IC-NR ^ NEW YORK 3v CHICAGO THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA EDUC.- PSYCH. LIBRARY GIFT OF Professor Edna Bailey PATHFINDER PHYSIOLOGY No. 2 H E YO PLE COMMON SCHOOLS Copyright, 1884 and 1885 A. s. BARNES & COMPANY NEW YORK AND CHICAGO PATHFINDER SERIES OF TEXT BOOKS ON ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND HYGIENE, "With Special Reference to the Influence of Alcoholic Drinks and Narcotics on the Human System. I. FOR PRIMARY GRADES. THE CHILD'S HEALTH PRIMER. 121710, Cloth. An introduction to the study of the science, suited to pupils of the ordinary third reader grade. Full of lively description and embellished by many apt illustrations. II. FOR INTERMEDIATE CLASSES. HYGIENE FOR YOUNG PEOPLE. izrno. Cloth. Beautifully illustrated. Suited to pupils able to read any fourth reader. An admirable elementary treatise upon the subject. The principles of the science more fully announced and illustrated. in. FOR HIGH SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES. HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY. i2mo. Beautifully illustrated. A MORE ELABORATE TREATISE. Prepared for the instruction of youth in the principles which underlie the preservation of health and the formation of correct physical habits. EDUC.- PSYCH. LIBRARY * AN ACT RELATING TO THE STUDY OF PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. " The Teople of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows : "SECTION 1. Provision shall be made by the proper local school authorities for instructing all pupils in all schools supported by public money, or under State control, in physiology and hygiene, with special reference to the effects of alcoholic drinks, stimulants, and narcotics upon the human system." Thus read, with, slight modifications, the laws o? four other states, viz., Vermont, Michigan, New Hamp- shire, and Rhode Island. This book has been prepared to meet the demands of these states for intermediate 'grades of schools. Since the laws say that Physiology and Hygiene, with special reference to the effects of alcoholic drinks, etc., shall be studied by all pupils in the public schools, such of the obvious facts of Physiology as would render the Hygiene intelligible have been included. 230 4 PREFACE. Enough on the subject of Hygiene has "been intro- duced to give a general knowledge of the laws of health; while, as the spirit and the letter of the laws direct, especial reference has been made to the effects of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics. Eminent physicians and teachers have contributed helpful suggestions in the preparation of this work. Among the former are Prof. Palmer, M. D., LL. D., Dean of the Medical Department of Michigan Uni- versity ; Dr. Ezra M. Hunt, A.M., M. D., President of the section of the American Medical Association on State Medicine and Public Hygiene, Vice-President of the American Public Health Association, etc., and author of "Alcohol as a Food and Medicine." Of the teachers who have helped in shaping these truths into a suitable form for young minds, first mention should be made of Miss Alice M. G-uernsey, High School, Wareham, Mass. The aid of Dr. Mary V. Lee, of the Oswego, N". Y., formal School; Prof. Jones, Supt. of Public Instruc- tion, Erie, Penn.; D. B. Hagar, Ph.D., Principal of the State formal School, Salem, Mass. ; Mr. E. P. Church, Supt. of Public Instruction, Green ville, Mich., and other practical instructors; is also gratefully recog- nized by the editor. INTRODUCTION. I have examined the manuscript of this book, and find it covering more matter that I think should he taught in the elementary lessons on life and health in the schools, than I have found in the other works, with similar objects, which I have had occasion to examine. It is free from the errors which have been noticed and objected to in several other works on this subject designed for school use. I also think it free from such overstatements as are likely to be produced by ardent zeal. If all the facts contained in this little work are firmly lodged in the minds of the pupils in our pub- lic schools throughout the country, an immense work for good will be accomplished. Being profoundly impressed with the enormous evils to our race produced by the habitual use of narcotics, including alcohol, opium, and tobacco, I can but rejoice at the promising efforts to make ob- ligatory in the public schools the teaching of Physi- ology and Hygiene, with special reference to these 6 INTRODUCTION. narcotics, and I know of no work which is a "better introduction to the subject than the present text- book. Of the diseases, the degeneracy, the vices, and the general ill-being produced by the alcohol habit, al] observers must be aware. The evils of the opium habit are scarcely less, in proportion to its more limited extent, and the habit is, if possible, even less likely to be broken up when once established. The tobacco habit, though less disastrous to indi- viduals and in its moral and social effects upon communities, still, by its greater prevalence, is doing an amount of mischief, especially with boys, which none so fully know as those physicians who have given special attention to the subject. The influence which indulgence in one narcotic has upon the resort to others, should be more fully recognized, and the great importance of abstinence from all of them will, by these teachings, it is hoped, be more fully understood and appreciated. It therefore gives me great pleasure to say this much, and in this place, in favor of the objects and the execution of this work, and in commendation of the efforts of those who have had the labor of its preparation. A. B. PALMER. ANN ARBOR, Sept. 1, 1884. TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAOB INTRODUCTION 5 FIRST WORDS 8 I. ALCOHOL 9 II. FERMENTATION 15 III. DISTILLATION 25 IV. TOBACCO 31 V. OPIUM 37 VI BONES 41 VII. MUSCLES 57 VIIL FOOD 65 IX. ARE NARCOTICS FOODS? 77 X. DIGESTION 87 XL RESPIRATION 109 XII. CIRCULATION 125 XIIL THE SKIN 141 XIV. ANIMAL HEAT 149 XV. ALCOHOL AND LIFE 157 XVI. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 165 X VII. SPECIAL SENSES 193 INDEX . 203 FIRST WORDS. thyself," is old and good advice. As tlie body is an important part of a person, we are only obeying this counsel when we learn how it is built, how it lives, and what is good or bad for its health. Because many people are ignorant of the true nature of alcoholic drinks and other poi- sons, the law in some parts of our country requires the pupils in the public schools to study the human body and the effects of these drugs upon it. From these lessons you will learn, first, what these drugs are. That you may under- stand what they will do to those who use them, you must then learn about the human body and how to take care of it. When you see what alcohol, tobacco, and opium, do to its many wonderful parts, and what trouble and sorrow they cause, you will know why it is dangerous to use them. CHAPTER I. ALCOHOL. LCOHOL is a colorless liquid with, a stinging taste; it burns without soot, giving little light, hut great heat. It is lighter than water, and can not he frozen. It is used to dissolve gums, resins, and oils; to make smokeless flames; to take from leaves, roots, harks, and seeds, materials for making perfumes and medicines; and to keep dead "bodies from decaying. People do not usually drink clear alcohol (ai'-eo h6i). Rum, whiskey, wine, cider, gin, hrandy, heer, etc., are water and alcohol with different flavors. Many million gallons of alcohol in these liquors are drunk every year hy the people of this country. ORIGIN OF ALCOHOL. Water forms the larger part of grape, apple, and other fruit and plant juices. Green fruits contain much starch; as they ripen 10 ALCOHOL. and become fit for food, this starch turns to sugar. Our sweet-tasting fruits and plants have sugar in their juices ; and from such juices, boiled down, we get the sugar used for food. If this fruit or plant juice is drawn off from its pulp, and then exposed to the open air at summer heat, the sweet part changes:, it is no longer sugar, because it has separated into a liquid called alcohol and a gas named carbon'ic ac'icl.* Much of this gas goes off into the air ; the alcohol remains in the liquid, changing a wholesome food into a dangerous drink. ALCOHOL A POISON. f A poison is any substance whose nature it is, when taken into the body, either in small or large quantities, to injure health or destroy life. * A better, tout less common name for this gas is carbonic dioxide. t Dr. A. B. Palmer, of Michigan University, says: "Medical writers admit that by far the most disastrous and frequent cause of poisoning in all our communities, is the use of alcohol." Dr. W. J. Youmans writes: "Alcohol a brain poison." WHAT IS A NARCOTIC? H Proper food is wrought into our bodies; but poisons* are thrown out of them, if pos- sible, because iinnt to be used in making any of their parts. In large doses, in its pure state, or -when diluted, as in brandy, whiskey, rum, or gin, alcohol is often fatal to life. Deaths of men, women, and children from poisonous doses of this drug, are common. In smaller quantities, or in the lighter liquors beer, wine, and cider when used as a beverage, it injures the health in propor- tion to the amount taken. WHAT IS A NARCOTIC? Any siibstance that deadens the brain and nerves is called a narcotic; for example, ether (e'ther) and chloroform (-e^io'ro form), which are given by the dentist, that he may extract Dr. Alden, of Massachusetts, tells us: "On every organ they touch, alcoholic drinks act as a poison. There is no such thing as their temperate use. They are always an* enemy to the human body. They produce weakness, not strength ; sickness, not health ; death, not life." * Intoxicated means poisoned. The barbarians poisoned their ar- rows ; hence, from the Latin in, into and toxicum, a poison into which arrows were dipped, -we get the word which describes the condition of a person under the influence of alcohol. 12 ALCOHOL. teeth without pain. Alcohol is taken for similar purposes, and is a powerful narcotic. ALCOHOL AND WATER. Into a "bottle half full of -water, pour alco- hol to the top ; then shake it well, "being very careful not to spill any of the liquid. Now, the "bottle is not full. The alcohol has mixed with the water, and it does this wherever it has a chance. Oil and water will not unite; alcohol and water will always unite. In our study of the human body, which is seven parts out of eight, water,* -we shall see how alcohol, beginning- at the lips, unites with the water in every part of the drinker's body which it reaches, thus robbing it of the needed liquid. * I took one of those remains of the human body which have been preserved some thousands of years, and which is called an Egyptian mummy. It was probably the body of one who had been a great priest or ruler; for it had been embalmed or preserved in the most ex- pensive form of embalming and had been inclosed in a tomb which must have cost a small fortune. I measured the mummy, its length, its girth, and the relative size of its head and limbs and trunk. From these measurements I was able to estimate what would have been the weight of the ALCOHOLIC APPETITE. 13 ALCOHOLIC APPETITE. Like all narcotic poisons, alcohol has the fatal power of creating an increasing appe- tite for itself, that demands not only more frequent, "but stronger and larger doses. The greater its work of ruin, the harder and more nearly impossible to overcome, will he its demand. The appetite does not gain with equal ra- pidity upon all ; hut no one can tell how body when its owner was moving on the earth in the midst of life and health. The weight of the body at that time, I reckoned, would have been 128 pounds. In the condition of a mummy, in which it was now before me, nothing remained but the dried skeleton or bony framework, and the muscles and other organs completely dried. The bods , in fact, had, in the course of ages, lost all its water. In this state it weighed just sixteen pounds, and, as eight times sixteen are one hundred and twenty-eight, it is clear that seven parts out of eight of the whole body, or one hundred and twelve pounds, had passed away as water. In the remaining weight was included that of the skeleton, which contains but ten per cent, of water, and some mere remnants of canvas and pitchy substances, which had been used by the embalmers, and which, like the skele- ton, still continued perfect. The soft parts of this human body, by which all its active life, its moving and thinking functions, had been carried on, were, in fact, nearly all removed by the drying process, or loss of water, to which they had been subjected. They had not been destroyed by passing into new forms of matter, as occurs when a dead substance is allowed to decay in the open air ; but they had completely lost the water which once gave them size, flexibility, shape, and capac- ity for motion. Dr. B. W. Richardson, of London. 14 ALCOHOL. Long he will be satisfied with, a little. This craving, so easily formed, and so hard to overcome, clings to its victims. Sometimes after slumbering through years of abstinence (ab'sti nn9^), it is wakened by the first taste. The custom of putting wine and other alcoholic liquors into cooked foods, is a dan- gerous one, often causing the formation or return of a fearful appetite. In this country, over 60,000 persons every year die as drunkards that is, are killed by alcohol. None of them expected to become drunkards when they began to drink liquor; but they were ignorant, or careless, of the power of a little alcohol to create an appe- tite for more. REVIEW QUESTIONS. 1. What is alcohol ? Name some of its qualities. 2. "What are the uses of alcohol? 3. From what is alcohol made ? 4. How can you prove that alcohol is a poison ? 5. How many persons every year die as drunkards? 6. Under what names is alcohol drunk? 7. "What is the difference between a food and a poison? 8. Describe Dr. Richardson's experiment with the mummy. 9. What is the effect of alcohol upon the water in the human body? 10. Why does the drinker of alcohol fail to realize his danger? O H APTE R II. FERMENTATION. WHAT is fermen ta'tion ? When moist animal or vegetable matters are ex- posed to warm air, certain changes which take place alter their nature; these changes are produced "by a process called fermentation. When sugar is turning to alcohol and carhon'ic ac'id, the latter escapes in littlo bubbles, giving the entire liquid the appear- ance of boiling. We call this process, and others much like it, fermentation, from a Latin word which means to boil. There are several kinds of fermentation. In these lessons we 'shall learn about only two of them. I. Vi'nous Fermentation the change of sugar to alcohol and carbonic acid. II. A ce'tous Fermentation the change of alco- hoi and other substances to vinegar. 16 FERMENTATION. VINOUS FERMENTATION. BACTERIA AND YEAST. If you sliould look at a drop of stagnant water under a strong mi' cro scope, you would be quite likely to find it full of small living things, so tiny that you could not see them at all with the naked eye ; these mi nute' animal and vegetable forms are alive, and often in rapid motion. In the air, also, are many living forms, too small to be seen by the naked eye, called bacteria (b&e ts' rf &). There are particles coming from them much smaller than the full-grown bacteria, which will become bacteria by growth. These are called spores, and are floating almost every-where in the air, and, from their ex- treme smallness, can get into places where the bacteria might not be able to come. They have been carefully studied with the help of the microscope, and we know that, instead of the air, it is these bacteria or their spores in the air, which produce fermentation in certain liquids. BACTERIA AND YEAST. IT .Che juices of the grape, apple, and many other fruits, will, if placed under the right conditions, ferment "by the action of these living forms. In order to ferment some other liquids and thus obtain intoxicating drinks, yeast * must be added. In this way some people "brew home-made beer by steeping various roots, barks, and herbs in water, and adding yeast and sugar enough to cause fermenta- tion. The alcohol that is formed by the change of the sugar, makes the beer a dan- gerous drink. When a liquid is fermenting, the little bubbles of carbonic acid carry a froth to the top, which can be used as yeast to act on other liquids. At the bottom lie the "set- tlings," a half-solid mass, sometimes called the lees. Between the froth and the lees is a thin, intoxicating liquid, which people drink under different names, as, wine", cider, beer, etc. Dry sugar will not ferment, nor will al- cohol be formed in liquids which have an. * Yeast is really a plant, and it is the growth of the yeast plant which causes fermentation in these liquids. 18 FERMENTATION. excess of sugar. The united action of sugar, water, heat, and of the bacteria or spores in the air, or of yeast each in the right proportion are always required to produce alcohol. ALCOHOL FROM GRAINS. Starch forms a large part of rye, corn, "barley, and other grains. If these are kept moist and warm as -when planted in the earth in spring or summer, their starch turns to sugar, when the grain, which is a seed, begins to grow. Chew a grain of sproirted corn or "barley, and you will find it sweet. Barley is kept moist with water until it sprouts, or throws out little roots. During this process, most of the starch that is in the "barley, changes to sugar. Heat is then applied, strong enough to dry out all the moisture of the "barley and kill the young roots. Grain thus treated is called malt, and from this malt, pale ales and beers are made. ALCOHOL AND BREAD. 19 Heating to a higher temperature, so as slightly to burn the sprouted grain, makes dark malt, from which porter and stout dark colored drinks are manufactured. If the sugar thus formed in barley is dis- solved out of the grain with water, and yeast is added, and the -whole exposed to warm air, another change takes place, the sugar which was once starch, becomes alcohol, and car- bonic acid. By this process, a good food has been changed to a poison; for the barley has become an intoxicating drink ale, beer, or porter. ALCOHOL AND BREAD. We must not conclude that fermentation is never a good thing. If it is stopped at just the right point, and the alcohol all driven off by heat, it improves some kinds of food. Crushed grain, or flour, is a valuable food; but, in this form, is not pleasant to eat. Yeast added to warm, moistened flour causes fermentation. A little sugar in the flour itself (called free sugar) will turn to alcohol and 20 FERMENTATION. carbonic acid gas. This gas, in a thin liquid, 'would pass off into the air. But it is im- prisoned by the sticky dough, and puffs it up with little cells in its effort to escape, thus making the otherwise solid mass, light and spongy. The small quantity of alcohol which was formed, largely evaporates, and the gas escapes when the dough is placed in the strong heat of the oven ; a light, sweet loaf of bread is left, that is better food than the flour. Alcohol turns to vapor with less heat than 'water. In bread baked enough to be food fit for the human stomach, the alcohol has been turned to vapor by the heat of the oven, and has passed off into the air. People who are ignorant of the truths you are learning in these lessons, have supposed that because fermented dough makes good bread to eat, therefore fermented barley-juice must make good beer to drink. But you know the alcohol stays in the beer and not in the bread, and that simple fact makes the difference, in this case, between a food and a poison. ALCOHOL IN FERMENTED LIQUORS. 21 AMOUNT OF ALCOHOL IN FERMENTED LIQUORS. In one hundred parts of the fermented juice of apples, or cider, there are from two to ten parts of alcohol. In one hundred parts of "beer the fermented juice of harley there are from three to ten parts of alcohol. In one hundred parts of the fermented juice of grapes and other kinds of fruit, or wines, there are from twelve to thirty-seven parts of alcohol (or six to seventeen, "by weight). It is estimated (in 1880) that twenty-two and three-quarter million gallons of alcohol are consumed every year by the people of this country, in beer alone. This makes nearly one-half gallon of pure alcohol used by every man, woman, and child of our 50,000,000 if all were foolish enough to drink it. As very many people drink no beer at all, some of the beer-drinkers 'must get more than this one-half gallon of poison during each year. Further study will show you the consequences of the use of this great quantity of alcohol. 22 FERMENTATION. HEAT AND FERMENTED LIQUORS. If you were to place fermented liquors of any kind in an open kettle over strong neat, their charm for the wine, cider, or beer-lover, would soon he gone. It is for the sake of the alcohol they contain, that people are fond of these drinks, and this passes away in the form of vapor from the hoiling liquid; the liquid which is left, has an insipid taste, and no one would care to drink it. ALCOHOL IN NATURE. It is a mistake to suppose that "because grapes, apples, and harley, are healthful foods, that wine, cider, and "beer, made from them, must also he healthful. It is important to rememher that fermen- tation entirely changes the character of the suhstance it works upon. Nature rots her various plant forms; hut while the juice re- mains protected from the air hy the skin or husk of the unbroken grain, plant, or fruit, its sugar will not ferment therefore, alcohol is never found in them. ALCOHOL AND VINEGAR. 23 ACETOUS FERMENTATION. ALCOHOL AND VINEGAR. All vegetable substances come from earth, air, and water, and return to them again. Through the process of fermentation, vege- table liquids go back to earth, air, and water. After the alcohol is formed, if it remains in the vegetable juice, exposed to moderately warm air, the second kind, or acetous fer- mentation, takes place, changing the alcohol to a sharp acid, called acetic acid and com- monly known as vinegar. When the cook has not baked the bread at just the right time that is, has not stopped the fermentation before acid began to form in the dough, we say "the bread is sour". This acid does not pass off in the heat of the oven as alcohol does, but remaining gives a sour taste to the bread. Acetic acid is as different from alcohol, as alcohol is from sugar. It is used for food. Vinegar is made in this "way from hard cider and other fermented liquors, and will change, 24 FERMENTATION. in its turn, if left in the same conditions that produced it, and lose its acid taste ; its water all evaporating, nothing -will remain hut a hrown powder. The earth, air, and water have claimed again the matter only loaned to make the fruit, plant, or grain. REVIEW QUESTIONS. 1. What is fermentation ? 2. Why do fermenting liquids appear to be boiling? 3. What kinds of fermentation shall -we consider ? 4. If you look through a strong microscope at stagnant water, what would you see? 5. What are bacteria? 6. What are spores? and where found? 7. What produces fermentation in fruit juices ? 8. How are some other liquids made into intoxicating drinks? 9. Why are home-made beers dangerous drinks? 10. What causes froth at the top of a fermenting liquor? and how is it used? 11. What is there between the froth and the lees? 12. What is necessary to produce alcohol? 13. What forms the chief part of grain? 14. How is this starch changed? Prove this. 15. How is the starch in barley turned to sugar? 16. What is malt ? and what is made from it ? 17. How does alcohol get into the beer ? 18. How can fermentation be made to improve some foods? 19. What takes place when yeast is added to warm, moistened flour? 20. What makes bread light and spongy? 21. What becomes of this alcohol and carbonic acid gas in the dough? In beer, wine, and cider v (See other questions on p. 36.) CHAPTER III. DISTILLATION. WHEN a liquid is changed to a vapor by neat, and that vapor is turned again to a liquid by cold, the process is called dis- tillation (dls til Ift'tion). Cold surfaces condense tne moisture in tne night air, and we say: "The dew is fall- ing." By the heat of the sun, these drops of -water are turned again to vapor that rises and spreads itsalf in the air ; this is again changed to water toy cold, and falls in the form of dew or rain. Thus, with her own heat and cold, "Nature is ever distilling." Unless sugar is dissolved in water, it will not turn to alcohol ; therefore, when first formed, alcohol is always mixed with water. Alcohol and water could not "be separated, until men, in imitation of nature, learned to distill. Every child who has watched the steam 26 DISTILLATION. puffing from a tea-kettle, knows that heat will turn a liquid to vapor. Some liquids require less heat than others for this change. When two such liquids are mixed, one can ho made to pass off in vapor, leaving the other. Thus alcohol and water may be sepa- ra ted. Put a fermented liquor into a kettle over the fire, with a pipe in its closely-fitting spout to carry off the steam. Nearly all the alcohol will pass off in vapor before the water comes to the boiling point. If this pipe is of the right length and is cooled by ice or cold water, the vapor, while passing through it, will turn to a liquid and drip from the end of the pipe. If you apply a lighted match to this new liquid, it will burn with a pale blue flame, giving out intense heat. It is mainly alcohol which has been sepa- rated distilled from the fermented mixture. What remains in the kettle is principally water. The alcohol is unchanged in its na- ture; but is stronger, because not so much diluted with water. DISTILLATION, 27 Fio. 2. Experiment You may easily make this experiment for yourselves. Put some hard cider into a teapot (), and fasten a piece of rubber tubing (LACE your hands firmly against your sides, and draw long-, deep breaths. No- tice that the side walls of your chest are not fixed, Ibut move out and in, as you breathe, about eighteen times a minute. Hold your hand close before your face, and you will feel a current of air upon it, as the ribs move in. Breathe upon a mirror, and a thin film of water covers it, coming from your breath. On a cold winter day, this partly freezes, and you say ,you can " see your breath." The diaphragm is a strong muscle which forms the partition between the chest and the abdomen. When the ribs move out- ward, this moves downward, and air enters 110 RESPIRATION. your cliest through, the organs of breathing; this is called inspiration (inspira'tion). When the ribs move hack into position, and the diaphragm moves upward, the air lie. 18. The lungs, showing the larynx. A, the windpipe ; B, the bronchial tubes. is forced out, bringing with it water and other waste material; this is called expira- tion (Sx pi ra'tion). Taken together, these make up breathing or respiration (res pi ra' tion). LARYNX AND WINDPIPE. Ill ORGANS OF BREATHING. The organs of breathing- are the nose and mouth, through which air enters the body, the larynx (iar' ^nx), windpipe, bronchial (br6n'- kiai) tubes, and lungs. LARYNX AND WINDPIPE. From the back of the mouth, the air passes down a straight tube at the front of the chest, called the windpipe or trachea (tra'- ke&). This is made of ring-shaped cartilages and is easily felt through the skin of the neck. Its upper end is the larynx, the organ of voice. The larynx swells out at the front, is larger in men than in women, and is some- times called, "Adam's apple." It is a tube- like box, formed by the union of gristly and elastic parts, and is covered by a mov- able lid, called the epiglottis (p i giat'tis). This is open when we breathe, so that the air can enter. When we swallow, the epiglottis closes the entrance to the windpipe, and the food passes across it to the esophagus. 112 RESPIRATION. Sometimes, we try to swallow and breathe at the same time ; then this little cover does not shut down quickly enough to prevent particles of food or drink from going "the wrong way." The windpipe can not bear this and coughs them out ' at once, if possi- ble; if not, we are "choked." VOCAL CORDS. We speak by means of the air moving strong bands of membrane, called vocal cords, which are at the top of the larynx. The lips, teeth, and other organs, help us in talking. BRONCHIAL TUBES AND LUNGS. The lower end of the trachea separates into two branches, one of which is sent to each lung; these branches are the bronchial tubes. These tubes divide and divide again, as the branch of a tree breaks up into smaller twigs. They end in very small sacs, or cells, into which the air passes. Get a piece of a lung of an ox from the butcher, and put it into a pail of water. THE CILIA. 113 Its little cells are so filled with, air tliat it floats like cork. FIG. 19. Interweaving of the air-tubes and blood-vessels in the Inngs. a. Windpipe. b, c. Right and left lung. d. Heart. e, e. Divisions of the great air-tubes going to the right lung and the left lung. f, f . Arteries carrying the blood from the heart to the lungs. g, g. Veins, carrying the blood from the lungs to the heart. h, h, h, h. Air-cells at the termina- tions of the air-tubes. THE CILIA. On tlie walls of the "bronchial tubes are minute, thread-like bodies, called cilia (?n'ia). These move back and forth, and help to prevent dust from entering the lungs with 114 RESPIRATION. the air, and to carry it out with the mucus (mu'-etis) when it does get in. WORK OF THE LUNGS. A network of tiny "blood-vessels, or capil- laries (cap' ii la riz) covers the outside of the lung-cells. Having thin walls like the cells, the blood which they carry is brought close to the air in the lungs. By this means, a strange and important change takes place. Certain waste matters, including carbonic acid and water, pass from the blood through the walls of the capillaries and lung-cells, into the air, and are breathed out at the next expiration. At the same time, the blood takes a part of the air, called oxygen (6x'ij5n), which it needs for its own use. It is this exchange of impurities for oxy- gen, that changes the dark, blue blood that was sent to the lungs from one side of the heart, to the bright red blood that is ready to nourish the body, and is returned to the other side of the heart, from which it is sent out by the arteries. This work goes on all the time, whether we HYGIENE OF BREATHING. 115 are awake or asleep, and without our thought. If, in order to breathe, we had to think about it, we should have little time for any thing else ; and if -we forgot it, and so stopped breathing, we should soon die. HOW TO BREATHE. Air should enter the lungs through the nose instead of through the mouth. Even when running, if possible, keep the mouth closed. Fewer impurities will pass into the lungs by so doing, and in cold weather the air is slightly warmed before reaching them, making one less likely to "take co]d." Sometimes, as in running, the heart beats so rapidly that the lungs can not keep up with it and supply air enough for the blood; then we are "out of breath." HYGIENE OF BREATHING. As the muscular walls of the chest and abdomen help in the act of breathing, noth- ing should prevent their free movement. For this reason, garments worn about the waist, such as corsets and belts, should nevei 116 RESPIRATION. be tight. Tliey are sure to do liarm "by crowding the lungs, thus partly stopping the breath, and by pressing out of place the or- gans of the abdomen. PIG. 20. A, the natural position of the internal organs. B, when deformed by tight lacing. In this way the liver and the stomach have been forced downward, as seen in the cut. Among the many causes of consumption is tight lacing. A small, pinched waist shows that its owner is either ignorant or foolish perhaps both. DISEASES. 117 The weight of tlie clothing should not rest on the hips, pressing- the muscles of the abdomen, but be held by shoulder-straps, or by waists kept up by shoulder-straps. Round shoulders, by pressing the lungs out of their proper position, are friends of consumption. DISEASES. Bronchitis (br6n ki'tis) is a disease of the bronchial tubes, pleurisy (piu' ri sSr) of the pleura, the soft skin covering the lungs ; pneumonia (na mo' ni &) and consumption affect the lungs themselves, and croup is a disease of the larynx and windpipe. All these dangers may be largely avoided by wearing sufficient clothing, by being care- ful not to u take cold," by eating proper food, and by living in houses that are dry, clean, light, well-warmed, and well-aired, and built in healthy places. VENTILATION. Ventilation is the removal of impure or poisoned air from buildings and the supply- ing of fresh air in its place. 118 RESPIRATION. CAUSES OF IMPURE AIR. In a pleasant village, a few years ago, stood a large house, of which people were afraid, "because all who tried to live there sickened, and some of them died. But one day, a stranger looked over the grounds and house, then bought the estate and ordered repairs ; when these were fin- ished, his family moved in, and were healthy and happy there. The secret of the change lay in the own- er's knowledge of the laws of health. He provided a supply of pure water for family use, to take the place of that from the old well into which the drainage soaked. De- caying vegetables, old boards, ancient brooms, and other rubbish in various stages of slimy rottenness, were cleared out of the cellar, from which they had been sending poison- ous gases through the house. A long drain was built to carry the dish- water out into the garden ; and refuse mat- ter from the table, such as broken bits of meat and skins of fruit and vegetables, was VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. 119 burned in the kitchen range, not thrown out at the hack door and left to decay. The neighbors no longer feared the house, hut followed the example of its new owner. Gravel and concrete paths and sidewalks re- placed those of decaying hoards, and piles of old saw-dust from the sheds went to feed furnace fires. At last, typhoid fever, diphtheria, and ma- laria, almost disappeared from that locality, because their causes were so largely removed. Remember that air which contains decay- ing animal and vegetable matter, is not fit to breathe; and that water, under the same conditions, is not fit to drink. It is well that winds blow poisonous gases away, that the falling rains wash the air clean, and that plants live on carbonic acid which, in suffi- cient quantity, is fatal to animal life. VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. Waste matter from the body is always passing off by means of the skin and lungs ; fires, whether for lighting or heating, send out carbonic acid ; sweeping and the tread 120 RESPIRATION. of feet set free dust and "bits of wool from trie carpets. Unless great pains are taken to keep the air in our nouses, school-rooms, halls, and cliurches, fit for breathing, -we poison our- selves. Janitors of cliurches, school-rooms, and other public "buildings, should never close doors and windows, as soon as an audience has passed out, and shut up the poisoned air to be breathed over again the next time the room is used. The air in such rooms in cold weather is really carbonic acid gas and other impurities "warmed over." Doors and windows should be opened on opposite sides, until the fresh air has taken the place of that in the room. No lesson, sermon, lecture, or concert, can be understood or enjoyed by a sleepy, heed- less audience sleepy and heedless because of the poisoned air it has taken into its lungs. The headache which we so often have in ill-ventilated rooms, is the common result of re-breathing carbonic acid and other impuri- ties. Thus we see that good studying, preach- VENTILATION OF BUILDINGS. 121 ing, and teaching, as well as good health, are dependent on good air. Special care should be taken in the ven- tilation of sleeping-rooms. Leave a close room in which you have spent the night, for a brisk walk in the open air then return to it again. The air is foul with the heavy, suffocating odor of waste matter, the product of your lungs, which you have been breathing over and over again during your sleeping hours. You felt stupid and tired on waking, because poisoned by your own breath. Sleeping-rooms should be so ventilated in the winter, as well as in the summer, that the sleeper may have a constant supply of moderately warm, fresh air. This can be done by raising the lower and dropping the upper sash of a window in a warm room. Cold air is not necessarily pure air, and, in northern climates, is often too severe in win- ter to be breathed at night by any but the most robust. Two openings are needed in order to ven- tilate a room properly one through which 122 RESPIRATION. the impure air may pass out, and another by which the pure air may enter. There are many ways of doing this. One is to open the windows a little, both at the top and bottom, as already suggested. Open fire-places are excellent ventilators. Through them, a stream of air from the room goes up the chimney, and air from withoLit must come in to take its place. While we must have fresh air to breathe, it is not safe to sit or stand in a draught of air. AIR IN SICK-ROOMS. The air of the sick-room should be always pure and fresh. To "take the breath" of another person is, of course, to take the car- bonic acid and other waste matter from his lungs into your own. Contagious diseases are often spread in this way. ALCOHOL AND THE LUNGS. Alcohol, as you have learned, is sent into the blood as soon as possible. The blood car- ries a part to the lungs, and thus you may ALCOHOL AND THE LUNGS. 123 often know from the "breath that a person has been drinking. In passing through them, alcohol injures the delicate air-cells of the lungs. The idea that this narcotic will prevent consumption is a mistake. There is one form of this dis- ease, called alcoholic consumption, which is caused toy alcohol.* The drinker looks well and feels well, till suddenly comes a "dropped stitch," or a pain in the side. Then follow difficulty of "breath- ing and vomiting of blood ; then a rapid pas- sage to the grave ; for medicine, food, change of air, all prove useless. * Dr. A. B. Palmer says in a recent "work, "Science and Practice of Medicine" : "An impression seems to have obtained a footing in this country, that the use of alcohol, even in excessive quantities, tends to prevent consumption. ' ' The origin of this opinion it is not easy to discover. It was not imported from Europe ; for, so far as I have been able to ascertain, it is not held there by any respectable authority. It is not sus- tained by any authenticated statistics with which I am acquainted. "Dr. Peacock, one of the oldest and most highly esteemed spe- cialists in lung diseases in London, and Physician to Victoria Park Hospital for Consumptives, when told of the American notion of the preventive power of alcohol in consumption, and asked whether he thought it prevented the disease, replied, that so far from it, it was a fruitful cause of a certain form of the disease." Dr. Palmer adds, ' ' Too many persons have been made drunkards from the notion that whiskey prevents consumption, to make the view of its bearings upon morals and intemperance a matter of indifference to the conscientious physician." 124 RESPIRATION. Alcohol injures muscular power, and, as the diaphragm and the muscles which move the rios are used in "breathing, respiration is often imperfect in those who drink. Some- times, these muscles are so affected that paralysis or death occurs. Life depends on respiration, and liquors are the enemy of healthy "breathing. REVIEW QUESTIONS. 1. Define respiration, expiration, inspiration. 2. Give the names of the organs of breathing. 3. Describe the trachea ; the larynx ; the epiglottis. 4. What are the organs used in speaking? 5. What are the bronchial tubes? the cilia? 6. Describe the work of the lungs. 7. How should we breathe? 8. How does tight clothing about the waist injure a person? 9. Name diseases of the organs of breathing. 10. How may these diseases be avoided? 11. What is ventilation? 12. Tell the story of the "haunted house" and its changed condi- tion. 13. How dia the neighbors improve their premises? 14. How did the result affect the health of the people ? 15. How are air and water often made unfit for use? 16. Why do buildings need ventilation? 17. What is said of the air in churches, school-rooms, etc.? 18. Why does a close room often give one the headache? 19. How should sleeping-rooms be ventilated? 20. Is it safe to "take the breath" of another person? Why? 21. How does alcohol affect the lungs? 22. Describe alcoholic consumption. 23. How is alcohol likely to injure the organs of breathing? OHAPTEE XII. CIRCULATION. THE BLOOD. (HE blood is a thin, watery liquid in which float millions of little round blood-disks. As most of these are red, the blood looks red. FIG. 22. A, blood-disks of blood, highly magnified; B, blood- disks in the blood of an animal. A French writer says : " You feel quite sure that blood is red, do you not ? Well, it is no more red than the water of a stream would be, if you were to fill it with little red fishes. 126 CIRCULATION. " Suppose the fishes to be very, very small, as small as a grain of sand, and closely crowded together through the whole depth of the stream, the water would look red, would it not ? And this is the way in which the "blood looks red. Only observe one thing a grain of sand is a mountain in compari- son with the little red bodies which float in the blood. " In a single drop of blood, such as might hang on the point of a needle, there are millions of these bodies." CLOTTING OF THE BLOOD. This rarely occurs in the living blood in- side the vessels. But when blood is taken from the body and allowed to stand awhile, the disks collect so as to form a clot, which floats in the watery liquid. If the flesh is slightly cut anywhere, and the blood flows as it will, so numerous are the blood-vessels a clot soon forms at the mouths of the vessels and stops the flow. This clot is really a little plug formed by tlxe separation of the parts of the blood. THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION. 127 FIG. 23. THE ORGANS OF CIRCULATION Tile lieart is placed a little to tlie left of tlie middle line of the chest. Con- nected with it is a set of tubes which carry blood to and from all parts of the body. The little tubes which carry the fresh blood from the heart to every part of the body are called arteries (ar'ter iz) ; while those tubes which c a r r y the blood back to the heart * are called veins (van) Connecting" the arteries tubes much too small to The heart. A, the right ventricle ; B, the left ventrl cle; C, the right auricle ; D, the left auricle. and veins are be seen by the * The portal vein is an exception to this rule, since it carries blood from the digestive organs to the liver. " 128 CIRCULATION. naked eye, called capillaries. So very fine are these that the blood-disks have to go through them in single file. THE HEART. The heart is a strong, muscular bag, in shape and size somewhat like a very large pear. Around it is a loose bag of connective- tissue. The heart is divided lengthwise, by a par- tition called the septum (sgp'ttim), into right and left halves. Each half is divided crosswise into chambers which open into each other. The upper chambers are called .the right and left auricles (aV^l-eis); the lower cham- bers, the right and left ventricles (vSn' trf cis). As the blood can not pass through the sep- tum, the heart is really a double organ. MOTIONS OF THE HEART. The muscular fibers of the heart are so arranged as to contract the two auricles at the same time. The blood is thus sent into the ventricles, which, in their turn, contract together and so send the blood from the heart. COURSE OF THE BLOOD. The walls of the auricles are nmcli thin- ner tlian tliose of tlie ventricles, since they have to send the "blood so short a distance, that but little strength is needed. COURSE OF THE BLOOD. We may think of the heart as an engine which pumps the "blood all through the body. FIG. 24. B Circulation of Hie blood in the web of a frog's foot, highly magnified. A, an artery; B, capillaries crowded with disks; C, a deeper vein. The black spots ara coloring matter in cells. The bright, pure blood is pumped out from the left side through a large artery, called the aorta (a or' ta). An express wagon, you know, carries dif- ferent kinds of goods. It may have machin- ery for a mill, a package of money for the 130 CIRCULATION. bank, a silk dress for your mother, or a bi- cycle (bi's^-ei^) for you. Tlie express-man takes each tiling to tlie right place, leaves it there, and then drives away. So the blood passing from the large artery into the smaller ones, and then into the capillaries, leaves one kind of substance with the bones, another with the muscles, and still another with, the skin. If, by the right kind of eating, drinking, breathing, and other care, we have put proper materials into our blood, it will, in its course through the body, leave what each part needs for its work in keeping us strong and "well. Sometimes, when the express-man leaves a box at a house, he takes away at the same time, a package, or a trunk, for another place. The blood does this, too ; but the material which the blood takes away from the differ- ent parts, is worn-out or useless matter that must be made over or sent out of the body. The tiny veins that join the capillaries unite, till at last they form two great veins which bring the blood back to the right auricle of the heart. COURSE OF THE BLOOD. 131 By tlie time it readies tlie veins, it car- ries such, a load of waste matter that it is of a dark blue color, as seen in the blood- vessels of tne wrist. After eating, newly- digested food forms a part of this venous "blood. Sent from the right auricle into the right ventricle, it is then hurried to the lungs. There the wonderful change takes place which you learned about in studying res- piration. The waste matter, largely carbonic acid, is sent off with the breath, and oxygen takes its place. The blood becomes bright scarlet again, and fit to nourish the body. The veins then carry it to the left auricle and it starts on another journey through the system. It travels so rapidly, as to get back to the heart in less than thirty seconds. From two quarts to a gallon of blood, pass through a man's heart every minute. The walls of the left ventricle are much thicker and stronger than those of the right, because they have to contract with force enough to send the blood through the body, "while the right ventricle sends it only to the lungs. 132 CIRCULATION. This, then, is tlie course of the blood : Left side of the heart. Pure, fresh blood comes from the lungs and is sent out to nourish the body. Right side of the heart. Impure, blue blood comes from all parts of the body and is sent to the lungs. This movement of the blood round and round in the body, is called circu- lation (sir -eu la'tion). Little flaps of delicate skin, called valves, are so Valves of the veins. placed in the heart and veins, that if the blood tries to move in the wrong direction, the back-flow is prevented by the shutting of the valves across the pas- sage-ways or tubes. Brisk exercise of any kind makes the blood flow faster, and thus increases the warmth of the body. The teamster swings his arms and rubs his hands together in cold weather, because his blood, being chilled, is moving slowly, and he must quicken its flow. -THE PULSE. 133 The heat one feels after taking- brisk exercise, is more natural and more healthful than that which is obtained from nearness to a warm fire. THE PULSE. In adults, the blood is sent out from the heart about seventy times a minute ; in chil- dren, from eighty to ninety times a minute. Most of the arteries lie deep in the flesh ; but, at the wrist and the temple, they are so near the surface that you can feel the pulse, or the motion of the blood as it is sent through the arteries by the "beating" of the heart. Usually, if the pulse is much faster or slower than the average rate, the person is sick ; the doctor counts the pulse of a patient, so as to know how his heart is -working. Rest is as necessary for the heart as for other muscles. To secure it, there is a slight pause between the beats. Brief as each pause is, if all these moments are added together, they make about nine hours of rest during the twenty-four. 134 CIRCULATION. WORK OF THE HEART. At every beat, the lieart moves about four ounces of blood. Suppose you had a machine which could lift very heavy weights. The coal-man brings you a ton of coal, and you put it into a large box, fasten the box to the machine, turn a crank, and the strong arm of your machine swings the box of coal up into the air with perfect ease. You try a heavier weight say twenty- five tons ; this also is lifted easily, but not so high as before. Try fifty tons and then seventy-five ; the heavier the weight of coal, the less will be the height to -which your machine will raise it. At last, you try one hundred twenty-two tons : the machine can lift this heavy load only one foot from the ground ; there it stops, for there is not power enough to raise it any higher. The heart of a full-grown man or woman uses as much power in moving blood for twenty-four hours, as your machine would CUTS AND WOUNDS. 135 use in lifting one hundred twenty-two tons, one foot high. This is "what learned men mean when they say: "The daily work of the healthy heart in an adult, is equal to lifting one hun- dred and twenty-two tons, one foot." CUTS AND WOUNDS. The blood in the arteries of the limbs is pure and fresh, and in rapid motion ; in the veins, it is impure and moves slowly. The arteries, being deep set, are not easily injured ; but, if bright, red blood comes in jerks from a cut or wound, you may know that one is severed. Send for a surgeon at once, but do something while waiting for him; for there is great danger that the suf- ferer will bleed to death. Even a child may save a person's life at such a time, if he knows what to do. The flow of blood must be stopped by pinching the artery, as you would stop the flow of water in a rubber hose. If possible, take a handkerchief, or a towel, or any convenient bandage, and tie it around 136 CIRCULATION. the limb close to tlie wound, and between the wound and the heart. Put a stick into the knot and twist it round and round, just enough to stop the "bleeding by pressing the artery. This will check the rush of blood coming, you remember, from the heart, and enable it to form a clot at the cut end of the tube. Keep the limb raised as you "work. If the blood comes in a slow, steady stream, a vein is injured. The blood in the veins is going to the heart, you know, and is moving much more slowly than that in the arteries. A clot will usually form in the cut veins "without the help of a bandage. If you can not use the bandage, or if this does not stop the bleeding, press a handful of dry earth upon the wound and hold it there until help comes; this is a " remedy that has saved many a life upon the battle- field." ALCOHOL AND THE BLOOD. Often the blood is made thin by the enor- mous quantities of water, or of beer, which ALCOHOL AND THE BLOOD-VESSELS. 137 are drunk, because of the "burning thirst caused by alcohol. In case of a severe wound, the blood, when it is in such a condition, does not readily clot, and there is greater danger of bleeding to death. While alcohol is in the blood, it acts injuriously upon the vitality of the blood-disks, and, when in great excess, may cause them to shrink. ALCOHOL AND THE BLOOD-VESSELS. The motion of the heart is controlled by the nerves, about which you will learn in a later lesson. "Wherever you find blood-vessels even the tiniest capillaries there are nerves entering into their coats and controlling them. When in a healthy condition, they keep the blood-vessels from stretching or shrink- ing, so as to hold too much or too little blood. But, if a person drinks gin, whiskey, wine, cider, or any thing containing alcohol, these nerves are at once deadened by this narcotic ; they fail to do their work properly, and therefore the elastic walls of the capillaries stretch, letting in too much blood. 138 CIRCULATION. This is often seen in the flushed face, es- pecially in the red, Iblotched nose, of a drink- ing man. The imusual amount of blood in the capillaries shows its color through the skin. This is a pitiful sight, especially when we remember that alcohol affects in a similar way, the capillaries of the brain, stomach, and other parts of the body. ALCOHOL AND THE HEART. The pendulum regulates the works of a clock, keeping them in motion at the proper rate ; remove it, and they " run down," at once. So there are certain nerves which cause the heart to beat, and others which, like the pendulum of a clock, keep it from moving too rapidly. Alcohol affects the heart, by acting mainly on this last set of nerves which serve as its " brakes." This, like many other of the truths you are learning, has been discovered by experiments on the lower animals and on man. When these nerves are deadened, the heart beats quicker, but its power is decreased, and REVIEW QUESTIONS. 139 tlie pulsations are too feeble to send out the blood properly. The rapid working shortens its times of rest, and heart disease is often the result. TOBACCO AND THE HEART. The effect of tobacco on the heart is much the same as that of alcohol. The beat is quickened, but the power is weakened: se- vere pain around the heart is a common re- sult of smoking. There is a form of disease of this organ, which the doctors call " tobacco heart." REVIEW QUESTIONS. 1. Describe the blood. 2. What is said of it by a French writer? 3. What is meant by the clotting of the blood? 4. Name and locate the organs of circulation. 5. Describe the heart; its motions. 6. State the course of the blood. 7. What does the blood carry to every part of the body? 8. What does it take away ? 9. What kind of blood is in the right side of the heart? 10. How is the blood changed in the lungs? 11. What kind of blood is in the left side of the heart? 12. What is meant by circulation ? 13. What is the use of the valves in the heart and veins? 14. What is the effect of exercise on the motion of the heart? 15. What is the pulse? 16. How often does it beat in children ? in adults ? 140 CIRCULATION. 17. Why does the doctor count the pulse of a patient? 18. When does the heart rest? 19. Compare the daily work of the heart with that of a lifting- machine. 20. How may you know whether an artery or a vein has been cut? 21. If an artery, how would you stop the flow of blood? if a vein? 22. In what ways is alcohol likely to injure the blood? 23. What control the motion of the heart and the size of the blood-vessels ? 24. How does alcohol affect these nerves ? 25. What is the cause of the flushed face of the drinking man ? 26. What two classes of nerves act on the heart? 27. How does alcohol affect the heart-beat? 28. How does tobacco affect the heart? CHAPTER XIII. THE SKIN. CUTIS AND CUTICLE. tHE skin lias two layers. The lower one is called the cutis (-eu' tis), or true skin ; the upper one, the cuticle (-eu r ti -ei^). These layers never interfere with muscular motion ; for they cover the flesh more nicely than the finest glove fits the hand. At the lips and nose, this covering- changes to a softer and more delicate one, called the mucous membrane (mSm'bran), which extends into the body and forms the lining of most of its organs. THE CUTI S. The inner, or true skin, is full of nerves and blood-vessels ; it has, also, weak muscular fibers, by means of which the skin is some- times " puckered " into "goose-pimples," or the hair made to "stand on end." 142 THE SKIN. On the palm of your hand and the ends of your fingers, you can see little ridges called papillae (pa pii'le). These contain so many of the tiny nerves by which news is carried to the brain, that our hands are the chief or- gans of touch. In the ab- sence of other senses, es- pecially that of sight, one learns to rely upon the sense of touch. The blind read by passing their fingers or ' D lips over raised letters. THE CUTICLE. We could not bear to touch the nerve-ends di- rectly, for that would give pain in the hands, almost as severe as the toothache. The cuticle covers the cu- tis and protects the nerves. It is made of hard, dry scales and becomes thicker by use, as on the hands of a blacksmith, or on the feet of a barefoot boy. Its scales rub A, a perspiratory lube with Us gland ; B, a hair with a musde and two oil-glands; C, cuticle; D, the papillae; and E, fat-cells. THE PERSPIRATION. 143 off on our under-clothing and on the sheets of our beds. In a blister, bloody or watery matter forces itself between the two layers of the skin. THE PERSPIRATION. When a workman comes in from the hay- field on a hot August day, his face is covered with drops of water; so is yours after a run, and you say, you are "sweaty." This sweat, or perspiration, is a part of the waste matter which must be sent out of the body. It oozes through very small holes in the skin, called pores so small that you can not see them without a magnifying glass. They are the mouths of small tubes that ex- tend through the skin, the lower end of each being coiled into a tiny ball. They are most numerous in the soles of the feet, the arm-pits, the palms of the hands, and the forehead. If all these drains of the body were straightened out and laid end to end, they would make a line more than three miles long. Perspiration is at all times passing off 144 THE SKIN. through, the pores ; but we notice it only when there is enough to form drops. It cools the body, and suddenly to stop perspir- ing is one of the first symptoms of heat- stroke or sun-stroke. Mixed with the water of the sweat is "waste matter from the body. The skin is thus one of our most important scavengers, and garments which prevent the perspiration from passing away into the air, are not healthful ; the feet become damp and cold, if rubber overshoes, which keep in the moist- ure, are worn for any great length of time. A little boy was once covered with gold- leaf to represent an angel in a festival. This kept the perspiration from leaving his body, and he died in a few hours. THE OIL-GLANDS. The skin is kept smooth and soft by an oily substance sent out from little sacs in the cutis, called oil-glands. A similar oily material moistens and keeps the hair glossy. The oil, or sebaceous (se ba' shtis), glands are quite large on the face, and sometimes the THE HAIR AND NAILS. 145 matter in tliem hardens and dries. When their mouths are open, particles of dirt min- gle with the oily matter, and they become dark-colored and are often called "worms." They can then be easily pressed out and the black spots removed. COMPLEXION. Small grains of coloring-matter on the lower side of the cuticle, cause the different colors of the skin. When these collect in spots, the skin is freckled. THE HAIR AND NAILS. These grow from the cuticle. Each hair has a tiny sac, or fold of skin, at its root. The nails protect the ends of the fingers, and grow rapidly. You may easily prove this, by making a little mark near the base of one of them, and watching it from day to day. The nails should always be kept clean and well-cut ; not bitten nor broken off. Finger- nails, black with needless dirt under the ends, are not the mark of a gentleman or a lady. 14:6 THE SKIN. BATH I NG. The sweat-tubes will not work properly if dirt is allowed to clog or close the open- ings. Bathing, therefore, is very necessary to the health of the "body. For most strong, well persons, the best time for a bath is just after rising. The water used may be cold, or slightly warm. If hot water is used, a dash of cold water at the close of the bath, "with vigorous rub- bing, will prevent the tired feeling that would otherwise follow. Cold water drives the blood away from the skin for an instant; but it comes back when the surface is briskly rubbed, giving a delightful warmth and glow to the body. A healthy person need not be at all chilled by a cold bath. Uncover only a small part of the body at a time, and wash rapidly and rub well with a coarse towel. If the bath is thus taken, and each part covered as soon as it is dry and warm, no chill will be felt. All should bathe at least twice a week, and soap is needed on the whole body at DISEASES TAKEN BY THE SKIN. 147 least once a week, to remove the oily matter that has dried upon the skin. The old idea that it must not be used upon the face is a mere whim. When needed for cleanliness, use it on the face as freely as on any other part of the "body. DISEASES TAKEN BY THE SKIN. There is danger in using many of the cheap toilet soaps, since they are sometimes made from the fat of diseased animals, and diseases may thus "be taken into the system through the pores of the skin. Soldiers who want to shirk duty, some- times put a piece of tobacco under each arm- pit. The poison passing through the pores soon sickens them, and the surgeon sends them to the hospital. Painters and operatives in lead works, are often made sick by little particles of the lead which they handle, entering the pores and poisoning the blood. Face-powders, hair-dyes, and eye-washes, do great harm in the same way. Good health is the best cosmetic (6 mSt' i-e). Noth- 148 THE SKIN. ing else will give such, a clear complexion, rosy cheeks, and brilliant eyes. Beauty is much more than " skin-deep." THE SUN. Sunlight is necessary for the health of the skin, as well as for all the other parts of the body. In many homes, the closed blinds that keep the carpets bright, keep the people who live behind them, faded and pale. The trees around a house often shade it so heavily that it is dark and damp. Plants growing in cellars have white, sickly leaves; people living in the dark, lose strength of body and mind, as well as color. The sunlight should not be shut out from rooms occupied by human beings, except in times of extreme heat. REVIEW QUESTIONS. 1. Name the layers of the skin. ' . 2. What is the mucous membrane? 3. Describe the cutis ; the cuticle. 4. What is perspiration? How does it reach the surface of the body? 5. What gives the different colors to the skin ? 6. From what do the hair and nails grow? 7. How are diseases taken by the skin? CHAPTER XIY. ANIMAL HEAT. USE OF THE THERMOMETER. |HE blood in the healthy human body lias an average heat of 98; that is, if you should put a thermometer (ther mom' e ter) into it as it rushes through its network of tubes, the mercury would rise as high as it does in the shade on a hot summer day. This result can not, of course, be arrived at directly ; but the blood-vessels come so near the surface that a thermometer held in the mouth or in the arm-pit for a few min- utes, will show the temperature within the body. Summer or winter, arctic cold or tor- rid heat, make but little difference in the internal warmth, so long as one is well. If there is much change in the heat of the body, it is a sign of danger; in fevers, for instance, the doctor keeps careful watch 150 ANIMAL HEAT. of the internal heat of the patient's body if it gets above a certain point, there is no hope of recovery. But this heat is constantly passing off through the lungs, skin, and other organs. The average amount lost in a day of rest would "boil about sixty pounds of ice- water- in a day of work, about eighty pounds. This loss must be balanced by gain. SOURCES OF HEAT. The heat of the body results from the many changes constantly going on within it. The changes which take place in the di- gestion of food and in the tissues, the beat- ing of the heart, the motion of the blood, the movements of the food-canal, the con- tracting of the muscles all the processes of the body, tend to make and preserve its heat. CLOTHING. Woolen under-garments should be worn in the winter in northern climates, and many persons require them all the year. Men who work, in very hot places, such CLOTHING. 151 as foundries and engine-rooms, find flannel shirts more comfortable than cotton ones; for they protect from the heat of the fire and do not so readily get wet with perspiration and then allow the body to become chilly. Loose clothing in several layers is warmer than tight and very thick clothing. The feet and lower limbs of children, in these days of short pants and short dresses, should be clothed with care; thick boots and woolen stockings are necessary for their health and comfort, during more than half the year. A wise doctor often said to his patients : " Never allow yourselves to feel cold. If you are chilly, put on extra clothing, go to a warmer room, exercise briskly, in some way get warm and keep warm." "Only fools and beggars suffer from the cold ; the latter not being able to get sufficient clothes, the oth- ers not having the sense to wear them." Tight clothing chills by checking the cir- culation. Keeping the body too "warm by overheated rooms or too much clothing, is another extreme which should be avoided. None of the under-garments worn during 152 ANIMAL HEAT. the day, should be kept on at night, because waste matter from the perspiration, and scales of the cuticle, have collected upon them ; they should be taken off and spread out so as to be thoroughly aired for next day. Outer clothing removed at night should not be hung in closed closets or wardrobes ; there is more or less perspiration on it, and this should have a chance to escape. Be sure that closets and wardrobes are often aired. In the morning, throw the bed wide open, and, if possible, give the sheets and night- clothes a good sun bath. A wise housewife will not have beds made early; but will let them remain open until noon, or even night. The family will be gainers in the fresh, sweet sleep taken in beds that have been freed from foul matter by the air and sun. Night-clothes should be hung up exposed to the air when, the bed is made, instead of being placed under the pillow. TAKING COLD. By exposure to a draught of air when one is heated, by sitting with wet feet or in damp ALCOHOL AND COLD. 153 garments, by going into cold air without ex- tra clothing in these and many other ways, the skin is suddenly chilled. The number- less little pores at once close, and the waste matter can not pass away through them. It often tries to escape by way of the inner skin the mucous membrane of the mouth and nose or by way of the lungs. Then we have a "cold in the head" or "on the lungs," which may lead to more serious trouble if not attended to at once. One may guard against "taking cold" by bathing the body often, and by rubbing it daily "with a flesh-brush or a coarse towel, thus keeping the pores of the skin in good working order. ALCOHOL AND COLD. "Bitter cold! must take something to warm me up," cries the driver starting on a long winter ride. So he swallows a glass of whiskey; says, "That's the drink to warm a man ; " and drives away. But is he warmer ? Alcohol is a cheat here as elsewhere. The nerves being paralyzed, the capillaries en- 154 ANIMAL HEAT. large, and an increased current of blood pours into those of the skin. This makes a glow at the surface of the body, and the man is sure he is warmer, because he feels warmer. The heat of this warm blood at once passes off from the surface, and soon more than the proper amount of heat has left the body. Try the thermometer that is a better test than the feelings; it shows that the body is really colder very soon after the alcohol has entered it. But the deadened nerves can not carry the message, or sense of cold, to the brain, and no effort is made to prevent being chilled, for the man does not know he is cold. This is the first step toward death, and many a drunkard has been frozen to death when too much intoxicated to feel his danger. When something must be taken to start again the slow moving wheels of life as, when one is nearly frozen to death a little red pepper in hot water is an excellent rem- edy. Clear hot water, hot coffee, or ginger tea, a few drops of ammonia in water, or am- monia (not too strong) held to the nostrils, are also valuable helps in such an emergency. ALCOHOL AND COLD. 155 Arctic explorers have proved that alcoliol is worse than useless in helping- them "bear extreme cold. Dr. McRae says: "The moment that a man had swallowed a drink of spirits, it was certain that his day's work was nearly at an end In that terrific cold, the use of liquor as a beverage, when -we had work on hand, was out of the question." Until lately, the explorer who had gone nearest to the north pole was an English- man named Adam Ayles. He was proud of being able to say there had never been a drop of alcohol in his body. When in the extreme cold of those regions, he bore the hard work of sledging and hunting much better than the men who used liquor now and then. Many of those who drank liquor became sick and helpless. When urged to drink liquor, Adam Ayles replied bravely : " No ! when a boy, I promised my mother never to touch it ; and, if I perish in this ice, I will keep my word." He returned to England alive and -well. When a detachment of the Russian army is about to start on a winter expedition, a 156 ANIMAL HEAT. corporal goes the rounds to smell the breath of each soldier. Those who have been drink- ing liquor are sent back to their barracks, since they can not endure the cold march. ALCOHOL AND HEAT. Alcohol is no "better protection against heat than against cold. Livingstone, the fa- mous African explorer, has proved that men can endure more in tropical climates with- out it than with it. REVIEW QUESTIONS. 1. How do doctors use the thermometer in sickness ? For what purpose ? 2. How does the heat of the "body pass away ? 3. How is more heat supplied to "balance this loss? 4. What is said of woolen under-clothing ? 5. How should the feet and legs of children he dressed? 6. What should be done at night with the garments worn during the day? 7. How should sheets and night-clothes "be aired? 8. Is alcohol a good preventive of chills? 9. Why does one feel warmer after drinking a glass of whiskey? 10. Is he really warmer or colder? Why? 11. How would you prove this? 12. Name some good remedies for cases of prostration from cold. 13. What do Arctic explorers say of the use of alcohol ? 14. What is done in the Russian army? 15. What is said about alcohol and heat? CHAPTER XV. ALCOHOL AND LIFE. INSURANCE. | HOSE who never drink liqLior have a pros- pect of living much longer than those who do. Many diseases are caused by alco- hol, and many more are made worse toy it. Of diseases like the cholera and yellow- fever, pure air, clean houses and streets, and blood unpoisoned by alcohol and tobacco, are the best preventives. In 1832, 'when the cholera was in London, this notice was posted by the city officers : "Spirit-drinkers will be the first victims of the cholera." The poisoned bodies of alcohol- users rarely can resist the disease. Life insurance companies keep careful records, showing how many years different classes of men will probably live. Here are some of the results of their study in England : 158 ALCOHOL AND LIFE. When a total abstainer is 20 years old, lie may expect to live 44 years more. 30 " " " " " " " 36.5 " " Ar\ (( II (I (l (I Og Q tt (I When a moderate drinker is 20 years old, lie may expect to live 15.5 years more. 30 " " " " " " " 13.8 " " Ar\ (( (( ll (I (( -j -j Q (( From these records, it is plain that those who never drink liquor have the best chance for length of life, as well as for happiness and power to work. The President of one life insurance com- pany in New England says of beer-drinkers : "The deaths among them were astounding. Robust health, full muscles, a fair outside, in- creasing weight, florid faces, then a touch of disease and quick death. " It was as if the system had been kept fair outside, while within, it -was eaten to a shell, and at the first touch there was utter collapse ; every fiber was poisoned and weak. Beer-drinking is very deceptive, at first; it is thoroughly destructive, at last." Some companies will not insure the lives HEREDITY. 159 of liquor-sellers, because they know tliat they are so often liquor-drinkers. HERE DIT Y. You have learned enough about your body by this time, to understand that when people are sick, it is generally their own fault ; either they have not been taught how to care for their bodies, or they are heedless in spite of their knowledge. But sometimes, one is sick or suffers very much, because of wrong things that his parents or grand-parents did. Does this seem strange ? Some one has told you, perhaps, that you have your father's hair and eyes, but that your mouth and chin are like your mother's. You have heard of children who were quick-tempered, or generous like their par- ents. Not only property, but faces and char- acter are inherited. Our lives are very closely linked with those of our "blood rela- tions," and evil tendencies, as well as good impulses, descend from them to us. Over in the poor-house, is a man who does 160 ALCOHOL AND LIFE. not know so much as most children four years old. He can not learn to read or write ; he is an idiot. And this is hecause he is the child of drinking parents whose poisoned life blood tainted his own. Many men and women are insane, hecause they inherit disordered bodies and minds, caused by the drinking habits of their par- ents ; and the descendants of " moderate drinkers " suffer in this way, as well as those of the drunkard.* Some men of great self-control may use a moderate amount of alcoholic liquors through a long life, without apparent injury. But their children are likely to inherit a stronger appetite for narcotics and a weaker will with which to control it. * One of the most serious objections to the use of alcoholic liquors in any quantity, is the taste it creates, the habit it establishes a taste and habit often transmitted from parents to their children and the very great danger, by continuance in the indulgence, of its resulting in gross, degrading, habitual drunkenness. Even if a moderate indulgence had no other evil effect, this danger is so great, and the influence of the example on others is so bad, as to cause every "wise and good man, woman, or child, to avoid it altogether. Every body knows it does incalculable harm, and if it does no positive good, there is the best possible reason for "total abstinence." Dr. A. B. Palmer. HEREDITY. 161 Tobacco and opium produce similar re- sults. Tliis is called tlie law of heredity* (he rSd'i ty). It is one of God's laws, and, like just earthly laws, helps right living and punish.es those who disobey it. The. English-speaking races have descended from men who were hard drinkers. Our an- cestors, the old Northmen, were famous for their wild feasts, at which they drank im- mense quantities of mead a fermented liquor made from honey and milk. In the early * ' ' Three-fourths of the idiots "born are the children of intem- perate parents." Dr. Howe. "Where drinking has "been strong in "both parents, I think it a physical certainty that it will be traced in the children." Dr. Anstte. " One more example which has come under my own professional observation, may be useful. A gentleman of position, sixty-four years of age, is an hereditary drunkard. So violent is he that his wife and family had to leave him. "One of his sisters has lost her mind through drinking. When drunk, she has frequently tried to commit suicide by jumping from a window, and by drowning. Her insanity has so suicidal a tendency that she can not be left for a moment alone. She will do any thing for drink will beg, borrow, or steal, pawn every- thing she can lay her hands on, and even essay robbery with vio- lence in the hope of obtaining money to gratify her morbid crav- ing for alcohol. "Another sister is also an habitual drunkard, who gets into fits of ungovernable fury when in drink, and is dangerous both to herself and to others. "The fatal legacy in this case was from both parents. The father shot himself when insane from the use of alcohol, and the mother was a drunkard. The grandfather was also a confirmed inebriate." Norman Kerr, M.D. 162 ALCOHOL AND LIFE. days of the English, nation, wine and ale were every-where used. In America, only a few years ago, cider and rum were found in the cellar and on the table of nearly every farmer; and no wedding, funeral, or public gathering of any sort, was without its free liquor. The ignorance of that time in regard to the origin, nature, and consequences of alco- hol, is shown "by the fact that the first tem- perance pledges signed in this country, pro- hibited the use of liquor " save at weddings and funerals," and the taking of " alcoholic drinks, excepting wine, beer, and cider." The hardy, outdoor life which was led by so many of our forefathers, prevented them from feeling the full effects of their poisonous beverages. The English and Americans of to-day are descended from these drinking ancestors, and inherit from them a craving for alcohol, and are safe from the poison only when they let it entirely alone. The taking of a single glass of liquor, the eating of brandy sauce or wine jelly, may REVIEW QUESTIONS 163 rouse this inherited desire, though its po- sessor may not have discovered that the taint is in his blood ; the appetite, "becoming uncontrollable, may bring its owner to a drunkard's grave. REVIEW QUESTIONS. 1. Why have those who never drink liquor a prospect of living longer than those who do? 2. Name good preventives of such diseases as cholera and yellow fever. 3. What do the records kept by life insurance companies prove in regard to total abstinence ? 4. "What class of men will insurance companies not insure? 5. If we are sick, whose fault is it usually? 6. By the faults of what other persons may our illness sometimes be caused? 7. What physical traits are often inherited? what mental traits? 8. How do the habits of drinking men and women affect their descendants ? 9. What is this law called? 10. Prom whom do English-speaking people inherit the taste for alcohol ? 11. How were liquors used in America, a few years' ago? 12. Why did not our forefathers feel the full effect of the liquor they drank? 13. Is it safe to take "the first glass"? why? CHAPTER XIII. 1. What are "goose-pimples"? papillae? 2. Is it safe to wear clothing which will prevent perspiration from passing into the air ? 3. How are the skin and hair kept smooth and glossy? 4. What is the effect of face-powders and hair-dyes? 5. What is said about the use of soap ? 6. Should the sunlight be allowed to enter our dwellings ? 164 REVIEW QUESTIONS. 7. How should the nails be cared for? 8. Why is bathing important? 9. What is the best time for a bath? 10. Explain the warm glow that is felt after a cold bath and brisk rubbing. CHAPTER XIV. 1. Is it wise to allow one's self to feel cold? 2. What is meant by taking cold? 3. What is the cause of "a cold in the head," or "on the lungs"? 4. What remedies are useful in case of being chilled through? 5. Should we keep our overcoats, shawls, or furs on when we come into a warm room? for how long a time? 6. Why is a man under the influence of liquor not apt to feel cold ? 7. What was the experience of Adam Ayles in the Arctic regions ? OHAPTEE XVI. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. MAN AND OTHER ANIMALS. USCULAE, action, digestion, circulation, and all the work of the "body, need to he directed and controlled. This wonderful task is given to the nervous system. Plants have no power to think or feel: cut a tree, and the hark and wood have no sense of pain ; the rose is neither glad nor scurry when you take it from the stem it knows nothing of what is heing done. The simplest forms of animal life have very little of this nervous power; one of them, the hydra (hy'dr&), may he cut into pieces, and each piece will form a new hydra. But animals which have the sense of feeling those which can "be taught hy man possess most of this power. 166 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM Pio. 27. The nervous system. A, cZr' I brum ; B, c8r e bel' lum. PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 167 The dog obeys his master's orders ; horses are trained to understand the slightest word of command. The elephant, though huge and clumsy, is used in India to "build bridges, move and pile heavy logs, and to do many other kinds of work. But no other animal has sT complete a nervous system as man ; and so, no other animal can think and plan so well. He is placed at the head of living creatures, not to "be a tyrant to torment and destroy others ; hut to "protect all harmless living creatures," and to treat none "with cruelty. PARTS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. The nervous system is divided into cen- ters, cords, and nerves. The most important center is the brain; the principal cord is the spinal cord, which passes down the back through a series of holes in the vertebrae ; from the brain and spinal cord, slender white threads, called nerves, extend to all parts of the body. Other nerves start from small centers or knots of nerve-matter, near the backbone. 168 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. NERVOUS POWER. The nerve-centers are mainly composed of soft, gray matter; the spinal cord lias a core of this same gray matter, surrounded by white nerve-fibers. "What nervous power is, or how it is made, we do not know; "but it begins in the grajJ matter, and is sent along the white fibers. The centers are often compared to the stations of a telegraph system where all mes- sages, home and foreign, are received, and whence orders are sent out in every direction. The cords and nerves resemble, in the same way, the wires along which messages are sent. THE BRAIN. The brain is protected from injury by the strong bones of the skull, and by three cov- erings, or coats. The outer coat is very tough ; the inner ones are soft and delicate. The two principal parts of the brain are called the cerebrum (93^ e brtim) and cerebellum THE CEREBRUM. 169 FIG. 28. THE CEREBRUM. The cerebrum is the part of trie "brain in tlie upper, middle, and front of the head. It has gray mat- ter on the out- side, and white nerve-fibers on the inside. The gray mat- ter is coiled "back and forth, so that a great deal is packed away in this part of the skull. You may get a good idea of these wrinkles, or foldings, by look- ing at a piece of brain coral, or at the meat of an English walnut. This is the part of the brain by means of which "we think ; and wise thinking strength- ens it, as proper exercise strengthens the muscles. The greater the power and activity Surface of the cer'e brum. 170 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. of the mind, the more wrinkled and coiled will the gray matter of the cerebrum become. If this part of the brain is taken away from a pigeon (pij'ttn), it becomes stupid, and takes no notice of things around it. Fro. sJ9. Pigeon from which the cerebrum has been removed. THE CEREBELLUM. In the lower, back part of the skull, is the smaller division of the brain called the cerebellum. Like the cerebrum, the gray matter is on the outside ; the white matter, inside ; but the coilings of the gray matter are finer, THE CEREBELLUM, more like layers or foldings ; and tlie white fibers extend into the gray, in such, a man- ner tliat tliey look somewhat like tlie branch, of a tree this is sometimes spoken of as " the tree of life." Pigeon from which the cerebellum has been removed. The special work of the cerebellum is not fully understood. If it is injured, one can not use Iris body as he wish.es ; the messages of motion are not sent correctly, tne muscles do not obey his will, and lie acts as if in- toxicated. If tlie cerebellum is taken from pigeons, iT2 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. they make " uncertain, sprawling move- ments." Fio 31. THE SPINAL CORD. At the very "base of the brain, is an im- portant mass of white and gray nerve-matter, situ- ated at the upper end oi the spinal cord ; it is often called the "vital knot," because one nerve which starts from this center, controls the act of breath- . II the Kinot IS section of the Spinal Cord. a, b. Section of the cord. c, c, c, c. Spinal nerves. d, d, d, d. Posterior or sensory roots of the spinal nerves. e, e, e, e. Anterior or motory roots liear thlS nerve, as IS the of the spinal nerves. case when one's neck is broken, respiration stops and death occurs instantly. This part of the brain is so placed as to be protected as fully as possible, and it is rarely injured except in death by hang- ing. The spinal cord, as has been said, extends down the trunk through the backbone. It is a white cord, about as large as the end THE SPINAL NERVES. 173 of a man's little finger ; down its whole length, front and hack, are two deep fur- rows. THE SPINAL NERVES. Thirty-one pairs of nerves pass off from the sides of the spinal cord, divide and re-divide, and send tiny nerve-threads all over the body. Touch the skin ever so lightly and you feel the touch, "because the cutis is full of nerve- ends. NERVE-TUBES. Each nerve appears to he a bundle of small fibers ; when viewed under a strong microscope, the separate fibers are seen to be really very small tubes. These nerve-tubes do not branch off from larger nerves as the smaller arteries branch from the larger, but lie side by side, bound together by delicate membranes. Each tiny nerve-tube is distinct from the others as it passes into the brain. Were it otherwise, we should often be confused and often in danger. If the nerve-tubes from your first finger 174 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. were to unite with those from your thumb, so as to make one large tube, you could not tell, unless you used your eyes, whether you pricked your finger or your thumb. If the nerve-tubes from the feet united to make one large tube, you could not know by feeling, alone, which foot was cold, cut, or bruised. But when a fly lights on your hand, you do know perfectly well that he is not on your face ; the nerves carry word of his presence to the part of the brain which has to do with your hand. KINDS OF NERVES. In studying the heart, you learned that two sets of nerves were necessary to its proper " beating." So the lungs, brain, and other organs, are kept at work by certain nerves and held from overaction by other nerves which serve as " brakes." By other sets of these signal-lines, we know &bout the world around us. "We can not hear with our eyes, nor smell with our ears ; for the nerves of sight are affected by light only, those of hearing by soiind only. FIBERS OF FEELING AND OF MOTION 175 By the nerves of smell, we perceive differ- ent odors; by those of taste, we enjoy food and drink, and dislike some medicines and various disagreeable things ; while "by those of touch, we are told about the various objects with which we come in contact as, for example, -whether they are hard or soft, rough or smooth. In the cutis, too, lie the ends of those fibers, or tubes, by means of which we re- ceive our sensations of pain ; and there are other nerves which give us the power of muscular motion. FIBERS OF FEELING AND OF MOTION. The two sets of nerve-tubes last mentioned, though they look exactly alike, have two kinds of work to do. However closely they may be bound together, each performs its own task and never interferes with that of its neighbor. One set the fibers of feeling carries mes- sages to the brain from the body ; another set- -the fibers of motion brings messages from the brain to the muscles. 176 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. HOW THE NERVES WORK. The nerve-fibers are like those telegraph lines on which messages travel in a single direction only : on one wire, all the telegrams are sent to the central office ; while on the other, they are received from the central office. When the finger touches a hot iron, nerve- ends of the fibers of feeling send the message along up the arm into the spinal cord, and thence to the brain, which feels the pain. At once, the brain sends back over the mo- tion-fibers a message to the muscles in the finger, telling them to remove it from the iron. All this is done in the twinkling of an eye; and the pain, which seems to be in the finger, is really perceived in the brain ; and yet the brain itself may be injured severely without suffering, though it is the seat of all pain. An iron bar was once driven through the upper part of a man's head and he felt no pain. INJURIES OF THE NERVES. 177 INJURIES OF THE NERVES. The fibers of motion and of feeling look exactly alike, as lias been said. The large nerve of the arm or leg is formed of many of these fibers bound together. Near the spinal cord, it is divided ; all of its motion-fibers come from the front part, all of its feeling- fibers from the back part of the cord. In time of war, soldiers often cut the tele- graph lines leading to the enemy's camp ; then no message can be given or sent, till the line is repaired. In a similar way, if the back part of the spinal cord, just where the nerve goes off to the right foot, is injured, the sense of feeling in the foot is gone. You may prick it, or burn it, as much as you please ; no pain will be felt, because the nerve fiber which should carry the message of trouble to the brain is injured. If the front part of the spinal cord is in- jured at the same place, the order to move the foot may start from the brain ; but the muscles do not obey, because they do not re- 178 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. ceive it. The message can not get by the broken place on tne line. This is how we know there are two sets of fibers connected with the brain-center. FIG. 82. Nerves of the face and necfc. Have you ever had your foot soundly " asleep"? You had held it in such a position that the nerves were pressed, and this partly paralyzed them, so that, for a moment, the foot could scarcely move or feel. THE CRANIAL NERVES. 179 If the spinal cord be divided, or seriously diseased or pressed upon, there is no feeling or motion in any part of the body below the point of injury. This is called paralysis ( P a- rai'ysis), and is quite common. THE CRANIAL NERVES. The nerves which start directly from the brain, are called the cranial (-era'niai) nerves. Among these are the nerves of sight, smell, hearing, and taste; those which move the muscles of the face ; and those which con- trol digestion, respiration, and the motions of the heart. From one of these nerves, a number of little branches go to the center of each tooth, and, in case a tooth decays so that either the food or the air can reach them, we suffer severe pain. Sometimes, the dentist "Mils the nerve" by putting against it creosote (-ere'o sotty, or some other substance. Then he takes out a piece of the little white thread, and fills the cavity with gold, or some other material, to prevent further decay. 180 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. THOUGHT. But the brain lias other important work to do besides merely keeping* us alive. It is the organ of the mind. By it, we think and reason : how, we do not know ; "but God has given us this wonderful instrument, and with it we may do either good or evil. Every time one does right, it is easier for him to keep on doing right, because he strengthens that part of the brain which is used by the good powers of his mind. Every time he does wrong, he weakens this part, and strengthens the part used by the powers of his mind for evil making it much easier to do -wrong the next time. Thus we form habits that control us. In this "way, boys and girls who are mean and cruel, whose thoughts are impure and lives untrue, make the men and women, who do the mischief and sin of the world ; while those whose lives are pure and true, make the men and women who are honored and loved. One reason why it is almost impossible HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 181 for a drunkard to reform, is, because alcohol has deadened that part of the brain which he needs to use in order to master his appe- tite. The best quality of brain, as in the case of gifted men and women, seems to suffer the most. HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Healthy blood is needed in order to have healthy , nerves; and proper food, fresh air, and exercise, are necessary to healthy blood. To keep the mind strong and happy, we must observe the rules of right living, and so protect the brain. When the mind is hard at work, an extra supply of blood is sent to this organ; if it is over-worked, too much blood and energy are thus taken from other parts of the body, which then become weak and feeble. Neither brain-work nor muscle-work must be neglected, for both are important. Rest must also be given to this busy organ, and quiet, dreamless sleep is the best brain- rest. Sleeplessness is often one of the first signs of insanity, that terrible disease in 182 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. which the mind loses, more or less, its con- trol over the brain. Blows on the head are dangerous, and children in their play, as well as older per- sons, should never give them. Causes which weaken, other parts of the "body, weaken the "brain as well. Hence, im- pure air, unwholesome, ill-cooked food, un- suitable clothing, lack of cleanliness all these tend to injure not only the brain, but the whole nervous system. The lack of properly prepared food and other unhealthful ways of living, * often lead men and women to use alcohol, tobacco, and opium, to deaden their feelings of restless discomfort. ALCOHOL AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. You have learned how alcohol injures the organs of digestion, so that the food we eat can not make us good blood; and how it unfits the blood for the best use of the body. About one-fifth of all the blood in the body is in the brain. Through and around ALCOHOL AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 183 the soft gray matter, in and out among the white fibers, are the tiny blood-vessels. You know, already, that these enlarge from the drinking of alcohol ; the blood then sometimes stagnates, and, at other times, rushes through them too violently. No won- der a headache so often follows the glass of liquor. Sometimes, an artery bursts, because its walls have been weakened by alcohol so that they can not bear the extra strain ; the blood flows out, and death occurs at once. This is called apoplexy (p' o pisx y), and may result from other causes than the use of alcohol. But this is not all. The brain asks for good blood, but it gets injured and unhealthy blood. Of course the brain can not be healthy when made of poor material. A boy can not whittle well with a broken, rusty knife ; a musician can not bring sweet music out of a piano whose strings are not in tune ; and the mind can not do good thinking, if it has to work through an un- healthy brain. A large share of the water in the body is 184 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. contained in the brain and the nerves, and alcohol unites with this water, taking it away from the parts where it is needed. More alcohol goes to the brain of the drinking man, than to any other organ except the liver ; its effect on the nerve-substance is deadening paralyzing as you have learned. . The drinking man may not feel pain from his inflamed stomach, partly because it has but few nerves of feeling, and partly because these are out of order and fail to carry mes- sages correctly. Supposing that the alcohol has been a good friend, he satisfies the crav- ing it has caused, by another dose. Perhaps he takes it under the name of " Bitters," or " Patent Medicine," ignorant of the fact that most of these are only extracts of herbs mixed with alcohol, and that the harm done by the alcohol more than bal- ances the good gained from the herbs. When the brain is partly paralyzed by this narcotic, the man does not know what he is doing his power of thought is deranged, and that of correct thought is gone he is "crazy with liquor." He believes himself ALCOHOL AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 185 stronger in body and mind ; lie sometimes talks faster, but thinks less wisely.* " The word of a drunkard, especially with regard to his drinking habits, can not be trusted. An old, but true, proverb says: 'A drunkard is a liar.' His love of truth seems entirely destroyed. And 'the tendency to *" Among the immediate effects of a few doses of alcohol, are drunkenness, and, in rarer cases, crazy drunkenness and alcoholic convulsions or fits. " Still further use of the poison, brings on delirium tremens (d5 llr' I fcm trS' mgne), and various maladies of the stomach, liver, kidneys, lungs, and other organs of the "body ; insanity, and another disease of the nervous system, called dipsomania (dip so ma' ni a) ; the latter is an intense craving for alcoholic or other narcotic sub- stances. "This uncontrollable desire for liquor does not appear in those who have never used alcoholic drinks ; but sometimes, the first in- dulgence awakens the desire. With others, only a longer use will produce it. " Most persons, in their earlier indulgence, think themselves capable of controlling their habits, and indulge without appre- hension of danger. "Even when that danger is apparent to others, it may not be to them, until the desire and the habit are too strong, the will too weak, or the -indifference to consequences too great for any effectual effort to change this course. "The longer the indulgence, the stronger the habit, the feebler the resistance, and the greater the indifference until the victim is swallowed up in his self-invited destruction. " Prom this' view of the facts, it becomes too obvious to need re- peating, that the remedy for drunkenness as a vice, and inebriety as a disease, is abstinence from alcoholic drinks. ' ' It would be an insult to the intelligence of the reader to say that the remedy for drunkenness is the use of wine or beer, of which alcohol is the essential and active ingredient." Prof. Palmer. 186 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. untruthfulness often descends to his chil- dren.' "Dr. B. W. Richardson. Many railroad companies will not employ drinking men as engineers, since they can not trust them to run their engines safely. Many "battles have been lost, because the generals in command were so intoxicated that they could not properly order their troops. If more liquor is taken, the paralyzed nerves can not control the muscles, the man staggers, his hands tremble, and are beyond his proper control. The brain is still more affected, and the drunken talk and actions show too plainly that alcohol has conquered all the better part of the man. It is fully proved that a large number of crimes for which men are sent to prisons or jails, are committed when they are in this condition. A noted murderer confessed that never, but once, did he feel any remorse. Then he was about to kill a babe, and the little crea- ture looked up into his face and smiled. " But," said he, " I drank a large glass of brandy, and then I didn't care." ALCOHOL AND SLEEP. 187 The poison deadened his nerves and "brain, the better part of his mind his conscience was thus put to sleep, and the evil of his nature controlled him. Many a man spends the most of his life behind prison bars, for crimes that he would have shrunk from with horror, had he not been drunk when, he com- mitted them. The drinking" of a very little alcohol is enough to deaden, to some extent, the noblest powers of a man's mind, and to make him careless about the results of his actions. But anger, cruelty, fierceness the baser tenden- cies, in which he is like savages and wild beasts, are not overcome until he is "dead drunk." Then all signs of life are gone, save breath- ing and the motions of his heart. Probably the brain of a man who has once been " dead drunk," can never be so strong and perfect as it otherwise would have tJeen. ALCOHOL AND SLEEP. The exact cause of sleep is unknown ; but we do know that in healthy sleep, the heart 188 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. "beats more slowly than when one is awake; the "breathing is less rapid ; and less "blood is coursing through the brain. Alcohol interferes with all this, and the sleep caused "by its use is not healthy brain- rest, but a heavy stupor from which the drinker wakens tired and often suffering. A narcotic has no power to cure fatigue it can only deaden the nerves for a while, and thus prevent one from knowing that he is weary while under its influence. ALCOHOL AND THE MIND. No man can explain the connection be- tween body and soul, the brain and the mind. We simply know that a sound mind goes with a sound body, a healthy mind with a healthy brain. Alcohol never helps a healthy body.* The craving for itself which the poison sets up in the system, tends to the destruc- tion of health, character, friends, happiness, * "Indirectly, alcoholism favors the production of nearly all din- eases, by lessening the power of resisting their causes ; and it con- tributes to their fatality, by impairing the ability to tolerate or overcome them. " Prqf. Austin Flint. TOBACCO AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 189 usefulness, mind, and life. The only safe course is never to drink alcohol in any form ; or, if the habit is formed, to "break it off, at once and forever. The sudden ceasing to drink is not a danger, but the wise wa3' of recovering lost health. Men in state-prisons are not made sick by having their supply of liquor taken entirely away. TOBACCO AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Dizziness and partial paralysis are com- mon results of the use of tobacco, especially by the young. The deadening of the nerves explains the "quieting" power of cigars. When the first effect of the tobacco has passed away, the abused nerves are very likely to tell the user of their discomfort, by leading him to be irritable and unhappy. What would you think of n 3-011 ng 1 man who, if his father gave him $1,000 to start him in business, should at 6 rice burn up $500, and then begin work with the rest ? Just so foolish is the boy who destroys the God-given powers of his mind and bod 37, by the use of tobacco. He is cheating 1 him- 190 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. self, throwing away a large part of tne en- ergy and strength which he needs for the work of life.* It is even worse than this ; for often one of the first effects of tobacco and alcohol is to make one ungentlemaiily and forgetful of the rights and feelings of others. Tobacco-users often smoke in the faces of other people, without once tl linking ot the impoliteness of such an act, or that the odor of the tobacco may make others very sick; the smoker "does not think" or does not care he is enjoying "a good smoke." These are not gentlemanly acts, but they are the very habits to which the use of tobacco often tends. A bo3 r who uses tobacco, must not only pay .out much money, but must give up a large share of his health and manhood, in return for its use. * Young men who use tobacco, say : "It does not hurt me." Docs not hurt you! "Wait and see. In years to come, when you ought to be in your prime, you will be a poor, nervous, irritable, nerve-dried creature. Your hands will tremble, your head will ache, your sleep will be fitful and disturbed, and your stomach out of order. Sins against the laws of health, not punished at one end of life, are sure to be at the other. (Adapted from J. R. Black.) OPIUM AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM . 191 In Germany, children under sixteen are forbidden to use it ; the same is true of the pupils of the public schools in France; and of the students in the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis, and the Military School Tfc West Point. Those who run races or engage in rowing matches, are denied alcohol and tobacco while in "training." Each man would be glad to have his opponent drink a single glass of liquor just before the contest, so as to weaken him and make his nerves unsteady. OPIUM AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. The opiuin-eater looks old while yet young. It is harder to break off from the use of this drug, than from that of alcohol or tobacco. In sickness, it often relieves pain tempo- rarily ; but when long continued, and always if taken in health, it paralyzes the nerves and throws the telegraph lines of the body out of order, so that no correct message can be given or received, and deranges, often be- yond repair, the whole system. 192 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. It is a true narcotic. If a certain amount quiets the brain to-day, more must "be taken next week to produce the same effect. The opium-user is so enslaved oy the poison, that he will lie, or steal, or commit even worse crimes, to obtain the fatal drug. CHLORAL AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Chloral is also used to quiet the "brain and induce sleep. It, too, must often be in- creased in dose. Its continued use greatly injures the health, and there is constant danger of taking a fatal overdose. REVIEW QUESTIONS. 1. What is the work of the nervous system? 2. Name the parts of the nervous system. 3. What is nervous power? where does it begin? along -what is it sent? 4. Compare centers, cords, and nerves, to telegraph stations and wires. 5. How is the brain protected? 3. What are the parts of the brain called ? describe each part. and its special work. 7. What is the "vital knot?" where is it? 8. Describe the spinal cord; the spinal nerves. 9. Do the nerve-tubes unite on their way to the brain? what is the advantage of this ? 10. What is the work of th? fibers of feeling? the fibers of motion? (See other questions on page 202.) CHAPTER XVII. SPECIAL SENSES TASTE. THE ORGAN OF TASTE. |HE tongue helps in the acts of chewing, swallowing, and speaking ; but it is the special organ of taste. The nerves of taste are mainly in the papillso of the tongue; as they are covered by a thin skin the mucous membrane food must be dissolved so as to pass through this skin before it can be really tasted. If one eats rapidly, he not only injures his stomach, but loses much of the flavor of the food. When the tongue is coated, as in a fever, the sense of taste is impaired or, sometimes, lost. The nerves of the front part of the tongue taste sweet and sour things ; those of the back part, salt and bitter things. The former 194 SPECIAL SENSES TASTE. are connected with, those of the face, so, when you eat something sour, your face is likely to "pucker up." The latter are connected FIG. 33. The tongue, showing the three Hnds of papiUcethe conical (D), the whip-like (K I), the entrenched (H, L) ; E, F, G, nerves ; C, glottis. with the nerves of the stomach, hence bitter tastes often make us "sick at the stomach.'' THE ORGAN OF SMELL. 195 SMELL. THE ORGAN OF SMELL. The nose is the organ of smell. It is composed of "bone and gristle. It is con- nected with the hack part of the mouth, and is lined, like the throat, with the mu- cous memhrane. It is divided into two parts called nostrils. The nerves of smell enter the nostrils through small openings in the hone at the back of the nose. The sense of smell helps us to decide what things to eat. If, for instance, the nose were on one side of the mouth, we should not he so likely, as we are now, to smell food "before eating it, and should he in much more dan- ger of eating things unfit for food. When we must swallow something that is not pleasant to the taste, like some kinds of medicine, it is well to shut the eyes and hold the nose ; it will not he so disagreeahle T if we use the sense of taste alone. Impure air often warns us of its presence through our sense of smell. 196 SPECIAL SENSES HEARING. HEARING. THE ORGAN OF HEARING. The ear is one of the most difficult parts in the whole body to study or understand. It is divided into the outer, middle, and inner ear. When we speak of the ears, we usu- ally mean the curi- ously shaped pieces of gristle on the sides of the head. Their principal use seems to be to help catch the sound. The opening which passes from these into the head is called the auditory (auditory) canal. This extends to the middle ear, or the "drum" of the ear, as it is sometimes called. The "head" of the "drum" is a delicate mem- brane which is stretched tightly across the inner end of the auditory canal. Both the middle and the inner ear (which The ear. CARE OF THE EYES. 197 lies deeper in the head) are in the solid bone of the skull, and are thus carefully protected from injury. A tube leads from the middle ear to the throat. Perhaps you have noticed that old people who are a little deaf, open their mouths when they want to hear distinctly. This is to let the sound pass in through this tube, as well as through the auditory canal. Very small "bones, strangely curved tubes, a little water, and millions of tiny nerves of hearing, are found in the middle and in the inner ear. CARE OF THE EARS. Yery cold water should not be used in the ears, nor should a draught of cold air be al- lowed to enter them. No hard substance, like a pin, should be pushed into the canal ; for it might break the "head of the drum," and when this hap- pens, the sense of hearing is injured. If there is too much ear-wax, it will often fall out of itself, in fine scales. It may, how- ever, accumulate and require to be carefully 198 SPECIAL SENSES SIGHT. removed. A "box on the ear" should never be given; there is great danger of its making one deaf. Pulling the ears is a cruel and in- jurious practice. TOBACCO AND HEARING. Ringing sounds in the ears and partial deafness sometimes result from the use of tobacco. SIGHT. THE ORGAN OF SIGHT. The eyes are placed in deep, bony sockets FlG - SB. in the head, and are protected by the brows and lids. The eyebrows are projections of skin covered with short, stiff hairs ; the eye- lids are two flaps, or curtains, of some- what gristly skin. They have oil and sweat-glands like the rest The eye. THE ORGAN OF SIGHT. 199 of the skin, and a row of hairs grows from each edge. These hairs, or eyelashes, help to kuep dust out of the eye. The tears come from a gland that lies above the eye, and just within the outer edge of its roof. Every time you wink, some of this moisture is washed over the eyeball, clearing it of dust. The overflow passes "by a small tube, into the nose. Grief, or even great joy, makes the tears flow so freely that they run down over the cheeks. The eyeball, "by means of nerves and muscles, can move inward, outward, upward, and downward. The "white of the eye" is a hard coat which protects the parts "beneath. The colored circle that which makes us call the eyes black, or blue, or brown is the iris (I'ris). It is like a circular curtain with a hole in the center called the pupil. When the light is too bright, the pupil contracts ; when too dim, it enlarges. This is done by muscular fibers that run round the hole somewhat like the string in a hat- lining ; they contract and so draw the sides 200 SPECIAL SENSES SIGHT. of the pupil together, or stretch and make it larger. A cat's eyes can do this better and more quickly than ours. They need to he able to see their prey in the dark, and so can open their pupils very wide. Back of the iris are various fluids and parts, all of which, help us to see. The fine nerves of sight form a delicate expansion or coat, which is the inner lining of the eye. CARE OF THE EYES. Looking at a bright light or directly at the sun, dazzles the eyes and may greatly injure them. "Weakness of vision and some- times blindness result from allowing sun- light or an artificial light, to shine directly into an infant's eyes. Squinting or rolling the eyes, even " for fun," is a dangerous practice, because it strains the muscles which should hold the eyeball in place. School seats ought not to face the win- dows, and one should never read or write with strong sunlight falling on book or TOBACCO AND SIGHT. 201 paper. Reading in the twilight, or on the cars when in motion, strains the eyes. In reading in the evening, "be sure you do not face the artificial light ; let the lamp be shaded and the light fall from behind ; for writing, the lamp should be behind, and at the left, so that the shadow of the hand will not be in the way of the pen. A lighted lamp, standing on a white or red cloth, and facing a person, as at the tea table, is very trying to the eyes; the cloth should be of a neutral tint, drab or brown, and the light so placed as to be above the level of the eyes. Sleeping-rooms should be partly darkened, so that oil waking in the morning, the eyes may not be required to meet suddenly a bright light. Cinders may be removed from the eye, by a little loop of fine thread or hair. TOBACCO AND SIGHT. Imperfect sight, and specks of light danc- ing before the eyes, sometimes result from the use of tobacco. 202 SPECIAL SENSES SIGHT. A. certain kind of blindness is caused b this drug, and is cured "by stopping its use. REVIEW QUESTIONS. 1. Where are the nerves of taste? 2. "Which of them, are connected with the nerves of the stomach V with those of the face ? 3. Describe the nose. i. How does it act as a sentinel? 5. Describe the ear. 6. What care should be taken of the ears? 7. How does tobacco affect the sense of hearing? 8. How is the eye protected? how kept free from dust? 9. How is the eyeball moved? 10. Describe the eye. 11. Why can a cat see better in the dark than we can? 12. How are the eyes often injured? 13. How should a light he placed for reading or writing? 14. How does tobacco affect the sense of sight? CHAPTER XVI. 1. Describe the messages sent and received, when the finger touches a hot iron. 2. Where is pain really perceived ? 3. What causes your foot to get "asleep"? 4. What is the most important work of the brain ? 5. How does one form good habits? how evil ones? 6. How does the power of hahit make it hard for a drunkard to reform ? 7. How do unhealthy ways of living lead to the use of narcotics V 8. What is apoplexy? 9. What is the danger in using "Bitters" and "Patent Medicines"? 10. Why does a drunken man stagger? 11. What powers of the mind are first deadened by alcohol? what powers are the last to yield? 12. Explain the "quieting" power of cigars. 13. Does opium furnish a real cure for pain ? INDEX. A - PAGE Abdomen 96 Absorptive power of the skin. 147 Absorption of food 97 Acetous fermentation 23 Air, The 114 Albucasis 30 Alcohol 9 " a Narcotic. 12 " a Poison 10 " and Bread 19 " and Cold 153 " and Life 157 " and Sleep 187 " and Water 12 " and Work 83 " Appetite for 13 " Cost of 34 " Discovery of 29 " Effect upon Blood 136 " Brain 188 " Circulation 137 " " Digestion 100 " " Heat of body.. . 154 " " Heart 138 " Kidneys 106 " Life 157 " " Liver 105 " " Lungs 122 " " Mind 188 " " Muscles 61 " Nervous System. 182 " " Stomach 100 PAGE Alcohol not a Food TV " Origin of 9 " Properties of 9 ' ' Uses of 9 Alimentary Canal 88 Anatomy 52 Ancestors, Our 161 Aorta 129 Apoplexy 183 Arteries 127 Auricles 128 Ayles, Adam 155 Bacteria 16 Ball-and-socket joint 56 Barley 18 Bathing 146 Beef. 61 Beer 18, 62, 77 Bile 104 Bitters 184 Bleeding 135 Blindness 202 Blood, The 125 Body, Positions of 53 Bones, The 42 " Table of 51, 52 Brakes, The 174 Brain 168 " Exercise of. 181 Bread... 1'J 204 INDEX. PAGE Breast-bone 48 Breathing 109 " Hygiene of 115 Bronchial TiToos 112 Bronchitis... .. 117 Canal, Food 88 Capillaries 1 14, 128, 137 Carbonic acid 10, 20 Cartilage 44 Cavities 50 Cerebellum 170 Cerebrum 169 Chloral 39, 104 " and the Nervous System. 192 Chloroform 39 Choking 112 Chyle 98 Chyme 97 Cider 9, 21, 80 Cigarettes 32 Cilia, The .. 113 Circulation 125-140 Clavicle 51 Clothing ..150 Clotting of Blood 126 Coffee 74 Cold, A 117, 152 Collar-bones, The 48, 51 Complexion, The 145 Connective-Tissue 58 Consumption 117, 123 Cooking 74 Contraction, Muscular 58, 61 Cords, Vocal 112 Corns 54 Cosmetics 147 Cranial Nerves 179 Croup 117 Curvature of the Spine 53 Cuticle, The. 142 PAGE Cutis, The 141 Delirium Tremens 185 Diaphragm 50, 109 Digestion 87-108 Diphtheria 119 Distillation 25 Drains 118, 143 Drinking-water 68, 118, 119 Drunkards 14 Dyspepsia 93 E Ear, The Eating, Rapid. . Eggs Elbow, The ... 196 .93, 99 ... 70 . 49 Epiglottis Ill Esophagus 88, 95 Ether 11 Exercise, Brain 181 " Muscular 59, 60 Expansion, Muscular v 58 Expiration 109 Eye, The 198 F Fats, The 70 Fermentation 15 ' ' Acetous 23 " Vinous 16 Fever, Typhoid 119 Food 65 " Absorption of 97 " Cooking of 74 " Definition of 65 " Digestion of 87,108 ' ' Heat-making 70-72 " Mineral 67-69 " Need of 88 " Tissue-making 69 INDEX. ,205 PAGE Foot, The 49, 52 Frost-bite 154 Fruit 76 G Gall-bladder 104 Gastric Juice 96 Gin 28 Glands, The Salivary 92 Grains, Alcohol from 18 Gristle 44, 45 Hair, The 145 Hair-dyes 147 Hand, The 49, 51 Head 46, 51 Hearing 196 Heart 128 Heat of Body 149-156 Heredity 159 Hinge-joints 56 Hip-bones, The 48 Humerus 48, 51 Hygiene , 52 " of the Nervous System .. 181 Inorganic Bodies 41 Inspiration 109 Insurance 157 Intestines, The 97 Iris 199 Iron.. 69 Joints 55 Jellies.., ...23, 44 Kidneys 106 Knee-pan 49, 52 PAGE L Lacteals 98 Larynx 113 Lees 17 Liquors, distilled 28 " drugged 28 " fermented 21 Lime 69 Liver 104 Lungs, The Ill, 112 " Work of the 114 M Malt 18 Marrow 44 Mead 161 Meals 99 Milk 73 Mucous Membrane 141 Mumps, The 92 Muscles, The.. 57 " Involuntary 59 " Voluntary 59 Mummy, The 12 Nails, The 145 Narcotic Habit 39 Narcotics 11 Nerves, The 174 Nerve-fibers 175 Nerve-tubes 173 Nervous Power 168 Nervous System 165-192 Nicotine 31 Nose, The .. 195 (Esophagus, see Esophagus. Oil-glands, The 144 Oils, The 7.0 206 INDEX. PAGE Opium ... 37, 104: " and the Nervous System. 191 Organs 41 " of Digestion 88 Organic bodies 41 Oxygen 114 Pancreatic Juice 98 Papillae 142 Paralysis 179 Patella, The 52 Patent Medicines 184 Pepsin 96, 102 Perspiration, The 143 Phosphorus 69 Physiology 52 Pleurisy 117 Pneumonia 117 Poison 10 Pores 143 Positions of the body 53 Preserves 23, 24 Pulse. 133 Pupil 199 R Radius 48, 51 Respiration 109 " Diseases of 117 Rest 60, 188 Ribs, The 47 S St. Martin, Alexis 103 Saliva, The 92 Salivary Glands 92 Salt 68 Scapula 51 Secretion, Definition of 89 Senses, The 193 Septum 128 Settlings 17 Shoes ... 54 PAGE Shoulder-blades, The 51 Sight, Sense of 198 Skeleton, The 41 Skin, The 141-148 Skull, The 46 Sleep 187, 188 " by narcotics. 188 Smell, Sense of 195 Soothing-syrup 38 Speech, Organs of 112 Spinal cord 172 Spinal nerves 173 Spine, The 47 Spores 16 Starch 9,18, 71 Sternum 48 Stimulants 81 Stomach 96 Sugar 10, 18, 72 Sunlight 148 Sunstroke 144 Sweat.., .... 143 Taste, Sense of 193 Tea 74 Tears, The 199 Teeth, The 89 " Care of the 91 Temperature of the Body 149 Tendons 57 Terra alba 72 Thigh-bones, The....'. 49 Thought 180 Throat 95 Tight-lacing 115, 116 Tissues, The 41 Tobacco 31 " and Alcohol 95 " Cost of 34 " Effect on Boues of 55 Growth of.. . . 33 INDEX. 207 PAGE Tobacco, Effect on Heart 139 " Mouth 94 " " Nervous System. 189 " " Sight 201 " " Stomach 103 Tongue, The 193 Tooth-ache, The 91 Touch, Sense of 142, 175 Trachea Ill Training 191 Trunk, The 46 Valves of Heart and Veins.... 132 Veins 127 Ventilation 117, 119 PAGE Ventricles 128 Vertebrae ... 46 Vinegar 15,23 Vinous Fermentation 16 Vocal Chords Ilk. W Walking 53, 54 Water 67 Windpipe Ill Wine . 9, 11 Woolen 151 Wounds... .. 135 Yeast 16 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF SJANDARD SCHOOL-BOtinS. DR. STEELE'S ONE-TERM SERIES, IN ALL THE SCIENCES. Steele's i4-Weeks Course in Chemistry. Steele's i4-Weeks Course in Astronomy. Steele's 14- Weeks Course in Physics. Steele's i4-Weeks Course in Geology. Steele's i4-Weeks Course in Physiology. Steele's i4-Weeks Course in Zoology. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Botany. Our text-books in these studies are, as a general thing, dull and uninteresting. They contain from 40u to GOO pages of dry facts and unconnected details. . They abound in that which the student cannot learn, much less remember. The pupil commences the study, is confused by the tine print and coarse print, and neither knowing exactly what to learn nor what to hasten over, is crowded through the single term generally assigned to each bran-h, and frequently conies to the close without a definite and exact idea of a single scientific principle. Steele's " Fourteen. Weeks Courses " contain only that which every well-informed per- son should know, while all that which concerns only the professional scientist is omitted. The language is clear, simple, and interesting, and the illustrations bring the subject within the range of home life and daily experience. They give such of the general principles and the prominent tacts as a pupil can make familiar as household words within a single term. The type is large and open; there is no fine print to annoy ; the cuts are copies of genuine experiments or natural phenomena, and are of fine execution. In fine, by a system of condensation peculiarly his own, the author reduces each branch to tlie limits of a single term of study, while sacrificing nothing that is essential, and nothing that is usually retained from the study of the larger manuals in common use. Thus the student has rare opportunity to ecunomlzt his time, or rather to employ that which he has to the best advantage. A notable feature is the author's charming "style," fortified by an enthusiasm over his subject in which the student will not fail to partake. Believing that Natural Science is full of fascination, he has moulded it into a form that attracts the attention and kindles the enthusiasm of the pupil. The recent editions contain the author's " Practical Questions " on a plan never before attempted in scientific text-books. These are questions as to the nature and cause of common phenomena, and are not directly answered in the text, the design being to test and promote an intelligent use of the student's knowledge of the foregoing principles. Steele's Key to all His Works. This work is mainly composed of answers to the Practical Questions, and solutions of (he problems, in the author's celebrated " Fourieen-Weeks Courses " in the several sciences, with many hints to teachers, minor tables, &c. Should be on every teacher's desk. Prof. J. Dorman Steele is an indefatigable student, as well as author, and his books have reached a fabulous circulation. It is safe to say of his books that they have accomplished more tangible and better results in the class-room than any other ever offered to American schools, and have been translated into more languages for Uu-ei^n schools. They are even produced in raised type for the blind. THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. MODERN LANGUAGES. A COMPLETE COURSE IN THE GERMAN. By James H. Worman, A.M., Professor of Modern Languages. Worman's First German Book. Worman's Second German Book. Worman's Elementary German Grammar. Worman's Complete German Grammar. These volumes are designed for intermediate and advanced classes respectively. Though following the same general method with " Otto " (that of ' Gaspey *'), our author differs essentially in its application. He is more practical, more systematic more accurate, and besides introduces a number of invaluable features which have never before been combined in a German grammar. Among other things, it may be claimed for Professor Wonnan that he has been tht first to introduce, in an American text-book lor learning German, a system of analogy and comparison with other languages. Our best teachers are also enihusiastic about his methods of inculcating the art of speaking, of understanding the spoken language, of correct pronunciation ; the sensible and convenient original classification of nouns (in four declensions), and of irregular verbs, also deserves much praise. We also note the use of heavy type to indicate etymological changes in the paradigms and, in the exer- cises, the parts which specially illustrate preceding rules. Worman's Elementary German Reader. Worman's Collegiate German Reader. The finest and most judicious compilation of classical and standard German literature. These works embrace, progressively arranged, selection* from the masterpieces of Goethe, Schiller, Korner, Seume, Uhland, Freiligrath, Heine, Schlegel, Holty, Lenau, Wieland, Herder, Lessing, Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Winkelmann, Humboldt, Ranke, Raumer, Menzel, Gervinus, &c., and contain complete Goethe's " Iphigenie," Schiller's "Jungfrau;" also, for instruction in modern conversational German, Benedix's " Eigensinn." There are, besides, biographical sketches of each author contributing, notes, explan- atory and philological (after the text), grammatical re erences to all leading grammars, as well as the editor's own, ind an adequate Vocabulary. Worman's German Echo. Worman's German Copy-Books, 3 Numbers. On the same plan as the most approved systems for English penmanship, with progressive copies. CHAUTAUQUA SERIES. First and Second Books in German. By the natural or Pestalozzian System, for teaching the language without the help of the Learner's Vernacular. By James H. Worman, A. M. These books belong to the new Ohautauqua German Language Series, and are in- tended for beginners learning to speak German. The peculiar features of its methoii are : 1. It teaches the language by direct appeal to illustrations of the objects referred to, and does not allow the stude7it to guess what is said. He speaks from the fir.st hour understandimjlu and accurately. Therefore, 2. Grammar is taught both analytically and synthetically throughout tht course. The beginning is made with tlie auxiliaries of tense and mood, because their kinship with the English makes them easily intelligible ; then follow the declensions of nouns, articles, and other parts of speech, always systematically arranged. It is easy to confuse the pupil by giving him one person or one case at a time. This pernicious practice is discarded. Books that beget unsystematic habits of thought are worse than wortMess. THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. NATU RAL SCIENCE Continued. TEMPERANCE PHYSIOLOGY. Steele's Abridged Physiology, for Common Schools. Steele's Hygienic Physiology, for High Schools. With especial reference to alcoholic drinks and narcotics. Adapted from " Fourteen /Veeks' Course in Human Physiology." By J. Ltorman S.eele, Pli.U. Edited and indorsed for the use of schools (in accordance with the recent legislation upon this mbject) ly the Department of Temperance Instruction of the \V. C. i' U. of the Un.ted States, uader the direction of Mrs. Mary H. Hunt, superintendent. This new work contains all the excellent and popular features that have given Dr. Steele's Physiology so wide a circulation. Among these, are the following: 1. Colored Lithographs to illustrate the general facts in Physiology. 2. Black-board Analysis at the beginning of each chapter. These have been found of ^reat service in (lass-work, especially in review and examination. 3. Tlie Practical Questions at the close of each chapter. These are now too well known to require any explanation. 4. The carefully prepared sections upon the Physiological Action of Alcohol, Tobacco, Opium, etc. These are scattered throiigii the book as each organ is treated. This subject is examined from a purely scientific stand-point, and represents the latest teachings at home and abroad. While there, is no attempt to incorporate a temperance lecture in a school-book, yet the terrible effects of these " Stimulants and Narcotics," especially upon the young, are set forth all the more impressively, since the lesson is taught merely by the presentation of facts that lean toward no one's prejudices, and admit of no answer or escape. 5. Throughout the book, there are given, in text and foot-note, experiments that can be performed by teacher and pupil, and which, it is hoped, will induce some easy dis- sections to be made in every class, and lead to that constant reference of all subjects to Nature herself, which is so invaluable in scientific study. 6. The collection of recent discoveries, interesting facts, etc., in numerous foot- notes. 7. The unusual space given to the subject of Ventilation, which is now attracting so much attention throughout the country. 8. The text is brought up to the level of the new Physiological views. The division into short, pithy paragraphs ; the bold paragraph headings ; the clear, large type ; the simple presentation of each subject ; the interesting style that begets in every child a love of the study, and the beautiful cuts, each having a full scientific description and nomenclature, so as to present the thing before the pupil without cumbering the text with the dry details, all these indicate the work of the practical teacher, and will be appreciated in every school-room. Child's Health Primer. For the youngest scholars. 12mo, cloth, illustrated. Hygiene for Young People. Prepared under the supervision of Mrs. Mary H Hunt, Superintendent of the Department of Scientific Instruction of the " Women's National Christian Temperance Union." Examined and approved by A. B. Palmer, M.D., University of Michigan. Jarvis's Elements of Physiology. Jarvis's Physiology and Laws of Health. The only books extant which approach this subject with a proper view of the true object of teaching Physiology in schools, viz. , that scholars may know how to take care of their own health. In bold contrast with the abstract Anatomies, which children learn as they would Greek or Latin (and forget as soon), to discipline the mind, are these text-books, using the science as a secondary consideration, and only so far as is sary fot the comprehension of the laws of health. AN APPEAL FROM THR APPLES, GRAPES, RYE, AND HOPS, BY MRS. ELIZABETH POWELL BOND. CHARACTERS : JOHN, MARY, ALICE, HARRY. John [with a basket of apples in his hand"\.^^ come before ye*.: :r. bcha?. of these rr.ulc lliliiga, lo protest against the harmful use to which they are put. Could these apples speak to you, I fancy they would say : "All this beautiful summer, through the months of sun and shower, our mother tree has been as busy as busy could be, with her myriad leaves and countless rootlets, taking in stimulus from the air, and nourishment from the earth, until she has moulded us into these fair apples. The sunbeams have been our artists, and have given us these bright colors, and they have been the mysterious chemists that have made our juices sparkling and health-giv- ing. We pray you send us not to the cruel mill to be crushed betw.een the upper and nether millstones, to have our juices changed to harmful drinks. Let us stay by your pleasant firesides, to grace your ta- bles with our beauty, to delight your eager children, to give health and vigor to your blood." 2 AN APPEAL Mary [with a basket of grapes]. Let me be a voice for these grapes, that the poets have loved to sing about as the store-houses of the golden sun* shine. Mother 'Nature has given them not only beauty, but the most delicate flavors, and they love to minister to the good and the comfort of man. They would witness with dismay the drunken revels of gay young men, the gradual ruin of fair young girls, the misery wrought by the wine when it is red. They would plead with you to let them be the beau- tiful grapes to cheer, rather than the red, dangerous wine to inebriate. Alice [with a cluster of hops']. Let me plead for these graceful creatures, that fall victims to the brew- er's devices, and are made instrumental in the ruin of men. In their growth they are led by the sun- shine, climbing onward and upward till they have reached their limit of perfection, when they, like all growing things, are ready for the service of man. Their crmrefnl crrowth, their clustering blossoms* please his sense of beauty, and in these blossoms, Mother Nature has hidden a power to minister to his tired, excited nerves, and bring their restorer, sleep. They plead with you to save them for their beneficent service. Harry [with a handful of grain], Had this food- ful grain a human tongue, it would earnestly protest against the wastefulness that perverts it from its God- appointed purpose. In its neat little kernels are stored up the very properties that go to build up our constantly wasting bodies. There are lime and phosphorus for our bones, there are starch and sugar for our blood, in these ti^y parcels of food. And y**f, while there are children crying for bread, thoughtless and selfish men take this foodful grain and pervert it into the baneful whisky that weakens the nerves and muscles and wills of their fellows, and, instead of promoting life, spreads broadcast the seeds of death. Oh, it is a shameful thing thus to pervert one of God's best gifts into one of man's most dan- gerous enemies. RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 2- month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW JUN Z 7 1996 20,000 (4/94) 36099