61 of radiation from the parent stem, and tangential curvature. It could not very well be otherwise with a people like the Chinese, whose strongest peculiarity is their fidelity in copy- ing, and hence we must infer that they are close observers of nature. It is the taste to idealize on this close observa- tion that is wanting. On the whole, Chinese ornament is a very faithful expression of the nature of this peculiar people. Its characteristic feature is oddness. We cannot call it capricious, for caprice is a playful wandering of a lively imagination ; but the Chinese imagination is disorderly, and all their works are wanting in the highest grace of art, namely, idealism. 62. Dearth of Chinese Architecture. The extreme fancifulness of Chinese ornamental compositions, and the lack of order or method in them, is not surprising when we take into consideration the fact that the Chine.se have never developed anything worthy of the name of architecture in the true sense of the word. They have no original form of construction that would be likely to give rise to a system of ornament in which even the most insignificant designs have been known to assume character and even grandeur, as is so well exemplified in Egyptian style. 63. The absence of a national architecture renders the character and genius of the Chinese easily understood. To this people, that seems to occupy itself with naught but details in everything, the conception of a monumental building is entirely beyond comprehension. Certainly, this circumstance is largely responsible for the condition of the Chinese today and the rudimentary character of their designs. The first element of beauty in the Chinese school of art is variety, and in their foliated designs we find leaves following one after another bearing not the slightest resemblance to one another. One panel of a screen painted with a land- scape will be set beside another ornamented with metallic arabesques. The use of straight lines and right angles is 62 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 either studiously avoided or so disguised that they will be vague or misunderstood. 64. Chinese Coloring. That the Chinese imagination is of a disorderly character is shown in some of their curiously shaped forms; these are so entirely different from those with which we are more familiar, and so completely destitute of the elements that cause an impression of grandeur, that the interest in their designs is with difficulty maintained. The Chinese are apparently ignorant of the simplest laws of perspective, and seem in no way to comprehend the effect of light and shade. Notwithstanding this inferiority, however, the coloring of their ornament is so rich, and their imagina- tion is so wild and irregular, that they make a varied and charming use of their ornament in particular applications, such as ceramics, incrustations, and woven fabrics. Their productions are models of color harmony, and are in some respects superior to the works of other nations. The very defects in their designs form sources of some of the good qualities that accompany them, and the capricious activity of their minds inclines them to make an ornament of every- thing, whether it be a cloud, wave, shell, rock, or form from the animal world. The bright-colored butterfly flitting among flowers and the .laming thunderbolt bursting from the heavens are of equa; importance to the Chinese artist when applied to a surface as ornament. To these rich and varied resources may be added a limited number of time-honored figures that, to a certain extent, have symbolical significance. We are all familiar with the Chinese dragons those monsters with frightful heads, formidable looking teeth, and fearful claws certain funny looking dogs with claws, sharp teeth, and curling mains somewhat resembling the lion, grotesque birds, and the mandarin duck, all of which are conspicuous in Chinese decoration. f>5. Adherence to Standard Forms. A peculiarchar- acteristic of this art is that, though it appears in itself so 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 63 capricious, its execution expresses such faithfulness of trans- mission in the representation of things from generation to generation that the lapse of hundreds of years has not caused the slightest modification of one of these standard ornaments. This may be due to the effect of the imitative instinct of this isolated nation that, so advanced in some points and so primitive in others, is always consistent in itself. It is possible, however, that this fidelity in the observance of the form and coloring of some preceding work is due to some mysterious rules some sort of ritual perpetuated through various ages. Ancient laws and customs established certain rules governing the color of the robes and vestments of the imperial court, according to different dynasties; once it was white, afterwards green, and the -Tai Tasig dynasty, now reigning in China, dresses in yellow. Chinese art is a mixture of ideal and imitative elements, the latter being used in the most conventional manner, the coloring of which is also conventional and not in the least subject to any imitation of nature. 66. Japanese Art, though borrowed from the Chi- nese, possesses much greater individuality and is better preserved to the present day. The Japanese have devel- oped the study of nature, especially in birds, with more truthfulness and power of observation than did their ances- tors or rivals, and their imitative style is therefore less conventional. However, even though their delicate pro- ductions have added fresh charms to the old Chinese cer- amics, they are not equal to the figures of the work of the finest periods. One of the principal causes of the general progress of Japanese art may be found in the fact that a great profusion of examples of design of all sorts, conceived by good artists and carved in wood, are so distributed as to be constantly before the general public. Therein lies an element of prog- ress, as it cultivates a taste for objects of art among the common people and creates a demand. When all objects and utensils of service and utility are richly carved and 64 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 decorated with ornamental designs, the eye is bound to become educated and the general taste of the people more refined. This is strongly exemplified in the Egyptian civilization. INDIAN ORNAMENT. 67. Unxn'ogressiveness of Indian Art. Although less isolated than China, and in more frequent communication with the rest of the world, Indian civilization has not experienced such changes as mark the history of many other nations. The social and religious organizations, the priests, and castes of people, the sacred books and poetry, and the manners, customs, and superstitions remain today much as they were among the Hindus hundreds of years ago. Art naturally has shared in this standstill, and the sub- stance of Indian decoration is still limited to a few general features that for many centuries have undergone no funda- mental alteration. The most striking of these characteristics are the continuity and abundance of decoration. The sur- face decoration is usually filled up entirely with a profusion of ornamental forms that, if not exactly alike, are very similar. The ground color is always warm and harmonious occa- sionally light, though more frequently dark which serves to unite the designs and add greatly to the general effect. (58. The method of distribution and the admirable feel- ing for color procures in Indian decoration a richness and calm that gives it an undefinable sense of repose. The tendency of the style toward monotony is overcome by this powerful unity that leaves no room for desire or need of greater variety. The designs are usually based on some floral type and are treated in a most conventional manner, and though the imitation bears a closer resemblance to nature than in most of the styles we have studied, it is by no means servile. The type from which an ornament is derived can usually be recognized without trouble, and, although floral ornament is occasionally seen under the pure art form g 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 65 characteristic of the Egyptian style, it is usually treated with a pliancy of execution and picturesqueness of idea that brings it to a closer resemblance to the modern style. 69. In the execution, however, Indian art never attempts the rounding of a form (a process that is naturally opposed to the idea of surface decoration), and usually con- fines itself to silhouette drawings, in which the outline is shown off by a dark tint on light grounds or by a lighter tint on dark grounds. 70. Characteristics of Indian Ornament. Indian ornament possesses the valuable characteristic of being dis- tinctively original. It has been allowed to grow up and develop itself without any foreign influence or conflicting ideas of religion. In the application of ornament to the various portions of an object, the greatest judgment is, in this style, always shown. In the first place, the ornament is always in perfect scale with the position that it occupies. On the long narrow necks of the hookas are the small pendant flowers, as shown in Fig. 50, while the swelling form toward the base is occupied with larger patterns. 71. In the equal distribution of surface orna- ment over the grounds, this nation exhibits a remarkable perfection of drawing. An exact balance is obtained between the various colors used, and this balance is carried to such a nicety that it is practically impossible to reproduce any of their woven or embroidered goods with any degree of accuracy. In all their woven fabrics, the colors are so fused together that the entire piece of goods at a little distance presents no individual coloring, but a neutralized bloom. 72. The following general rules observed in the designs of their woven fabrics are of importance: 06 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 J. When gold ornaments are used on a colored ground, or where gold is used in large masses, there the ground is darkest. Where gold is used more thinly, the ground is lighter and moi'e delicate. 2. When gold ornament is used alone on a colored ground, the color of the ground is carried into it by ornaments or hatchings worked on the ground colors in the gold itself. 3. When ornaments in one color are on a ground of con- trasting color, the ornament is separated from the ground by an edging of a lighter color to prevent all harshness of contrast. 4. When, on the contrary, ornaments in a color are on a gold ground, the ornaments are separated from the gold ground by an edging of darker color to prevent the gold from overpowering the ornament. 5. In other cases where varieties of color are used on a colored ground, a general outline of gold, of silver, or of white or yellow silk separates the ornament from the ground, giving a general tone throughout. 73. In Fig. 51 is shown a diaper pattern taken from an Indian textile, and exhibits the regularity of repeated form FIG. 51. that thoroughly fills up the surface, as heretofore described. There is a slight tendency toward a geometrical formation HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 67 observable in this pattern, where the wavy line becomes tangent to its neighbor. This geometrical pattern is not as rigidly carried out, however, as in Fig. 52, where the construction lines governing the main details consist merely of semi- circles connected by short straight lines, thereby forming knees, as indicated at a. The style of ornament enclosed in the geometrical figures thus formed is typical of Indian design, and shows a number of forms tangent to a general stem, all of which may have had their origin in brush strokes of painted work, or possibly in the shape of the palm leaf, which they slightly resemble. FlG- 52 _ 74. In Fig. 53 is shown a typical example of Indian ornament taken from a woolen fabric, many of the details of FIG. 53. which will be found similar to the strokes referred to in v<: FIG. 68. FIG. 69. of another primary element the inclined line. Now, add the third element the curved line as shown in Fig. 08, and the figure expresses complete harmony. In this case, the straight line or square is the leading form and the others are subordinate, but the same result can be obtained by making the inclined line the leading form, as shown in Fig. 60. 1O7. It is the neglect of this simple rule that causes so many failures in paper hangings and carpets, and more espe- cially in articles of dress. The lines of papers generally appear to run up through the ceiling most disagreeably in one direction only, carrying the eye right through the walls of the apartment. The study of any design or pattern that has been regarded with any degree of satisfaction in ancient times, will show, as component parts of its structure, the straight line, the curved line, and the inclined line characteristic of the surface decoration of the Moors. 1O8. Consistency of Moorish Oi'iinmeiit. In the decorative art of the Moors, all lines flow out from a parent 88 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 stem. Every ornament, no matter how remote, can be traced to its branch and root. An ornament is so adapted to the surface decorated that it often appears to suggest the general form rather than to have been suggested by it. In all cases where foliage flows out naturally from a parent stem, the eye is never offended as is done by modern practice in the random introduction of ornament without reason for its existence. However irregular the space they have to fill, the Moors commence by dividing it into equal areas, and around these they fill in their detail, but invariably return to their parent stem. They appear in this to work by a process analogous to that of nature. 1O9. Take, for instance, the leaf of a vine, the object here being to distribute the sap from the parent stem to the extremities; it is evident that the main stem should divide the leaf as nearly as possible into equal areas. So again with the minor divisions, each area is then again subdivided by intermediate lines that all follow the same law of equal distribution, even to the most minute filling in of the stem feeders. HO. The Moors follow another principle that of radi- ation from the parent stem as may be seen in a chestnut leaf, wherein the leaflets all radiate from the parent stem, each leaflet diminishes in size toward the extremities, and each area is proportionate to the leaf. The Orientals carried out this principle with marvelous perfection, as did the Greeks in their honeysuckle ornament. A great difference between the Greek ornament and that of the Arabian and Moresque, however, is that the former grows its ornament scroll out of scroll as before explained, and the latter grow their ornaments off from each side of a continuous stem. With the Moors, all junctions of curved lines with curved lines, or curved with straight, are tangen- tial to one another. 111. Conventionalism In Moorish Ornament. A charm found in the works of the Arabs and Moors lies in 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 89 their conventional treatment of ornament. Their creed for- bade them to represent living forms, and, therefore, they could not let their art decline to realism even though they so desired. They worked on the same lines that nature worked, but always avoided a direct transcript ; they took her prin- ciples but they did not copy her works. Coloring In Moorish. Ornament. The coloring of the Moorish ornaments was treated as skilfully as was the form. They followed certain fixed principles founded on observations of natural laws. The colors employed on their stucco work were in all cases a combination of the three pri- maries blue, red, and yellow, the last being represented by gold and the secondary colors purple, green, and orange occurred only in the mosaic dados. These, being nearer the eye, formed a point of repose from the more brilliant color- ing above. 113. It may be remarked here that among the Egyp- tians, Greeks, Arabs, and Moors, the primary colors were used exclusively in the earliest period of the arts, and, during the decadence, the secondary colors were used. Thus, in Egypt, the temples of the Pharaonic period were painted entirely in primary colors, while those in the Ptolemaic period used the secondaries. The early Greek temples were deco- rated in the primary colors, while at Pompeii every variety of shade possible appears. In modern Cairo, and in the East generally, we have green appearing frequently side by side with red, where blue would have been used in the earlier times. This is equally true of the works of the Middle Ages. In the early manuscripts and in stained glass, the primary colors were chiefly used, although other colors were not entirely excluded, while, in later times, every variety of shade and tint is used indiscriminately, with preference for none. 1 14. In Moorish art, the primary colors were used in the upper portions of the design, and the secondary and tertiary colors on the lower portions. This is entirely in accordance with natural law. We have the primary bhie in the sky, the 90 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 secondary green in the trees and fields, and the tertiaries in the earth itself. It is also observable in flowers, where the primary colors are the buds and flowers, and the secondaries are the leaves and stalks. 115. The ancients always observed this rule in the best periods of art; though in Egypt we do occasionally see a secondary green used in the upper portions of a temple, but this arises from the fact that all ornament in Egypt was symbolic, and if a lotus leaf were used in the upper part of a building, it would necessarily be colored green. The law is true in general, and the aspect of an Egyptian temple of the Pharaonic period usually gives the primaries above the secondaries, while, in the Ptolemaic period, the order was inverted. In Pompeii, we occasionally find in the interior of the houses a gradual coloring, from the roof down, of a light to a darker color, ending with black, but this was by no means universal. 116. System of Moorish. Coloring. The system of Moorish coloring might be considered absolutely perfect. All the surfaces were modeled and proportioned according to the color they were to receive, and, in using the colors blue, red, and gold, they took care to place them in such positions that they should be best seen themselves and add most to the general effect. On molded surfaces they placed red (the strongest color of the three) in the depths, where it might be softened by shadow, and never on a raised surface; blue was placed in the shade, but not deep shade ; and gold on all the surfaces exposed to strong light, for it was evi- dent that by this arrangement alone could their true value be obtained. The several colors are either separated by white bands or by the shadow caused by the relief of the ornament itself, and this seems to be an absolute principle required in coloring colors should never be allowed to impinge on one another. 117. In Fig. 70, the background , on which the orna- ment is placed, was of a deep-red color, while the leaf forms b 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 01 were colored with the primary blue. All the rest of the surface, including the necks of the columns, was gold, and a grand harmonious bloom was spread over the whole design. 118. Blending of Colors. In coloring the grounds of the various diapers, the blue always occupies the largest area, and this is in accordance with the theory in optics and the experiments that have been made with the prismatic spectrum. Rays of light are said to neutralize one another in the proportion of 3 yellow, f> red, and 8 blue. Thus, it will be seen that a quantity of blue equal to the sum total of the required quantity of red and yellow will produce an effect of harmony and prevent the predominance of any one color 92 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. over the others. In the Alhambra, yellow was replaced by gold, which tended toward a reddish yellow, and the blue on this account was further increased in proportion, to counteract the tend- ency of the red to over- KINMNNNHX XTN N N x M power the other colors. X N N N X X N X KX.MMMM 119 ' Moorish oma - ment is governed by cer- xlKNNNMMXXK W 1OOI tain geometrical patterns in its formation, although the number of these ":A'~X:X;:X;:X*A'~X~A'-X-A'~X-:S ; patterns is small. In */ ** * x^/^w* * x x ' -i^- wi 1 K'-^-X-K^.~-K~-X-K-X-X'-K'-^' : Fig. 71 is shown an in- terlaced pattern consist- FIG. 71. ing, first, of vertical and horizontal lines arranged in pairs, the distance between each pair being twice the dis- tance between the lines composing each pair; second, of diag- onal lines drawn through the pattern at an angle ot /I r\rvi -i [xrxix^i [xfxixi i\.ry 45, and spaced a distance apart equal to the verti- cal and horizontal pairs. The diagonal lines are arranged so that the set of squares formed by their intersection will contain in their centers the inter- section of the vertical and horizontal pairs. ISO. In Fig. 72 is shown a slight variation FIG. 72. of this same interlaced pattern, wherein the vertical and horizontal lines are drawn singly and the diagonal lines are drawn in pairs, but of 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 93 slightly different proportion from Fig. 71. The amount of Moorish ornament that can be developed from these two figures is unlimited, and the Moors themselves extended even this limit by the variety of coloring in the different parts. Figs. 73 and 74 are based on the system shown in Fig. 71, and Figs. 75 and 76 are developed from the system shown FIG. 73. in Fig. 72. A slight variation of the systems themselves will produce most remarkable results in the figures. FIG. 74. 121. However much disguised, the whole ornamen- tation of the Moors is constructed geometrically. Their 94 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 fondness for geometrical forms is evinced by the great use of mosaics, in which their imagination had full play. FIG. 75. However complicated may be their patterns, they are all extremely simple when the principle of setting them is once understood. The} 1 all arise from the intersection of equally distant lines around fixed centers. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 95 WESTERN ABT. CEI/TIC ORNAMENT. 122. Origin and Character. In studying the orna- ment of Western Europe, we follow a chronological order instead of an ethnological one, as we have been doing here- tofore, the history of ornament in this section being pro- gressive and free from outside influences except to a very limited extent. When Byzantine art spread over Western Europe, as it did about the twelfth century, it must have found among the nations of Celtic origin an indigenous art, arising from the peculiar aptitudes of that race. The Celts undoubtedly had a spontaneous national art, though its birthplace, whether in Scandinavia or Ireland, has never been satisfac- torily decided. 123. Interlacing forms almost the only element of the Celtic designs of the earlier period, and this establishes its antiquity, for the intertwining ornament is essentially a primitive style. Its distinctive mark is the division of the surface, decorated by such a combination of lines that the development is usually happy, possible, and logical, and there is no doubt that the origin of these designs was pro- cured originally from interlaced cords. The pliability of this original type would account for the curved instead of acute angles, this being a characteristic difference between the Celtic and Arabian geometrical designs. 124. The variety of productions obtainable from such simple elements is remarkable. In many of them the com- plications prove, by their skilful divisions, and the ingenuity of the windings, a practical comprehension of ornamental construction. There is lacking, however, in this style, a vital element the element of more extensive representation and its resources were threatened with exhaustion from 96 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 having used every possible combination of the intertwinings of a cord. Introduction of Animal Forms. In combi- nation with Byzantine art, Celtic ornament advanced in style. A portion of the original interlacings was still retained, and for the discarded part was substituted the stem from which sprang the leafwork and terminated in floral spans. Having thus attained some decorative richness, the Celtic style rose to the level of art ; at the same time, the differ- ence already mentioned between it and purely geometric conceptions, such as are usually found in Arabian decora- tions, became more striking, from the frequent introduction of the heads of quadrupeds and birds, serving as terminals to some of the principal lines that were made to represent bodies elongated out of all just proportion or probability, and from which emerge feet and claws corresponding with the head. Such as they are, these fantastic and grotesque images constitute a separate art that the interlacings alone could never have reached. 126. Distinguishing Characteristics. The chief characteristics of the early Celtic style consist : first, of the entire absence of foliage or other vegetable ornament; sec- ond, the extreme intricacy and excessive minuteness and elaboration of the various patterns, most of which are geo- metrical, consisting of interlaced ribbon work, diagonal or spiral lines each of which invariably wove itself alternately above and below each successive transverse strand strange, monstrous animals, and birds with long topknots and tongues and tails intertwining in almost endless knots. Some of the manuscripts have entire pages covered with elaborate pat- terns in compartments, the whole forming a beautiful cruci- form design, and one of these facing a commencement of each of the four gospels. The labor employed in such a mass of work must have been immense, the care most infinite, as a critical HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 97 examination with a magnifying, glass does not detect an error in the truth of the lines or the regularity of the interlacings; yet with all this minuteness, the most harmonious effect of coloring has been produced. 127. Intricacy of Design. Of the curious intricacy of some of these designs an idea may be ob- tained by following a ribbon in one of these patterns, as, for instance, in the upper compartment of Fig. 77. The method adopted to FIG. n. secure this intricate interlacing, so that each strap shall alternately cross above and below each following one, can be better understood by reference to Fig. 78, where the preliminary arrange- ment of a woven pattern is laid out at (a) and the turning and joining of its exterior ends are shown at (#), while 08 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. at (r) is seen the completed interlacement and complication of interior curves and returnings. FIG. 79. Sometimes two ribbons run parallel to each other, but are interlaced alternately, as in Fig. 79. When allowable, the FIG. 80. ribbon is dilated and angulated to fill up particular places in the design, as in Fig. 80. The simplest modification of this pattern, of course, is the double oval seen in the angles of Fig. 81. This occurs in Greek and Syr- ian manuscript, in Roman tessellated pavements, but rarely in Celtic manu- script. 128. Symbolism. No symbolic meaning seems to have been at- tached to the Celtic orna- FIG. si. ments, except perhaps in the designs so frequently found without beginning or end, in which appears what might be a symbol of eternity. 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 00 The union of the Celtic and Byzantine styles did not entirely give way to the Gothic style with which it long existed. It furnished types for the finest ornamentation of glass and manuscripts, that in this period, from the eleventh to the fourteenth century, resembles stained glass on a reduced scale. GOTHIC OKNAMTCNT. 129. involution. Gothic art grew out of and suc- ceeded the Romanesque in Western Europe in the same manner that the Byzantine did in the East. Each was the result of an attempt to adapt a modified Roman style to the new conditions caused by political, religious, and geograph- ical changes. In Western Europe, however, the Roman- esque style failed to develop into a new architectural system until about the middle of the tenth century, while the Byzantine became a perfect style of art before the close of the sixth century. ISO. Influence of Religion. Gothic art in every par- ticular was directly opposed to classic art, not only because it was developed by the nations that had conquered Rome, but because it was a Christian art, in opposition to a pagan art, and its architecture was based on an economical system of construction, while that of classic Rome was an extrava- gant construction. Its greatest monuments were built to the glorification of the Supreme Being, while those of Roman art were for the glorification of the empire. It is not surprising, therefore, to find the best and purest exam- ples of Gothic art in localities most distant from Rome, and, as we gradually approach the south of Europe, we find Gothic ornament tainted more and more with classic influ- ence until, in Italy, the examples are so different in feeling and expression from those we find in England that they constitute almost an entirely different style. In PYance, the style is not as pure as in England, but it contains none of the extreme variations seen in Italy, and being patterned HISTORIC ORNAMENT. more or less after the English examples, derives what good it has from that country. 131. German and English Gothic. In Germany, Gothic art was copied from the French, and carried the imperfec- tions of the French style to a still lower degree, and its entrance into Italy from Germany renders its condition in the seat of the old Roman Empire so debased that it possesses none of the underlying prin- ciples of the pure Gothic style. English-Gothic ornament may be di- vided into three general periods, each associated approximately with the cen- tury of its greatest development. These periods are called the Early English, or thirteenth century, the Decorated, or fourteenth century, and the Perpendicular, or fifteenth century. FIG. 83. FIG. 84. Generally speaking, the Early English period is char- acterized . architecturally by long, narrow, lancet-shaped HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 101 windows arranged in groups of two or three, as shown in Fig. 82, the space between the openings usually containing a third perforation in the form of a trefoil or quaterfoil included under the same dripstone as the window opening. The mullions, or bars, separating the window openings were, toward the latter part of this period, split to form a network in the upper part of the window, called tracery, as shown in Fig. 83. This tracery was greatly elaborated as the style advanced, and filled the upper portion of the window with a complicated series of geometrical forms that were frequently richly elaborated with a ball-flower orna- ment, as shown in Fig. 84. 132. The Ball-Flower Ornament. The ball-flower ornament is characteristic of the Decorated period, and FIG. 85. consists of conventionalized floral forms nearly spherical in shape, a detail of which is shown in Fig. 85. They were not always used to such an excess as is shown in Fig. 84, and were inserted un- der the dripstone at regular inter- vals, as shown in Fig. 86, which is a sedile, or seat, sometimes built in the interior walls of a church. The dripstones of this period usually terminated at each end in the carved head of some person of prominence, such as the king or bishop, as shown in Fig. 84. As we approach the Perpendicular period, the lines of 1-1. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. tracery are still more complicated but arranged more in perpendicular pan- els, the horizontal elements being sup- pressed as much as possible. 13:$. Designs for "W i nd o w Heads. All these designs for window heads were worked out on simple geo- metrical combina- tions, as shown in Fig. 87, which is a window with six days, or openings, divided in two groups of three each by means of pointed FIG. 87. FIG. 88. II 1STOR 1C ORNAMENT. 103 arches shown at b a c and c d t\ over which a circle is struck, with its center at o, whose diameter is equal to half the width of the window, and its circumference is divided into twelve parts, as shown at 1, 2, 3, h etc. Within each of these parts, small circles, tangent to one another and to the circumference of the great circle, are described, and form the generating elements of the interior design. FIG. 89. This example is given with its construction lines simply to show how these details are geometrically worked out. All the elements of the design can be located and executed by means of a pair of compasses and a straightedge, without any other device to lay off measurements. The lower part of these windows on the exterior, during the Perpendicular period, as said before, were divided into 104 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 105 long panels, the total window opening usually being of immense area, as shown in Fig. 88, which is the west front of St. George's Chapel, at Windsor. This also shows the general exterior appearance of the Gothic architecture of Great Britain, and, with the west front of Westminster Abbey, shown in Fig. 89, will be interesting to compare FIG. 92. with the Gothic art of other countries, which we will con- sider hereafter. 134. Freiu'H AVimlow Tracery. In France, the progress of window tracery was similar to that of Eng- land, but on less systematic lines, and the doors and win- dows tend more to rich elaboration on the exterior, usu- ally being carved with full-length human figures, as shown in Fig. 90, which is one of the entrance doors to the church of Notre Dame, Paris, the full front elevation of which is shown in Fig. HI. A comparison of Fig. 01 IOC HISTORIC ORNAMENT. with the two examples of English Gothic will be interest- ing, showing the tendency of the latter to vertical lines more characteristic of the Gothic style, and of the French to horizontal lines influenced by its closer proximity to classic art. 1 35. (iothie Architecture in Italy. In Italy, Gothic architecture is unique, and though the Palazzo Vecchio, FIG. 93. at Florence, shown in Fig. 92, possesses the crude, bold, unassuming construction of the early Gothic castles, it scarcely represents the fundamental principle on which the Italian design is developed. It is in Venice that we find more elaborate examples, where window tracery is carried to a most fanciful extreme. The Foscari Palace, shown in Fig. '.):>, shows the gradual HISTORIC ORNAiMENT. 107 development of this window treatment, which seems to con- stitute the entire idea of the Italian-Gothic style. In the FIG. 94. lower story we have the plain ogfival arch, and in the central portions of the second and third stories, small colonnades, 108 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 connected by pointed arches, and in the upper of the two with pointed arches, separated by plate tracery. In the top story, this tracery is carried to an elaborate extreme. This system of treatment, though based on entirely different structural ideas from the Gothic of the North, brought about many happy results, however, and the palace of Con- tarini Fasan, also known as the House of Desdemona, shown in Fig. 94, exhibits how adaptable the style of this Vene- tian work is to modern requirements by the careful pro- portioning and grouping of its parts and treatment of its details. It is not in the exterior of these buildings that we find the most of value to us in ornamental design, except possibly in Venetian work; therefore, the treatment of the interior details we will now consider in regular order, having under- stood the transition in style that took place from the British Isles to the Italian peninsula. 136. Evolution of Gothic Ornament. The transi- tion of the round arch, characteristic of the Romanesque style, to the pointed arch, characteristic of the Gothic style, is easily traced in buildings where the two styles are inter- mingled, many of these being extant about the beginning ot the thirteenth century, as shown in Fig. 95, which is taken from an arcade of Canterbury Cathedral, in England. But the passage from Romanesque ornament to that of the Gothic period is by no means so easily traced. All traces of the acanthus leaf have by this time disap- peared, and we find a purely conventional style of ornament prevalent in all buildings of the time. The nearest approach to the acanthus formation we find in the illuminated manu- scripts of the twelfth century, where ornamental forms, such as shown in Fig. 96, are used, and appear to have been derived from some old Greek manuscripts, as Gothic orna- ments are formed by a continuous stem throwing off leaves on the outer side and terminating in a flower. Early English ornament is the most perfect, both in prin- ciple and in execution, of all the Gothic period. There is as HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 10ft much elegance in distinct modulations of form as there is in the ornament of the Greeks. It is always in harmony with the structural features of the building, and always grows FIG. 95. naturally from them. It fulfils every one of the conditions that we desire to find in a perfect style of art, but it remained perfect only so long as the style remained conventional. As the style became less idealized and more direct in imitation, it ceased to be an ornament of structural features, but became ornament applied. 137. Characteristics. In the capitals of the columns of Early English architecture, the ornament rises directly from the shaft, above the neck- ing of which the column splits FIG. 96. J10 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. into a series of stems, eaeli stem terminating in a flower, as shown in Fig. I) 7. This is analogous to the mode of deco- rating the Egyptian eapital. In the decorated style, on the contrary, where a much nearer approacli to nature was attempted, it was no longer possible to treat a natural leaf as FIG. 98. part of the shaft, and therefore the shaft is terminated by a bell shape, around which the leaves are twined, and the more natural these were made, the less artistic became the arrangement, as shown in Fig. 98. This method of applying ornament reminds us of the Roman-Corinthian capital. FIG. 99. FIG. 100. In. the Perpendicular period, the capitals of the columns were usually plain, and the shaft consisted of a cluster of HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Ill small columns. In some large buildings, however, the capi- tals were carved with shallow foliage of a pronounced geometrical shape, as shown in Fig. 9!J. In foliage and running ornaments on bands and moldings, the Early English period shows examples where the lines of the ornament follow the general directions of the lines of the mold- ing, and the foliated work is conventionally rendered, but, at the same time, is graceful and natural, as shown in Fig. 100. In painted bands, the lines itsti- FlG 101 ally are easy and flow- ing, following the principle of carved work, as shown in Fig. 101. During the Decorated period, however, there is less effort made to continue the foliage in the direction of the molding, and the guiding stem fre- quently wanders directly across the molding, from one side to the other, pre- serving the governing principle of throwing leaves off alternately, but at the same time chopping the molding up into a number of sec- tions rather than giving it a feeling of continuity. In Fig. 102 is shown an example of molding from this period, where the guiding stem of the foliation crosses and rccrosses the molding almost at right angles to the line of its direction, and though the leaves are arranged to cover up this guiding HISTORIC ORNAMENT. stem to a certain extent, the fact still remains that its most prominent sections are seen across the molding, instead of flowing with it. 138. In the Perpendicular period, the system of decora- tion is still further removed from that of the Early English, and the molding is fre- quently divided up into a number of rectangular v V *5 nmm '? *jyPBS panels, each of which is decorated to represent fggjjiJBHBiegigiifiJljiijgttgBj^^ some specific natural FIO. \03. form, but so convention- alized as to be reduced to a pronounced geometrical outline. This is shown in Fig. 103, where the leaves of the grape vine are reduced to FIG. 104. perfect rectangles, spaced evenly along the molding, between which bunches of grapes are geometrically arranged. 1 39. Spandrels. In the Spandrels of the arches, so long as the conventionalism of the Early English style was maintained, one main stem was distributed over the panel, from which sprang leaves and flowers, as shown in Fig. 104; but as the style advanced the stem ceased to be the guiding FIG. 105. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. FIG. 106. form of the ornament, and, in the endeavor to represent in stone the softness of nature, lost all its grace and decorative characteristics. Finally, the stem as a leading feature dis- appears, and \ve find the spandrels filled with three immense leaves, springing from a twisted stem in the center, and bearing no structural relation to the panel on which they are planted, as shown in Fig. 105. 14O. Diapers. In the painted wall decora- tions and diapers, the Early English artists usually divided the surface into a number of geometrical forms within which a simple con- ventional ornament was introduced resembling tile work. The devices covering these ornaments were sometimes heraldic and other times based on forms borrowed from the vegetable world, as may be seen in Fig. 106. During the Decorated period, the wall divisions are less naturally divided, and circular disks, within which are stenciled geo- metrical patterns, are spread over a wall sur- face, and between them are arranged shields with coats of arms and other X* IG. 1U7. devices, as shown in Fig. 107. Another system prevalent in the Decorated period was to divide the wall into a number of bands, each of which 114 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. FIG. 108. was decorated with a running ornament, as shown in Fig. 108, where the character of this running ornament is not widely different from that seen in the Early English period, as shown in Fig. 101. How- ever, introduced with this foliation are forms from the animal world that seem to possess no relation to the design, or the ornament, or the posi- tion that they occupy. The diapers of the Perpendicular period are attempts at realism, and in Fig. 109 is shown a painted wall in which the pointed arch of ogival form and the foliations and crockets characteristic of the carved work of this period are attempted in the repro- duction on the flat surface. This form of arch, with its compound curve con- vex below and concave above is a distinguishing characteristic of the Per- pendicular period, as is also the subdivision of its under surface into the small arches or foliations, as shown. Within each of these panels (which in all work were long and nar- row, giving the style its name of Perpendicular), the wall was decorated in the conventional pattern 'as shown, and executed in two colors. Similar patterns were also used for silks, tapes- tries, and other fabrics of this period. FIG. 109. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 115 In Fig. 110 is shown another style of wall treatment of the Perpendicular period, where the surface remains flat and no attempt is made to depict arches or moldings bor- rowed from carved ornament, but details from the vegetable world are drawn realis- tically against a back- ground interspersed with conventionalized outlines of leaf forms. 141. Zenith of Architectural Devel- opment. In the thir- teenth century, beyond all others, architecture was at its zenith. The mosques of Cairo, the Alhambra in Spain, Westminster Abbey, and the Salisbury and Lincoln cathedrals, in England, all possess the same secret of producing the broadest general effect combined with the most elaborate decoration. In all these buildings there is a family like- ness ; although the forms differ and the forces that have called them into existence are totally unlike, yet the prin- ciples that they embrace arc the same. They all exhibit the same care for the leading masses of composition, the same appreciation of the undulations of form, the same correct observation of natural principles in the ornamentation, and the same elegance and refinement in all the decoration. The attempt to produce at the present day a building of the character of those in the thirteenth century would be vain indeed. Whitewashed walls with stained glass and encaustic tiles cannot alone sustain the effect that was arrived at when every molding had its color best .adapted to develop its form, when from the floor to the roof not an inch of space but that had its elaborate and appropriate ornament an FIG. no. 116 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. effect that must have been glorious beyond conception. In fact, so glorious a point, indeed, had the style reached that it exhausted itself by the effort ; the light burned out. Not only in architecture, but in all decorative arts that accom- panied it, immediately there began a decline a decline that never stopped until the Gothic style was dead. 142. Gothic Art in France. In France, the three periods of Gothic art are known by the terms : (1) Early French, corresponding in period with the Early English, but beginning a trifle later; (2) Rayonnant, meaning radi- ating, and corresponding with the Decorated period of English art; and (3) Flamboyant, meaning flame-like, and corresponding with the Perpendicular period of English art. 143. Early French Period. The Early French capital, though patterned after the Early English style, does not possess its most impor- tant characteristic that of the apparent spring- ing of the foliation from stems bound together at the neck of a column by a carved band. The capital in Fig. Ill pos- sesses the characteristic of having its foliage spring from the top of the column and spread out gracefully under the abacus that receives the weight from above, but this foliation seems to be planted on a surface, rather than to be forming a part and detail of the supporting member itself. FIG. 111. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 117 144. Hayommnt Period. In the liayoimant period, the capitals of the columns, like those of the Decorated period in England, are formed of bell shapes over which foliage is arranged; but, as shown in Fig. 112, the French arrangement is far infe- rior to the English, inas- much as no attempt is here made to have the foliage a part of the sup- porting construction. It is evident that the bell shape does the support- FlG. 112. ing of the superimposed load, and the carved vine is simply an ornament laid on the surface to break up its monotony. 145. Flamboyant Pe- riod. The Flamboyant style, shown in Fig. 113, carries this fault to still greater extent, and the twisted foliation is plainly planted on the bell shape, growing from nothing, supporting nothing, and apparently ready to drop off, as there is no reason why it should be left FIG. us. 118 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. FIG. 114. there. In Fig. 112 the vine is of a clinging- character and would naturally appear to attach itself to the capital, although it does not appear to grow naturally out of the shaft of the column in the manner characteristic of the foliage of the Early English capitals. In Fig. 113 the folia- tion is not only of no particular character, but it is simply "stuck on" with no origin and no struc- tural relation and con- veys no idea of fitness or propriety. In the running bands and moldings we find the same characteristics as those of England, but not so pure in form. In Fig. 114 the foli- ated forms, it will be observed, appear to be attached to and grow from the top and bot- tom members of the molding. The line of their growth is curved toward the center of the molding, but, at the same time, follows the line of the mold- ing itself and appears continuous with it ; while in the Rayonnant period, as shown in Fig. 115, the molding is divided up in sec- FlG 116 tions more like the Perpendicular period of England, and the leaves, though growing apparently from the stonework beneath them, are nevertheless stiff and FIG. 115. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 119 geometrical and do not appear to belong- to the surface on which they are placed. A characteristic of the Flamboyant style is seen in Fig. 110, where the guiding stem of the ornament that is carved on the molding is in some places clear from the molding itself, and though it shows great skill in the carving, exhibits little art in the design. The leaves and floral forms are twisted so that their ends repre- sent forked flames, from which the period gets its name, and there is no structural relation be- tween the foliation and its moldings. 146. Early French diapers divide the wall surface into geometrical forms in a mannersimilar to that in England, and stenciled within these figures are characteristic devices typical of the nation and the style. In Fig. 117 we have a wall divided intolozenge shapes by diagonal lines, within some of which flcurs-dc-lis are sten- ciled in gilt on a blue ground, while a simple foliated outline is sten- ciled within the others on a gold ground. In Fig. 118 is shown a more complicated de sign based on the inter- section of a number of FIG. ns. circles whose centers FIG. 117. 120 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. are found at the intersections of evenly spaced vertical and horizontal lines. In this case, the ground of the decoration is pink, and the outlines of the subdivision and the stenciled forms within them are in gold. < 147. The character of surface treatment in the Rayon- nant period is best shown in Fig. 119, which is from an illuminated manuscript. The lines of the foliage and the FIG. 119. FIG. 120. geometrical rendering of the flowers are characteristic of this style of work, and the twisted forms are suggest- ive of the change that is taking place toward the Flamboyant period. In Fig. 120 is shown another example from illuminated manuscript, where the naturalistic treatment of the flower, with the foliage reduced to a flame-like outline, shows the systematic ren- dering of all work of this period. FIG . 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 121 148. German-Gothic Details. German-Gothic de- tails were influenced more largely by France, but, at the same time, borrowed ideas direct from England. Fig. 121 shows a wall diaper divided into circles somewhat after the manner of the English example shown in Fig. 107, within which geometrical forms are stenciled in some cases, while in others the conventional brush form of the eagle, emblem- atic of Germany, is rendered in light green on a darker ground of the same color. 149. Misinterpretation of Gothic. As the term " Gothic " as applied to architecture is, in the minds of most persons, associated almost entirely with ecclesiastical edifices, we are all likely to labor under the impression that the medieval cathedrals were the only structures built during these dark ages. As a matter of fact, however, every build- ing erected during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, throughout Western Europe, was built in what we now call the Gothic style. In order that we may better understand this domestic architecture and its details, from which much of our ornament at the present day has descended, it will be necessary for us to look into the habits, customs, methods of living, and government of the people at this period. Kings, princes, earls, and even the lesser nobility, all lived in castles during this period, and these structures form a most important part of the architecture, as they are undoubt- edly the prototype of the modern dwelling house from which have descended all those details of house plan that modern requirements have brought into service. 150. Feudal System. At this time all lands were held iinder what is known as the feudal system. When the tribes from the North had conquered Rome and overrun the entire Roman Empire, the generals or chiefs of the different military organizations were given lands for themselves and their subjects over which they ruled as kings and princes. This system existed throughout all Europe, but with slightly varying conditions in Italy, France, Germany, and England, 1:2;} HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 according to the influences of each locality. The general principle was the same, however, and we will confine our dis- cussion simply to the effect of this system in France, inas- much as it reached a most thorough organization there, and had a more marked influence on the subsequent art of the period of the Renaissance. The political organization of a country under the feudal system consisted in the bulk of the land being divided into states called fiefs, which were held by their owners on the condition that they should, when called on, perform certain military duties to their superiors or pay them fees in grain, wines, cattle, etc., and in default of such service or payment, the land could be reclaimed. The superior lord might be the king of the realm, or some nobleman that held a feudal tenure from the king, and who in turn created fiefs by and under his own personal rule. An important detail of the old feudal law was the fact that the. king or superior lord, from whence comes the modern term landlord, was entitled to the fealty of his own tenants, but not to that of his subordinate tenants, every man looking for rule and discipline only to his own immediate lord and master. It therefore frequently happened that one of these noblemen would build up a community so powerful as to feel practically independent of his king, and therefore refuse to render to his superior such military service as was demanded. The result of this was inevitably the same war between the king and his subject. On the other hand, if the subject remained loyal to his king, he was likely to depend on the royal influence and encroach somewhat upon the fief of some one of his feudal neighbors. This would bring about the same result war between two feudal barons. And even if he remained within his own territory and was true to his sovereign, the prosperity of his fief or his influence with the royal court was sure to excite the jealousy of some one of the surrounding nobles and bring about war. It would thus appear that the feudal barons were at war with one another a large part of the time, and these frequent HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 123 wars required that the medieval castle should be a military post from necessity and a domestic household for convenience. During the war the castle was the stronghold of the lord and his retainers, and during peace it was a house of entertain- ment for his guests and vassals. 151. Castle of Coucy. In Fig. 122 is shown a plan of the castle of Coucy, near Laon, France, the irregular outline of which is due to the fact that military engineering required that these structures should conform as nearly as possible to the top of the hill, on which they were usually built, thereby rendering it impracticable to storm the fortress from more than one side that on which the entrance was located. A large tower, or keep in the French castles called the donjon guarded this main en- trance and at the same time served as a strong- hold and point of last resort in case other por- tions of the castle shotild fall into the hands of invaders. The donjon of Coucy was 180 feet in height and 108 feet in diameter, and the walls were 34 feet thick at the base. The uppermost of its three stories was the largest, as the walls were thinner at the top, and 1,500 men could be here assembled in a circular room and receive their instruc- tions for the military routine of the day. In the middle story was the family apartment for use during siege, and in 124 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 the basement were storerooms for sufficient provisions to last 1,000 men over a year. The keep was surrounded on the outside by a moat, or water-filled ditch, shown at #, beyond which was a large enclosure shown at A,, called the outer bailey. This was a large piece of cultivated land and contained the chapel r and the stables s. The interior courtyard d was called the inner bailey and was the only outdoor area open to the garrison in time of siege. These points are of interest, as from them are developed many details that are characteristic of the modern house in plan, while other details of more decorative value had their origin in devices originally invented for purely military purposes. 152. In Fig. 123 is shown a bird's-eye view of the castle of Coucy and the surrounding country. Around the top of each of its five towers will be observed small projections that carry an enclosed gallery. The spaces between these pro- jections, or corbels, as they were called, were open through the floor of this overhanging gallery, and, in time of siege, when the walls of the castle were surrounded by sappers and miners endeavoring to disintegrate the stonework and gain access to the interior, deadly missiles were shot straight down from the floor of the gallery, or quantities of boiling oil or molten lead were used to make the base of the walls as unapproachable as possible. The windows in the castle all opened on the inner bailey, no openings being permitted toward the outside except small loopholes of sufficient size only to shoot an arrow through. The tops of the individual walls enclosing the inner bailey were notched, and the rectangular sections of wall between the notches called battlements each con- tained a large loophole, as may be seen in the perspective view at j. Behind these battlements was a platform on which archers could stand and shoot at an invading force, while a similar treatment of the top of the walls around the outer bailey enabled the besieged to defend the outer bailey HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 125 against the besiegers before finally retiring within the castle walls for safety. All these details were altered from time to time, as civil- ization advanced, and when the invention of gunpowder FIG. 123. rendered the castellar system of defense obsolete, the corbels, battlements, and other details of feudal military origin were still retained a.s ornamental features in many <> the buildings developed from the castellar plan. 126 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 153. Mode of Living in Ancient Castles. Regard- ing domestic life within these castle walls, it is well to remember that, previous to the fourteenth century, there was not much subdivision in the household apartments even of royalty, the king and queen and the servants and retainers all usually occupying one room, known as the great hall. This great hall is shown in the plan at //, and was to the domestic part of the household what the donjon was to the military the main apartment wherein all household duties were per- formed. Here the lord sat at his meals with his family, his guests, and his retainers; here he transacted all business of the day, both financial and domestic ; and here in the earliest times he slept at night on a rough couch at one end. By degrees, society began to improve and become more refined, and the constant daily association w r ith servants and soldiers becoming undesirable, the great hall was divided into two apartments, one of which \vas known as the with- drawing room, where the lord and his family could retire after meals, but the hall was still retained for business and dining purposes. However, a further subdivision provided another room for the transaction of business, which was still called the hall, but in distinction the remaining portion was called the dining hall. These three rooms the hall, the dining hall, and the withdrawing room were the principal apartments in the house or castle, and, consequently, the sep- arate sleeping apartments, which advanced ideas demanded, were crowded into any out-of-the-way corner that circum- stances afforded. For this reason, these sleeping rooms were often dark, cheerless apartments, and were designated by the term chamber a \vord derived from the Latin, mean- ing a dark vault and finally, when the bedstead was intro- duced as an article of household furniture, the sleeping rooms were called bed chambers, to designate them from other rooms in the castle of similar character but not for sleeping purposes. 154. Heating of Ancient Castles. In the earliest days, the castle was heated by an immense fire-grate located 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 127 in the center of the room, the smoke from whieh passed through openings in the roof called louvers. Subsequently, this grate was removed from the center to the side wall, and the louver was replaced by a chimney stack. This neces- sitated a separate chimney for each room, and is responsible for the fact that nearly every French chateau built in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries bristles with beautifully designed chimney stacks above the roof, and nearly every room in the French chateau of the Renaissance period pos- sesses a fireplace and a distinctively designed mantel. 155. Heraldry. Another point of this feudal system is the subject of heraldry, which is of vast importance in its relation to historic ornament, inasmuch as it is based entirely on that important characteristic of all ornament, namely, symbolism. It is doubtless true that armorial bear- ings were not in much general use until the twelfth century, when they were brought into prominence by the crusades a term given to those wars waged by the Christians of Western Europe against the Mohammedans around Jemsalem for the purpose of rescuing the Holy Sepulcher from the hands of infidels. The purpose of heraldic devices was to designate one per- son from another, as surnames did not exist in those days; and though the painted device by which the savage sets forth his personality may be considered as heraldic as the device borne on the shield of a soldier, it is with the latter class that. we have to do in ornamental design. We have seen in Egyptian art evidences of heraldry, inasmuch as the two serpents flanking the sun disk of the winged globe are symbols of Upper and Lower Egypt, and, therefore, heraldic. But with the twelfth century, we arrive at a system of heraldry whereby the heraldic device was passed down from generation to generation, in the same manner that the family name is transmitted at the present day. A heraldic device would be transmitted from father to son, on the death of the former, with few alterations, so that in our study of the history of subsequent styles, we can 128 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 locate and date many details by our familiarity with the insignia associated with certain royal families. 156. Tlie Fleur-de-lis. The fleur-de-lis has ever been emblematic of France, because Hugh Capet, the first French king, carried it on his shield as the insignia of his family, and subsequent rulers used this same emblem as an indica- tion of royalty, while they coupled with it some other device to more clearly establish their own personality. In subse- quent periods, as we shall see, the initial letter was fre- quently used by royalty on works of art erected by them during the period of their reign ; but this is not of so much importance to us as the heraldic devices, as several sover- eigns of the same name ruled many years apart. The importance of these heraldic devices cannot be overestimated, as will be pointed out when we study the ornament of the subsequent periods in the Renaissance. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. (PART 3.) RENAISSANCE ART. INTRODUCTION. 1. Origin. Although the medieval style of art and architecture prevailed throughout all Europe for at least six centuries, it is still a difficult matter to draw a line at certain dates when the influence of the ancient classic art utterly ceased and the revival of that classic art after the Medieval period took place. In fact, if the two subjects were studied separately and independently, it is not unlikely that traces of revival of classic art could be discovered even before the classic style itself had become extinct. It must be borne in mind that Italy, in the extreme southern part of Europe, was the seat of the original Roman government, and the country wherein the classic style devel- oped to its greatest voluptuousness. The Roman people spread all over civilized Europe and established their monu- ments everywhere, but no place so profusely as in Italy itself. After the conquest of Rome by the barbarous hordes from the North, the Latin-speaking people were largely confined to the Italian peninsula, and though a new style of architec- ture was developed by the % conquering race a style since derisively termed Gothic by the artists of the Renaissance 5 For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. t> HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 period the original Romans at home still endeavored to adhere to their ancient traditions and styles of art. If this point is thoroughly understood, there will be no difficulty in tracing the progress of Renaissance art from Italy through- out Europe. We have seen that the farther north we go from the site of the Roman Empire, the purer was the style of the Gothic art that prevailed, inasmuch as it was less hampered by the tradition of classic art. 2. Revival of Classic Style. Now, when it comes to a revival of the classic style, it is not strange that that revi- val should take place first in Italy, where the Gothic style never secured a prominent foothold, that the revival should spread from Italy to France a people made up largely of Latin extraction- and that, lastly, it should extend from France to England, but in a very imperfect form, as the English people were not Latins and had no sympathy with, nor tie to, the original Latin style. Bear in mind also that the Celtic ornament, of which we have studied, originated among the earlier inhabitants of the British Isles and natu- rally influenced any importation from a strictly foreign coun- try, as was Italy. 3. Scope of Renaissance Period. In describing Renaissance art, we will commence at the period of its infancy and continue under 'this heading clown to the present day, inasmuch as there has been no new style evolved and no revival of any other style that need break this term of continuity. Moreover, it will not be inadvisable for us to set a period or character of the Renaissance style that theo- retically may bi considered the best, and, in doing this, we must consider all the influences that are brought to bear. 4. Intention of Renaissance Artists. -The effort of the Renaissance artists was not to invent a new style, nor to bring about through a transition a development based on classic lines, but to deliberately copy the monuments of pagan Rome and Greece and use these heathen forms, no matter how inappropriate or illy suited for the purpose of 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 modern Christian art. They were different from anything they had ever seen or conceived; they were the products of an age cf wonderful art and literary advancement, and, in the eyes of the Renaissance artists, were accepted as supe- rior to anything they could themselves devise. 5. Kenaissance Art In Italy. The style of Renais- sance we find in Italy, where Gothic art had its slightest influence, naturally adheres as closely as possible to the old Roman forms, for there they had the old Roman buildings, many of them still intact, that could be copied line for line. The invasion of Italy by Charles VIII of France, toward the close of the fifteenth century, brought into the latter country examples of this revived Italian art that were much admired by the French public, and the revival of classic art was immediately felt throughout France. Devoid of actual buildings from which they could study their designs, the French artists were compelled to go to Italy and study, and French kings imported Italian artists to do work in and around Paris. Either experiment was bound to produce an altered style. 6. Introduction Into France. The French artist had been working in the Gothic style, and he studied the Italian monuments with an idea of medieval construction in his mind. The Italian artist came to France possibly with a clearer idea of classic art, but was hampered in his execution by the necessity of employing workmen that had cut stone in no other style than that which had prevailed during the six centuries of the Middle Ages. An even compromise can therefore be considered to nave taken place between the perfect construction of the Gothic style and the perfect pro- portion of the classic art. 7. Introduction Into England. The introduction of Renaissance into England, however, was far different. True, her artists studied the styles under great Italian masters at Rome, but they, too, had to compete with designers in the local school, where Gothic art had secured its strongest 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 foothold. Germany and Holland before this had adopted the Renaissance style from France, and the systematic patience of the Germans and the phlegmatic immobility of the Hol- lander are well woven into the style of classic art they reproduced. When these perverted ideas were transmitted to England, it is easily understood that they contained few details that could be considered purely classic. By a suc- cessive alteration through several countries, they could be with difficulty identified with their original type. 8. Purity of French Style. We may therefore con- sider that in France we find the best examples of a practical adaptation of the ancient classic ornament to modern condi- tions and purposes, while in Italy we find a Renaissance of classic art that adheres more closely to the classic style, but can hardly be considered even a new departure. In Eng- land, however, the style that was developed in the Renais- sance period is not classic at all, except in its derivation, and there, after repeated endeavors to apply the inappropriate forms to the modern purposes, the style was abandoned and an endeavor made to revive that of the Medieval period. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE. J). Origin. Fragments of exquisite beauty in stone, bronze, and marble were hardly covered over by the top of the soil in the ruins of the ancient buildings of Rome, and these buildings therefore became quarries from which stone was easily obtained and recut to be used for tombs and other buildings wherein the style of art for which they were origi- nally used played no part. This accounts largely for the fact that Gothic art secured so little foothold in Italy and remained for so short a time. The pointed arch was introduced in the northern part of Italy early in the thirteenth century, and this might be considered the planting of the seed of Gothic art in this territory ; but almost at the same time there was a protest 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 made in favor of the ancients and the arts as being supe- rior to anything the barbarous hordes from the North could produce. 1C. Art and [Literature. The great poet Dante, though an ardent Christian, was a profound student of classic learning as well as a strong advocate of pagan art. The celebrated authors Petrarch and Boccaccio were intimate friends and spent their lives, not, as many people supposed, in writing Italian poetry and prose, but in laboring almost incessantly in the preservation and restoration to the rest of the world of the long-lost text of the Roman and Greek authors. It was Boccaccio that first gave to Italy a lucid account of Greek mythology and that first instituted a school for the study of the Greek language at Florence, and these efforts at a revival of learning were seconded and backed by a large number of notables who could not have failed to make it a success. 11. Invention of Printing: ami Its TCfFeots. Now, understand that at the time when the labors of all these men had accumulated in their libraries public and private all that could be recovered of classic learning, all that could be gathered from the earliest scrolls of tlrj Greeks, all the information concerning art that remained from the wreckage of old Rome, about the middle of the fifteenth century, the art of printing was introduced into Italy and the learning of the ancients became spread among the people of all Europe. The invention of printing and the printing press is there- fore responsible for the development of the Renaissance style. Louis XI of France sent Nicholas Jenson into Italy to learn "the new art by which books were made." This learned man was no less a competent editor than he was a zealous printer, and from about the year 1400 he gave to the world in rapid succession many editions of Greek and Latin classics and a history of ancient art profusely illustrated with engravings on wood. 6 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 12. Publication of Vitruvius. Through these illus- trations, which display a study on the part of the artist of ancient art, types of ornament geometrically opposed to those of the Middle Ages were disseminated over the continent of Europe; and, in 1511, the publication of the architecture of Yitruvius at Venice, with illustrations of the classic orders of architecture, set a final seal upon the fate of matters in art and afforded the means of spreading throughout other countries those details of ancient design that had so engaged the art public of Italy. 13. Italian Aversion to Gothic Forms. However, before those laborers that were endeavoring to bring classic art and literature to the* front had succeeded in getting the least sign of encouragement, it was apparent that the Italians did not take kindly to Gothic forms. The acanthus leaf was typical of Italian art, and the foliated capitals of the Gothic school had to accept this form of vegetation. In its earliest stage, Renaissance art in Italy was really a revival of classic principles, and it was not until the middle of the fifteenth century that it could be considered an actual revival of style. 14. Iloman Influences. At Rome the great wealth of the Italian princes and the great ecclesiastical works under- taken by successive pontiffs of the Church attracted to that city the highest procurable ability in the art world, and it is for that reason that we can still find in Rome, in the various palaces and churches, the most exquisite fragments of deco- rative sculpture in detail. 15. Doiiatello. One of the most interesting qualities of this style of ornament is the skill with which those by whom it has been wrought have availed themselves of a variation of light and shade by the treatment of the surfaces on which the ornament is raised. The refined appreciation of the delicate shades of relief in sculptured ornament was carried out with the greatest perfection by Donatello, an artist whose authority on matters of art was held in the 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 7 highest esteem by the people of Florence, and whose example was followed by all classes of artists. He was the first to practice the true basso rilievo^ by which the effect of projection and of rounded molding is obtained within what would appear to be impracti- cable limits of relief; that is to say, in modeling his orna- ment on surface, it was raised but slightly above the surface but was treated in its carving so as to appear in high relief. Donatello then combined this style of work with mezzo rilievo and alto rilievo, the former being a half relief, and the latter being a sunken ornament below the surface on which it was executed. This combination maintained a division of the subject of his design into several planes. Donatello enriched many of his ornaments with elements derived from the art of painting. 16. Plane System. At the zenith of its perfection, this system of regular arrangement of ornament in planes was so ingeniously managed in position of light and shade that, when viewed from a distance, the relief presented only cer- tain points symmetrically disposed with some dominating geometrical figure. An approach of a few yards served to bring to the eye lines and details connecting the points of greatest importance, and a still nearer approach revealed the leafage of the delicate tendrils that were required to convey a tangible idea of the type of nature selected for the conven- tionalized design. And beyond this, no inspection could be too close a test of the artist's perfect appreciation of the refinements of surface texture. 17. Characteristics. In the hands of less profoundly impressed artists than Donatello those possessing an inferior sense of the proper limit of convention in sculpture the introduction of pictorial elements in the bas- relief design soon degenerated into realism and confusion. Great as was the skill of Ghiberti, the effect of many of his most graceful compositions was marred by the introduction of perspective 8 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 effect and accessories too servilely copied from nature. In many of the ornaments of sculpture, this fault is exagger- ated until the dignity of the design is lost in the frivolity of the detail. These monuments, decked with huge garlands of flowers, hung with heavy cartouches and tablets, and fan- cifully overgrown with foliage, appeared more as examples of the artisan's skill than works of art commemorative of the date or dedicated to sacred purposes. This is somewhat illustrated in Fig. 1, which is a part of a cornice taken from the Palazzo Vecchio, or Town Hall, of Florence, Italy. This also illustrates the minutia of detail FIG. l. with which this style of ornament abounded. Along the frieze are heavy garlands of flowers, the design of which includes also fruit and grain, while at the points between which they are stretched are hung shield-shaped cartouches bearing devices of a more symbolic character. The fleur- de-lis, emblematic of certain royal families, and the crossed keys of St. Peter are here seen, and it would appear that one ot them must be strangely out of place in the frieze of a town hall. The other ornaments on the moldings, though HISTORIC ORNAMENT. elaborately carved, are less out of place and are characteristic of the style and period. 18. Frivolity and Incongruity of Designs. The panels in the elaborately carved seat in Fig. 2 show to what extreme and frivolity ornament of this character can be car- TB55 ried. Here, as the settee in St. Peter's Church, Perugia, we have a design not only proportioned according to the pagan rules and ideas, but elaborately interspersed with grotesque 10 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 figures, comic masks, griffins, bucrania, flowers, and fruit, not one of which would appear to be particularly identified with any detail of the Christian faith. Many of the designs of this period are strangely incongru- ous with the purpose for which they are called into existence. Tragic and comic masks, musical instruments, antique altars, tripods, hybrid marine monsters, and chimeras do not har- monize well with monuments reared in consecrated edifices or dedicated to religious rites. However, this fault of the confusion of details cannot be laid entirely upon the shoul- ders of the artists of the Renaissance period, as their works may be considered simply as a reflection of the taste and dom- inant spirit of the age; and this revival of mythological symbolism was a protest against the hampering trammels of esthetic tradition erected into dogmatism by the rulers of the East, and endorsed by the Church during those centuries when its ascendency over an ignorant and turbulent popula- tion was at its greatest height. The minds of even the most religious men were thoroughly imbued with such inappro- priate and incongruous associations in the fourteenth century. 1 9. Value to the Designer. To the designer, the study of this period in ornament is of the greatest value, as in no style has ornament ever been better spaced or arranged to contrast more agreeably with the direction of the adjacent architectural lines by which it was bound and always kept in subordination. Rarely do we find an ornament placed in a horizontal position that is more suitable to a vertical one, or vice versa; and rarely are the proportions of the ornaments and moldings, or the stiles and rails by which regularity and symmetry are given to the whole, at variance with one another. 20. Propriety of Subject. In Fig. 3 is shown a column from the inner court of the Palazzo Vecchio, with its stucco decorations in the style of the Renaissance of this period. Observe that the arabesques fit perfectly the rect- angular panels on the sides of the octagon column, and HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 11 that the ornament is well spaced, appearing not crowded or excessive, but flowing naturally and preserving a proper relation between the plain surfaces and the richly orna- mented ones. None of this ornament could be said to have FIG. 8. been better suited to a horizontal position, nor can it be stated that the relative proportions of the details of the ornament are such as to make one portion of it any more prominent or excessive than another. In Fig. 4 is shown another column from the same build- ing, ornamented on an entirely different system, although included in the group with the one of the previous example. Here the flowing grape vine winds spirally around the col- umn, and the leaves and fruit are so disposed as to set off clearly the details and at the same time preserve that space relation that is always characteristic of good ornament. 12 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. The capitals of these columns, it will be observed, are almost identical in design, although one of them crowns an octagonal column and the other a round shaft. *]. In Fig. 5 is shown one end of a sarcophagus in the tomb of Marsuppini, at Flor- ence, designed by a pupil and follower of Donatello. This is considered one of the finest examples of Italian-Renaissance sculpture. The treatment of the leaves and foliage, and the proportioning of the ornament to the surface, with the digni- fied simplicity of the inscription and frame, make it deserving of close attention and considera- tion of the method by which its decoration is handled. The relation here of plain surface and running ornament is very happily proportioned, avoiding so successfully the appearance of excess, so characteristic of most Renaissance design and at the same time satisfying the mind as to its sufficiency. 22. Scrollwork. In Fig. is shown the capital of a pilaster from the church of San Spirito, in Florence. The treatment of the acanthus leaf here, it will be observed, is very similar to its treatment on the Roman-Corinthian cap- ital, very few alterations having been made in the type. The introduction of the oak leaf in an acanthusized form shows a step in progression, as does the introduction of the acorn accompanying the leaf. The peculiar form of S scroll in the center of the capital, each side and below the acorns, is characteristic of the Renaissance, and has its origip FIG. 4. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. FIG. 5. FIG. 6. 14 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. undoubtedly in that irrepressible tendency of Roman orna- ment to end its scrolls each time in a flower. The propor- tioning of the ornament to the surface in this case, however, is much more moderate and refined than in the Roman- Corinthian capital, and though copied after the classic model, this is certainly an improvement on it. 23. Foliated Terminations. In Fig. 7 is shown a portion of a cornice supported on pilasters around the door- way in the same church. The treatment of the frieze shows its origin in Roman ornament, but the introduction of the FIG. 7. human figure and birds with foliated terminations reminds us again of the innovations made by the Renaissance artists. Observe that all surface is here ornamented, that every molding is cut to break up an appearance of continuous line and cast an irregular shadow, and that the surfaces, such as the top of the pilaster and its capital and the panels in the frieze just referred to, all have their decorations properly proportioned and in keeping with the position they occupy. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 15 In Fig. 8 is shown another cornice from the same church, the design of which follows more closely the ancient classic model. The ornament on the frieze is carved in high relief and does not possess that easy flowing feeling that is seen in the previous example. The same may be said of the FIG. 8. moldings on the pilaster that supports the cornice, and of the capital of this pilaster. The ornament is too thick and there is not sufficient blank surface to rest the eye from this abundance of detail, thereby giving the whole design a feel- ing of unrest that was more characteristic of the extravagant 16 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. Corinthian order of the Romans than the more refined hand- lings of Italian art. In Fig. 9 is shown a bracket that forms a detail of the pulpit in the church of St. Croce, in Florence, the treatment of the decoration of which is well worthy of study. The ornamen* is not excessive and well fills the surface where it is placed, and the leafwork is carved in low relief and does not possess that excessive surface molding that so materially detracts from some of the work of the later Renaissance. 24. Examples of Venetian Renaissance. In Fig. 10 is a bracket from the Ducal Palace at Venice, and is charac- teristic of the style of the Venetian Renaissance. The scrollwork and treatment of the foliage in this bracket is particularly happy, and illustrates, more clearly than any example we have had, the obedience to those laws of nature that must be observed in all good ornament : radiation from the parent stem, tangential curvature of lines, and distribu- tion of areas. The latter rule is particularly well shown in HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 17 this by the gradual diminution in surface occupied by the running ornament as it extends into the extremities of the triangular panel. The scrollwork under the bracket is not so artistically formed or well proportioned, but errors here are amply balanced by the good points of the scroll. In Fig. 11 is shown a panel from a large candelabrum that gives a very clear idea of the treatment of Venetian arabesques. The panel is symmetrical on each side of a center line, carved in high relief in stone, and is treated in Fir,. 10. a manner that makes the ornament somewhat monotonous in itself but well proportioned to the surface it is intended to cover, with enough blank space to prevent tiresomeness in its study. 25. Ingenuity of Ileimissam-o J>esijrmr. Fig. 12 is a panel under the balustrade of the stairs in the cathedral at Sienna. This illustrates to a remarkable degree the inge- nuity and fertility of mind possessed by the early Renais- sance designer and sculptor. Here we have, forming the 18 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. running- border around a trapezoidal panel, the guilloche ornament so characteristic of classic art, and the running arabesque identified with the classic- revival period; within this a modified form of the old Greek fret and then an irreg- ular panel, the surface of which is carved in low relief with FIG. ll. a foliated scroll and arabesque that close study discovers is terminated at one end in a grotesque animal and at the other in a bunch of fruit. 26. Renaissance Ironwork. Not only was art at this period exemplified in details carved in stone and marble, modeled in stucco and painted on canvas, but the iron worker executed many details that brought his trade almost to a fine art. Fig. 13 shows a bracket from the Florence Museum, rep- resentative of a cornucopia filled with grapes and leaves. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 19 The treatment of the scrollwork and the elaboration of all the detail of this device is peculiarly well adapted to the FIG. 12. purpose, and altogether this exhibits a remarkable design for a piece of work of this kind. In Fig. 14 is shown a portion of an iron grille from the cathedral at Prato, one portion of which, based on the com- binations of the circle, shows a slight leaning toward Gothic ideals, while the panel to the right is strictly Renaissance in the treatment of its leafwork and small figures; but the 20 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. $ 5 general direction of its outline, with its alternate branches to the left and right, undoubtedly have their origin in the Gothic school of foliation. It must be borne in mind that at this period there was no separation in the branches of the art world. A man was architect, painter, and sculptor at once, and often combined these with the trade of goldsmith. The great artist Raffael designed ornaments for carvers in stone and metal, and exhibited in them the purest taste and most exquisite fancy. 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 21 7. Michael Augfdo, Sculptor ami Artist. Michael Angelo was born in 1475 and was a pupil of Domenico Ghirlandajo. Having shown at an early age a strong talent for sculpture, he was given an opportunity to study in a school for the culture of sculpture founded by Lorenzo de Medici. The Medici family was banished from Florence when Angelo was 20 years of age, and the young sculptor Fin. II. was forced to retire to Bologna, where he worked for a while on the tomb of St. Domini. He returned to Florence, how- ever, and about the time of his twenty-third birthday finished his celebrated statue of Cupid, and also his Bacchus, which were the cause of his being invited to Rome. At Rome, among many other works by him, is the Pieta now standing in St. Peter's Church. His gigantic statue of 22 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 David, at Florence, was his next great achievement, and before he was 30 years of age he was summoned to Rome by Pope Julius II for the purpose of designing his Mauso- leum, for which building the famous statues of "Moses" and " The Slaves " were originally designed. Thus far the work of Michael Angelo has apparently been that of a sculptor, with possibly the exception of the design of the Mausoleum. His next great work, however, was the painting of the Sistine Chapel one of the greatest of his achievements, \vhether we regard it purely as a work of intrinsic art or as a monument that exercised a powerful influence both on the art of a contemporary character as well as that of later times. For Pope Paul III, in 1541, he completed his vast fresco "The Last Judgment" in the same chapel, and the remainder of his long life was chiefly devoted to the con- struction of St. Peter's Church, on which he was employed at the time of his death, in 1564, and for which he refused any remuneration. During the long life of Michael Angelo, everything he executed expressed a desire for novelty, and this is the only detraction he ever seemed to have from the study of pure excellence. His daring innovations in ornament are most striking. His large broken pediments and moldings, his sweeping consoles and scrolls, his direct imitation of nature in some of his enrichments, and the amount of absolutely plain surface that he uniformly preserved in all his archi- tectural compositions, seem to bring new elements into the field of design that were greedily snapped up by men of lesser genius than he himself possessed. Thus the style of the Roman school became materially altered through the work of Michael Angelo. Subsequent artists, down even to Vignola himself, so far as ornament was concerned, adopted all his beauties, and defects of design, the greatest of which were an exaggeration of manner. 28. Giacopo Tatti Sansovino. Venice seems to be the only city of Italy that did not follow the style that was 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 23 set by Michael Angelo, and this was probably due to the fact that she had a hero of her own in Giacopo Tatti Sansovino. This artist was born at Florence in the year 1479. Having, at an early age, displayed a remarkable talent for art, he was properly educated and distinguished himself by his build- ings at Florence. He was then taken to Rome by San Gallo, architect of Pope Julius II, where he attracted the notice of Bramante, and made, under Bramante's direction, a large- wax model of the Laocoon, in competition with other artists. Sansovino's was judged to be the best, and a bronze cast was taken of it that finally came into the possession of Cardinal Lorraine and by him was taken to France in the year 1534. Sansovino was obliged to leave Rome on account of his health, and was placed by Bramante with the artist Peru- gino, who was then painting the ceiling in the Toore Borgia. Perugino was so pleased with Sansovino's ability that he caused him to prepare many models for his own use. In the year 1514, most elaborate preparations were being made at Florence for the entry of Pope Leo X, and Sanso- vino was employed in the preparation for designs of many triumphal arches and statues. The works were so success- ful that he was given the commission by the Pope to make a design for the facade of San Lorenzo, in Florence. After this he continued in Rome and was employed both in sculp- ture and architecture, and was the successful competitor for the church of St. John, of the Florentines, against Raffael and Antonio San Gallo. From this on he was engaged on work of importance in Rome until the year 1527, when Rome was taken by the French, and Sansovino sought refuge in Venice, intending from there to visit France, where the king had offered him employment. The Duke Andrea Gritti, however, persuaded him to remain and undertake the restoration of the cupolas of St. Mark's Church a work that he performed so successfully that he was appointed to a public office, given a house, and provided with a stipend. It was to this appointment that Venice owes so many architectural monuments that are among the finest examples of Italian art. 24 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 FRENCH RENAISSANCE. 29. Rapidity of Transition. The transition from the style of the Middle Ages to the style of the Renaissance, that took place so gradually in Italy, was in France sudden and complete. The campaigns of Charles VIII, Louis XII, and Francis I in Italy brought them in contact with the wonder- ful art productions of that country, and filled them on their return to France with an ambition to rival the splendid palaces and gardens of Italy, for which purpose they took with them Italian artists to act as instructors to the French. However, although these imported Italians introduced many classic elements and details into French art, they failed to dominate the natural spirit of the French master masons and architects in matters of general composition. There- fore, the early French Renaissance is wholly unlike that of Italy, from which it derived only a few minor details and the impetus that carried it forwards. On account of its possession of greater originality than the Italian style, and its freedom from the baser incongruities that prevailed in the Renaissance in Germany and England, we can take the French style as a good standard, and study it as a revival of classic art modified almost perfectly to fit more modern ideas. It is important in studying the French Renaissance to bear in mind the periods into which it is divided and sub- divided, and also to bear in mind the dates of these periods. In modern practice, when any designs are executed in any particular style, the French styles more than any others are rated according to their period rather than nationality. 30. Periods of French Renaissance. French Renais- sance may be divided into three general periods: (1) Valois period, or Renaissance proper ; (2) Bourbon, or Classic, period ; and (3) Rococo period. \. Valois Period. The Valois period extends from 1483 (about the time of the invasion of Charles VIII into Italy) to loSO (about the end of the reign of Henry III). This may be subdivided into: (c?) The Transition period, comprising 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 25 the reigns of Charles VIII and Louis XII and the early years of Francis I, extending from 1483 to 1515. This period is characterized by a picturesque mixture of classic details and Gothic ideas. (/;) The style of Francis I, or Early Renaissance, extending from about 1520 to 1547. The ornament of this period is distinguished by its great variety and grace of composition and the exquisite beauty of detail. (c) The Advanced Renaissance, combining the reigns of Henry II, Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III, extend- ing from 1547 to 1589, and distinguished by the general adoption of the classic proportions in the orders and a decline in the delicacy and originality in the treatment of the orna- ment. In other words, this period represents, as did the later Renaissance of Italy, an attempt to actually reproduce all classic forms. 2. Bourbon Period. This period of the Renaissance extends from 1589 to 1715, covering the reign of Henry IV and of Louis XIV. This may be subdivided into the style of Henry IV, covering entirely his reign and part of the reign of Louis XIII, extending altogether from 1589 to 1G45. The distinguishing characteristic of this period is the excessive use of the classic orders and other forms with a heavy, bold, florid ornament. The style of Louis XIV begins during the reign of his predecessor and extends to the time of his death from 1(545 to 1715. This is the great age of classic architecture in France, wherein the luxury and wealth of the nation and its desire for splendor exceeded its taste in art and represented in its architecture an attempt at the grandeur of Rome. 3. Rococo Period. This period may be considered the decline, and is distinguished by the marked extravagance of detail derived from the leaf and other ornamental forms of previous periods, combined with rock and shell forms, so capricious as to be absolutely meaningless. This period of French Renaissance terminates in what is known as the Empire style. This consisted of a strong pro- test against the frivolity of the ornament of the Rococo, and a return to the actual detail of more classic forms. As it 26 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 progressed into the nineteenth century, it expressed itself under the reign of Napoleon, as emperor, and attempted to produce the grandeur of Imperial Rome. France had conquered the greater part of Europe, and believed that she was to set up a universal empire covering the entire country, as Rome had done, and with this idea in mind, built triumphal arches, columns of victory, gorgeous palaces, and country chateaux, and in every way lavished money on public and private monuments, in an endeavor to visibly express her imperialism. 31. Castles and Chateaux. The transition from the Gothic to the Renaissance is more clearly expressed in the chateaux, or country residences, of the nobles than in almost any other class of buildings, and for that reason we will confine our discussion largely to a few of these interesting edifices. We have seen how the castle of the Middle Ages was built mainly for defense, its ornamental features being merely an embellishment of the necessities that were prominent in its construction. Such was exhibited in the general appear- ance of the castle of Coucy, Fig. 123, Historic Ornament, 4. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 27 The remodeling of these Gothic castles to suit the taste of the Renaissance brought in many incongruous but very picturesque ideas. In Fig. 15, a view of the castle of Azay- le-Rideau, it will be observed how the towers and turrets characteristic of the old style are retained, how the upper portions are still carried out on bold corbels, and their tops Ouff/n* fVan of CHATEAU DE.BLOIS. Fie;. 10. roofed over in a cone; but the drawbridge, the moat, and the portcullis have disappeared. Broad airy windows dimin- ish the extent of blank wall surface characteristic of feudal times, and pilasters each side of the windows, topped with classic capitals and carved in rich arabesque, show the adop- tion of Italian art. The plan, composition, and grouping of the parts are still French and more or less feudal, and the Italian art has onlv affected the detail. 28 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 32. Chateau de Blois. The largest, and, in many respects, the most important, of these country residences of royalty is the Chateau de Blois, and this we will consider in detail, as within it may be traced the gradual transition of each phase of the French Renaissance, from the time of Louis XII to the time of Henry IV, thereby including the entire Valois and a part of the Bourbon period of this style. In Fig. 16 is shown a plan of this structure, the irregularity of which gives evidence of its medieval origin. About the ll 111 ;! nviiii ^ t(C. ' ^...iii 'Ml .....n.ii-ia*. -- -~ * FIG. 17. year 1500 Louis XII remodeled the east wing, which bears his name, a front view of which is shown in Fig. 17. In this may be seen the elliptical arch, the clustered column, the HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 29 high-pointed gable, and the slender pinnacles whose origin can be traced to medieval days, but the introduction of flank- ing pilasters and arabesque ornament, though here but spar- ingly seen, is suggestive of the change to come. On the outside of this wing, the archway that leads through to the "Court of Honor," shown in Fig. 18, is flanked on each side by heavy piers, over which is a conventional Gothic niche wherein, against an elaborate background of fleur-de-lis, rides King Louis XII on his charger. To the right of this is a little doorway that gives the pedestrian access to the passage, and over this entrance, in bas-relief, is carved a porcupine, the emblem of Louis XII, and a knotted cord for Anne of Brittany, his queen. Of these emblems we will have more to say later. We will now turn to the wing of Francis I, on the north- west side of the court. This was erected but fifty years after the one we have just considered, but the difference in style is manifest even to the most casual observer, as shown in Fig. 10. 33. French Conception of Uoniaii Ideas. The artists of the sixteenth century, hurried along by the swift current of fifty years of wonderful intellectual regeneration, seemed to arrive at a comprehension of the use that the Romans had made of the Greek orders. They seemed to understand that the orders were not used in Rome as elements of construc- tion, as they had been in Greece, but as decorative details having no essential relation to the construction itself. They seemed to comprehend by instinct that there was no reason why they should not take those same Roman orders and details and use them in anv wav thev chose structural or FIG. is. 30 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. non-structural so long as their use suited the purpose to which they were applied. Thus a study of this period of French architecture shows that the French builders accepted not the conventional HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 31 restrictions of the classic formulas, but the spirit of these formulas, as an organized system of ornamentation. A study of the court facade of this Chateau de Blois shows that the lessons in classic styles given by the imported Italian mas- ters were accepted by the French architects with respect and intelligence, but not learned by rote. The Italian rules had an influence, but were not accepted as a law. 34. Octagonal Staircase. The greatest artistic effort of this period was probably the octagonal staircase that appears in this facade. It is considered one of the master- pieces of the sixteenth century, though it is at the same time an example illustrative of the audacious independence of the FIO. ao. French architect. It has no architectural relation to the wall surface from which it protrudes, except that its four great free-standing buttresses support a cornice and balus- trade that are a continuation of those on the wall. These buttresses are niched and contain exquisitely carved figures, while between them extends the balustrade of the stairs, 33 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 divided into panels carved with the crowned salamander emblematic of Francis I, and in other places with the mono- gram F and C under a crown, standing for Francis, and Claude, his queen. In Fig. 20 is shown a large detail of this salamander device, and the form of its crown, decorated with fleur-de-lis. This FIG. 21. is the key of the period and style, as was the crowned porcu- pine a key to the style of Louis XII. The fleur-de-lis will be found on nearly every detail connected with French royalty, as it was adopted originally by Hugh Capet, the first king of France. 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3:i If we now go into this castle and wander through its rooms, we will find many details typical of the spirit of the French people and suggestive of their love of display and art. We will be able to judge largely the period of each particular room by the emblems characteristic of the reign. Vic.. 22. 35. Development of the Fireplace. It was about the beginning of the Renaissance period that the chimney as a means of carrying off the smoke was introduced into France, and in the Chateau de Blois we see the full develop- ment of the fireplace. Therefore it will be well to make a 34 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 study of these details by themselves, inasmuch as the student can then make a better comparison. 36. In Fig. 21 is shown an old mantel that stood at the end of the great hall of the States General. Its design is Gothic in feeling, as is plainly shown by the crockets around its cornice. The columns either side of the opening are carved with Gothic capitals, and the ornament extending across the top of the opening is Gothic in its detail, though indicative of the influence of the Renaissance arabesque. In Fig. 22 is shown a mantel of the hall of the Guards, the details each side of the opening of which, as well as the panel across the top of the opening and the frame panel over the mantel, are certainly Gothic in feeling. The pilasters at each side of the mantel, however, and the capitals at their tops, are certainly of Italian origin and design. These two examples, particularly Fig. 21, give a good idea of the earliest ornamental mantel used in French art, and are typical of the designs in use at the close of the fifteenth century. 37. Heraldry. In Fig. 23 is shown the mantel known as the Mantle of Crowns, on which in high relief we find the crowned porcupine emblematic of Louis XII, together with the crowned initials L and A, standing for Louis and Anne of Brittany, his queen. Around the frieze is a knotted cord that also is emblematic of Anne of Brittany, and in later years was used by some queens as a sign of widowhood. The dolphin forming the background of this mantel, and bearing the crow r n of France, appears as a detail in many French designs emblematic of heirship to the throne, the nearest heir to the throne in France being called the Dauphin a word derived from the dolphin, that fish being the emblem. Another interesting detail in this design is found above and below the knotted cord, around the frieze ; above is the conventional fleur-de-lis emblematic of the kings of France, and below it is the conventional form of ermine emblematic of the queen, Anne of Brittany. 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. .'}/> In Fig. 24 is shown another mantel from the Chateau de Blois, of the period of Louis XII, in which the crowned por- cupine and the crowned ermine are each displayed in sepa- rate panels, the ermine in this case being shown as a complete animal instead of the conventional form representing its fur, FIG. 28. as displayed in the previous figure. The moldings of this mantel and its general outline and proportions are strongly suggestive of the Gothic style, but the treatment of the arabesque at each side of the panels, the carving of the three-quarter columns that mark the separate panels, and the frieze over the fireplace, show conclusively their Italian :>>; HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 origin. It will be observed that the initials L and A are repeated across the top of the chimney, and the background of the panels containing the reliefs of the porcupine and FIG. 24. ermine are each diapered with the fleur-de-lis and conven- tional form of ermine fur. 38. In Fig. 25 we have another mantel of this same period, where the frieze over the top of the fireplace opening is evenly divided between the crowned initials of the king and queen, on a fleur-de-lis and ermine background, typical of their houses or families. The crowned porcupine between 5 HLSTORIC ORNAMENT. 37 the two the symbol of Louis XII appears in nearly all designs executed during the reign of that king. Above the fireplace are the figures of two angels, supporting the crown of France, and the shield bearing the escutcheons FIG. ;J5. of both the king and queen. A little observation of the detail at the top, and the moldings of the columns, will show that the Gothic influence still pervaded the art of the period. In Fig. 2G is a chimney with the emblems of Anne of Brittanv. The elaborate A and knotted cords avrainst a 38 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 background of ermine, together with the entire treatment of the design, is suggestive only of the house of the queen, undivided with that of King Louis. Fig. 27 shows a mantel wherein no initials occur to indi- cate to whom or what period it belonged ; but we can easily FIG. 26. judge from the presence of the knotted cord in each of the side panels, and the existence of this device as a border to the center panel, and its stenciled background of ermine and fleur-de-lis, over which the shield surrounded with shells has been placed. 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 39 39. In Fig. 28 is shown a mantel of the later period that of Francis I a fact that is clearly declared by the pres- ence of the salamander in its design, a word concerning which might be necessary. The salamander is a mythical FIG. animal supposedly so cold blooded that it will actually quench fire when placed within it, and the design here shown expresses this idea of the salamander, standing on a bed of coals and surrounded by flame that he is supposed to quench by the coldness of his breath. 4u HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 The details of this mantel are very classic. The capitals of the columns are derived undoubtedly from the Italian Renaissance. The acanthus leaf forming the bracket at the FIG. as. corners of the mantel, and the bracket over the crown, as a sort of clumsy keystone in the center, are decidedly Italian in their molding. The mantel is chiefly interesting by its strong personality and association with the reign, period, and person of Francis I. 4O. In Fig. 29 is shown what is called the Chimney of the Fleur-de-lis, the upper background of which is stenciled 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 41 exclusively with fleur-de-lis, and bears in its center the crowned shield surrounded by shells. We now arrive at Fig. 30, a mantel in a room known as the Cabinet of the Queen, and here we get the severe clas- FlG. 29. sicism characteristic of the period of Henry II. The pilas- ters each side of the mantel, and the panels of the wall, all richly carved in arabesque, and the frieze over the top of the mantel, with similar ornament, show the predominating influence of Italian art. The background of the upper portion of the mantel, with its stenciled H and fleur-de-lis, HISTORIC ORNAMENT. and the oval cartouch or modillion in the center, with its crowned H surrounded by laurel leaves, stamp this design characteristically with the period of Henry II, while a small cartouch in the center of the mantel over the fireplace open- ing bears the initials H and C, standing for Henry, and Catherine de Medici, his queen. The study of these designs and escutch- eons is of particular interest to the student, as nearly all detail of the French Renaissance period can be classified easily by bearing in mind the heraldic sym- bols characteristic of each reign and period. 41. Wall and Ceil- ing Decoration. No less interesting than the mantels of this cele- brated chateau are the decorations of the walls and ceilings with the characteristic surface ornament of the period. The same monograms and initials are here found in embossed leather, surrounded by richly foliated ornamentation in strong colors and gold. In Fig. 31 is shown a room known as the King's Chamber, the walls of which are decorated with a repeating pattern at regular intervals, within which we find the initials H and C, for Henry and Catherine, the king and queen. An enlarged detail of this wall decoration is shown in Fig. 32, and is FIG. 30. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 43 valuable as a characteristic wall treatment of the period of this French Renaissance. In Fig". 33, the decorations of Oucen Catherine's chamber may be seen, and it is interesting to note that in each of 44 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 these rooms there is an abrupt termination between the wall decorations of the main room and the dado or wainscot of the niche or alcove, no attempt being made to blend the two FIG. 32. patterns so that they die or fit into each other. The inde- pendence expressed is in perfect accordance with that already spoken of in the arrangement of the buttresses of the great staircase. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 45 Beyond this room, through the open doorway seen in Fig. 33, is another apartment, the walls of which are treated with a surface decoration shown in Fig. 34. The single letter H under the conventional crown indicates this apartment to 46 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. have been decorated in the period and style of Henry II, and a little study of the design in comparison with Fig. 32 will show the simplicity and neatness of the earlier style as FIG. 4. compared with the later one. Fig. 35 shows a third example of the wall decorations of this chateau. These wall decorations are very valuable to the interior decorator of today, inasmuch as they furnish him with a HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 47 clear suggestion of the style of interior work during the Renaissance period, of which so few examples are in exist- ence at the present time. 42. Fon taiiiebleau and Versailles. During the decline of the Renaissance to the period of the Empire, the seat of government and the royal family were centered in Paris, and the palaces of Fontainebleau and Versailles are the 48 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 most important, with the exception of the Louvre, of the many palaces of France. They are both built up of sections that vary in style and age from the fourteenth century to the present day, but in each of these parts the greatest architectural interest centers in the details of the period of Francis I and his immediate successors. The details of this style of architecture, as seen in Fon- tainebleau and Versailles, are more urban than those from the chateaux we have just been considering, and, though all these buildings in their proper sense were palaces, yet the two structures in present consideration were always spoken of as such, inasmuch as they were the city residences of the king in distinction from his country seat. 43. Variation of Styles. In the rooms' of these palaces can be seen the furniture and decorations whose style is typical of French art during each period of the Renaissance and at the height of its glory. Here, during the reigns of Louis XV and Louis XVI, we have the style of furniture characteristic of and known by the names of these monarchs, as well as that dainty specific style of design called Marie Antoinette. After the year 1662, French furniture can be roughly divided into foitr styles, corresponding to the four monarchs under whose influences its manufacture was car- ried on. These are: Louts XIV, Louis XV, Louis XVI, and Napoleon, usually called Empire. As in all cases of subdivision into periods, there is a tran- sition from one period to another that makes the styles over- lap one another, and the distinctive characteristics of each cannot be applied with certainty. The dividing lines in the case of French furniture, however, are more clearly drawn than in other art details, inasmuch as each style seems to have been the result of a court fashion that depended largely on the taste of the reigning monarch. 44. Louis XIV loved pomp and grandeur, and the forms of Louis XIV furniture are bold and severe in line and pro- portion a fact that kept them from appearing gaudy in 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 49 their excessive gilding. A great desire in furniture at this period was magnificence, and native woods were set aside in preference for foreign woods from India and America. Rarity of material was of more importance than any other detail, and artistic composition was now relegated to an inferior place. The effect of this was to make the details small, as the use of costly materials required that they should be treated with care and that even the smallest fragments should be used. 45. Introduction of Costly Materials. A great differ- ence was thus established between the old-fashioned joiner, faithful to the carving of native woods, and the cabinetmaker to the king, whose care was to produce objects of magnifi- cence. In other words, vulgarity was introduced into the scheme of ornament, and brilliant and costly materials were used solely for their expression of brilliancy and costliness ; and it is from this standpoint that French furniture of this period must be regarded. The skill lavished upon it and the fancy and variety that characterizes its design and the minuteness of its workmanship in inlaid surfaces, graven and chiseled brasses, and the ingenuity of its construction and expense, can then be appreciated. 46. Discouragement of Symmetry. During the period of Louis XV, furniture loses the dignity of outline and proportion that characterized that of the previous style, although it possesses all the brilliancy and gaudiness of the former. Another detail of importance between these two styles is that in the Louis XIV work symmetry was not dis- tinctly observed, as the great effect of varied light and shade was enhanced by the abruptness of vms5 T mmetrical parts. In the period of Louis XV, this eccentricity became a law, and symmetry became not only a detail of no consequence, but a thing not to be encouraged. This caused the design to reach the height of irregularity, and the style took the name of Rococo a term in the French language meaning frivolous. In this eccentric ornamentation other details figured, and 50 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 roses, cornucopia, vases, scrolls, etc. are interwoven with a great predominance of shell-like forms. There is nothing in the entire range of art acting as an example or prototype of this Rococo idea. Every shape and line throughout it is twisted and turned until it is almost a deformity; the ordinary acanthus scroll was carried into an endless reedy foliation. Nature appeared to be looked upon as a rude and barbarous affair that needed some dressing of French taste, and yet some specimens of Louis XV furniture impress us both with the actual skill of the man that did the work, whether in metal or wood, and that the pieces of furniture are themselves marvels of decoration. These twists and turns, though absolutely meaningless, seem to have an object. They reflect the light from gilded metal in a thousand different ways, and from a thousand different points, while the high relief affords an abundant play of light and shade amidst this brightness. Toward the end of the reign of Louis XV, a reaction set in against these absurdities, sim- ply because the exaggerated style was being carried beyond reasonable limits. 47. Under the reign of Louis XVI, the furniture is similar to that of his predecessor, inasmuch as the festoons, garlands, gildings, and shell decorations still exist, but the shape of the chair, and the care and study expended on it, is very different. Refinement is evident in every one of its lines and proportions. The earlier chair, with sprawling legs called the cancan was not to be accepted during the reign of Louis XVI, but to be departed from as widely as circumstances would permit. During this period, we find none of the bandy-legged forms of the chair and table characteristic of the previous style, but straight-turned and sometimes fluted shafts imitative of attenuated vases or cups, or suggestive of little columns or colonnettes. The gilding was used, not entirely over the surface, to increase the gaudy appearance, but in lines, to accentuate the fluting of the column-like legs more than to emphasize the curves of the moldings that were turned according to Greek ideas. 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 61 48. The entire interior decoration of this period par- took of a similar reformation. The panels of the rooms were divided into straight lines, and omitted all details of the rococo flourishes. These panels were painted white, and the pilasters between them were carved in rich and delicately executed arabesque. The whole scheme of decoration of this period was equally elaborate and rich with that of its predecessors, and various articles of furniture were made of tulip wood, laburnum, or of rosewood, and on other occasions they would be executed in lighter wood, colored in various gold and brown shades by means of a hot iron. The chief orna- ment was marquetry of elaborate pattern, usually in floral garlands with borders of fine diaper work. The chairs, beds, and couches were usually upholstered in fine Gobelin tapestry or costly French and Italian silks, all of which were further enriched by beautiful metal mounts, while inlaid bits of Sevres porcelain added a delicacy to the whole. GERMAN AND ENGLISH RENAISSANCE. 49. Influence of Italian Art. Renaissance ornament penetrated into Germany at an early period, but was not particularly popular at first, and took no hold on the hearts of the people until the spread of books and engravings pre- pared the way to the adaptation. From an early period there had been a steady current of artists leaving Germany to study art in Italy, and the return of these affected many of their countrymen. 50. Albert Durer, a German artist and illustrator, in many of his engravings, showed a perfect understanding of the conditions of Italian design, leaning occasionally to the Gothic style of his early master and on other occa- sions to the Italian style of his more recent studies. .The spread of these engravings undoubtedly influenced the German taste, but, even at its best, the Renaissance of Germany was impure. The inclination of her people for 52 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 difficiilties that could be solved by the hand rather than by the head soon led her into strapwork, jeweled forms, and monstrous devices more animated than graceful, but exhibiting fully the delight of the clever mechanic to execute details that were difficult to handle but easy to conceive. 51. Introduction Into England. The introduction of Renaissance art into England dates from about the year 1518, when Henry VIII employed an Italian architect to design a monument in memory of Henry VII, which still exists in Westminster Abbey and is almost a pure example of the Italian style of that period. The same architect designed a monument of the Countess of Richmond at Westminster, and shortly afterwards left England for Spain, leaving behind, however, a number of Italians attached to the service of Henry VIII, by whom a taste for the Italian style was thoroughly inoculated into the country. Among these was the architect John of Padua, who appears to have done more work than any of the others, among the most important of which is the old Sommerset House, built in 1549. At the time these Italian artists were spreading a taste for Italian architecture and sculpture throughout the length and breadth of England, another influence was at work to temper this style and prevent its being accepted in its purest form. 52. Holbein. In 1524, the celebrated German artist Holbein came to England from Holland, and to him and John of Padua is due mainly the resulting style of archi- tecture that appeared in England during the reign of Elizabeth. Holbein was a man of great individual genius as a painter, and naturally inclined to establish the taste of the German school in England, and, though he died in 1554 thirty years after entering the country his influence on John of Padua is plainly seen in the results of that archi- tect during the subsequent years. 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 53 5.'*. Dutch Influence. At the time of Elizabeth, a number of artists came over from Holland, built several buildings, and painted many portraits, and, though these artists and architects were thoroughly imbued with a taste for Italian art, that taste was certainly affected by their Dutch surroundings and education. Theodore Havens, of Cleves, was architect of four gates of Caius College, in England, built toward the close of the sixteenth century, and at this time it appears that most of the Italian architects had left the country. There were many English goldsmiths and jewelers, as well as a number of artists and architects, whose names appear prominently at this time, and all this jointly had the effect of conglom- erating the Dutch, Italian, and English-Gothic style of art. 54. Political Ties of England and Holland. During the reign of Elizabeth we meet a great preponderance of Dutch names, considering that it was an English country, which is accounted for by the fact that England was bound by political and religious ties with Holland; and although the greater number of these names are applied to artists and painters, it must be borne in mind that all the arts were connected closely in those days, and artists and sculptors were frequently employed to design models for ornament and even for architecture, and, in the accessories of their own pictures, found frequent opportunity for the exhibition of ornamental design. Michael Angelo was an artist and painted the ceiling and side walls of the Sistinc Chapel, at Rome ; Michael Angelo was a sculptor and carved much of the statuary that now stands in the corridors of some of the most prominent museums of Europe; Michael Angelo was an architect and completed the building of St. Peter's Church, in Rome, the most stupendous undertaking of the age and the largest structure now in existence. 55. Influences on English Art. During the early part of Queen Elizabeth's reign, we are then justified in 54 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 concluding that a most important influence must have been exercised on English art, through the medium of the Prot- estant states and low countries and also of Germany. Heidelberg Castle, in Germany, was completed about this time, and it is not unlikely that this, too, had an effect on English art, especially when we consider that Princess Eliza- beth, daughter of James I of England, was queen of Bohemia, and held court at Heidelberg about the beginning of the seventeenth century. Records show that toward the close of 'Elizabeth's reign, and about the beginning of that of James I, English artists seem to have predominated, and it would appear that at this time would be found the most likely development of a strictly native style. It is to be deplored, however, that this period of English art, known as Jacobean, is undoubtedly the most inartistic, inappropriate, and ill-composed in all history. 56. Elizabethan Ornament. Thus we may expect to meet with the purest Italian ornament during the reign of Henry VIII. During the reign of Elizabeth, his daughter, w r e perceive but a slight imitation of the Italian models and an almost complete adoption of the style of ornament practiced by the decorative artists of Germany and the Netherlands. In the reign of James I, Elizabeth's suc- cessor, we find this same style continued, or attempted to be continued, by the English artists, but in a large and gross manner. 57. Characteristics. There is little, then, that can be justly termed original in Elizabethan ornament. It consists more of an adaptation of foreign elements an adaptation of elements with which the adapters had no intimacy, and about which they had little understanding. The characteristics of Elizabethan ornament may be described as consisting chiefly of a grotesque and complicated variety of pierced scrollwork with curled edges, as though a number of short straps were interwoven and their ends allowed to curl up; of interlaced bands, sometimes on a geometrical pattern, but more often 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 55 flowing irregularly and capriciously ; bands composed of strap and nail-head ornaments; festoons of fruit and drapery inter- spersed with roughly executed figures of human beings; grotesque monsters and animals, with here and there large and flowing designs of natural branch and leaf ornament. High-paneled apartments often filled with designs, of foliage, shields, and coats of arms, grotesque keystones in arches, and immense flowing brackets, are freely used; and the carving, whether in wood or stone, is always very roughly and crudely executed, and the design coarse and ill-adapted to the material in which it is executed. Unlike the adoption of the Classic style in Italy and France, these ornaments are not applied to a Gothic system of construction, but the entire building is masked under a coat of plaster or other material, and the groundwork of classic simplicity is first laid, to receive the meaningless ornament that stamps the period. 58. Revival of Antique Art. About the beginning of the sixteenth century, the revival of the antique art, which we have already discussed, in Italy became invigorated and reduced to a system, as we have said before, through its popular introduction afforded by the means of printing and engraving. Translations of the work of Vitruvius, copiously illustrated and ably commented upon, were printed and spread so as to become the foundation of work for every designer of eminence throughout the country, and at the same time offered a suggestion on which at least half a dozen other writers prepared treatises on architecture, among them Palladio and Vignola, whose works have been preserved and form the standard down to the present day. 59. Architecture and ornament during the period of the English Renaissance may be considered as failures from an artistic standpoint. The purest ornament developed during this great historical period we find in France, where it was uninfluenced by any foreign elements of importance except those received from Italy with the style itself. 56 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 CONCLUSION. 60. Object of Complete Reviewal of Historic Orna- ment. -Thus we have considered the entire range of historic ornament, from the earliest days of Egypt to the beginning of the nineteenth century. The object of this study has not been to acquire a number of forms that were characteristic of each period, that the student might copy or imitate out- lines and designs of the past, in order to execute ideas characteristic of a certain historic period. The purpose has been to train the mind in order that the natural develop- ments arising from conditions in the past can be applied to the probable conditions that would arise under similar cir- cumstances of the present day and the future. 61. Influences Affecting Styles of Art. It has been pointed out that religion, politics, and geography have affected the character of ornament in different countries, as well as historic influences, and at the present day we find that the majority of the ornament is affected by the inven- tions and advancement in science and art characteristic of the nineteenth century, as was the Renaissance period char- acterized by the advancement of learning in its period. In fact, the latter half of the nineteenth century has been characterized by some writers as a New Renaissance, if such a term can be reasonably used. It certainly bears a similar relation, to the three hundred years that preceded it, that the beginning of the Renaissance period bore to the centuries before its dawn. 62. Effect of Environments on Art and Architec- ture. In the fifteenth century, we have the introduction of books to the masses of people, through the invention of the printing press and printing. A spread of desire for art and learning followed as soon as the antiquities of Rome and Greece were learned, and with this development of the human mind, a rapid advancement of civilization took place that characterizes the period as one of the most brilliant in history. 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 57 In the same manner, we have a number of inventions characteristic of the latter half of the nineteenth century that have so changed the conditions of man that his entire habits and character are different from those of his ancestors in the Renaissance period. Steam and electricity have been controlled so as to convert night into day, and make it no longer necessary to discontinue any line of work or manu- facture at sunset. These same agents have rendered the distances between business centers even on two continents matters of only a few hours' or days' travel. Conversa- tion between individuals a thousand miles apart is so easily maintained that it may be considered that space, from a business standpoint, is practically annihilated, and, with a hundred other inventions, we are confronted with a propo- sition in design today that makes the traditions and devices of past ages simply symbols of antiquity. The modern mind is so imbued with mechanics and inven- tions that the present age can give little time to the study and development of a national or characteristic art. Designs of the past have been copied, and we are satisfied to imitate what has been done in this line, instead of trying to do some- thing for ourselves. The human mind has not attempted to invent practical art forms, and years hence the study of the art of this period will be considered in much the same terms that we now consider the art of the Jacobean period in England. 63. Adherence to Old Designs. A simple illustra- tion of this may perhaps be seen in the ordinary chandelier, or hanging light. In the days when candles furnished all the light for rich and poor that was obtainable, it was cus- tomary that a rod or bar should hang from some portion of the room and support on its end one or more candles. The introduction of lamps to general use made it necessary that there should be a bulb or metal globe somewhere near the bottom of this rod, to be filled with oil to supply the lamp that still was suspended from the ceiling by a rod, or, occasion- ally, a chain. With the introduction of gas as illuminating 58 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 power, the rod was replaced by a pipe, still in imitation of the old rod, but serving the double purpose of support- ing" the chandelier and conveying the gas to the burner. The horizontal bars that formerly carried lamps now carry lava tips from which the gas burns, and the large round balls or globes that originally contained the oil to supply the lamp are now false, hollow devices, used to cover the joints where the vertical and horizontal bars are united.. In addition to this, elaborate designs for gas fixtures often introduced long chains from various portions of their cross- bars to staples in the ceiling, suggesting that these fixtures were hung from the ceiling by chains, as the lamps of old a clumsy deceit, inasmuch as the chains nearly always hung loose and the fixture was plainly supported by its central pipe. From a point of design, nothing could be more incon- sistent than to borrow the chain that hung the lamp of our ancestors and use it as a decorative element where it was allowed to hang in a limp curve, on account of this outline being more pleasing to the eye. The reason for this is to be found in the fact that the designer did not invent new conditions to suit the new material. Had he never known of chandeliers for candles and lamps and been called upon to design a device for gas, there is no doubt he would have done much better. His knowledge of historic ornament in lamp fixtures, therefore, did not benefit him, but injured his ability to design something original for gas, and now, with the introduction of electricity, many are continuing in the same error today. 64. All that is required for an electric-light illumination is a pair of small wires to convej^ the current, and a bulb in which the incandescent fiber is enclosed. The designer is free to use these two agents in any form he pleases, to elabo- rate them in any way he chooses, and to produce an equal illumination of a room in the simplest and most artistic way that circumstances can possibly admit. Yet, the majority of our electrolier designs are based on developments of the 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 59 old gas fixtures, or, in some instances, going back to the old candelabra of our forefathers, where tiny lights are poised on the ends of glass imitation tapers, designed with the ornament and after the style of the old dim candles of the sixteenth century, but burning with the brilliant electric illumination of the nineteenth century. 65. Use of Historic Ornament in Designing. In making use of historic ornament for a matter of design, there are two methods the student may legitimately pursue. He may make a design for any purpose whatsoever, which he may call after the style of Louis XII, for instance, and to carry out his idea, may honestly and confessedly borrow details from prominent chateaux or castles and carry them out with all the crude simplicity of this Medieval period. Or he may accept only the spirit of the period and produce designs that are copies of nothing that has ever existed before, but are applications of the simplicity and sternness of the necessities of that time to the change of conditions existing in his new surroundings. In other words, he may duplicate a historic building, in some cases, to produce an emphatic suggestion of a historic period, or he may erect an entirely new structure that is designed of modern mate- rials and with modern methods, but the spirit dominating that is similar to the spirit of the time he would have it represent. Another illustration of this point may make it more clear. A sitting room or library that is to be decorated in the so called Gothic style need not be trimmed with antique oak, carved with deep moldings, and furnished with uncom- fortable high-back chairs that run to a point, with finial and crockets, after the shape of church windows, but it can be decorated and furnished in the spirit of that period, with furniture more suitable to modern times. It need not be oak if mahogany suits better, nor need the chairs be high back or pointed. The treatment of this interior will consist more of an avoidance of what is wrong than of an introduc- tion of what is absolutely correct. GO HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 Carpets on floors were practically unknown at this period, and some of the richest palaces had floor coverings of no better material than straw; but in the nineteenth century we require carpet, and our Gothic interior need not be made as crude as a barn in order to be correct ; we can use hard- wood floors and rugs, or if carpet is more desirable, we must avoid colors and designs that are inconsistent with the spirit of our purpose. 66. Window and Wall Ornamentation. We must remember that glass was scarce and expensive at this time, and that in most cases the windows were large and filled with small panes first, for the admission of sunshine and air, and, second, for economy. But glass is cheap now, and it is not necessary that we should divide our windows lip into a multitude of trivial openings, in order that our panes may be small, because they were in the Gothic period. Leaded glass and stained glass existed in those days and can be used now to obtain any effect we desire that is con- sistent with our purpose. Walls were hung with tapestries at that time, whereas to-day the paper manufacturer has, for economical reasons, crowded the tapestry industry into a comparatively second place, except for the very wealthy. However, we can cover our walls with paper if we choose, but its design should not be suggestive of any period but the one we have in mind. And so throughout, all our efforts may be carried out with the material we have in hand or available at the present time, if we but stop to consider the reason for certain things in the past and a reason why they should or should not be reproduced in the present. 67. This same suggestion applies to the designer of fabrics of all kinds as well as to the decorator, and, whether executing a design for a carpet, wall paper, dress fabric, or linen damask, it is a simpler matter, if its practice is once started, to imitate the spirit of any age or style than it is to attempt to copy the elements of existing designs. 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 61 HISTORIC LETTERING. 68. Lettering does not in reality form a part of Historic Ornament as the various other ornamental details do, but it is here introduced with .the explanation of the characteristics of each style, in order that it may be associated with the ornamental style of each characteristic period. We all know that there was no such style of alphabet as we term Antique Egyptian extant in ancient Egypt, but we do find letters of this character in certain Roman works executed at a late period on Egyptian soil, and it is from these that it derives its name. The styles of letter here given must all be accepted with a certain amount of liberality, as each, though in har- mony with the period it represents, has certain modern char- acteristics introduced for purely commercial advantages. 69. The practical designer is frequently called upon to execute ornamental lettering appropriate to some historic style and in harmony with some practical purpose. For this reason the student is herewith given a number of useful alphabets, with a brief description of each, that will enable him to execute the outlines of each letter properly and pro- portion them according to rules. The titles given to these alphabets are names by which they are known in modern use and explain themselves. There is no rule by which one can determine what style of letter is best suited to each particular purpose, but it is well to bear in mind that legibility is always the first con- sideration, and where the lettering of a design is intended to convey direct information, as in a sign or piece of adver- tising matter, the lettering should be simple and clear in order that the purpose of the design may not fail. On the other hand, where the lettering is for a certificate, diploma, memorial, or other piece of matter that is more ornamental than instructive, the lettering may be elaborated to any degree within reasonable limits. The relative amount of space covered by letters and background is a matter of design that is considered in the same manner as spotting, 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 03 and the proportions of letters to each other must also be considered in the composition of the design, as matters of the principal and subordinate parts of the same design, all of which will be more fully explained hereafter. Elaboration of letters or the use of elaborate letters does not enhance either the beauty or the value of the design unless these letters are used intelligently, and a plain letter correctly and intelligently proportioned will produce a much more pleasing effect than the most elaborate style badly and ignorantly arranged. ANTIQUE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET. 7O. This letter, Fig. 36, is almost identical with the plain Egyptian, the distinction being in the addition of the spur at the angles of the letters, but no variation occurs in the propor- tion of the letter or its stroke. The stroke of a letter is the proportional width of its heavy lines in comparison with its height. In this letter the stroke is one-fifth the height, as shown by the small squares in which the letter surface is divided. Some designers make the spur much more exag- gerated than is shown on this plate, while others make it scarcely perceptible. The examples given herewith, how- ever, may be taken as an average, wherein the spur projects about one-third the width of the stroke. All letters having a horizontal stroke, as the E, L, etc. , have these strokes fin- ished with a beveled end, on which the spur is added at the same angle. The ends of the strokes of the C and the iipper stroke of the G and S, and figures 2, 3, 5, 6, and P are beveled at an angle opposite to that of the other letters referred to above. This bevel, shown on the upper terminal of C\ is made by drawing a line from a point one-fourth the width of the stroke to the right of 5 a to a point one-third the width of the stroke to the left of 5 c. The points 5 a and fie refer to the intersection of the fifth vertical line from the left side of the letter, with the third horizontal line marked c. The middle bar of the A is the width of the stroke below <;4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 the center; the middle bar of the //is one-half the width of the stroke above the center; while the middle bars 'of the E and I 7 are exactly in the center. The J is finished with a spur at ~> c, as well as just above 1 c. The points that deter- mine the inclination of the strokes of the K are from 5 a to two-thirds the width of the stroke below 2 d, and from ^/to the intersection of the upper slanting stroke with line 3 one- third the width of the stroke above d. The two slanting strokes of the M meet in the center of the letter at a point on line /", and no spurs exist on the insides of the slanting strokes at the top. The tail of the Q is cut on an angle of 45 degrees, the shorter side being the width of the stroke in length and the longer side being equal to the distance from 2 c to 3f. The tail of the R is a slanting stroke ; the points of contact are 4 d to 5f. The strokes of the W come to a point on line a to correspond with the M. The corner of the Z is beveled off at about the same angle as the interior of the 5 and the top of the character &. The long slanting stroke of the character & is drawn from a point one-half the width of the stroke to the left and below 1 a to a point one- half the width of the stroke to the right of 4f. The corre- sponding, or upper, slanting stroke, from its top to the beginning of the curve, is made from a point one-half the width of the stroke to the right and below 4 a to a point 2 d. The other slanting stroke intersects the long stroke the width of the stroke below this point and is parallel with the upper stroke, finishing on line c. The curve by which these strokes are united is three-fourths the width of the stroke to the left of line 1 at e. The middle bar of the numeral 8 is beveled at a slight angle, as shown. The character of the numeral 5 is changed at the point where the vertical stroke joins the curved bottom portion of the numeral 5. The point added below the line d is necessary to fill out the space to the line of the curve. The numerals 6, 8, and 9 are about one-third the width of the stroke wider than the other char- aracters, but are similar in other respects to the same numerals in the plain Egyptian alphabet. The lower-case letters are, in many respects, the same as 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 65 those in the plain Egyptian alphabet, although many excep- tions occur. All strokes extending above the line a are cut at an angle of 60 degrees, to which the spur is added at the same angle. This characteristic is also observable on letters of shorter height, such as the i, j, m, n, etc., but the ends of the strokes of all letters extending below the line are finished without this detail. LIGHT ANTIQUE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET. 71. The difference between the alphabet shown in Fig. 37 and that shown in Fig. 36 is almost entirely in the weight of the stroke. The capital letters and figures of this alpha- bet are one-fourth higher than wide, with the exception of the letters A, M, O, Q, S, W, etc., which are wider than the others, and the letters /, L, and N, which are narrower. On the top line we have, in A, a letter whose width is equal to its height, and in /a letter whose width is but three thirty-seconds its height. The cross-bar of the A is two and two- thirds strokes above the bottom line, and the curved line at the top and to the left of A is a short pen or brush stroke termed the cyma, on account of its resemblance to the curve of the Greek moldings of that name. The purpose of the cyma in lettering is to fill the space between the slanting parts of the letters, or extremities of letters where wide openings are likely to appear where the letters are placed together. It is also used as an integral part of some letters, as in the Q and lower part of the Z. In other styles of lettering the cyma is freqiiently used as a structural part of many letters, particularly in the Old English alphabet. On the letter A the cyma is eight strokes in length and is located one stroke to the left of the upper point of the A. The letter B is fashioned so that its lower portion to the middle of bar is eight strokes above the bottom line, and projects one stroke to the right of the upper portion. As far as it goes, the letter C is a perfect arc of a circle, and the spur on the inside is about two strokes from the top line. The 10 Of 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 67 lower extremity of the letter projects a stroke beyond the top and finishes at a point about three strokes above the lower line. The right side of the letter D is semicircular and becomes tangent at the top and bottom three strokes to the right of the vertical. E, F, G, and H each possess a middle bar that is located four strokes below the top of the letter, and in the letters E and F this middle bar extends to within three strokes of the right extremity of the letter. In K the slanting stroke begins three strokes above the lower line and extends to the top line where the end is beveled at an angle of about sixty degrees. The letter L is about one stroke narrower than the other letters, and the cyma is placed over it so that its lower extremity is even with the right-hand portion of the letter/ M is two strokes wider than the other letters, and in some cases is made precisely like an inverted W, except at the union of the two slanting strokes where the letter is finished flat with a spur instead of being pointed as in the W. Here the middle strokes of the M are brought to a point one-half the width of the letter below the top line. The slanting stroke of the TV commences on the vertical stroke one-fourth the width of the letter below the bottom line. The loops of the P and R are very different in style, the middle bar of the P being four and two-thirds strokes from the bottom line, while the middle stroke of the R is six and two- thirds strokes above the bottom line. The tail of the R intersects the middle bar at a point where the curve becomes tangent. The letter 5" curves in each direction from a point in the center of the letter on a line with the middle bar of the R, and this letter is narrower at the top than at the bottom and can be enclosed in an isosceles triangle whose height is about three times the height of the letter. The W is precisely the same as two Ps joined at a point two and two-thirds strokes below the top line. The vertical stroke of the F extends six and two- thirds strokes above the bottom line, the letter being twelve strokes wide on the top. The X is nine strokes wide on top and thirteen strokes wide on the bottom. The letter Z is the same width as the average letters on top, but it may I \ or 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 69 be finished either with the cyma as shown here, or with a bot- tom corresponding in detail to the top, as the fancy dictates. The figures are of the average width of the letters, the 3 being similar to the S, and the Z to the 7. The lower-case letters are easily constructed, as shown. HEAVY ANTIQUE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET. 72. The style of letter shown in Fig. 38 is the heavy extreme of the Antique Egyptian style, in the same manner that Fig. 37 was the light extreme of this style. Between these two extremes the style may be varied to almost any extent, .slight variations in the form of letter being necessary to suit the different conditions. The Heavy Antique Egyp- tian, however, is rarely used as a solid black letter as shown in this figure, and is only so printed here in order to preserve uniformity in the alphabets. In much design work this letter is found in simple outline, and though extremely bulky on account of the weight of its stroke, it may be gracefully handled and elaborately orna- mented to produce a most pleasing effect. The stroke in the Antique Egyptian alphabet should not exceed one-third the full width of the average letter, which is the extreme illustrated in this case, and it will be observed that with this heavy stroke it is necessary that certain letters, such as the K, S, y, W, etc., be carried beyond the limiting top and bottom lines, in order that the full outline of the letter may be shown without confusion of parts. In some places, too, it will be found necessary to diminish the width of the stroke in order to leave necessary space between strokes, and other variations may be indulged to suit specific circumstances. MEDIEVAL ROMAN ALPHABET. 73. This style of letter, by many authorities, is termed the Antique Roman, but it belongs to the historic period indicated by its name. The Medieval Roman alphabet as w W EC> W RS 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 71 shown in Fig. 39 possesses three distinct and characteristic features. First, there is a. small spur that projects above and below the lettering- lines, and there is another projection of the inside line of the stroke beyond the fine line for a distance of about one-third the stroke, as in the top of the letter A and the bottom of the letter N\ and besides these, every angle between a stroke and a fine line is rounded. The width of the stroke here is from one-fourth to one-fifth the height of the letter, and the spur is one stroke long and is joined to the letter one stroke above the bottom, or below the top line, thus making the curve on the inside an exact quarter circle. All letters average five strokes in width, with the excep- tion of such letters as have heretofore been described as varying from the regular limits. In the letter A the fine line intersects the stroke at the point of the letter, and though on its inside the stroke is carried past the fine line, the intersection takes place precisely as though this peculi- arity did not exist. The horizontal fine line of the A is one and one-fourth strokes above the bottom of the letter. IiIGIIT AND HEAVY FRENCH ROMAN ALPHABET. 74. In modern usage the Roman alphabet is varied somewhat to suit certain purposes. One of these variations, called the "New York Roman," adheres in outline very closely to the original Medieval form with the exception of the projecting spur of the stroke beyond the fine line. Another variation, known as the "French Roman," differs from its prototype by increasing the weight of the fine line in order that it may be better expressed in carved stone- work, etc. The variations of these three styles, from an extremely light letter to an extremely heavy letter, is prac- ticed by all designers, but the similarity is such that we only give the normal conditions of the Medieval Roman and extreme conditions of the French. In Fig. 40 is shown the Light French Roman alphabet, E O IL, E I IL Q (D CD - - 74 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 and this fills the same position in the variation of the alphabet as the Light Antique Egyptian. In giv- ing the letter weight, as shown in Fig. 41, certain liberties are taken with the fine lines, as shown in the lower strokes of the E, L, and Z. In using these Roman alphabets, care must be taken to have the lower- case letters well proportioned in the weights of their strokes with the capitals that are used. In Fig. 42 are shown the lower - case letters of the French Roman and the Medieval Roman alphabets, the former, it will be observed, possess- ing a much heav- ier stroke. These lower-case letters in Fig. 42 are pro- portioned for the normal condition 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 75 of alphabet, and where used with the heavy or light alphabet, they must be increased or diminished in stroke accordingly. The use of the Roman numerals with these alphabets is by no means essential, but the numerals are given here in order that the proportionate stroke may be observed. There are many cases where the use of the Medieval Roman alphabet is appropriate beyond all other alphabets, and it is usual that in such cases the Roman numerals be used. GOTHIC ALPHABET. 75. The style of letter we term " Gothic" was designed during the latter part of the Medieval period and is asso- ciated both historically and architecturally with the style of Gothic architecture that existed during the Flamboyant period in France and the Perpendicular period in England. In modern use this letter is largely applied to church deco- ration for the purpose of making religious quotations, and is also used in printing for certain kinds of literature on account of its origin in ancient monasteries. It is similar but much more easily read than what we term "Church Text," and is, therefore, given here to. the exclusion of the latter, as it is much more serviceable. In Fig. 43 the capital and lower-case letters, as well as the figures, are shown, and the distinguishing characteristics of this style lie in the peculiar formation of the letters A, C, E, F, //, /, and U. The letters A, ^[, .V, etc. do not possess any slanting strokes as they do in the Roman alphabets, but are formed with a vertical stroke as one of their sides and curved strokes for the rest of the outline. The letters C and R are closed on their right sides by a vertical line ending in small dots or volutes, the line on /: being longer than that on the C. The Fis similar in gen- eral outline to the capital F oi the Roman styles, but carries its spur on the upper fine line below the bottom of the letter itself. The capital //is but slightly varied from the lower-case //, and they is peculiar in its general details to H a F* tn CO B 5 W.M U 3D ft w fc E ^ Stf* *9 w V & > 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 79 this style of alphabet. Other details of peculiarity exhibit themselves to the student as he studies this style. This letter is frequently elaborated in certificate and engrossing work, by means of shading and elaborate backgrounds, and some proportions of the letters may be slightly changed in order to suit them to particular circumstances. A later development of this alphabet is shown in Fig. 44, where the letters A, M, N, etc. partake of the same char- acteristics as the Roman letter, while the peculiar ogival form of outline characteristic of the Gothic style is main- tained in all of the curves in the stroke. A strong character- istic difference, however, between the alphabet in Fig. 43 and that in Fig. 44 is that in the former all the fine lines are straight and in the latter all of the fine lines are curved, except in the A, K, M, etc. This style of letter, usually termed "10th Century," is suitable where more elaboration is required than the Gothic style permits, and is seldom used for church work as it is associated with that period of archi tecture when the building of churches was in its decline. Another style of letter that had its origin, also, in the Gothic is illustrated in Fig. 45 and is termed " Henry VII " inasmuch as the only existing example of this work is to be seen in the Henry VII Chapel at Westminster Abbey. As a matter of fact, this is technically a Renaissance style, although like all early Renaissance art it developed from the Gothic. The tendency to elaboration and the intro- duction of meaningless curves and forms is characteristic of this period, but the style of alphabet when properly treated affords a very valuable means of enriching a design that is composed almost entirely of lettering work. OTVD EXGT.TSII ALPHABET. 7(>. A standard alphabet that has ever been popular and is ever serviceable under certain conditions is the Old English, shown in Fig. 40. There can be little doubt that this bears a close relation to the Gothic alphabet, and, V ts -^ ^M^M^. 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 81 indeed, its lower-case letters are very similar to the Gothic; and, though it is much used in church work and in the designing of certificates and other engrossed documents, it is not as legible as the Gothic alphabet and is more suitable for conditions where ornamentation is required rather than clear information. It will be observed in this alphabet that the cyma forms a marked characteristic in each of the letters. For instance, in the letter E nearly all the strokes are composed of at least a portion of the cyma. Certain letters are very hard to distinguish from one another in this alphabet, and care should be taken to remember the distinguishing character- istics of each in order that they may be rendered without referring constantly to the copy. In some forms of alphabet, the C and the E are almost identical, the exception between the two letters being that the E contains a solid stroke where the two horizontal fine lines exist in the C. We think it preferable, however, to use the form of E shown in Fig. 46, although this is somewhat confusing when compared with the F. It will be observed that the vertical stroke of the F is a straight stroke and not a cyma as in the , and that a fine line connecting the upper spur of the F with the main stroke is straight instead of a curved continuation of a cyma as in the letter E. T and U are also difficult to distinguish in some styles of alphabet, and study should be given to the formation of the / and J in order that they may not become confusing. A little consideration of these letters will show the student that there are only three or four different styles of stroke and that many different letters are formed simply by the addition of some detail of other letters. For instance, the letter E differs but slightly from the letter L, except in the addition of its center spur, and the left-hand portion of the letter M is almost identical with the letter /. Similar resemblances will be found in many other letters, such as the Q, R, etc. , and the Z, though shown on this plate with a compound final stroke, is often drawn with a top and bot- tom of the same character. 83 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 The lower-case letters are similar to the lower-case letters of the Gothic alphabet, except that they are somewhat heavier in their stroke, but for all practical purposes the two styles are so near alike in their lower case that one is fre- quently used with the other without invoking any severe criticism. 77. In making use of these alphabets in design, it has been customary to associate all the Roman styles with Classic and Renaissance art and to use the Gothic and "16th Century" with Medieval art; while the Henry VII and Old English are used both in Medieval and Renaissance art. There are cases where one style of letter may be used per- fectly proper in another style of art, but care must be given to this consideration when the mixture of styles is attempted, as it will readily be seen that there is nothing particularly incongruous about using the Roman letter in Renaissance art, or even in Gothic art, but a Gothic letter would be highly out of place in Classic art no matter what were the circum- stances. The reason for this should be clear, as the Gothic architect might have inherited some knowledge of the Roman letter and used it in his designs, but it would be utterly impossible for the Roman designer to borrow a letter of the Gothic style inasmuch as that letter had not been invented during the period of the Roman architectural styles. 78. The initial letters that are woven in many of the designs of French Renaissance art usually tend toward the character of the French Roman, and the interwoven initials of H and C in the wall decoration shown in Fig. 32 are borrowed from the style we have herein described as French Roman, and comparison of other initials that will be found carved in the stonework of the mantels illustrated in the foregoing pages will indicate that they have all been adapted to their modern purpose from the more ancient style of classic letter. A SERIES OK QUESTIONS RKLATING TO THE SUBJECTS TREATED OE IN THIS VOLUME. It will be noticed that the various Question Papers that follow have been given the same section numbers as the Instruction Papers to which they refer. No attempt should be made to answer any of the questions until the Instruc- tion Paper having the same section number as the Question Paper in which the questions occur has been carefully studied. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. (PART 1.) (1) (a) How many types of people were there among the Egyptians ? (b) Describe each. (2) What natural types are found in Assyrian ornament ? (3) (a) How many moldings are there in Greek archi- tecture ? (b) Make a sketch of the outline of each molding, with its name under it. (These outlines should be about 1 inch high. ) (4) (a) Who were the Etruscans? (b) What nation was largely affected by their art ? (c] What class of work did they excel in ? (5) (a] What two plant forms play a conspicuous part in Egyptian ornament ? (b) Make a sketch of either one of them and describe the other one. (6) How is Assyrian sculptured ornament inferior to the Egyptian ? (7) State the difference between ornament and decoration. (8) (a} What is the winged disk ? (/>) What does it .signify ? (c) To what style of ornament docs it belong ? (if] Of what class of ornament is it ? ('.)) Make a sketch, about 2 inches high, showing the Assyrian rendering of the Egyptian lotus. 3 For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 2 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 (10) (a) Where is the torus molding most frequently used ? (b] Where is the echinus molding most fre- quently used ? (c] Where is the cyma recta most freqtiently used ? (11) What is meant by the term conventionalism ? (12) (a) What is a scarabaeus ? (ft) To what style of ornament does it belong ? (13) What great geographical differences were there between Greece and Egypt ? (14) What is the principal Greek building in the Doric order ? (15) (a) Should a floral design on a textile fabric be as close an imitation of the natural plant as is possible ? (6) Why? (16) Into what three classes is Egyptian ornament divided ? (17) Describe the character of the Greeks as a nation. (18) Make a drawing 2 inches high of the Greek anthe- mion. (19) How should color be used in decorative design ? (20) Describe Egyptian carved ornament. (21) How does Greek art differ from Egyptian and Assyrian art ? (22) Make a drawing 2 inches high of the Greek lily. (23) What was the origin of the fixed styles of orna- ment? (24) Describe the preparation of a bcdy for burial, as practiced among the ancient Egyptians. 3 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 (25) (a) In what does the beauty of Greek ornament lie most largely ? (b) What characteristic that is prominent in Egyptian art does it lack ? (26) What is a guilloche ? (27) Of what advantage is the study of historic orna- ment ? (28) What is the scroll ornament, as seen in Egyptian art, considered to be symbolic of ? (29) To what do the leaves of the Greek flowers owe their form and shape ? (30) What is polychromy t (31) What natural phenomenon had a marked effect on Egyptian ornament ? (32) Make a sketch, about 2 inches by 3 inches, of charac- teristic Egyptian ornament based on a combination of circles and ornamented with lotus-flower devices. (33) What are the three great laws of nature observed by the Greek artist in his ornament ? (34) Describe the colors used, and the location of each, in the Grecian- Doric order. (35) What peculiarity does Egyptian ornament possess over all other styles ? (36) (a) What colors were used in Egyptian ornament ? (b) Why was it necessary to use bright colors ? (37) (a) What are antefixae; and (V) from what derived ? (38) (rt) What are the three Greek orders ? (/>) What is the distinguishing characteristic of each ? 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 (39) From what country was the ornament of Assyria borrowed ? (40) What is a propylon ? (41) How are the contours of Greek moldings profiled ? (42) What objects standing in front of the Egyptian temples are characteristic of this style of art ? (43) Draw a hyperbola. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. (PART 2.) (1) What great religious difference existed between the Arabs and the Persians ? (2) What other nations carry- out the same principles of surface decoration that we find in Indian art ? (3) In painted Byzantine ornament, of what does the ground almost universally consist ? (4) (a) Romanesque ornament in Eastern Europe was affected by the art of what other countries ? (^) Into what style of art did the Romanesque develop under this influence ? (5) What is a modilliou ? (6) What products of Persian design are still considered the finest in the world ? (7) What is the relationship that exists between Byzan- tine and Arabian ornament ? (8) What is the relative importance of sculpture in Byzantine and Romanesque art ? (9) Why is the distinction between Roman and Greek art so much more clearly marked than that between Byzan- tine and Romanesque ? H For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 2 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 (10) (a) What is the essential difference between the Roman-Corinthian order and the Roman-Composite order? (b) For what reason was the Composite order originally designed ? (11) What are the characteristics of Celtic ornament ? (12) From what did the Moorish style spring ? (13) What are the restrictions of the Mohammedan religion in relation to decorative design ? (14) What is the relation of mosaic work and painted work in Byzantine and Romanesque art ? (15) (a) What is the earliest monument in the Byzantine style? (b) When was it built ? (16) What is the difference between the treatment of the acanthus leaves at the top of a Roman- Corinthian column and the lotus leaves at the top of an Egyptian column ? (17) What is the principal building in Moorish archi- tecture ? (18) What peculiar personal characteristics of the ori- ental people affect the progress of their arts ? (19) (a) What building stands as prominently character- istic of Byzantine art as the Parthenon does of Greek art ? (b) For what is the building now used ? (20) What is the essential characteristic of all Roman ornament ? (21) What characteristic does Moorish ornament lack ? (22) To what can we trace the predominance of geomet- rical ornament in all Mohammedan designs ? (23) Aside from coloring, what is the first element of beauty in Chinese art ? 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 (24) * Make a sketch of a Byzantine capital. (25) At the time of its fall, how much of the continent of Europe did the Roman Empire cover ? (26) (a) What colors were used by the Moors, and (b} how were they arranged in wall treatment, to accord with natural laws ? (27) Describe the capitals of the columns in (a) the Early English period; (b) the Decorated period; (c) the Perpen- dicular period. (28) * Make a sketch of Arabian geometrical ornament suitable for mosaic work. (29) In Indian woven fabrics, what rules are observed under the following conditions : (a) How are colored grounds treated when gold ornaments are used, or where gold is used in large masses ? (b} How is the ground treated when gold ornament is used alone ? (c) When ornaments of one color are used on a ground of a contrasting color, what is the general rule ? (d) When colored ornaments are used on a gold ground, how are they separated sharply from the ground ? (30) * Make a sketch of Byzantine running ornament or surface decoration. (31) What conditions gave rise to the Romanesque style ? (32) * Make a sketch of Moorish geometrical interlaced ornament. (33) What was the first Mohammedan nation to adopt European fashions in architecture ? (34) Why are examples of Byzantine art, as found on (rreek soil, usually purer in style than others? * All sketches are to be about 2 inches square. 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 4 (35) (a) In what year occurred the fall of Rome ? (b} How did this affect the art of Eastern and Western Europe ? (36) In what monuments was Roman art mostly expressed ? (37) In what class of work do we find the only ornament that is strictly Turkish in character ? (38) What object appears to have been maintained in the woven fabric of Indian manufacture concerning the definition of each object, and the effect of colored objects viewed at a distance ? (39) What are the characteristics of Byzantine carved ornament ? (40) What was the period of highest development in all architecture ? (41) What structural problem underlies the system of Romanesque design ? (42) Why was modification necessary when the Romans adopted the Greek orders ? (43) (a) Can the designs observable in Turkish carpets be considered characteristic Turkish designs ? (b} Why ? (44) * Make a sketch of the capital of an early Roman- esque column. (45) (a) Name the five orders of architecture, (b) Which of these are essentially Roman ? (40) What arc the most prominent colors in Turkish ornament ? * All sketches are to be about 2 inches square. 4 . HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 (47) How do Byzantine mosaics differ from Roman mosaics ? (48) Why are Romanesque forms so simple ? (49) In what colors do modern Turkish ornament and ancient Turkish ornament differ ? (50) Give the characteristics (a) of the Greek-Ionic order; (b) of the Roman- Doric order. HISTORIC ORNAMENT. (PART 3.) (1) Into what four styles can French furniture be divided after the middle of the seventeenth century ? (2) What are the characteristic differences between the feudal castle and the Renaissance chateau ? (3) What effect did the invention of printing and the printing press have on the development of Renaissance art ? (4) Execute your name in letters of the Old English alphabet. (5) (a) Make a sketch of some heraldic device char- acteristic of Francis I period; (b) Henry II period. (6) Describe the furniture of the Louis XIV period. (7) What is the largest and most important of the French chateaux ? (8) What is meant by (a) basso rilievo ? (b} mezzo rilievo ? (c) alto rilievo? (d) By whom, were they first practiced ? (9) Describe the decorations of the molded work and panels in the three periods of English architecture. (10) Make a sketch, 2 inches square, showing an example of Celtic interlaced work. 5 For notice of the copyright, see page immediately following the title page. 2 HLSTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 (11) Describe the furniture of the Louis XV period. (12) What idea did the French artists conceive of the Romans' use of the Greek orders ? (13) What great painting did Michael Angelo execute in 1541? (14) Describe the diapers and wall decorations of the three periods of English art. (15) Where do we find the purest forms of Gothic orna- ment ? (16) Describe the furniture of the Louis XVI period. (17) What was the heraldic device of Francis I ? (18) What two famous statues did Michael Angelo design for Pope Julius II ? (19) Print the title "Historic Ornament " in letters of the Medieval Roman alphabet. (20) What are the characteristics of Early English archi- tecture ? (21) Describe the interior decorations of the Louis XVI period. (22) What was the heraldic device of Louis XII ? (23) What are the characteristics expressed in all of Michael Angelo's works ? (24) What are the three periods of Gothic architecture in France ? (25) What are the three periods of English-Gothic ornament ? (26) In what way did Albert Durer influence the tastes in German Renaissance ? 5 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 3 (27) What heraldic device was sometimes used by Anne of Brittany? (28) What building was Michael Angelo employed upon as architect when he died ? (29) What other buildings than churches formed a large portion of the Gothic architecture of the thirteenth cen- tury ? (30) What are the characteristics of the Decorated period of English architecture ? (31) (a) What monument, in England, marks the intro- duction of Renaissance into that country ? (/5>) What year was it erected ? (32) In French heraldry, of what was the dolphin indicative ? (33) Why was the transition from Gothic to Renaissance much more rapid in France than anywhere else ? (34) Describe the feudal system. (35) What are the characteristics of the Perpendicular period of English-Gothic architecture ? (36) What Dutch architect designed a number of college gates in England ? (37) What animal was used in heraldic devices, indicative of Anne of Brittany ? (38) Into what three periods is French Renaissance divided ? (39) How were the rooms heated in the early feudal castles ? (40) What are the distinguishing characteristics of Italian- Gothic architecture ? 4 HISTORIC ORNAMENT. 5 (41) What are the characteristics of Elizabethan ornament ? (42) What two palaces near Paris became popular with the royal family toward the decline of the Renaissance.? (43) What class of buildings best expresses the transition from Gothic to Renaissance in French architecture ? (44) Describe the influences that affected Renaissance architecture in Italy, France, and England. (45) What is the purpose in studying historic ornament ? INDEX. NOTE. All items in this index refer first to the section (see Preface, Vol. I) and then to the page of the section. Thus, " Lotus 3 26 " means that lotus will be found on page 26 of section 8. A. Sec. Abacus 4 Acanthus, Roman 4 Adherence to old designs 5 Albert Durer 5 Alhambra 4 Alphabet, Antique Egyptian 5 " French Roman 5 " Gothic 5 " Heavy antique Egyp- tian 5 " Light antique Egyp- tian 5 " Medieval Roman 5 " Old English 5 Alto rilievo 5 Analysis of plants 2 Ancient art 3 " castles, Heating of 4 " " Mode of living in 4 " ornament 3 Angle, How to bisect an 1 " " " lay off an 1 Animal forms in Celtic ornament 4 Annulets 4 An tefixae 8 Anthemion 8 Antique art, Revival of, in Eng- land 5 " Egyptian alphabet 5 " Egyptian alphabet. Heavy 5 " Egyptian alphabet, Light 5 Antiquity of Egyptian ornament 8 Apophyge 4 Applied Design, Drawing plate. . 2 Arabian and Persian art com- pared 4 " art 4 " " Mohammedanism in 4 " coloring 4 " ornament 4 Page. 8 31 57 51 81 63 ri 75 65 69 79 7 44 9 126 126 9 83 86 % 5 76 67 55 63 Sec. Page. Arabian ornament, Development of... Arc, How to find the center of. . 1 " of circle equal to given straight line, How to find 1 Architectural development, Zenith of 4 " orders 3 Architecture, Chinese, Scarcity of 4 " Classic 4 Conditions influ- encing 3 " Five orders of 4 " Greek 3 " Influences of 3 Architrave 4 " Ionic 4 Art, Ancient 3 " and literature, Italian 5 " Assyrian 3 " " Development of... 3 " Byzantine 4 " Celtic 4 " Chinese 4 " Standard forms in 4 " Classic... 4 Comparison of Persian and Arabian 4 Comparison of Persian and Indian 4 Decorative 8 Egyptian 8 Etruscan 3 French Gothic 4 " Heraldry in 5 Gothic 4 " Evolution of 4 " in Italy 4 " Influence of religion in 4 Greco-Roman S 38 42 115 58 61 2 5 2 54 4 6 13 9 5 47 47 39 95 59 02 1 52 78 79 6 14 116 34 99 99 106 99 79 Vll Yin INDEX. Sec. Page. Sec. Page. Art, Greek 3 52 Byzantine ornament, Ingenuity " Indian 4 64 of 4 55 " " Lack of progressive- " Origin of. .. 4 39 ness in 4 64 " style, Examples of 4 42 " Influences affecting differ- ent styles of 5 50 C. Sec. Page. " Japanese 4 5!) Capital, Corinthian 4 15 " " 4 63 Capitals, decorated, Character- " Moorish 4 80 istics of 4 109 " " Construction and " early English, Charac- decoration in 4 83 teristics of 4 109 " Derivation of 4 80 " " French 4 116 " Primary colors in.. . 4 85 " Flamboyant 4 117 " Oriental 4 59 " perpendicular, Charac- " Persian 4 78 teristics of 4 110 " Pompeian 3 79 " Ravonnant 4 117 " Renaissance 5 1 Cartouch, Construction of 2 26 " " in Italy 5 3 " Definition of 2 26 " Origin of u 1 Castle of Coucy -. 4 123 " Roman influences on Italian 5 6 Castles, ancient, Heating of 4 126 " Romanesque 4 33 " " Mode of living " Sculpture in Byzantine 4 58 in 4 126 " Romanesque.. 4 58 " and chateaux 5 26 " Turkish 4 76 Cathedral of Monreale 4 55 " Western 4 95 Cauliculi 4 16 Asiatic ornament 4 59 Cavetto 3 63 Assembly, Hall of 3 17 Ceiling decoration, Byzantine... 4 47 Assyrian art 3 47 Celtic art 4 95 " Development of 3 47 " ornament 4 95 " ornament 3 47 " " Animal forms " s'culpture 3 48 in 4 06 Athena Polias, Temple of 3 70 " " Characteristics " " " " 4 9 of 4 96 Attic base 4 12 " " Intricacy of 4 97 (Vxis, Definition of 1 35 " " Origin of 4 95 " " Symbolism in. .. 4 98 li. Sec. Page. Characteristics of Celtic orna- Ball-flower ornament 4 101 ment 4 96 Base, Attic 4 12 " " decorated " Corinthian 4 16 capitals... 4 110 Bases, Greek 3 59 " " early Eng- Basso rilievo 5 7 lish capi- Blending of colors in Moorish tals 4 109 ornament 4 91 " " Elizabethan Blois, Chateau de 5 28 ornament 5 54 " Staircase of Chateau de. . . 5 31 " " Indian orna- Bourbon penod 5 25 ment 4 65 Bow-pen 1 9 " " Moorish or- " pencil 1 9 nament. . . 4 81 Brushes, Japanese 2 53 " "Oriental Brush Work, Drawing plate 2 51 people.... 4 59 Bv/.antine art 4 39 " " perpendicu- " Ornamental influ- lar capi- ence in 4 39 tals 4 110 " Sculpture in 4 58 " Persian o r- " ceiling decoration 4 47 nament. .. 4 78 " decoration 4 47 " " Roman or- " ornament.... .... 4 39 nament. . . 4 31 INDEX. IX Sec. Characteristics of the Greeks.. " "Turkish ornament Chateau de Blois " " " Octagonal stair- case in " " " Wall decoration in Chateaux and castles Chinese architecture, Scarcity of " art, Standard forms in.. " coloring " ornament " and idealism. . " " Primitiveness of Church, Influence of " of St. Mark Circle, How to draw, freehand.. " " " inscribe a hexa- gon Circles, Perspective of Classes of Egyptian ornament.. Classic architecture " art... moldings., ornament. " style, Revival of Class of ornament Cleopatra Color Coloring, Arabian " Chinese " -Egyptian " in Moorish ornament.. " Moorish, System of.... " Rules of, in Indian fab- rics. Colors, Blending of, in Moorish ornament " of Egyptians Column, Tuscan Combination of elements Comparison of Egypt and Greece of Greek and Roman orders of Indian and Persian art of Persian and Arabian art... Compasses Composite order Composition Conditions influencing architec- ture n H n 4* M M M 51 19 80 98 BO 8 fit 1 SO n 1 8 80 M 8 74 68 M 90 M Sec. Page. Conic sections 8 60 Consistency in design 3 i of Egyptian orna- ment 3 29 " " Moorish orna- ment 4 87 Construction and decoration in Moorish art 4 88 " of cartouch 2 26 " " Moorish geomet- rical ornament 4 92 Constructive ornament 3 80 Conventionalism 3 6 o f Egyptian ornament 3 29 " of Moorish or- nament 4 88 Corbel 4 124 Corinthian base , 4 16 " capital 4 15 " order 3 64 " " Roman 4 27 Cornice 4 7 Corona 4 7 Cy ma recta 8 63 " reversa 3 63 Cymatium 4 8 D. Sec. Page. Decorated capitals, Characteris- tics of " period Decoration and construction in Moorish art " Arabian " Elements of " General rules of sur- face in " Meaning of Principles of Decorations, Painted Roman .... Decorative art " ornament . . " theory exhibited by the savage Definition of a drawing " " axis. " " cartouch " "double ordinate.... " "ordinate " " pitch " "sketching " "spotting Derivation of Moorish art Design, Adherence to old " Consistencv in. . . 109 100 83 72 2 8 1 2 32 6 30 35 12 1 2 45 26 45 45 45 1 13 80 57 INDEX. Sec. Design, Orders of 8 Details, German Gothic 4 Development of Arabian orna- ment 4 " " Assyrian art.. 3 " " fireplace 5 " " Romanesque style 4 Devices, Symbolic 3 Diapers, Early English 4 " " French 4 Disk, Winged 3 Dividers 1 Donatello 5 Donjon 4 Doric entablature 4 " " 4 " order 3 Double ordinate, Definition of. .. 1 Draftsman at work, Position of 2 Drawing board 1 1 2 Definition of. Freehand. .. " Geometrical " Ink " Instrumental " Mechanical " paper " pen, How to sharpen.. " plate, Applied Design.. -' " Brush Work " " Flowersand Con- ventionalized Leaves 2 " " Linear Elements 2 " " Natural Leaves. . 2 " " Surfaces and Solids 2 Drawing plates, Preliminary di- rections for. . . 1 " " Size of 1 Durer, Albert 5 Dutch influence in English Re- naissance .... 5 Page. 58 121 47 33 33 3 113 119 27 9 6 123 e 24 64 45 4 1 1 2 1 1 1 13 1 1 10 14 70 51 II 9 82 E. Sec. Page. Early English capitals, Chacter- " istics of 4 109 diapers 4 113 " " period 4 100 " spandrels 4 112 " French capitals 4 11G diapers 4 119 " periods 4 116 Echinus 3 03 Effect of invention of printing. .. D 5 Sec. Page. Effect of traditional styles 3 11 Egypt and Greece, Comparison of 3 52 Egyptian alphabet, Antique 5 63 Heavy an- tique 5 69 " " Light an- tique 5 65 " art 3 14 " coloring 3 46 " colors 3 46 " ornament 3 14 " Antiquity of 3 15 " " Classes of.... 3 30 " " Consistency of 3 SO " Convention- alism of.... 3 29 " " Influence of Nile on 3 14 " Influence of religion on 3 16 " temple 3 17 " " Interior of 3 19 " ." Plan of 3 22 Elements, Combination of 3 3 " of decoration 3 2 Elizabethan ornament, Charac- teristics of 5 54 Ellipse 3 61 " How to draw an 1 43 " " " " "freehand.. 2 20 Empire period 5 25 England and Holland, Political ties of 5 53 " Introduction of Rerais- " sance art into 5 3 " Introduction of Renais- sance into 5 52 " Revival of antique art in 5 55 English and German Gothic 4 100 " Renaissance 5 51 " " Dutch in- fluence in 5 53 Entablature, Doric 4 6 " Roman Doric 4 24 " Tuscan 4 20 Epitithidas . 4 5 Equilateral triangle, How to draw an 1 36 Erechtheum 3 71 Etruscan art 3 77 " ornament 3 77 Evolution of Gothic art 4 99 " " " ornament.. 4 108 Examples of Byzantine style 4 42 Expression of taste in savage ornament . . 3 11 INDEX. XI F. Sec. Fabric.s, Indian, Rules of color- ing 4 Fall of Roman Empire 4 Feudal system 4 Fiefs 4 Fillet 8 Fireplace, Development of 5 Five orders of architecture 4 Flamboyant capitals 4 period 4 Fleur-de-lis 4 Flowers and Conventionalized Leaves, Drawing plate 2 Foliated terminations in Italian Renaissance 5 Fontainebleau 5 France, Introduction of Renais- sance art into 5 Freehand drawing 1 " " 2 French art, Heraldry in 5 " conception of Roman ideas 5 " furniture, Lack of sym- metry in... 5 " " Style of 5 " Gothic art 4 " Renaissance 5 " Periods of. . 5 " Rapidity of transition of 5 " " style, Pur- ity of 5 " Roman alphabet 5 *' window tracery 4 Fret 3 Frieze 4 Furniture, French, Lack of sym- metry in... 5 " Style of 5 Page. 65 63 33 2 117 116 128 14 47 3 1 1 34 29 49 48 116 24 24 24 4 71 105 37 6 49 48 G. Sec. Page. General rules of surface decora- tion 3 8 Geometrical drawing 1 1 " ornament, Moorish, Construction of. . 4 92 " outlines of natural form 2 32 German and English Gothic 4 100 " Gothic details 4 121 " Renaissance 5 51 " " Influence of Italian art in 5 51 Ghiberti 5 7 Giacopo Tatti Sansovino 5 22 Globe, Winged 8 Gothic alphabet 5 " art " "Evolution of 4 " " in France " " " Italy 4 " " Influence of religion in " English and German " forms, Italian aversion to " German details 4 " Misinterpretation of " ornament " " Evolution of.. " " Origin of Greece and Egypt, Comparison of 3 Grecian volutes, How to draw. . . 2 Greco-Roman art 8 " ornament 3 Greek and Roman orders, Com- parison of 4 " architecture 3 " art 3 " bases 8 " Corinthian order 4 " Doric order 4 " lily 3 " orders 4 " ornament 3 " Representative types of 3 " sculpture 3 Greeks, Character of the 8 Guilloche 8 Guttae... 4 H. Sec. Hagia Sophia 4 Hall, Hypostyle 3 " " at Karnak 3 " of assembly 8 Harmachis 3 Heating of ancient castles. 4 Heavy antique Egyptian alpha- bet 5 Helix, How to draw 1 Heraldry 4 " in French art 5 Historic lettering 5 " ornament, Modern use of 5 I' " Object of studying. . 5 " Val ue of study of.. 3 History of ornament 2 Holbein 5 Sec. Page. 3 27 5 75 4 99 4 99 4 116 4 106 4 99 4 100 5 6 4 121 4 121 4 99 4 108 4 89 52 20 79 79 20 54 52 59 14 3 67 2 52 56 56 52 70 8 Page 40 17 23 17 25 126 46 127 34 61 59 56 13 1 52 Xll INDEX. Sec. Page. Holland and England, Political ties of 5 58 Horizontal straight lines, How to draw, freehand 2 12 Horus 3 26 How to bisect a given angle 1 33 " " construct any polygon, its sides being given. .. 1 41 " " divide a given line into any number of equal parts 1 34 " " draw 2 3 " " " a circle freehand. .. 2 19 " " " "helix 1 46 " " " "horizontal straight line... 2 12 " " " "parabola 1 45 " " " " parallelogram 1 37 " " " "perpendicular straight line freehand 2 10 " " " " perpendicular to a straight line. . 1 29 " " " " straight line par- allel to a given line 1 30 " " " "volute 2 20 " " " an ellipse 1 43 " " " " " freehand.. 2 20 " " " " equilateral tri- angle 1 36 " " " " oval 1 43 " " " " " freehand.... 2 21 " " " oblique lines free- hand 2 12 " " find arc of circle equal to given straight line 1 42 " " " a straight line equal to given arc of cir- cle 1 42 " the center of an arc 1 38 " " inscribe a hexagon in a circle 1 39 " " " pentagon in a circle 1 40 " square in a circle 1 38 " " an octagon in a circle 1 40 " " lay off a given angle 1 36 " sharpen drawing pen 1 14 " study ornament 3 14 Hyperbola 3 61 Method of drawing. 3 62 Method of drawing tangent to 3 63 Sec. Page. Hypostyle hall 3 17 " at Karnak... 3 23 I. Sec. Idealism and Chinese ornament 4 Indian and Persian art com- pared 4 " art 4 " " Lack of progress- iveness in 4 " fabrics, Rules of color- ing '4 " ornament 4 " " Characteris- tics of 4 Influence of architecture 3 " " Italian art and Ger- man Renaissance 5 " " Mohammedanism.. 4 " " nature 3 " " religion 3 " " " in Egyptian ornament 3 " " " in Gothic art 4 " " the Church 4 " " " Nile on Egyp- tian orna- ment 3 Influences affecting different styles of art 5 Ingenuity of Byzantine orna- ment Inking Instrumental drawing Instruments and materials Intention of Renaissance artists Interior of Egyptian temple Intricacy of Celtic ornament. . . . Introduction of Renaissance art into England. . " Renaissance art into France... " Renai ssan ce into England.. Invention of printing, Effect of. . Ionic architrave " order. . . " " Roman Ironwork, Renaissance Irregular curves Isis Italian art and literature " " Roman influence on.. " aversion to Gothic forms " Gothic art " Renaissance . . . Page. 60 79 64 84 106 4 INDEX. Xlll Sec. Page. Italian Renaissance, Foliated ter- minations in ........... 5 14 '' " French ideas of .......... 5 29 " Origin of ..... 5 4 " Scrollwork in Value of, to the design- Italy, Renaissance art in ......... 5 .1. Sec. Page. Japanese art ...................... 4 63 " brush ................... 2 53 " ornament .............. 4 59 K. Sec. Page. Karnak, Hyposty le hall at ....... 3 23 " Temple of ............... 3 23 L. Labyrinth Lack of progressiveness in In- dian art " " symmetry in French furniture Laws of foliated ornament " " nature Sec. 3 Lead pencils Lengthening bar Lettering i " Historic 5 Light antique Egyptian alpha- bet 5 Lily, Greek 3 Linear Elements, Drawing plate 2 Literature and art, Italian 5 Lotus 3 Lysicrates, Monument of 4 Page. 37 64 49 22 23 57 10 6 19 til 65 67 9 Sec. Page. Mohammedan decoration 4 72 Mohammedanism in Arabian art 4 70 Influence of... 4 70 Moldings, Classic 3 50 Monument of Lysicrates 4 14 Monreale, Cathedral of 4 55 Moorish art 4 80 " " Construction and decoration in 4 83 " " Derivation of 4 80 " " Primary colors in 4 85 " coloring, System of 4 90 " geometrical ornament, Construction of 4 93 " ornament 4 80 " " Blending of colors in 4 91 " " Characteris- tics of 4 81 " " Coloring in 4 89 " " Consistency of 4 87 " " Conventional- ism in 4 88 Mummy...-. 3 35 Mutules 4 7 V. Sec. Page. Natural form, Geometrical out- line of 2 32 " Leaves, Drawing plate 2 32 Nature, Influence of 3 9 M. Sir. Page. Meaning of decoration 3 1 " "order 4 2 " " ornament 3 1 Mechanical drawing 1 1 Medieval Roman alphabet 5 69 Metope 4 6 Mezzo rilievo 5 7 Michael Angelo 5 21 Misinterpretation of Gothic 4 121 Mode of living in ancient cas- tles 4 126 Modern use of historic ornament 5 59 Modillion I 27 Modules... 4 8 Obelisks Object of studying historic or- nament Oblique lines, How to draw, freehand Octagon, How to inscribe, in a circle Octagonal staircase of Chateau de Blois Old designs. Adherence to " English alphabet Order, Composite " Corinthian " Doric " Greek-Corinthian " Greek-Doric " Ionic... Sec. 3 " Meaning of " Roman-Corinthian. " " Doric " " Ionic " Tuscan Orders, Architectural Page. 21 56 12 40 BO 64 M 3 : 8 XIV Orders, architectural, Meaning of .V- ', . 4 4 4 3 4 1 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 3 8 3 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 INDI Page. < 2 20 2 58 17 45 59 39 59 95 39 4 1 10 10 9 69 69 59 37 101 39 95 96 96 97 95 98 31 78 76 59 60 30 1 52 78 79 30 30 14 15 30 29 :x. Drnament, Egyptian, Conven- tional- ism of... " Influence of Nile on Sec. 8 8 8 5 8 8 4 4 8 8 5 5 3 a 8 4 4 4 4 8 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 8 3 3 4 Page. 29 14 16 54 77 11 99 108 79 52 56 59 56 13 2 14 64 65 55 59 1 80 91 81 89 87 88 80 92 39 78 79 82 9 59 " Comparison of Greek " Greek " of design " Influence of re- ligion on " Elizabethan, Char- acteristics of Oriental art " influence in Byzantine art " people, Characteristics of " Etruscan ' Expression of taste Origin of Celtic ornament " " Gothic and Byzantine ornament " Gothic " Gothic, Evolution of " Greco-Roman " " Italian Renaissance... " " Renaissance art " Greek " " set styles " Representa- tive types of " historic, Modern use of " " tatooing Ornament, Ancient " Arabian " Develop- ment of.. . " Asiatic " " Object of studying " Value of study of.. " History of " Assyrian " Ball-flower " Byzantine " How to study " Celtic " Indian " Animal forms " Character is- " Characteris- tics of " Ingenuity of Byzan- " Intricacy of. .. " Origin of. Japanese " meaning of " S3 T mbolism in Character of Roman " Characteristics of Persian " Blending of colors in . . " Characteris- tics of " Coloring in " " Consistency of... . " Characteristics of Turkish " Chinese " and idealism " Class of " Convention- alism in.. . " Derivation of " Classic " Comparison of Per- sian and Arabian.. Comparison of Per- sian and Indian. . . . " Constructive " geometrical, Construc- tion of " Origin of Gothic and '' Decorative " Egyptian Antiquity of " Pompeian " Classes of " Consist- ency of.. " Primitive " Primitivenessof Chinese... INDEX. XV Ornament, Renaissance 5 " Representative 3 " 3 " Roman 4 " Romanesque 4 " Style in 8 " Surface 3 " Turkish 4 " Type of 3 " Western 4 Osiris 3 Oval, How to draw 1 " " " " an, freehand 2 P. Sec. Painted Roman decorations 4 Papyrus 8 Parabola 8 " Ho w to draw a 1 Parallel to a given straight line, How to draw a line 1 Parallelogram, How to draw a. . 1 Parthenon 8 Pedestal, Roman-Doric 4 " Tuscan 4 Pencils 1 " recommended 2 Pens recommended 2 Pentagon, How to inscribe, with- in a circle 1 People, Types of 3 Periods of French Renaissance.. 5 Perpendicular characters, Char- acteristics of... 4 period 4 straight line, How to draw, free- hand 2 to a straight line, How to draw a 1 Persian and Arabian art com- pared 4 " art 4 Persian ornament 4 " " Characteris- tics of 4 Perspective of circles 2 Pitch, Definition of 1 Plan of Egyptian temple 3 Plant analysis 2 Political ties of England and Holland 5 Polychromy 8 Polygon, How to construct a 1 Pompeian art 8 " ornament 8 " " 8 Position of draftsman 2 Sec. Page. Sec. Page. 1 Preliminary directions for draw- 80 ing plates 1 26 33 Primary colors in Moorish art... 4 85 1 Primitive ornament 3 9 33 Primitiveness of Chinese orna- 30 ment 4 59 66 Principles of decoration 3 2 76 Printing, Invention of 5 5 31 Propylon 3 18 95 Protractor 1 18 26 Purity of French Renaissance 43 style 5 4 21 Pylons 3 17 Page. R. Sec. Page. 32 Rake 4 8 26 Ramesseum 3 22 60 Rapidity of transition of French 45 Renaissance 5 24 Rayonnant capitals 4 117 30 " period 4 116 37 Religion, Influence of 3 5 55 " " " in Gothic 23 art 4 99 19 Renaissance art 5 1 10 " "in Italy 5 3 4 " Introduction of, 8 into England.. 5 3 " " Introduction of, 40 into France... 5 3 26 " " Origin of 5 1 24 artists, Intention of 5 2 110 " Dutch influence in 100 English 5 52 " English 5 51 " French 5 24 10 " " Periods of 5 24 " " Rapidity 29 of transi- tion in ... 5 24 78 " German 5 51 78 " " Influence 78 of Ger- man art 78 on 5 51 28 " Introduction of, 45 into England 5 52 22 " ironwork 5 18 44 Italian 5 4 " ornament 5 1 58 period, Scope of. . . 5 2 72 " Venetian 5 16 41 Representative ornament 3 80 79 " types of Greek 79 ornament 8 56 83 Revival of antique art in Eng- 4 land 5 65 XVI INDEX. Sec. Page. Revival of classic style 5 2 Rococo period 5 25 Roman alphabet. Medieval 5 69 " and Greek orders, Com- parison of 4 20 " Corinthian order 4 27 " domination, system of building under 4 34 " Doric order 4 21 " entablature 4 24 " pedestal 4 23 " Empire, Fall of 4 33 " influences on Italian art 5 6 " Ionic order 4 24 " orders 4 17 " ornament 4 1 Character of. . 4 31 " painted decorations. .. . 4 32 Romanesque art 4 33 " Sculpture in.. . 4 58 ornament 4 33 style, Develop- ment of 4 33 Roman acanthus 4 31 Rubbers recommended 2 4 Rules of coloring in Indian fab- rics 4 65 " to be observed 2 4 Ruling pen 1 11 S. Sec. Page. Sacred bark 3 36 Saint Mark's church 4 51 Sansovino, Giacopo Tatti 5 22 Savage, Decorative theory ex- hibited by the 3 12 " ornament, Expression of taste in 3 11 Scale 1 17 Scarabeus 3 28 Scarcity of Chinese architecture 4 61 Scope of Renaissance period 5 2 Scotia 3 63 Scroll 3 41 Scrollwork in Italian Renais- sance 5 12 Sculpture, Assyrian 3 48 Greek 3 56 in Byzantine art 4 58 " Romanesque art . . 4 58 Sections, Conic 3 60 Sekos .- 3 17 Set styles, Origin of 3 10 Shaft 4 12 Size of drawing plates 1 26 Sketching, Definition of 1 \ Soffit 4 7 Spandrels, Early English 4 112 See. Sphinx 3 Spotting, Definition of 2 Square, To inscribe a, within a circle 1 Staircase of Chateau de Blois 5 Standard forms in Chinese art.. 4 Straight line equal to given arc of circle, How to find 1 " " horizontal, How to draw, freehand . . 2 " " How to divide a, in any number of equal parts 1 " " To bisect a 1 Style and ornament 3 " Development of Roman- esque 4 " Examples of Byzantine. ... 4 " of French furniture 5 Styles, Origin of set 3 " Effect of traditional 3 Stylobate 4 Surface decoration, General rules of 3 " ornament 3 Surfaces and Solids, Drawing plate 2 Symbolic devices 3 Symbolism in Celtic ornament.. 4 System, Feudal. 4 " of building under Ro- man domination.. 4 " " Moorish coloring 4 T. Sec. Tatooing, Origin of 3 Temple, Egyptian 3 " " Plan of... 3 of Athena Polias. " " Karnak Thoth Three great laws of nature Thumb molding 4 " tacks 1 To bisect a straight line 1 Torus 3 Tower of the winds 3 Tracery 4 " French 4 Traditional styles, Effects of 3 Triangle, equilateral, How to draw 1 Triangles 1 Triglyph 4 T square. 1 Turkish art... 4 Page. 25 13 12 88 80 88 & 48 10 11 8 66 24 3 98 121 34 90 Page. 10 17 22 70 9 23 26 57 6 10 28 63 65 101 105 11 36 3 INDKX. xvii Sec. Page. Turkish ornament 4 70 " " Characteris- tics of 4 76 Tuscan column 4 20 " entablature 4 20 order 4 19 " pedestal 4 19 Type of ornament 3 31 Types of people 3 26 V. .&<:. /V