A SYNTAX
OF
ATTIC GREEK
BY
F. E. THOMPSON, M.A.
ASSISTANT MASTER AT MARLBOROUGH COLLEGE
RIVING TONS
WATERLOO PLACE, LONDON
MDCCCLXXXIII
nib
Oo 3/
CONTENTS.
§ I -13. Introduction to the Simple and Compound Sentence,
and Definitions of Terms.
The Statement, Question, and Petition, Subject, Copula, and Predicate,
page 1 — The Predicate and its Supplementary Adjuncts, or Sup-
plementary Predicates, 2 — The Object, Direct and Remote, 5 —
The Predicate, Attributive or Epithet, and Apposition, 5 — Simple
and Compound Sentences, 5 — Principal 6.nd Subordinate Sentences,
6 — Co-ordinate Sentences, 7 — Classification of Subordinate Sen-
tences into : A. Substantival. B. Adverbial. C. Relative, 7 — Oratio
Recta, 10 — Oratio Obliqua, 10-^u«b-direct and Sub-oblique, 11 —
Virtually Oblique, 11.
PAET I.
SYNTAX OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
CB AFTER L
§ 14-34. Subject and Predicate — Attributive and Apposition.
The Subject, page 12 — The Copula, 12 — Omission of the Copula, 12 —
Subject and Predicate of the Infinitive in the Accusative, and in
the Nominative, 13 — Subject and Predicate of the Infinitive in the
Genitive and Dative, 13 — Omission of the Subject, 13 — The Predi-
cate, 14 — Peculiarities in the Agreement of Subject and Predicate,
15 — Neuter Plural and Verb Singular, 15 — Neuter Plural and
Verb Plural, 15 — Adjective-Predicate in Neuter Singular with
Plural Subject, 15 — Schema Pindaricum, 16 — Agreement of Predi-
cate with several subjects, 16 — 6de, oCros, iKcTvos, as Subject and
Predicate, 18 — Peculiarities of Number, Singular, Dual, and Plural,
iv CONTENTS.
18— The Dual Number, 19— The Plural used for the Singular, 21
— The First Pers6n Plural used of a Singular Subject, 22 —
Peculiarities of Person, 22 — Supplementary Predicates, 22 —
Peculiarities in the construction of the Attributive or Epithet,
23 — Peculiarities of Apposition, 24.
CHAPTER II.
§ 35-66. J'he Article.
Origin and Development of the Article, page 27 — Survivals of the older
usages of 6, 17, rb, and 6's, ■^, 6 in Attic Greek, 28 — The Article in
Attic Greek, 29 — The Article with Participles, 31 — The Article
with Numerals, 31 — Fluctuating Use and Omission of the Article,
31 — With Objects of external nature, 32 — With material objects,
32 — With familiar places, things, and persons, 32 — With abstract
and other words, 32 — With names of arts, trades, and sciences, 33
— The Article with proper names of persons and places, 33 —
With geographical names, 33 — The noun-making power of the
Article, 34 — The Article distinguishes the Subject from the Predi-
cate, 36 — The Article with the Predicate, 37 — Position of the
Article : A . The Predicative Position. B. The Attributive Position,
37 — Position when a Genitive follows, 39 — Predicative Position
when used, 40 — Attributive Position when used, 41 — Words which
vary their meaning according to the position of the Article, 41 —
Oblique or Dependent Predicates, 43 — Idiomatic Phrases with the
Article, 46.
CHAPTER III.
§ ^I'll' Pronouns.
Personal Pronouns, page 47 — Possessive Pronouns, 48 — Eeflexive Pro-
nouns, 49 — Demonstrative Pronouns, 51 — The Pronoun ai>r6s, 53 —
Interrogative Pronouns, 56 — Relative Pronouns and Attraction, 57
— Attraction, 58 — Miscellaneous instances of Attraction, 59 — In-
definite Pronouns, 61.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
§ 78-126. The Cases.
Preliminary note on the cases, page 64 — The Nominative, 65 — The Vo-
cative, 66 — The Accusative. Preliminary Note, 66 — 1. The Internal
Accusative, 67 — 2, The External Accusative, 67 — Conspectus of
the Internal Accusative, 67 — The Internal Accusative, 68, includ-
ing : — (a.) Accusative of Respect, 69 — {&.) Accusative of Space
and Time, 70 — (c.) Accusative of Motion, 71 — {d.) Accusative of
the Object and Predicate in agreement or in apposition with the
Object, 71 — Double Accusative, 71 — The External Accusative,
74 — Verbs which take an External Accusative, 75 — The Genitive
78 — Preliminary Note on the Genitive, 78 — Possessive Genitive, 79
— Genitive of Material or Contents, 80 — Genitive of Amount,
81 — Genitive of Plenty or Want, 82 — The Partitive Genitive (so
called), 83 — Genitive of Connection, 86 — Subjective and Objective
Genitive, 90 — Genitive of Time and Place, 91 — Genitive of Value,
92 — Causal Genitive, 93 — Genitive with Verbs of Judicial Proceed-
ings, 95 — Genitive Absolute, 96 — Genitive with Comparatives, 97 —
Genitive with Verbs containing a Comparative Notion, 97 —
Genitive of Separation, 98 — Free and Miscellaneous Uses,
100 — Genitive with Compound Verbs, 100 — Double Genitive, 100 —
The Epexegetical Genitive, 100 — Genitive of the Agent (so called),
101 — Free use of the Genitive of Connection, 101 — The Genitive
with Adjectives and Adverbs, 102 — Free use of the Genitive vsdth
Substantives, 104 — Preliminary Note on the Dative Case, 104 —
Dative of the Indirect or Remoter Object, 105 — Miscellaneous
examples of the Dative of the Indirect or Remoter Object, 105 —
Dative of Interest, 106 — Free use of the Dative of Interest,
106— Dative of the Possessor, 108— Ethic Dative, 108— Dative of
Community or Contact, 108 — Dative of the Instrument or Means,
Agent, Cause, Measure of Difference, 110 — Dative of Circum-
stance, 113 — Dative of Time and Place, 114 — List of Verbs which
take a Dative, 116 — List of Adjectives and Adverbs which take
a Dative, 119.
CHAPTER V.
§127. Comparative and Superlative. Page 120
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VI.
§ 128-134. Voices and Moods.
The Active Voice, page 124 — The Middle Voice, 125 — The Passive Voice,
130 — The Mood, 132 — Introductory Note on the Subjunctive and
Optative, 132 — The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences, 134 —
The Optative in Independent Sentences, 135 — The Imperative, 136.
CHAPTER VII.
§ 135-143. The Tenses.
Classifications of Greek Tenses, page 138 — Time how far observed
throughout the Moods, 139 — The Kind of Act or State denoted by
the Tenses, 140 — Ideal division of Tenses, 141 — The Present and Im-
perfect Indicative, 142 — The Perfect and Pluperfect Indicative, 144
—The Aorist, 145— Note on the Aorist, 148— The Future, 149—
Gnomic and Iterative Tenses, 151 — The Tenses in the Moods, 152.
CHAPTER VIII.
§ 144-162. The Three Verbal Nouns.
1. The. Infinitive {a Substantive), page 153 — 2. The Participle {an Adjec-
tive), 153 — 3. The Verbal Adjectives in ros and reos, 153 — Note on
the Infinitive, 153 — The Infinitive, 153 — The Supplementary Infini-
tive, 154 — The Subject before and the Predicate after the Infinitive
(commonly called the Accusative with the Infinitive), 157 — The
Infinitive as a Noun, 160— The Participle, 162 — The Participle as
an Attributive, 163 — The Genitive Absolute, 165 — The Genitive
Absolute in Greek and Latin, 166— The Accusative Absolute, 167
— Verbals in -reos, 168 — Their personal construction, 168— Their
impersonal construction, 169 — The Supplementary Participle, 169
The Supplementary Participle in agreement with the subject
of the Verb : A. With Verbs of Saying and of Perception, 169 —
B. With Verbs of Emotion, 170— 0. With Verbs of Beginning,
Continuing, and Ending an Action, 170—2). With Verbs of making
CONTENTS.
vu
or becoming Manifest, and of escaping Notice, 170 — Note on
Special Verbs which take this construction, e.g. &pxoiJ.ai, (pddvu,
\avddvij3, etc., 171 — The Supplementary Participle in agreement
with the Object of the Verb : A. With Verbs of making to
cease, finding, detecting, overlooking, 174 — B. With Verbs of
Perception, 175 — The Tenses of the Participle, and time in the
Participles, 175— The Future Participle, 176.
PAKT II.
SYNTAX OF THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
CHAPTER I.
§ 163- 170. Substantival Sentences.
1. The Indirect Statement, page 178 — 2. The Indirect Question, 178 —
3. The Indirect Petition, 178— The Indirect Statement, 178 : ^. The
Infinitive in the Indirect Statement, 178 — B. on and cl>s with the
Indicative and Optative in the Indirect Statement, 181 — C. The
Participle in the Indirect Statement, 186 — The Indirect Question,
188 — Deliberative or Dubitative Indirect Questions, 190 — The
Indirect Petition, 191.
CHAPTER II.
§ 171-206. Conditional Sentences.
The Particle <xv, page 193 — Definite and Indefinite Sentences, 194 — Con-
ditional Sentences, 195 — Distinction of Conditions, 196 — Division
of Conditional Sentences, 197— Ordinary Conditions, 197— Ordinary
Conditions in Greek and Latin, 200— General or Frequentative
Examples, 200 — The Negatives in Conditional Sentences, 201 —
Relative Conditional Sentences, 201 — Participles in the Protasis,
202— Position of &v, 203— Repetition of 6.v, 203— "A?/ with the Future
Indicative, 204— Ellipse of the Apodosis, and Ellipse of the Verb,
205 — Ellipse of the Protasis, 205 — Ei and Hv both in the Protasis,
206 — A^ in Apodosis, 207 — ^"Edv seemingly interrogative, 207 —
Kv with the Participle seemingly in Protasis, 208 — Conditional
CONTENTS.
Particles and their Combinations, 208 — Examples of Conditional
Sentences, el with Indicative in Protasis and Apodosis, 209 — [A.)
Ordinary Present Conditions, 209. [B. ) Ordinary Past Conditions,
209. [G.) Present and Past in Combination, 210 — Ordinary Future
Conditions, edv {i^v) with Subjunctive, 210 — Less Vivid Future
Conditions, el with Optative, 211 — Most Vivid Future Conditions,
ei with Future Indicative, 212 — Mixed examples illustrating the
connection between and interchangeability of the Subjunctive,
Optative, and Future Indicative in Conditional Sentences, 213 —
The Optative and Indicative with &v without a Protasis, 214 —
Unfulfilled Conditions, el with Historic Tenses of Indicative in
Protasis, av with the same in Apodosis, 215 — The omission of dv in
Apodosis with the Indicative, 217 — 'Edv (-^j/) with the Subjunctive,
and ei with the Optative in General or Frequentative Suppositions,
220 — Mixed Examples, 222 — Examples of the Conditional Parti-
ciple in a Protasis, 224 — Examples of a Conditional Relative
Sentence, 225 — Relative Conditional Sentences expressing General
Suppositions, 226 — Examples of Infinitive in Apodosis with &v,
226 — Examples of Participle in Apodosis with av, 227 — Supple-
mentary Note on edv with the Subjunctive, and el with the Optative,
227.
CHAPTER III.
§ 207-224. Temporal Sentences.
"When" in Definite Time (Past), eTret, eweih-r] {ijviKa, Sre), page 233 — "As
soon as," "Directly," in Definite Time, ^Trel {eTreidrj), rdxio'Ta, ws,
234 — "Whenever," "As often as," in Indefinite Time, iirel, eireLbi],
ijviKa, ore, dirdre, {eTrrjv, erretddv, orav, etc.), 235 — "Since" in Definite
Time, e^ 06, 236— "Whilst" in Definite Time, ^'ws, ^are, kv (?, h
oaw, 8aov xpivov, TjvcKa {fx^xpc), 237 — "Whilst " in Indefinite Time,
^ws, etc., with &v and Subj., without &v and Opt., 237 — "Until"
in Definite Time, ecps, eare, fiixP'- ^XPh 238 — " Until " in Indefinite
Time, ews, etc., with dv and Subj., without dv an Opt., 239 — The
Conjunction irpiv, 240 — Upiv with the Infinitive, 241 — JIpiV with the
Indicative in Definite Time (Past), 242 — Upiv with the Subjunc-
tive and Optative in Indefinite Time, 242 — Upiv with the Infinitive
after Negative Sentences, and with the other Moods after Affirma-
tive Sentences, 243-^'Ai' omitted with the Subjunctive, in Temporal
and other Subordinate Sentences, 245— ^Av retained with the Opta-
tive, 246 — The Subjunctive instead of the Optative or co-ordinate
with the Optative in Historic Sequence, 246 — The Participle as a
Substitute for a Temporal Sentence, 247.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
§ 225-226. Concessive Sentences.
Concessive Sentences, page 249 — Note on d kuI, /cat d, etc., 250.
CHAPTER V.
§ 227-239. (i) Final Sentences^ (2) oVw? with the Future
Ifidicative, aiid {3) Verbs of Fearing with iitj, etc.
Final Sentences, page 253 — Final Particles with the Subjunctive and
Optative, 253 — Final Sentences with Past Tenses of the Indicative,
257 — Final Sentences with the Future Participle, 258 — Relative
Final Sentences, 258 — Final Sentences with the Infinitive, 259 —
"Ottws, Sttws /-"7, modal with the Future Indicative, etc. : and Vari-
ant Constructions, 259 — Elliptical use of Sttws, ottws /x?7 with the
Future Indicative, 262— ^'Ottws, Sttws fx-q with Verbs of Commanding
and Forbidding, 262 — Verbs of Fearing with {i-f} and ix-q ov, 262 —
Verbs of Fearing, etc., with the Indicative, 266 — Note on Dawes'
Canon, 267.
CHAPTER VI.
§ 240-244, Consecutive ajid Limitative Sentences.
Oo-re with the Indicative and the Infinitive, page 270— Consecutive Sen-
tences in Greek and Latin, 273— Relative Consecutive Sentences,
273— Limitative or Restrictive Sentences, 274.
CHAPTER VII.
§ 245. Causal Sentences.
(a.) Causal Particles and a Finite Mood, page 276— (6.) Relative Sen-
tences, 278— (c.) Participles, 278— (c^.) Miscellaneous ways, 279.
X
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VIII.
§246.
Expressions of a Wish.
CHAPTER IX.
Page 280
§247.
Relative Sefitences.
PART III.
Page 284
PREPOSITIONS, NEGATIVES, ORATIO OBLIQUA, AND
FIGURES.
CHAPTER I.
§ 248-252. Prepositio7is.
Introductory Note on Prepositions, page 286 — The Prepositions and
their meanings with the three cases, 289 — Collected Usages of
Prepositions, 289 — Prepositions and the cases they go with, 291.
/. — Prepositions with one Case only :
§ 253"255* M With Accusative only.
'Avd, page 291— Eis or es, 292— cus, 294.
§ 256-264. (p.) With Genitive only.
dvTi, page 294— d7r(5, 295— e/c, i^, 297—irp&, SOO—dvev, 301— '^veKa, heKev,
301 — e/cart, 301 — x^^P^^i 301 — Old Cases used as quasi-Prepositions
with the Genitive, 302.
§ 265-268. {c.) With Dative only.
iv^ page 302 — a^iv, 305 — Note on aijv and /xerd, 306 — dfia, 6fxov^ etc., 306.
//. — Prepositions with two Cases.
§ 269-272. With Accusative and Genitive.
5td, page 307— /card, 310— i^Tr^p, 314— /xerd, 316.
Ill— Prepositions with all three Cases.
§ 273-278.
iiiiipi, page 317— eTrf, 319— Trapd, 328— Trep/, 332— 7rp6s, 336— )}7r6, 341.
CONTENTS. xi
CHAPTER 11.
§ 279-310. The Negatives.
Introductory Note, page 345—0(5 Privative, 346— Oi) and ii-i] with Adjec-
tives, Participles used as Adjectives, Adverbs, and Substantives,
348— Oi) and /xiy with Participles, 350— Ou and y.-!] with the Infini-
tive, 351 — Ox) and yA] with Direct and Indirect Statements, 354 —
Oi) and \xr] with Indirect Statements in the Participle, 354— Oy and
ixx] with Direct Questions, 355 — Ou and /at? with Deliberative Ques-
tions, 356 — Ou and iiA] with Indirect Questions, 356 — Ou and iiA]
with IndirectPetitions, 357 — Ou and [li] with Conditional Sentences,
358 — Ou and iii] with Concessive Sentences, 359 — Ou and /A97 with
Causal Sentences, 359 — Ou and ijA] with Consecutive and Restrictive
Sentences, 360 — Ou and ixi] with Temporal and Local Sentences, 361
— Ou and ix-T] with Final Sentences, etc. , 361 — Ou and ijA\ with Rela-
tives, 362— Mi^ with Wishes, 364— M?; and Mr? ov with the Infinitive,
365 — Mt/ OX) with the Participle, 368 — Mi; and jjJt] ov with the Sub-
junctive, 369 — Ou fi-q with the Subjunctive and Future Indicative,
371— Further examples of ov ixi] with: A. Subjunctive, 372—5.
Future Indicative, 373 — Repetition of the Negative, 375— OuSei's,
firjoeis, ovMv, ixrjSiv, etc., 376 — Mt? with Oaths and Assertions, 378
— M/^ where ov might have been expected, 378 — Miscellaneous
instances showing the power of ov to make a downright Negative
Statement, 379 — Note on ijlt], /jltj ov with the Infinitive and Parti-
ciple, 380 — Note on /x-n and firi ov with the Subjunctive, 382 — Note
on ov fjt,^ with the Subjunctive and the Future Indicative, 382.
CHAPTER III.
§ 311-327. Oratio Obliqua.
Introductory, page 387 — Rules for Sub-direct Clauses in Oratio Obliqua,
389 — Types of Sub-direct Clauses in Historic Sequence, 390 — Rules
for Sub-oblique Clauses in Oratio Obliqua, 392 — Types of Sub-direct .
and Sub-oblique Clauses in the Obliqua, 393 — The Apodosis in the
Participle in Oratio Obliqua, 395 — Relative Sentences in Oratio
Obliqua, 395 — Some real examples of Oratio Obliqua analysed, 396
— The Infinitive, and on. or ws with Finite Moods in Sub-direct
Sentences of Oratio Obliqua, 398 — Assimilation of Optatives, 402
— Non- Assimilation, 403 — Examples of Mixed Graphic and strict
Obliqua, 404 — Virtual Oratio Obliqua, 404 — Past Tenses of the
Indicative in Oratio Obliqua, 405— Apparently Abnormal Obliqua,
406 — Long Speeches in Obliqua, 407.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IK
§ 328-347. Figures of Rhetoric, etc.
Alliteration, page 410 — Anakoluthia, 411 — Antiptosis, 412 — Asyndeton,
413 — Binary Structure, 413 — Brachylogy, 414 — Zeugma and Syl-
lepsis, 415 — Oonstructio Praegnans, 415 — Brachylogy of Com-
parison, 416 — Catachresis, 416 — Ellipse and Aposiopesis, 416 —
Euphemism, 417 — Hypallage, 418 — Hyperbaton, Chiasmus, Hys-
teron Proteron, 418 — Litotes, 419 — Oxymoron, 420 — Periphrasis,
421 — Pleonasm, 421— Prolepsis or Anticipation, 422 — Puns, 422.
Ejiglish Index, . Page 425
Greek Index, . 428
Table of References, . . . . . . -434
PREFACE.
Some explanation, perhaps apology, is necessary for
publishing a new Greek Syntax, when so many similar
books by really great Greek scholars are in use. My
object has been to write a Greek Syntax arranged on the
analytical method, i.e. by sentences, simple and com-
pound ; to attempt for Greek what Dr. Kennedy's in-
valuable Grammars have done for Latin. Dr. Donaldson's
once well-known Greek Grammars are so arranged : they
are the works of a very able man and a ripe scholar, but
no one would now accept the local theory of the Cases,
or the treatment of Conditionals as set forth in them.
I may perhaps be allowed to explain how I came
to write this Syntax, and the plan adopted in it, as the
book, such as it is, is not a mere compilation from other
Grammars. I have for many years been in the habit of
jotting down marginal references to constructions. When
three years ago it was suggested to me that I should
draw up a Greek Syntax, I began by writing out these
examples, under their different headings. I thus had an
outline of rules with many hundred examples, an outline
which has not been materially departed from. I then
read or re-read several books bearing on the subject. I
PREFACE.
need hardly say that my views had to be modified on
several points of principle, and still more of detail. With
regard to the examples I do not suppose that I have
used or referred to one quarter of the original supply.
For several of my own, again, I have substituted others,
either because these latter were so familiar as to have
acquired vested rights with teachers and learners or
because they were handier. My original outline began
with Homeric instances, but, as I proceeded, I cut these
out, and confined myself solely to Attic, chiefly because
it was represented to me that, when boys write Greek
Prose or Iambics, they have such a fatal perversity for
bringing in an Epic word or construction. I need hardly
say that, when I read Mr. Monro's masterly Homeric
Grammar, I felt exceedingly glad that I had suppressed
my ow^n attempt to deal with so difficult a subject. A
monumental Greek Grammar should of course begin with
Homer, and end certainly not before the Hellenistic period,
proceeding with the grand march of the historic method.
In a book meant for boys or undergraduates the object
would, I think, be most practically secured by adding
appendices, Homeric, Hellenistic, and so forth. But this
suggestion need not be discussed here.
The analysis which I have followed is, with some
variations, the logical method made familiar by Dr.
Kennedy's Latin Grammars. Tor instance, I begin the
Introduction with a piece of formal logic : the Proposi-
PREFACE.
tion contains three parts, Subject, Copula, and Predicate.
Had I introduced Homeric examples, I should have pro-
bably commenced with the Verb {'la-TT^-ai, BcSco-ac, Predi-
cate -h Subject), connecting the thought with the form,
and have attempted to trace thence the gradual growth
and development of the Sentence. Indeed I might have
begun earlier with the blunt, but perfectly intelligible
expression of judgment : i/t^tt^o?, fool (Predicate only).
But though the historical method is unquestionably more
scientific, yet I deliberately adopted the logical for
several reasons, chiefly because teachers and boys are
alread)^ familiar with it in learning Latin : a double
advantage, for there is thus no new method to acquire,
and Greek and Latin can be worked together.
But, whichever method we pursue, it is equally unwise
and impossible to be rigidly consistent. Take the Cases,
for instance. The Nominative is used both as Subject
and as Predicate. The Accusative and Dative qualify a
Verb, and so may be regarded as supplementary Predi-
cates. The Genitive qualifies a Substantive, and thus is
Adjectival or Attributive : but it may also qualify, a Verb,
and so becomes a supplementary Predicate. It would
however be absurd to split up the Cases, and range their
uses under different Chapters. When we come to the
Compound Sentence one of two courses is open : either
(1) to treat all the usages of the Moods together, giving
one chapter to the Indicative, another to the Optative
PREFACE.
and so on ; or (2) to take the different kinds of Subordin-
ate Sentences, and show how they are expressed by the
different Moods. Most Grammars adopt the former
method, and there is much to be said for it, the same, it
might appear, as for the Cases. This method brings to-
gether the different usages which often vary so slightly,
and shade off into one another ; it makes the learner see
that there are not so many distinct Optatives, but one
Optative. But experience convinces me that the method
of sentences is incomparably the most practical and
easily remembered, while in the hands of a careful teacher
the unity of each Mood may constantly be pointed out.
It is far easier for a boy to learn how to express the
different kinds of Temporal Sentences by treating them
all together than by dividing them among the Moods.
All grammars do this for Conditional Sentences, and why
not for other kinds of Subordinate Sentences which are
almost equally difficult ? However, in order to supple-
ment the plan adopted in the text, I have in the Index
given a full register of the uses of each Mood. I
have to a considerable extent adopted Dr. Donaldson's
theory of Predicates with some change of nomenclature.
His division into Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary
suggests three progressive and co-ordinate stages, whereas
a Secondary Predicate is simply an extension and part
of the whole Predicate, and a Tertiary Predicate is no-
thing but an ordinary Predicate (Adjective or Participle),
PREFACE. xvii
not in the Nominative Case. I prefer therefore the terms
Supplementary, and Oblique (or Dependent). But what-
ever names we use, I believe that there is nothing which
gives the learner a greater grasp of a Greek passage
than a thorough assimilation of this doctrine of Predica-
tion. Take the Participle for instance, one of the com-
monest forms of supplementary Predicates, in a Platonic
paragraph, e.g., the Carpenter who is out of sorts and
calls in the Doctor, or the Parable of the Captain and the
mutinous Crew : a knowledge of the exact force of the
Participle in qualifying the main Predication is essential
towards picking our way through the paragraph, and
rendering the Greek into adequate English.
To come to details. The treatment of the Cases
must be unsatisfactory, in far abler hands than mine.
The usages of the Accusative and Dative fall easily
enough under fairly distinct heads. But the Genitive
seems a wilderness of cross- divisions. I do not see
how it is possible to assign its usages to the two distinct
heads of Connexion (Genitive), and Separation (Ablative).
To take only one case : who shall decide whether the
Genitive of Value and Price is the true Genitive de-
noting Connexion, or an Ablative denoting Exchange, i.e.
Separation ? Comparative Syntax often is quite power-
less to help us. Thus the Greek Genitive Absolute
seems unquestionably to be, as Kriiger pointed out long
ago, a real Genitive denoting " the sphere within which,"
I
PREFACE.
and so the Class, {e.g, Oeov ScSdvro^, within the sphere of
divine providence) ; but in Sanskrit the Absolute Case is
the Locative, in Latin it is Circumstantial, i.e. Instru-
mental, in Old English it was originally a Dative, and
subsequently a Nominative, in German a Genitive. I
have with misgivings retained the familiar but unsatisfac-
tory " Accusative of Eespect ; " it is anyhow as intelligible
as Professor Goodwin's " Accusative of Specification."
The Aorist requires more courageous treatment than it
usually receives, if we are anxious to render Greek into
correct and idiomatic English, and vice versa. The
Aorist- Stem denotes an act, single, complete, and summed
up. In the Indicative this act belongs to the past,
whether occurring a thousand years ago, or a moment
ago. When the past is not recent, the Aorist is trans-
lated by the English past tense, rfkOovy I came. But,
when the act is recent and bears on the present, the
Greeks could use the Aorist where we use a Perfect, e.g.
Od. V. 172, vvv 3' evOdhe Kafi/SaXe BacfJbcov, hut now a god
hath cast me on this shore: Luke v. 26, etBa/nev TrapdBo^a
G-rifjLepov, we have seen straTige things to-day. Again, where
the act has occurred a moment ago, the Greeks often used
the Aorist where we use a Present. Familiar instances
occur in the Tragedians, eirrjveaa} I commend ; yaOrjv,^
I am pleased ; eBe^d/nrjv,^ I hail. Once more the gnomic
1 Soph. Ai. 536. 2 pj^n^ 1314
^ Elektr. 668. Similarly airiirTvaa, i^ixw^a, ^vvrjKa, etc., etc.
PREFACE. xix
or iterative Aorist is represented by the English Fast,
Perfect, or Present Tenses. And lastly in similes we must
translate the Aorist by a Present, e.g. II. v. 161, w<i h\
Xemv Oopwv a^j), as a lion springeth and hreaketh. So far
with regard to Principal Sentences. In Subordinate
Sentences our rendering must be still more elastic, as we
shall see if we have to turn into Greek the following :
when I come, have (am) come, shall come, shall have come,
cTreiBav eXOco : if I had knoivn, el eyvojv : when they had
gone, eireihr] airrfkOov : I do not believe what you have said,
a e\e^a^, not necessarily a eXptjKa^ (in past Obliqua what
he had said, the Pluperfect in English, but the Aorist still
in Greek).
Thus, startling as the statement seems, the Greek
Aorist is translateable into almost every English tense
except the Imperfect.^ Mr. M. Arnold's dictum is as
wise as it is witty : '' the Aorist was made for man, and
not man for the Aorist."
^ Our English, narrative Past Tense is by no means parallel with
the Greek Aorist. It often is the idiomatic and correct equivalent for
a Greek (or Latin) Imperfect, i.e. it is descriptive as well as narrative.
A few minutes' attention to any ordinary conversation, or almost any
page of a standard author, would prove this, e.g. Macaxjlay, History
of England, vol. i. ch. 2. (fin.): — "Still, however, the contest con-
tinued. He [Charles] assured the Duke of York that Halifax should
be dismissed from office, and Halifax that the Duke should be sent
to Scotland. In public he affected implacable resentment against
Monmouth, and in private conveyed to Monmouth assurances of un-
alterable afiection. " A boy set down to translate these tenses into
Greek would probably use the Aorist, because he has been required
to translate the Greek Imperfect by a clumsy, often unnecessary and
PREFACE.
In dealing with the Moods I have probably (p. 133)
expressed myself too unhesitatingly that the Optative
cannot be a past form. Its Secondary endings, and the
possible loss of the separable augment, make it at least
conceivable that the Optative was originally past. If
this were so, a past form would (as in Hebrew, I believe)
be used to denote a wish.
I could not treat the Prepositions briefly, and did not
wish to do so. Nothing seems to me more conventional
than to pick out two or three uses of tt/oo? for instance,
and to make the learner believe that these are the dom-
inant and typical usages. Such a course seems to me a
great snare. I do not believe that the use of the Preposi-
tions can be taught in a few formal lessons, they must be
gradually acquired, like those of the Particles, by con-
stant observation.
In the Oratio Obliqua I have introduced the two
technical terms, Suh-direct and Suh-ohlique. Personally,
I prefer names to periphrases when dealing with facts of
constant recurrence, and I do not find the pupil puzzled.
But the teacher need not employ the terms if he objects
to them : the treatment of the chapter does not depend
on the terms.
I had prepared a chapter on Particles, but have sup-
Tinidiomatic, periphrasis, "he was affecting," "kept on conveying,"
etc. Much more correctly T. K. Arnold of old taught us on p. 1 that
"the dog howled all night" required an Imperfect in Latin.
PREFACE.
pressed it, as the book already has outrun its intended
length.
It only remains for me to acknowledge my special
obligations, to authors and to friends.
Of books, besides old guides such as Jelf and Donald-
son, Liddell and Scott, I have found the following most
useful : —
(1) Kriiger's Griechische S'prachlehre. This is, all
round, the most useful Greek Grammar I know. It is
a vast treasury of well- chosen instances covering the
whole range of so-called classical Greek Literature.
Even if you do not always agree with his arrangement
or conclusions, Krtiger always furnishes ample materials
for induction. In substituting a better example for the
one which I had originally noted, I have found Kriiger
incomparable.
(2) Madvig's Syntax of the Greek Language, especially
of the Attic dialect. It would be impertinent in me to
praise this well-known work by the great scholar. There
seems to be nothing at second-hand in it.
(3) Goodwin's Moods and Tenses, and Greek Grammar.
The first-named book by this accomplished scholar is of
the greatest value. He has revolutionised the treatment
of the Conditionals; his treatment of Final and semi-
rinal Sentences is hardly less striking. I have ventured
to embody the substance of two of his papers in the
Journal of Philology in a note on edv and el.
PREFACE.
(4) Curtius's Student's Greek Grammar, and Elucida-
tions to the Greek Grammar. Both books are most
instructive ; the great philologer's Syntax is singularly
vigorous, fresh, and suggestive,
(5) Notes on Constructions in Mr. A. Sidgwick's In-
troductio7i to Greek Prose Com^position. Most practical and
incisive.
(6) Eiddell's Digest of Platonic Idioms, in his edition
of the Apology. I must record my great gratitude to
this lamented author. No book that I know of bearing
on Greek Syntax is so suggestive : no Greek scholar of
our time seems to me to combine, in so marked a degree,
fine taste, subtlety, and sound judgment.
I wish also to express my gratitude for the help afforded
in Professor Jebb's editions of the plays of Sophocles
and selections from the Attic Orators.
I have sparingly alluded to books of reference, and
then only to such as are easily procurable, such as
Professor M. Miiller's Essays. It would be useless to
refer boys, or most imdergraduates (I suppose), to Del-
briick's Syntaktische Forsdiungen for the comparative
treatment of Greek Syntax, and the probable evolution
of usages and constructions. But while the latter part
of this Grammar was in the press, Mr. D. B. Monro pub-
lished his long looked-for Homeric Grammar. It is a
book with which every teacher of Greek should be
thoroughly familiar, and to parts of which he may con-
PREFACE.
veniently refer his pupils for the origin and explanation
of Greek constructions. Mr. Monro has kindly per-
mitted me, in my Index, to refer to certain paragraphs
in his work.
T have to thank several friends for much help.
Mr. A. Sidgwick has been kind enough to go through
the whole of the proofs. I am deeply sensible that in so
doing he has most materially added to any value which
this book may possess. I have also to thank two old
friends for reading through some chapters with me,
and giving me the advantage of their views, — Professor
Butcher of Edinburgh, and Mr. F. Storr of Merchant
Taylors. And, lastly, I am much indebted to several
of my colleagues here for help and sympathy.
Some little slips, such as wrong accents, have inevitably
escaped several pairs of eyes. They, however, can be
easily rectified, and will cause no serious harm. If any
one who may use this book cares to point out more
important errors, I shall be extremely grateful.
F. E. THOMPSON.
Cotton House, Marlborough,
August 1883.
NO TE.
The book is practically divided into —
I. An Elementary Syntax.
II. An Advanced Syntax.
The following distinctions have (with a few unimportant
exceptions) been observed : —
In I. \stly^ The type is large.
'indly, The headings are in Italics.
Srdly, The name of the author is given without reference to
line or chapter, etc.
II. Istly, The type is small.
2ndly, The headings are in thick black type.
Srdly, Reference is given to the line or chapter, etc., of the
author quoted.
Errata.
p. 12, § 16. "Omission of Copula " should be in Italics.
P. 79, § 92. * ' Possessive Genitive " should be in Italics.
P. 80, § 93. "Genitive of Material or Contents" should be in Italics,
Iuniversity)
INTEODUCTION TO
THE SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCE,
AND DEFINITIONS OF TEEMS
§ I. THE STATEMENT, QUESTION, AND
PETITION
A SENTENCE assumes three forms — (1) the Statement
{Enuntiatio) ; (2) the Question {Interrogatio) ; (3) the
Petition, i.e. a com.mand, request, prayer, or wish (Petitio).
A sentence, logically considered, connects (positively or
negatively) two distinct conceptions. Thus in the sentence,
" The rose is sweet," the conceptions of a certain flower
and a certain quality are connected positively. Two con-
ceptions are connected negatively in the sentence, " The
nightshade is not wholesome." A sentence, logically and
fully expressed, may be represented by the formulas —
A is B ; A is not B. A sentence therefore necessarily
consists of three parts, neither more nor less : —
(1) The Stchject, i.e. that of which the statement is made ;
(2) the Predicate, i.e. the statement made of the Subject ;
(3) the Copula, i.e. the connecting or disconnecting
link, — is (when the sentence is positive), is
not (when it is negative).
These three parts are not always present in language.
The finite verb contains in itself a complete sentence —
crrpaTrjyo), I am general. The Copula is frequently
omitted, being contained in the verb, or understood —
Uep^rjf; ^aatXevet, Xerxes is king ; ar^ado^ 6 avrjp, The
man is good. Logically expressed, these sentences would
be — He/^f?;? ean ^aaiXev;, 6 avrjp ecxTiv ayadc^.
A
2 SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.
The Statement, Question, and Petition differ from one
another simply in the relation of the Predicate to the
Subject. Thus we may say, " The door is shut " (State-
ment) ; " Is the door shut ? " (Question) ; " Shut the door "
(Petition). In the Statement we say that the Predicate
is applicable to the Subject ; in the Question we ask if
the Predicate is applicable to the Subject ; in the Petition
we request or command that the Predicate may be appli-
cable to the Subject. Whatever remarks are here made
with regard to a sentence apply equally to each of its
three forms, the Statement, the Question, and the Petition.
§ 2. THE PREDICATE AND ITS SUPPLE-
MENTARY ADJUNCTS.
The Predicate is the whole statement made of the
Subject, whether that statement is short and simple, or
long and composite. It may be short and simple, con-
sisting of one word, as in the examples given above —
Subject.
Peedicate.
av'iip
(sc.
eaTLv)
dyado^,
or it may be a composit
words —
e expression made up of
many
Subject.
Predicate.
6 Trat?
The hoy
Xalpei
rejoices
v7rep<pvo)<;.
exceedingly.
ol A6r)valoL
The Athenians
airrjXdov
departed
TpiToiot,
1 on the third di
%y.
THE PREDICATE AND ITS ADJUNCTS.
Subject.
Predicate.
{Jon:)
TLVO^ hthouTKaXoL rjKere ;
To he whose teachers are you
come ?
{Thou)
Lkeco^ avTcov k\v€.
Do thou hear them mercifully.
He
efiol TTfcAcpo? TedvrjKev.
is dead, a source of grief to me
(i.e. his death is grievous to me).
avTT) rj (TTparia
This army
e^etai oveLBo<s rrj iroKev.
will march out {so as to he, or,
and will he), a disgrace to the
state.
eTrefep^et | 6paav<;.
Thou advancest in holdness.
ayavaKTco | avajjtVTjadel*; efiav-
TOV.
I am vexed when I recollect my own
conduct.
eireTTT^yeL | ov ^e^ato<;.
had frozen not so as to he solid.
€i9 OavovTcov €p')(OfiaL Kara-
aKacjxif; | 6p7]fjL0(s 7rpo<; (j)iXa)v,
I ^(oo-a.
I, most unhappy maid, am descending to the cavernous
chamhers of the dead, | forlorn
of friends, | while living still.
Compare two Latin instances —
Corpora infinita | iactantur.
Atoms are tossed about | in unlimited
quantity.
KpvaraXko^
Ice
T) Bvafiopc;
4 SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.
Subject. Predicate.
Saxa pauUatim | anima mollia | calu-
erunt.
Stones gradually waxed warm with the
softness of life (ita ut mollia
fierent, so as to become soft).
Instances may be found on any page of a book in any
language. The first point to notice is that the whole
expression constitutes the Predicate. The second point
to notice is that, on analysing such compound Predicates
as the above, there is a word (generally a verb, but it may
be a noun or participle), which by itself, if all the rest
were away, might stand as a simple Predicate, and that
this simple Predicate is further extended or qualified by
an adjunct or adjuncts. Thus in the sentence, ol 'AOrjvaloL
airriXOov Tpiraloi, airrfkOov TpLToloL is the Predicate :
aTrrjXdov alone as a Predicate would, with its Subject,
have made a complete sentence ; but airrjXOov is extended
by stating the time of departure. There may be many
supplementary adjuncts which swell out the Predicate.
It is most important in Greek to notice them, and
discover their special force, for they often convey the real
pith and gist of the predication, denoting manner, degree,
cause, time, condition, purpose, the anticipated result, etc.
etc.
In Greek, adverbs, adjectives, and participles (some-
times substantives) constantly occur as supplementary
adjuncts,^ or, as they will be called throughout this book,
Supplementary Predicates.
^ Dr. Donaldson called these supplementary adjuncts secondary
Predicates. Thus he would have said that dirijXdov was the primary
Predicate, and rpiraioi the secondary.
PREDICATE, EPITHET, AND APPOSITION. 5
§ 3. THE OBJECT, DIRECT AND REMOTE.
The direct Ohject is that which is immediately acted on
by a transitive verb. The remote or remoter Ohject is that
to which the direct object is transferred, or that which is
interested and concerned in the verbal action. Joocro)
heKa fiva<;, I will give ten minae. Here fjbvaq is the direct
object. Au)o-o) Bexa fjbva<; rat hihaaKoktp, 1 loill give ten
minae to the teacher. Here toS BiBaa-KoXa) is the remoter
object.
§ 4. PREDICATE, ATTRIBUTIVE OR EPITHET,
AND APPOSITION.
The following instances will show the difference be-
tween a Predicate and an Attributive : — avr)p {Igtiv)
dyaOo^, the man is good — aya66<i, good, is a Predicate :
6 ayado'i dvrjp, the good man — dya6o<;, good, is an Attri-
butive. The Predicate gives new information of the
Subject, the Attributive uses information assumed to be
known already, and thus forms one notion with a Sub-
stantive. Ajpposition does not form one notion with a
Substantive, but is a further description appended to a
Substantive, e.g. ^p6vo<;, 6 Kocvo<i LaTpo<;, ae Oepairevaei,
Time, the common physician, will heal thee.
§ 5. SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.
AvTo^ aTparrjja), I myself am general, is a Simple
Sentence. NlkU^ ecprj, Nikias made a statement, again, is a
Simple Sentence. But if we join the two together, thus—
6 SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.
NiKLa<^ 6(1)7] avTO<^ o-Tparrjyelv, Nikias stated that he himself
was general, we have a Compound Sentence. A Compound
Sentence is thus a sentence consisting of two (or more)
sentences compounded into one. Logically, i.e. so far as
thought goes, there is no difference between a Simple and
a Compound Sentence. Each is an expression containing
the three necessary elements of a sentence, i.e. Subject,
Copula, and Predicate ; e.g. —
NcKLa'i (Subject) e^y (Copula and Predicate).
auT09 (Subject) o-Tparrjya) (Copula and Predicate).
NtKia<; (Subject) e^?; avro<; arpan^yelv (Copula
and Predicate).
For the last sentence, so far as thought goes, simply
amounts to this : Nikias | stated something.
Xa{,p6(f)a)v, 6i<; AeX^ovi eX6cov, rjpero el tv<; eirj ifiov
ao(patT6pof;.
Chaerephon, going to Delphi, asked if any one were wiser
than I.
Here we have three sentences compounded into one, of
which Xacpecpaw is the Subject, and the rest is the Predi-
cate, with the Copula contained in ^pero. So far as
thought goes, it amounts to saying, Chaerejohon | asked a
question on a certain occasion.
§ 6. PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE
SENTENCES.
In every Compound Sentence there must be one on
which the rest depend in construction. Such a sentence
is called the Principal Sentence. Those which depend
CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES.
k
iPmm
in construction on it are called Subordinate
Thus, in the first example above, NcKca<: eiprj is the
Principal Sentence, avro^ arpar-qyeiv is the Subordinate
Sentence. The dependence of tlie latter on the former is
easily shown ; if we remove NiKia^; e<f)7j, then auro? arpar-
Tjyeiv cannot stand alone as a sentence. In the second
sentence, Xaipe(l>wv rjpero is the Principal Sentence ; the
dependent question, et tl<; etrj e/juov crocf)coT€po<i, and the
temporal participial sentence, eU JeX^ou? eXOcov, are the
Subordinate Sentences.
§ 7. CO-ORDINATE SENTENCES.
Co-ordinate Sentences are of the same rank, i.e. con-
struction, as those to which they are joined. Thus, if a
sentence is co-ordinate with a Principal Sentence, it is a
second Principal Sentence : if with a Subordinate Sen-
tence, it is Subordinate, and of the same nature (whether
an Indirect Statement, Question, Petition, Adverbial or
Relative Sentence). (See below.)
Beo/jbai, Kol 7rapL6fjLaL v/jLcov fir^TC Oavfia^ecv fjLrjre Oopv^elu.
I beg, and entreat you, neither to wonder, nor to interrujpt.
Here kclI irapUfxaL is co-ordinate with the Principal
Sentence ^eo/xai, and therefore is a second Principal
Sentence : while jjLrjre Oopv/Secv is co-ordinate with the
Subordinate Sentence Oav/id^eLv (an Indirect Petition),
and therefore is Subordinate, and an Indirect Petition.
§ 8. CLASSIFICATION OF SUBORDINATE
SENTENCES.
Subordinate Sentences are classified according to the
relation in which they stand to the Principal Sentence.
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.
Let the three following groups be taken.
A. Pkincipal.
(a) 1. ov pahiov eart
It is not easy
Nihms said
(y8) 1. aBrjXov ecTTLV
It is uncertain
8a
^. OVK Oi
I do not know
(y) 1. TrepLTjyyeXKero
Orders were being sent round
2. BeofjLai aov
I heg yoit
S. KareyvayKa^; /jlov
You have condemned me
KareyvcoKa^; jjbou
You have condemned me
€VTV'^7](T6L<;
You ivill he fortunate
C. aviXapov ra TTOirj/jLaTa
I took up the poems
Subordinate.
Tavra jxaOelv.
to learn this.
o-TpaTTjyelv.
that he was general.
€L Tavra ^vvltj^.
lohether you understaTid
this.
r/ J f
OaTlfS €(TTL.
who he is,
Trava-TpaTLa ^orjdetv.
to march in full force.
ravTa fiaOelv.
to learn this.
ahiKw^i.
unjustly.
hiOTL 'X^pvdov eXa/369.
because you took a bribe.
rjv Tavra rroLricrrjf;,
if you do this.
a erroLTja-e JS'o^o/cX?}?.
which Sophocles composed.
In group A it will be seen that the Subordinate Sentence
supplies (1.) the Subject, (2.) the Object of the Compound
Sentence. Now the chief function of a Substantive is to
express the Subject or the Object. Such Subordinate
Sentences as those in group A are therefore called Sub-
stantival Sentences.
CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 9
In group B the Subordinate Sentence is a supple-
mentary Predicate to the Principal Sentence (see above,
§ 2). Now an Adverb is the type of a Supplementary
Predicate. Subordinate Sentences of this group are
therefore called Adverhial. They are Conditional (the
Protasis or Condition), Concessive, Final, Modal, Con-
secutive, Limitative, Temporal, Comparative.
In group C the Subordinate Sentence stands like an
Attributive or Epithet to the noun {iroirnxaTa) in the
Principal Sentence. That noun is the antecedent to the
relative, and the relative sentence is used like an adjective
used attributively. Subordinate Sentences of this group
therefore are generally called Adjectival Sentences.
This, however, as we shall soon see, is too narrow a use
of the term, and too inadequate a name for Eelative Sen-
tences. It would be better simply to call them Eelative
Sentences.
For with regard to Eelative Sentences a fundamental
distinction must be noticed. Some are (1) Attributive,
others again are (2) virtually Adverbial.
(1) Attributive (or really Adjectival) : —
dveXajSov ra TroL-^fiara a eiroLrjae So(J30K\rj<;.
I took top the poems which Sophocles wrote (or the
Sophoclean poems).
(2) Virtually Adverbial : —
T^9 ovT(o<i evT]6r}^ bari,^ ayvoel ;
Who is so simple that he does not know ?
Here the Eelative Sentence oarcfi dyvoel — coare dyvoecif ;
lo SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.
§ 9* W® ^yx.^ arrive at the following Classification
and Table of Subordinate Sentences : —
A. Substantival.
The Subordinate (
Sentence is the Sub- I a. Indirect Statement,
ject or Object of the^ /3. Indirect Question.
Principal Sentence, I 7. Indirect Petition,
whether V
B. Adverbial.
The Subordinate ( 1. Introduced by a Subordinate
Sentence like an Ad- J Conjunction (such as et, evretS^
verb is an adjunct j wo-re, etc. etc.).
of the Predicate. \ 2. Introduced by a Eelative.
0. Eelative.
The Subordinate Sentence is either an Attributive, or is
equivalent to an Adverbial Sentence (see B Adverbial, 2).
§ 10. ORATIO RECTA.
By Oratio Recta is meant the words of a person given
at first-hand, as from his own lips.
^Q., Bwaco a 6X(^' I ^^^^ ^^^'^ what I have.
TL \ey6L<; ; What do you mean 1
KoiTTe TTjv dvpav. Knock at the door.
§ II. ORATIO OB LI QUA,
By Oratio Ohliqua is meant the words or thoughts of a
person given at second-hand, by some one else.
€07/ owaeiv a e^ot.
He said he ivould give what he had.
SUBDIRECT AND SUBOBLIQUE SENTENCES. \ i
r/pofjLTjv avTOv rl Xeyoc.
I asked him what he meant.
elire tu) iratSL KOTrreiv rrjv dvpav.
He told the hoy to knock at the door.
§ 12. SUBDIRECT AND SUBOBLIQUE.
A Subordinate Sentence is Subdirect when it depends
on a Principal Sentence in the Recta.
Principal. Subdirect.
(oorco a eyco.
It is SiiboUique when it depends on a Principal Sentence
which itself is Subordinate.
Principal. Subdirect. Suboblique.
€<p?; cxocreiv a e'^oL.
In this last example Bcocreiv is subordinate to its Principal
Sentence ecfyrj, but it is the Principal Sentence to a e%o^.
See further under Oratio Obliqua.
§ 13. VIRTUALLY OBLIQUE.
A Subordinate Sentence is said to be mrtually Oblique
when it alludes to the words or thoughts of another, the
actual verb of saying or thinking on which it depends
having to be mentally supplied from the context.
eKUKL^ov TOP UepLKkea ore ovk eire^ayoL
They were abusing Pericles because (so they said) he did
not lead them out.
A verb like eXeyov is contained in eKaKc^ov.
CHAPTEK I.
SUBJECT AND PEEDICATE.
ATTRIBUTIVE AND APPOSITION.
§ 14. The Subject is (a) a noun, or pronoun, or (0) the
equivalent of a noun :
(/S) ol wyaOoiy the good; to hUaLoVy justice; to
hehievaL, fear ; 6 <j)6vycov, the defendant ; to SeSio?, fear ;
ol vvvy the present generation.
§ 15. The Copula is a verb which merely serves as a
link to join the Subject and Predicate, without containing
in itself the predication.
The commonest Copulas are elfii and rylfyvojjbau Many
others, however, serve as Copulas, vTrdp'^Wy ire^vKay
KaOcaTafjuat.
Note. Other Copulas are ovo/xa^o/xat, KaXov/xaL, ^aivo/iat,
Tvyxdvd), and Kvpio (even without a participle), k\v(o and
oiKovit) (I am called, or, spoken of), ttcXio in poetry.
dfiL, expressing existence, may be more than a copula, it
may be a predicative verb, e.g. eo-rt ^eo?, there is a God.
§ 16. Omission of the Copula.
The Copula is often omitted in Greek, in fact, where-
ever the distinction between Subject and Predicate is
clearly marked without it :
TO fMavTCKov yevo<; (pCkapyvpov. SoPH. Antig.
The tribe of seers is covetous.
^^(Opwv aBcopa Bcopa kovk ovr]aifia, SoPH. Antig.
, Gift less the gifts of foes, and profitless.
12
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE OF AN INFINITIVE. 13
And sometimes the Copula, in a freer way, is omitted in
dependent clauses where we might have expected it to be
expressed :
ecog It' kv ocrc^aAet, (fivXd^aarOe. Dem. 19. 26.
WTiile you are still in safety, he on your guard.
€0)5 sub. €(TT€.
Cf. Eur. Hipp. 659. Thuc. i. 91. 1.
§ 17. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE OF
AN INFINITIVE.
The Subject and the Predicate of an Infinitive are in
the Accusative.
But the Subject and Predicate of an Infinitive are in
the Nominative when they refer to the Subject of the
Principal Verb.
The same two rules apply to the Subject and Predicate
of a Participle.
For further rules, and for examples, see Compound
Sentence, Indirect Statement.
§ 18. The Subject and Predicate of the Infinitive (or
Participle) may be in the Genitive or Dative, if the principal
verb governs either of those cases.
ycrdofxrjv avrwi/ olojxeviov cro^WTaTWv eTvat. PlAT. Ap. vi.
/ noticed that they fancied they were the wisest of mankind.
The subject to dvai is omitted, a-oKJiOiTartav is the Predicate.
TravTt Trpocn/jKet ap^ovTt cfypovifxo) eivai, Xen. Hip. 7. 1.
It behoves every rider to he prudent
The Subject and Predicate, however, in such a construction
may stand in the Accusative.
^VfKJiepei avTOL<s <f>L\ovs eTvai. XeN. Oik. ii. 23.
It is expedient for them to he friendly.
Cf. Xen. Hell. iv. 8. 4.
14 SUBJECT AND PREDICA TE.
§19. Omission of the Subject.
The Subject is omitted in the third person in a great
number of indefinite phrases and impersonal verbs.
{a) In terms of the weather, or natmal phenomena. The
Subject is a vague indefinite agent {e.g. Zev?, 6 B^os). vei, it
rains; vt^et, it snows; /Spovra., it thunders; da-TpdrrTeL, it
lightens; yjeipid^ei^ it is stormy; crva-KOTd^ei^ it grows dark;
€(T€Lcr€, there was an earthquake.
Sometimes the agent is expressed — vu p-lv 6 Zevs. Alcaeus,
Fragm.
(b) The Subject is not expressed when the action alone is
worth noticing, and the Subject is well known. craATrtfet, the
trumpet sounds (i.e. 6 craXTnyKTyjs craATTi^et, the trumpeter sounds
the trumpet); a-Qfxatvec (sc. 6 KTJpv^, or o araXTriyKT-js), the signal
is given; Krjpvcra-eL (6 KTJpv^), proclamation is made; dvayvoja-erai
(6 ypafjLfxarevs), tJie reading will follow.
(c) Passive Verbs — Aeyerat, it is said ; eiprjraL, do. ; Trapea-Kcv-
aarai., preparation has been made. Cf. Latin, itur, ventum est.
Active Verbs — w? Xeyova-iv, as men say, as they say ; ^ao-i,
it is said; otovrai, people think. Cf. Ju2itm, ferunt, tradunt.
Tt5, Ttves, dvOpo)7roi, in phrases like the last, may be
expressed (like the French on) — e.g. yjv ra aSiK^J, if one commits
injustice.
(d) Ordinary impersonal verbs and expressions — ev e^ei,
IxkXei, etc.
Note. The Latin rule that only transitive verbs which are
followed by an accusative in the active can be personal in the
passive does not hold in Greek. Thus we may say —
Kar-qyopo) HtDKpdrovs, I accuse Socrates ; and
^(OKparrj^ Karijyo/oeiTat, Socrates is accused.
Tnarrevofxev Soj/cparet, we believe Socrates (Socrati credi-
mus) ; and
^o)Kpdrr]s Triorreverai, Socrates is believed (Socrati creditur).
§ 20. THE PREDICATE.
The Predicate is usually contained either (1) in a Verb,
or (2) an Adjective or Participle. In the former case the
PECULIARITIES IN THE AGREEMENT. 15
Predicate agrees with the Subject in numher and person ;
in the latter case in numher, gender, and case.
(1) evLK7]6rjaav ol A6r)vaioL.
The Athenians y:ere defeated.
(2) r) aX7]6eLa ecrriv opOi],
Truth is straightforward.
In the former case the Copula is contained in the in-
flection of the verb. In the latter the Copula is expressed
or understood.
§21. Peculiarities in the Agreement of Subject
and Predicate.
A neuter plural Subject takes a verb singular.
TCL avSpdiroSa a7re(pvy€, the slaves escaped.
ra KaXa rrjv '\lrv')(7jv evcfjpaivei, good deeds gladden the soul.
§ 22. A plural verb with neuter plural Subject occurs
rarely (chiefly in Thucydides, Xenophon, and Plato). In such
cases (often when persons are implied) the distributive character
of the noun is brought out. Thus in Thuc. i. 58, there are
two readings, — rot reA^^ xntkcrxero and VTrecr\ovTO. If vTrka-^ero,
Thucydides is following ordinary usage : if virka-xovro, he is
thinking of the persons (the magistrates promised).
kvravda rjcrav tol Svevi/ecrtos /Saa-iXeta. XeN. An. 1. 2. 23.
There were the (several) palaces of Syennesis.
Obs. The phrase So^av Tavra, When it had been thus resolved,
which occurs as well as So^avra ravra, follows in the participle
the construction of SoKct ravra.
§ 23. -^^ Adjective-Predicate in the neuter singular
may be used with a plural Subject. The Predicate sums
up collectively the character of the Subject.
KoXov T) aX7]6eLa /cal fjLovifiov. Plat.
Truth is noble and abiding.
€pcoT6<; KaKov fxeya. EuRIP.
Loves are a great curse.
i6 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
Note. Cf. Eur. El. 1035; Ar. Ecc. 236 ; Plat. Phaed. 242
(fiavTLKou Tt rj ^vxrj). The stock quotation is from HoM. //.
ii. 204, ovK dyadov iroXvKOLpavLy], €is Koipavos Icrra), No gOod
thing the rule of the many, one ruler he there.
Compare with this the use of the phrases, iravra eTvat, to he
all in all (i.e. of prime importance) ; ra -n-pcora crmt, to he the
head and front of; ttolvt '^v 'A\€^av8pos, Alexander was every-
all in all. Dem. 23. 120.
§ 24. Ill ^^ poets, and in Plato, a singular verb is
occasionally found with a plural Subject. From the occur-
rence of this construction in Pindar it is called the Schema
Pindaricum.
€(TTL yap epLotye Pdip^oi PlAT. Euthyd. 302.
/ have altars.
The verb generally comes first in this construction.
Cf. PiND. Frag. 344; Pyth. x. 7; Eurip. Ion, 1146;
Helen. 1358; Aesch. Pers. 49. Compare in French, " il est
cent usages;" and Bacon, Advancement of Learning, ii. ii. 7,
" a portion of the time wherein there hath been the greatest
varieties." Shakspere, Macbeth, v. iii. ^^ Serv. There is ten
thousand — Mac. Geese, villain? Serv. Soldiers, sir." In
some cases, however, the apparent singular in English is a
real dialectic plural.
§ 25. Agreement of the Predicate when there are
several Subjects.
The Dual Subject is considered separately.
(1) the first case is where the Subjects are persons. Here
{a) with regard to number, the Predicate may be either correctly
plural, or singular in agreement with one prominent subject ;
(b) with regard to gender, the masculine is preferred to the
feminine ; (c) with regard to person, the first is preferred to the
second, the second to the third.
Kttt rj yvvrj Kal 6 dvr)p dya9ot elcnv. PlAT. Men. 73.
Both the ivife and the husband are good.
Lcrois dva/S-qcrcTai ^tXnnros nal ^AvTtyevrjs Kal 6 dvTiypa<f)€v^.
Dem. 22. 38.
Perhaps tliere will appear Philip, and Antigenes, and the
controller.
PECULIARITIES IN THE AGREEMENT 17
a.^ov veors Ka6 veas o/xtAovi/ras aXXr\\oi%. PlAT. Leg. 835.
/ saw young men and women associating together.
lyo) Kttt ot aXXoi TT/oecr/^ets TreptrjXdoixev. DeM. 129. 72.
/ «?i(i o/A(?r envoys went round.
(TV Te"EX\r]v el.Kal r)fM€L<s. Xen. Anal. ii. 1. 16.
You and we are Greeks.
You are Greek, and (so are) we.
Observe the emphatic position of the verb when it is in the
singular.
(2) The second case is where the several Subjects are
things. Here {a) with regard to number, we frequently find the
Predicate in the singular, in agreement with one prominent
Subject ; frequently also in the]plural ; (h) with regard to gender,
the Predicate, when plural, is generally neuter, when singular
it agrees with the prominent Subject.
Twv KaKiJiV rj a-rdo-is kol 6 TroXefios airios ea-TLV. Dem.
Sedition and war are the cause of our troubles.
X-qOr) KOL Sva-KoXia Kal fiavia TroXXaKLS els rrjv Sidvoiav ifx-
■jriTTTovo-Lv. Xen. Ap. iii. 12. 6.
Forgetfulness, and discontent, and madness often attack the
mind.
TO vyLatveLv Kal to vocretv dyaOd dv €ly).
Xen. Ap. iv. 2. 36.
Health and sickness might be"
The singular Predicate is not unknown in English :
Destruction and unhappiness is in their ways. Ps. xiv. 7.
So great an affinity liath fiction and belief. Bacon,
Advancement of Learning, i. 4. 8.
(3) The third case is where, in the Subjects, there is a com-
bination of persons and things. Here the person will generally
in gender over-ride the thing; in number, as before, both
singular and plural are used.
Ittv^cto tov 2T/oo/x^t^i8>^v KOI Tcts vav<5 aTreXrjXvdoTa.
Thuc. viii. 63. 1.
He heard tJmt Strombichides and his fleet had sailed away.
V '^^XV '^^^ ^tXiTTiros ■^aav tmv epycDv Kvptoi.
Aeschin. 12. 181.
Fortune and Philip were masters of circumstances.
B
1 8 SUBJECT A ND PREDICA TE.
Great variety is allowable where there is a plurality of
Subjects. The leading principles only have been indicated in
the above rules.
With disjunctives, rj — r/, ovt^ — ovt^^ the Predicate generally
agrees with the nearest Subject.
§ 26. The demonstrative pronouns oSe, oSrog, eKetvos,
when used as Subjects to a Predicate, or as Predicates to a
Subject, either (1) are assimilated to the gender and number
of their subject or predicate, or (2) are in the neuter singular
or plural.
(1) eK€ti/o? IffTiv 'kX^yyo^ fxcyiCTTOS. Lys. 16. 6.
This is the strongest proof.
Oifxat €{xrjv Tavrrjv Trarpcda ecvau XeN. Anab. iv. 8. 4.
/ think that this is my country.
Cf. Verg. Ae7i. vi. 129, hoc opus, hie labor est.
(2) tovt' elarlv ol Aoyot. DeM. 8. 7.
The statements are these {come to this).
ov Aoy tov KOfXTTO'S rdSe. ThuC. ii. 41. 1.
This is no boastful talk.
Cf. the use of rdSe, ovk "Iwv€9 TctSe elcTLv, Thuc. vi. 77. 1.
These are not lonians, we have no lonians here. Cf. EuR.
Androm. 168.
Also cf. Tt, oTi, (interrogative) : — 8r]fj.oKparLav oTcrOa rt eo-rtv ;
Bo you hioiv tvhat democracy is ? SovXcvofxev Oeois 6 n ttot'
etViV 01 ^€06. Eur. Or. 418, we are slaves to gods, whatever these
gods may be.
So the phrase 7ovto dXrjOrj Aeyets, what you say is true.
§ 27. Peculiarities of Number — Singular, Dual,
and Plural.
(a) The singidar is used for the plural (a) with collective nouns,
(6)* with nouns of material, (c) with nouns denoting nationality,
(d) in several military expressions, etc.
(a) o exOpos, the enemy ; 6 TreAas, one's neighbour.
(b) Kc/oa/xos, tiles ; rrXtvOos, bricks ; a/xTreAos, vines ; Icrd-js,
clothes.
THE DUAL NUMBER. 19
(c) 6 'IAAi5/)to?, the IllyrianSy 6 XaAKtSevs, the CJialcidians
(cf. the Latin Foenus, Eomanus). But sometimes, as
in Latin, of the general, king, or prince.
(d) 6 tWo?, the cavalry ; dcnris (=67rAtTat), hojpliteSj heavy-
armed infantry.
(/?) A collective noun singular (ttXtjOos, yevos, a-rpdTevfxa, etc.)
may agree with a plural dedicate. Often there is a mixture of
singular and plural.
fiepos Tt dv9pio7r(i>v ovk -qyovvrat deovs. PlAT. Leg. 948.
A portion of mankind do not believe in gods.
TO crTpdrevfxa iiropL^ero trtrov, kotttovtcs rov<s f^ov<s koI ovovs.
Xen. Anab. ii. 1. 6.
The army provided itself tvith food by cutting up the oxen
and asses.
§ 28. The Dual Number.
L The Dual is a kind of plural, an unnecessary kind. It
is not used in Aeolic, and it has disappeared in Modern Greek.
The agreement between a dual subject and its verb or
adjective is irregular. We may say that the strict dual agree-
ment is adhered to only where the idea of duality (of there
being a pair of things) is prominent.
The first person dual does not exist in the active voice. It
is very doubtful whether it occurs in the middle. II. xxiii.
485, Soph. Phil. 1079, Soph. El. 950, seem to be about the
only three placeg, and in all of them the plural may be the
correct reading.
viii Oeaa-iofiea-da. Ar. Av. 664.
Let us two see.
(2.) Dual of the Article and of Pronouns. — The feminine dual
is defective, especially in the nominative and accusative
forms. (See Kriiger, p. 235.)
Tw is the regular prose form for all genders, rd is rare in
poetry, tolv is much commoner than ratv.
TwSe is used, not rdSe, but ratvSe is used.
TovTio not ravra. Both tovtolv and ravratv for the feminine.
avTco and avrd are both used for the feminine, also avrolv
and avraiv.
20 SUBJECT AND PREDICA TE.
aAA-T^Ao) and aXXrjXa^ aXXy]\oLv and aXX-qXaiv are found
equally with feminine nouns.
Similarly e/xw, /xovw, /xarato), d^to) occur with feminine nouns.
(3) The strict dual agreement is shown in the following
examples :
TO) dSeA^o) auro) wttc/) iyevecrO'qv ajj,(fj(x) ctTratSe eTeXevTrjordrrjv.
ISAEUS, 6. 6.
TAe two hvthers themselves who were born both died childless.
Similarly when there are two Subjects : —
"^Sovrj Kttt Xvirr) kv Trj ttoXcl jSaa-LXevoreTov. PlAT. Hep. 607.
Pleasure and pain shall reign in the State.
A good instance occurs in SoPH. El. 977-985, where the
effect is heightened by the dual form.
^vo ef evos aydvo'i yey evyjcrdov. AnTIPH. HerOD. 85.
Two trials have been made out of one.
(4) The following miscellaneous instances show the irregu-
larity of agreement both in gender ^ and in number : —
a/M(f)(j) TOVTd) TO) 'qjxepa. XeN. Cyr. i. 2. 11.
Both these
KaTTjyop-qcrev d/x<^oiv roiv TroAcotv. Is. xii. 9. 7.
He accused both the states.
TO) x^^P^ ^^ ° 0€os €7roi7]crev. Xen. Ap. ii. 3. 18.
The hands which God made.
Twv avTMV Seovrai Kal ^ yvvrj kol 6 dvi/^p. PlAT. Men. 73.
The wife and the husband need the same things.
N.B. — 8vo agrees with a dual or plural noun, or verb —
a/i^o) and dfjLcfiOLv, generally with the dual ; dfjb<f>6T€po<s, more
commonly with plural than dual.
ejSovXeTO ot tw Trat^e d/x^oTe/oto Trapebvai. Xen. An. i. 1. 1.
He wished both his sons to be present.
dirkdavov ot (TTparrjyol dfxcfiOTepot. ThUC. V. 74. 2.
Both the generals ivere slain.
(5) A dual verb is found joined to a plural subject, or
several subjects, when the subjects are arranged or contrasted
THE PLURAL USED FOR THE SINGULAR. 21
singly or in pairs. This construction occurs several times in
Homer. (See Jelf, § 388. 1.)
SvvdjJL€L<s dfji<f>6T€pai icrrov Sd^a kol iTricTT'qix'q.
Pl. Bep. 478, B.
Both are faculties, opinion and certain knowledge.
So Aesch. Eum. 256, Xevcra-erov, of the chorus divided into
riixi\6pia.
§ 29. The Plural for the Singular is used —
(1) With proper names — ot 'HpaKAees re koI O-qa-ces, Plat.
Theaet. 169, B. Cf. Latin, Scipiones et Laelii ; English, Our
Burkes and Chathams. Cf . Aesch. Ag. 1439; Xen. An. iii. 2. 31.
(2) Very freely with abstract nouns, i.e. names of qualities,
denoting (as in Latin) instances or kinds of the quality — e.g.
fidviai, fits of madness ; cvvotat, instances of benevolence ; a-Toa-eis,
instances of revolution ; avSpCat, deeds of valour.
Some words are repeatedly used in this way — /3ioi, ddvaroi.,
modes or forms of life, death ; aK/xai, prime of life (flos aetatis) ;
vTTvoi, sleep, etc.
Tots ix€rpLOL<s ^rjXoL T€ Kttfc <j>66voL ovK kyylyvovTai.
Plat. Leg. 679.
Self-controlled persons are not subject to rivalry and envy (or
fits of rivalry, etc.).
(3) Terms of weather and time — BdXiry], depfioTrjns, heat;
\pv^€Ls, cold; x^^^C^h ^^^^y ojjL^poL, rain; avx/xot, drought;
7ra;(vat, f7'0St ; kpva-tfiai, mildew ; fxea-at vvktcs, midnight, vvktcs,
hours or ivatches of the night.
(4) Material Nouns — irvpot Kal KpiOai, wheat and barley.
But here a distinction is commonly made between singular
and plural, e.g. Kpeas, apiece of meat, Kpka,meat; ^vXov, a piece
ofivood, stick, cudgel, ^vXa, timber ; rjXLos, the sun, -qXioi, rays of
the sun; aXs, salt, aAes, salt-toorks ; Xoyia-fios, a reckoning,
XoyiTixoi (also Xoyta-jjios), arithmetic.
(5) The plural is often used for the singular in poetry to
heighten the effect by the vagueness of the expression — aifxaTa,
<f>6voi, blood or bloodshed; ttXovtoi, riches; dpovot, royalty, royal
22 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
commands; Sw/xara, a house; TrvAat, agate; avAat, a dwelling ;
yXit)(raai, the tongue.
(6) The neuter plural of verbals in -t€os, iTnxctprjTta,
dSvvara, and Trorepa, and many adjectives. See Verbal Adjec-
tives.
§ 30. The First Person Plural is used of a
Singular Subject
when (a) the author of a book refers to himself ; (b) especially
in the poets, often when a person speaks of himself as acting
with or for others.
(a) TovTO Treipaaofxeda Styj-yiqcracrOai. XeN. Cyv, viii. 1. 48.
This ive ivill endeavour to describe.
(&) ovK av yvvaiKiav y^cra-oves KaXotfied' av. SOPH. Ant. 680.
]Ve should not be called inferior to women.
In Plat. Symjpos. 186, b, one physician speaks in the plural
as representing the profession.
In tragedy a woman may speak of herself in the plural
masculine, sometimes in the singular masculine.
7recrov/xc^', et XPli '^^'^P^^ TifXiopovfievoL. SOPH. El. 399.
We will fall, if fall we must, avenging a father.
(Elektra is speaking).
In Eur. Hippol. 1103, the female Coryphaeus speaks of her-
self in masculine singular.
§ 31. Peculiarities of Person.
The second person singular is used, as in Latin, in an inde-
finite way like an impersonal expression.
efSes av, you might have seen ; rjy^a-a) av, you would {or might)
have thought ; YjyrjcraLo av, you would think (credideris).
For peculiarities of the third person, see Omission of the
Subject.
§ 32. Supplementary Predicates {See Introduction).
Certain adjectives are constantly so used. Such are {a)
TToXvq, ao-/x€vos, Ikwv, kKoxxTLos, aKdiv {invitus) ; {b) adjectives of
number, irporepos, tt/dwtos, SevTcpos, vcrrepos, ixTTaros, Sevrepatos
SUPPLEMENTARY PREDICATES, 23
(on the second day), Tpiraios (on the third day) ; (c) words refer-
ring to time or place, 6pdpio<s, in the morning ; xp^vloSj late ;
at^viSto?, suddenly ; o-Koraios, CTKOTtatos, in the dark ; Troa-Talos,
in how many days ?
6 'A(r(07ros TTora/xos cppvT] fieyas. ThUC. ii. 5. 2.
The river A sopus flowed imth a strong stream.
dcfiLKvovvrat al^viBioL. ThUC. viii. 14. 1.
They arrive suddenly.
KaKos €KO)v ovScis. Plat. Tim. 86,
No one is deliberately wicked.
CTTTOvSas Xvovcrtv ol Trporepoi iTrtovres. ThUC. i. 123. 3.
The breakers of treaties are the first aggressors.
Observe the following distinctions (Kriiger, p. 229) : —
TrpoJTOs M.r]dvfxvrj irpocrk^aXe.
He was the first who attacked Methymne.
irpcaTy M.rj6vfivy Trpoa-e^aXe.
Methymne ivas the first place he attacked.
TrpwTOV M-qOvpivy TT/oocre^aAe.
His first act v)as to attack Methymne.
The Greek adjective is more freely used in this way than
the Latin, but see Roby, Lat. Gr., 1069.
§ 33* Peculiarities in the Construction of the
Attributive or Epithet.
A Substantive is sometimes used as an attributive to another
Substantive —
(1) Commonly with dvrip, avOpmiros, yvvrj, e.g. dvrjp oTrXiTrjs,
a heavy-armed soldier ; dvrjp Tvpawos, a despot ; ypavs ywrj, an
old woman; avdpuiTros TroXtrr^s, a citizen; dvrjp ^TrapriaTr^s, a
Spartan citizen. So dvSpes 'A^r^vatot, avS/aes StKao-rat, Athenians,
jurymen.
(2) Many miscellaneous Substantives are thus used as
Adjectives, especially in the poets, but some in prose also :
oXedpos MaKeSwv (ypa/A/xarevs), Dem. 9. 31. 18. 127, a scoundrel
of a Macedonian, or a pestilent Macedonian, cu pestilent scribe ;
oirXiTrjs (TTparos, K6(rp.os, EUR. Her. 699, 800. ; ykptav 6(fi6aXp,6s,
Eur. Or. 529 ; irapOkvo^ x^^P} ^^R. Phoen. 838 ; Xoyos e-n-aivos,
Plat. Phaedr. 260, B.
24 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
"EAAr^v for 'EAAt^vikos is often found, e.g. ol "EAAt^vcs
TreArao-Tat, Xen. An. vi. 5. 26. EuR. Eer. 130, o-toA^v
"EAAr^i/a,
Kai f>J Tvpavvov crx^j/^t' e'xwv. SoPH. ^?z^. 1169.
(3) When there are several attributives to one Substantive
the adjectives may be added one after another without con-
junctions (Asyndeton).
a.AAa Sopara €T)(^ov Tra^ea, fxaKpd, ocra dvrjp dv (jikpoi /xoAt?.
Xen. An. v. 4. 24.
They had other spears, stout, long, such as a man could with
difficulty carry.
Kal, however, often joins two adjectives, especially ttoXvs
with another adjective, where in English we omit the con-
junction, as one combined notion is formed : TroAAa Kal xa^^Tra,
TToAAci Kal ScLvd, many difficult things, many dangers; dyadot Kal
iraXaiol vofxoderat, good lawgivers of old, Plat. Fro. 326. Cf.
KaAos Kdyados (KaXo Kay ados), an aristocrat (in a political sense),
a perfect character (in a moral sense).
(4:) An adjective or participle may agree with the sense rather
than the form of the ivord.
(5 irepia-a-d TLfxr)del<s tckvov. EuR. Tro. 735.
Oh son, honoured exceedingly.
TO, fieipaKLa irpos dW'qXovs SiaXey6fi€V0i. Pl. Lach. 180.
The lads conversing together.
Cf. DeM. 21. 117, K€(j>aXrj, i^eXrjXvdm. Is. 6. 49, (fiva-eoa, os.
§ 34. Peculiarities of Apposition.
1. Partitive Apposition (or Sx^jfta KaO' oXov Kal fxcpr], i.e. the
^gure, or construction, of the whole and its parts).
In this construction the whole comes first, and afterwards in
apposition with it are its parts. The noun which contains the
whole should strictly be in the genitive, but it is desirable
at once to state it as the Subject or the Object of the sentence.
[The really logical construction with the whole in the
Genitive is seen here —
TWi/ TToAcwv at fi€v TvpavvovvTai, at Se SrjfiOKparovvTaL, at Se
dpuTTOKparovvTai. PlAT. Rep. 338.
Of states, some are despotic, others democratic, others aristo-
cratic.i
PECULIARITIES OF APPOSITION. 25
Awat ai yaev xpqa-rai eiVtv, at 8e KaKai. PlAT. Oorg. 499,
With regard to pains, some are good, others had.
ovTOi aAAos aAAa Aeyet. XeN. Anob. ii. 1. 15.
These men say some one thing, some another.
TTOXTiV epyov ti eKacTTO) Trpoa-TiraKTai. PlAT. Rep. 406.
To all and each some task is appointed.
KaOriixiS' aKpiov iK Trdyoiv . . .
iyepTL Kiviov dvSp^ dvrjp emppodois
KaKovcTLv. Soph. Ant. 411.
We ivere seated on the hill-top . . .
eagerly provoking each his fellow with bandied threats.
With a singular whole : — Xkyerai 4'^XQ V f^^^ ^°^^ ^X^''^? V ^^
avotav. Plat. Phaedr. 93.
2. A Substantive (with adjuncts) either in the Nominative
or Accusative may be in apposition to the verbal action. This
is known as the Nominative or Accusative in Apposition to
the Sentence.
KecvraL irecrovTe^, ttlo-tls ov crixLKpa TroAet. EUR. Rhes. 415.
{Some) have fallen and lie buried, no slight proof of loyalty
to the realm.
evSaifJiovoirfs, fxia-dov rjSLarrayv Xoytov. EUR. El. 231.
Blest be thou, the reward of sweetest tidings.
The stock example is —
'EAevT^v KTctvw/xei/, Mei'cAc^ Avttt^ v Trt/cpav. EUR. Or. 1098.
Let us slay Helen, sharp pain to Menelaus (i.e the death of
Helen will be a cruel blow to Menelaus).
3. A substantive is very often found in apposition to a pre-
ceding pronoun, or pronominal phrase, which draws attention
to what follows. Certain idioms of this kind are of the
commonest occurrence :
(a) Tovro, eK€ivo, avro tovto, a^ro preceding a substantive.
€K€Lvo KepSatvecv "qyetraL, t^v i^Sovt^v. PlAT. Rep. 606.
This it regards as gain (namely) pleasure.
TOVTO ye avTOf 17 ev/SovXia. PlAT. Rep. 428.
This particular quality, prudence.
In the same way must be explained the usage of aAAo rt,
ravr' dpa, tovto fxkv^ cva Tt, and many other expressions of
constant recurrence in Plato.
26 SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
Some constantly recurring Platonic phrases with aiVo.
avTo SiKaiocrvpr}, ideal justice, or justice in the abstract ; avro
fjieyeOos, abstract greatness as opposed to to h rjfxiv
fieyedosy concrete greatness.
(b) The numerals, eV, 8vo, rpia, Svolv Bdrepov [one of tiro),
Svoiv ra erepa, Svolv Set Odrepov (one of two things is necessary).
Svoiv Set ddrepoVj ^ 7r/0WTev6tv ^ dvyprjcrOai. Is. 6. 89.
One of tivo things we must do, either be first, (yr 'perish.
(c) TO Aeyo/Aevov {qiiod dicunt, quod dicitur), as the saying is ;
TO TTJs TrapoLjxtas (quod aiunt), according to the proverb ; KecjidXatov
(denique, ad summara) to sum up : a-rjixctov Se, TCKfxrjpcov 8e, as
an instance, in proof of this ; and many others.
TO Xeyofxevov, KdroTriv Trjs eoprrjs rJKOfxev. PlAT. Gorg. 477.
We are come too late for the feast, as the saying is.
'AOrjvaLOi irepl 86^r]<5 fidXXov icnrovSa^ov rj irepl )(^pr]fidTOiv.
TCKfxrjpiov Se' y^prjixara yap TrXeia-ra vTrep ^tAoTt/xta?
dvrjXoKrav. DeM. 20. 10.
The Athenians used to care more for reputation than money.
As a proof of this assertion, they spent vast sums of money
for a noble ambition.
(4.) Sometimes a genitive is found in apposition to a genitive
which is implied in a possessive pronoun or adjective : e.g. rd
Vfxerepa avTiov for tcI vfJLWv avTwv, 6 ifibs tov raXaiiroipov fHos,
the life of me, wretched one, tov TaXanr6pov agreeing with an
€fAov implied in l/x6?.
(5 dpUTTe dvSpiov, 'Adrjvaios wv, TroAews rrjs fxeyia-r-qs, etc.
(ttoAcws in apposition to 'AOifviov implied in 'A6r]vato<s).
Plat. Ap. xviii.
My excellent friend, you an Athenian, a citizen of the greatest
city, etc.
Cf. Aesch. Pers. 162, where a genitive and a possessive are
combined.
CHAPTEB 11.
THE AETICLE.
§ 35' Origin and Development of the Article.
*0, rj, TO (as well as 6s, 17, o) was originally a demonstrative.
Besides being a demonstrative it supplied the place of the
third personal pronoun, the relative, and the definite article.
The first point to bear in mind about 6, rj, to, is its
essentially demonstrative character.
In Homer 6, 7}, to is a demonstrative, both substantive and
adjective :
(a) Substantive : rdv vvv ixlv fivQcraa-a, of those things noiv
putting him in mind.
(b) Adjective : <f)di(T€i o-e to o-ov fxkvos, that thy courage
tvill mar thee.
It also takes the place of the third personal pronoun.
Try V 8' eyo) ov Xvcro), but that One (her) / will not free.
Tov Se kXv€. ^oLpos 'AttoAAwv, and Phoebus Apollo heard
that one (him).
It also does the work of the relative.
ai/aKTt, tov 'qvKofxos Te/ce Ayjtm, to the king, whom fair-
haired Leto bare.
The following examples show the transition in Homer from
the demonstrative to the definite article.
6 6' if^pa^e ^aAfceos "Apyjs.
And he, brazen Ares, roared.
Here the noun is in apposition to the demonstrative 6.
avrap 6 tolctl ykpmv 68bv 'qyofxovevev.
But he, the old man (or the old man), was leading the way.
a A A' oVe 5r) rr^v vqijov a^tKCTO.
But when now he came to that (the) island.
TO T€ (rdeV0<5 'Q,ptli)VO<S.
And the might of Orion.
THE ARTICLE.
So ol aXXoL, the rest ; rd t' eovra tol t ecroaevay the present
and the future.
The last examples show that the use of 6, 17, to as the
definite article is to be found as early as Homer.
It must be borne in mind however that such a use of
6, 17, TO in Homer is exceptional. According to old Greek
(Homeric) use, nouns stand without the article as in Latin.
ScLvr) Se KXayyrj yever' dpyvpkoio [Slolo.
And terrible arose the twang of the silver bow.
In Attic Greek prose 17 KXayyrj, tov /Slolo would be required.
To sum up therefore —
(a) OS, 7], o, originally demonstrative, became the relative
(with occasional traces in Attic of its older use).
(b) 6, rj, TO, originally demonstrative, became the definite
article (though instances occur in Attic of its use as a demon-
strative and as a relative).
(c) ovTos, 6Se, €K€Lvos took the place of 6, 17, to, as demon-
stratives in Attic. The third personal pronoun was in Attic
expressed by
(d) the oblique cases of avTos and (when necessary) in the
nominative by the demonstratives.
Obs. The origin and development of the definite article
from the demonstrative may be illustrated by English, German,
and French.
Thus in English the relatives who, what, which were
originally interrogatives only. The demonstrative still is
constantly used by us as a relative, e.g. I know the person that
you speak of
In German der is still demonstrative, definite article, and
relative.
In French the personal pronoun il and the definite article
le both come from the demonstrative ille.
§ 36. Survivals of the older usages of 6, 07, to, and
OS, rjy o, in Attic Greek.
I. 6, rj, TO as a demonstrative :
With [xev and Se, 6, 17, to is freely used in all its cases.
6 [M€v — 6 Se, the one, the other ; ol /xev — ol 8c, some, others ; with
THE ARTICLE IN ATTIC GREEK. 29
Tis, 6 /xev Tts — 6 Se ; to (to,) [jXv — to (toI) 8e, to ^k tl, partly ;
TJ fx€v — rfj 8€, this way, that way ; to Se, whereas ; tov Kal t6v,
this one and that one ; to koX to, this and that.
cSet yap to Kai to iroLrjcrai /cai to /x-^ iroirjcrai. Dem. 9. 68.
/Fe ought to have done this and that, and not to have done
the other.
Cf. Soph. Ant. 557.
Observe the constant use of 6 (ot) iikv at the beginning of
a sentence, instead of repeating the noun.
*lva/3ws 'A6r]vaLov<s eirrjydyeTO. ol 8e rjXOov. ThUC. i. 104.
Inarus invited the Athenians. So they came.
II. 6, 17, TO as a personal pronoun (a rare use).
Kal TOV KeXeva-aL Sovvai (AeycTat). XeN. Cyr. i. 3. 9.
And it is said that he ordered.
Cf. Soph. Ant. 1199.
III. As a relative (a not uncommon use in the tragedians).
SiTrXfj /xao-Ttyt ttjv "Ap-qs (fitXci. AeSCH. Ag. 642.
With the twofold scourge that Ares loves.
IV. OS, rj, 6 used as a personal pronoun with Kai
ovSets dvreXeye' Kal 6s rjyciro. Xen.
No one opposed, and so he acted as guide.
It is rare, except in the common phrase ^ 6' os.
IcTTfc T6S, 'icfirjv eyw ; ttolvv ye, ■^ S' 6s. PlAT. Ap. iv.
Is there any one ? said I. Certainly, said he.
THE ARTICLE IN ATTIC GREEK.
§ 37» '^'^0 points must be remembered :
1. The Article is essentially demonstrative.
2. The old usage was to omit the Article with definite
objects (see § 35). This old usage survived in many
instances, and hence to a great extent the fluctuating use
of the Article in Attic.
The Article corresponds generally to the English
definite article fhe. It marks off objects as known and
definite whether (A) individuals or (B) classes.
30 THE ARTICLE.
- (A) The Article denotes individual persons or things
which are definite, because —
(a) Already known ;
(6) Already mentioned ;
(c) Distinguished from other objects, often by some
accompanying description ;
{a) Twv eirra ao(l>(OTaTO<; rjv ^o\(ov. Plat.
Of the seven sages Solon was the wisest.
(h) BovXevofiev 6eol<; b tl ttot eiaLv ol OeoL EURIP.
We are slaves to gods, whatever these gods may he.
(c) TTpea^VTepo^ aSeXc^o?.
The elder brother.
r] 7ro\fc9 r)V TToXtopKovfiev.
The city vAich we are investing.
€\a/3ov T^9 ^(ovrjf; rov Opdvrrjv. Xen.
They seized Orontes hy the girdle.
This last example shows how the Article is used where
in English we employ a possessive pronoun.
€Ka(TTO<; Tcov B7]/jbLovp<ycov T7]v re'^vrjv Ka\a)<i
e^€ipyd^€To. Plat.
Each one of the artisans (just mentimied) used to
practise his art well.
Obs. The English article the was so used for the possessive
in old English. See Bacon's Advancement of Learning, ed.
Wright; Glossary — The.
(B) The Article denotes the whole of a class, with
substantives or adjectives, in singular or plural.
prjTcop, the {'professional) speaker ; ol linrel^, the
knights ; ol ao^oL avhpe^;, luise men; 6 (j>poi/ifjLo<;y
the prudent man ; ol Trovrjpol, bad men.
THE ARTICLE WITH PARTICIPLES. 31
7rat9 TravTcov Orjptcjv BvafieTa')(^eipi(7TOTaTov.
Plat.
A hoy (i.e. hoys) is of all creatures the most difficult to
manage.
§ 38. The Article with Participles.
The article used in this way with a participle has the force
of a general statement, e.g. 6 /JovAo/xevo?, any one who wishes
(quicunque vult) ; 6 tvx^J^j (^ny chance comer or person.
a-KavB' 6 rov ^-qTOvvros evpta-Kei ttovo?.
The toil of one ivho seeketh findeth all.
It is synonymous with the use of 7ras 6 (with adjective or
participle).
Tras 6 ijJq <})povMv aXiaK^raL. MeN. 714.
Every one who does not think is exposed.
§ 39' T^^ Article with Numerals.
The article may be used with cardinal numerals either to
mark a definite whole, or the definite parts of a whole, e.g. ra
8vo peprj, two-thirds (cf. Thuc. i. 10 and iii. 15); a/A</>t tov<s
eiKoa-L, about twenty in all.
Twv iracrCiv rpirjpoiv ras ScaKOcrias 17 iroAis 7rapecr\€To.
The state furnished two hundred of the whole number of ships.
§ 40. Fluctuating use and omission of the Article.
Either (a) The ancient usage has survived when the use of
the article had not become established.
Or (b) The word is sufficiently definite by itself from
familiar reference, so that it does not need
the article.
Or (c) The article is omitted because the vague and
general conception of a word, the mere idea
of a thing, is entertained apart from its mani-
festation in a person or event, or its relation
to persons, things, and facts.
The equally fluctuating use of the article in English will go
far to explain and illustrate the Greek usage.
32 THE ARTICLE.
§ 41. The Article with Objects of external nature.
6 ovpavos, rj yrj, 6 ijXios, 17 BdXacro-a, 6 wKeavos. But also
ovpavos, yrj, wKeavds.
So eirl daXaTTT), 071 sea (sur mer) ; vSwp ej ovpavov, rain from
heaven; Trepl rjkiov Svar/jids, at sunset.
§ 42. The Article with Material objects.
TO yaAa, 6 XP^'^os, also yaAa, ^/o^cros (KaOaipeLV xpvcrov, PlAT.
Po/i/5. 303).
§ 43. The Article with Familiar places, things,
and persons.
Here the article is generally omitted according to ancient
usage.
€K TToXews, Trpos dcTTV, to toiun (but also 7r/)os TO ao-Tv) ; e^w
'laSp^ov (and €v tw 'lcrdfx(^), kv aKpoiroXei.
oLTTo Se^ia?, eg dpLo-repas, on the right, on the left; dpxri,
reXevry], evpos, fxrJKOS, fSddo^, p^yJKOS, fJLeyedos, vxj/os.
Many military phrases :
€7rt 80/ov, to the right {sjpearwards) ; kwi or Trap' dcnrl^a, to the
left (shieldwards) ; em -rroSa, backwards, facing the enemy. So
(TTpaTOs, a-Tpdrevfia, crTpaTOTreSov, Kepas cvwvv/xov, Se^tov, left
wing, right wing.
ISaa-iXevs is the (Persian) king; /Saa-iXevs 6 /xeyas, 01
irpoyovoi, ol /Saa-iXeuis. So TrpvrdviLs, the Presidents of the
Council
§ 44. The Article with Abstract and other words.
Here the use is very fluctuating.
rj dperi^, virtue ; 17 dvSpeia, courage ; -^ hiKaiocrvvq, justice ;
rj <T(ii^po(Tvvr], temperance ; rj eVteiKeia, equity.
But abstract terms often occur without the article.
Kemark (c) above especially applies. In the same section in
Plat. Eep. i. 354. we have
ovScttot' dpa XvcriTeXcG'Tepov dSiKia SiKaLOcrvvrjs,
Never, therefore, is injustice mm'e profitable than justke,
and
XvcTLTeXea-Tepov dpa rj dSiKia T7J<s SiKatoa-vvr]<s.
WITH PROPER NAMES. 33
§ 45. The Article with Concrete Words.
So with concrete words, the article being omitted either
because of the mere idea of the thing or its familiarity : o-w/xa,
injxj, body, soul ; Oeos, God (no special divinity) ; av9poi7ros,
man; TraiSe? Kal yvvaiKes, women and children; iraT pis, father-
land; TToAts, state or country.
§ 46. The Article with names of Arts, etc.
Names of arts, trades, and sciences do not take the article :
fiova-LK-q, yvfxvaa-TLK'q, education, mental and physical;
pTjToptK-q, rhetoric; dpiOprjTLK'q, Xoyia-fioL, arithmetic,.
numeration.
Similarly, Bo^a, vov<s, re^vr;, vo/xos, opinion, mind, art, law.
§ 47. The Article with Proper names of persons
and places.
Names of persons and towns do not require the article unless
previously mentioned, or spoken of as well known.
'ZojKpaTYjs, but 6 ^oiKpaT'r]^, either Socrates already men-
tioned, or the well-known Socrates, Socrates ille. So G^j/^at,
at (drj^at. 'AXe^av8o<s 6 MafceSwv, 'AXe^avSpos 6 ^iXiinrov,
Alexander son of Philip. Also in short business-like notices,
HiiDKpdrrjs 2(o(/)/oovt(rKov, Socrates, son of Sophroniscus.
The same rule applies to names of nations, but ol '^EXXrjves
always when opposed to ol BdpPapoc When nationalities are
opposed (as we say " French and English ") the article is not
\ised,e.g. 'AOrjvaioL, AaKeSaLpLovioi (so repeatedly in Thucydides).
ot A.r)fxocr6€V€L<s, orators like Demosthenes (as we say, our
Burkes, our Chathams).
§ 48. The Article with Geographical names.
With geographical names the use and position of the article
are extremely fluctuating. The following collocations are
generally given as the rule, and may safely be employed.
6 'E,v(f)pdTrjs TTorafios, the river Euphrates ; to Iovvlov dnpov, the
promontory of Sunium ; 17 Geo-Trptoris 777, the land of Thresprotis ;
r) ArjXos vrjo-os, the island of Delos ; rj MevStj itoXls, the city of
Mende.
ns^ c
34 THE ARTICLE.
But the following are given as a caution against dogmatism :
o TTora/Aos o ^v(j)pdTy]S, "AXv<s Trora/xos. ThTJC.
TO AiyaXecov opos (the hill of Aegaleum) ; Ildpvrj<s to opos,
rj Altvt] to opos, TO opos r] 'lo-TWvr;, to opos ttJs 'Io-twvt^s, Ilti/Sos
opos (all in Thucydides).
So r] ^iqOvs TO ovofxa, to ovofxa ot Saifioves (PlATO) ; ovofia
^dyKXr), ThUC.
Cf. rj BovXrj 01 TrevraKocTiOL, the Council of the Five Hundred.
Thuc. viii. 86.
Note. The preposition seems to exercise an influence on the
omission of the article. Thus Itti a-Krjvyjv rjca-av, Xen. An.
vi. 4. 19. €7rt /SXdfSrj rrjs TroXeois, ThUC. viii. 72. Trept dpiorrQV
wpav, Thuc. vii. 81. h apxy rov Xoyov, Dem. 37. 28.
§ 49. THE NOUN-MAKING POWER OF THE
ARTICLE.
The Article, when prefixed to any word or set of words,
makes a noun of the word or words thus brought within
its grasp.
{a) Adjectives ;
o\ a^aQoi, good, men, to ayaOov, the highest good,
summum bonum.
ot TToXXoL, the popular party, populares.
ot oXiyoi, the oligarchical party, optimates, optimus quisque.
(V) Participles;
ol l3ov\6fjL6voc, all ivho will, quicunque vult ; ol irpwTOL
ep')(piJbevoi, first- comers.
Observe the indefinite force which the Article gives to
a Participle.
(c) Preposition and case ;
ol eirl Tcov Trpay/jLaroyv, the government.
Ttt ets Tov TToAe/xov, preparations for vjar.
Tct €cf> r^puv, ivJmt is in our power.
(d) Genitive;
TCI T^9 Tv^rj^, the dispensations of fortune ; tcl t7]<;
NOUN-MAKING POWER OF ARTICLE. 35
7roXeft)9 (without irpd^iiaTo), the affairs of the state ^
politics.
TO Tov Qe/xiCTTOKXeovsj the words of Themistocles, Themis-
toclis illud.
(e) Infinitives ;
TO jjLva-elv, hatred; to tu^v \a\etv, rapid talking
(rod Ta'^v XaXelv, etc.).
So with a sentence, to ifie tovto Trpa^ac.
(/) Adverbs;
ol evdaZe, the living ; ol eKelj the dead ; ol TrdXac, the
ancients, ol t6t6, ol vvv, ol olkol = ol ev o'lKfo t6t€.
•rj TrapavTLKa rjSovjj momentary pleasure ; r\ ayav eXevdepia^
excessive '"
Note 1. So with a word or even a letter used materialiter,
TO eyw, the word I (similarly in French — le moi est haissable) ;
TO aXcfia (Plat. Crat. 405), the letter Alpha.
vpeL<S, (J) avSpes ' Kdi)vaiOL. — to 8' v/xets OTav ecTro) ttjv ttoXlv
Xeyii). Dem. 255. 4.
You, Athenians, and ivhenever I say you, I mean the state.
vTrepejSr] to kol lav aX<^ cjiovov. DeM. 23. 220.
He omitted the words, " and if he be convicted of murder."
TO yvojOi cravTOV TravTaxov 'cttl xp-ja-tpov.
Menander, Fr. 730.
The adage, know thyself, is useful ever.
Note 2. Instead of repeating a noun it is enough to repeat
the Article.
01 Twv TToXiTiov TratSes Ko,t ol Ttoy aXX(x)v (sc. TratSes).
.The children of the citizens and those of the others.
Note 3. When two or more terms are joined so closelj'-
together as to form one notion, or when they may be brought
under one head the article is put only once.
ot (TTpaTrjyol kol Xoxayoi.
The chief officers, namely generals and captains of companies.
6 o^Atos KOL creX'qv'q kol axrTpa.
The heavenly bodies, sun, moon, and stars.
36 THE ARTICLE.
§50. THE ARTICLE DISTINGUISHES THE
SUBJECT FROM THE PREDICATE.
The Subject takes the Article, the Predicate is without
the Article.
o jjuev hiKaio^ evSaLficov, 6 B aBcKOf; adXto<;. Plat.
The just man is hajppy, the unjust man is miserable.
This function of the Article belongs to it in conse-
quence of its demonstrative character. All demonstratives
mark the Subject.
€V UepcraL^ vojjlo^ ecmv ovto<;.
Among the Persians this is law (this Subject, law
Predicate).
KLvr](TLS yap avTrj ix^yia-rrj 8r) tois "YtXXrja-Lv eyevero.
Thuc. i. 1.
For this proved to be quite the greatest movement in the Greek
world.
The Subject and Predicate, in whatever case they are,
can always be detected immediately by the presence of
the Article or Demonstrative with the Subject.
o /jbdvTL<; Tov<;- X070U? ^/reuSeZ? XeycL.
The words which the seer speaks are false.
Tov(i \oyov<;, Subject ; -i^euSet?, Predicate.
TavTT) (Subject) airdXoyia (Predicate) '^prJTat.
He makes use of this as an excuse.
Tov^ Be \6yov^ jxaKporepov^ fjbrjKvvov/JLev. Thuc. iv. 1 7.
We will extend our speech to a greater length.
Ohs. With a Superlative Predicate in English we use the
Article where Greek does not.
ovroi el(ri -KOvqporaTOi dvOpatTTiov.
These are the most worthless of mankind.
POSITION OF THE ARTICLE. 37
§51. The Article with the Predicate.
Sometimes the Predicate itself is definite, or denotes a class,
and in this case takes the Article.
ovToi ot Setvot eto-fc /aov Kwrr^yopoi. PlAT. Ajpol. ii.
These are those {really) formidable accusers of mine.
§52. POSITION OF THE ARTICLE.
A. THE PREDICATIVE POSITION.
B. THE ATTRIBUTIVE POSITION.
A. The Predicative Position. An Adjective or Par-
ticiple placed outside the Article and its Noun, whether
before or after, is a Predicate.
(TO(j>o<; 6 avTjp \
or >- the man is wise.
avrjp ao<po^ J
B. The Attributive Position. Any word or set of words
placed either (a) between the Article and the Noun, or
ih) after the Noun, with the Article repeated, is an Attri-
butive.
cro(^})<s avrip, the wise man.
6 avrjp 6 <TO<j>o<;, do.
The first form is the most natural, and the most common.
In the second form the attributive is often used as a further
explanation.
TO Tel')(p<i TrepielXov to Kaivov. Thuc.
They dismantled the wall, the new one I mean.
Any word or set of words thus placed becomes attri-
butive to the Noun.
6 Trdvv IlepoKXrj^. Xen. Mem. iii. 5. 1 (cf. Thuc. viii.
1 and 89.)
The consummate Pericles.
38 THE ARTICLE.
If] irapavTiKa r)Bovr].
Momentary pleasure.
rj ayav ekevOepua.
Excessive liberty.
al avev Xvttcjv 7]Sovai.
Painless pleasure.
TO Tel')(p<; TO irapa tov iroTafxov,
The wall alongside the river {the river vmIT).
6 TravToov KaWcaTO^ Kau iracn <^i\TaTo^ avrip.
The handsomest and hest-heloved man in the world.
Note 1. This attributive or epithet- making power of the
Article is shown by the following examples : —
ot ofJLoXoyovixevois SovXol. DeM. 29. 39.
Those who confessedly are slaves.
TO, Ti^s Twv TToAAwv xj/vx^js ofxfxaTa. Plat. Soph. 254.
The eyes of the soul of the many.
2oXwV ijXLCTGi rOVS oToS OVTO-S dvOpCOTTOVS. DEM. 19. 254.
Solon used to hate men such as this person.
kv T<J) Trplv Koi yevecrOat ^fMa<s XP^^^' PlAT. Fhaed. 88 a.
In the time before we came into being at all.
Note 2. When such collocations as the following are found,
— avOpoiTTOL ol Tore, dSiKLa r] aKparos, the Substantive, without
the Article, is generally first used in an indefinite way and
therefore without the Article; the Attributive follows with
the Article as an explanation.
(TK€7rT€0V TTtOS TTOTC 7] aKpttTOS SlKaiOCrVVq TT/OOS dSlKtaV TTjV
aKparov ex^t. Pl. Eep. viii. 535.
We must consider how pure justice is related to an injustice
which is pure (sheer, unmixed).
Note 3. A Predicate may occur inside an attributive phrase.
at dpicrrai SoKovcrai eivai c^vo-ei?. XeN. Ap. 4. 1. 3.
Those natures which appear to be the best, or which appear to
be the best natures.
FORMS USED WITH GENITIVE. 39
So especially with 6 Aeyo/>tevo?, ovo/Aa^o/xevo?, KaXov/xei/os.
TO KoTvAatov ovojaa^o/zevov o/aos. AeSCHIN. 3. 86.
jT/i^ hill of Cotylaeum as it is called. Mons Cotylaeus qui
dicitur.
And regularly ol ^AOrjvatoi KaXovjxevoi.
§53. WHEN A GENITIVE FOLLOWS, SEVERAL
FORMS ARE USED.
1. 97 Tov iraToo^ oitcia. 1 m-i , c
; , , \ , \ The commonest forms.
2. 9; oi/cta Tou Trarpo^. )
3. 97 ot/c/a 97 TOV iraTpo^. Less common.
r This form is used when the
V , , , I Genitive has been used
^ ' just before, or is empha-
^ sised.
In accordance with the last position, — tov x^ptov rj airopia,
ThUC. iv. 29 ; 776/31 TOV ixia-dov TTJs aTToSoa-eios. Thuc. viii. 85.
Note. Where there are two or more Attributives, some one
or other of the above arrangements is employed.
(a) According to the first position —
fjLefJLvrjorde Trjs €V 2aAa/xivt tt/jos tov Tiepa-Tjv vav/Aa^tas.
Aesch. 2. 74.
(b) According to the third position, which renders the
Attributes more distinct —
17 (repLvrj avrrj kol OavpacrTr] y) t"^? TpaywSi'as Trotrja-is,
Plat. Gorg. 502.
One Attributive, however, is often put after the Article and
Substantive.
TO, Ik rrjs 'lao-ov peyaXa ^py^fiara StapTracrdevra.
Thuc. viii. 36.
6 KaTetAry^o)? klvSvvos ttjv ttoXlv. DeM. 18. 220.
at TToAAot fSpovTal StaTeAcis. SOPH. O.C. 1513.
40 THE ARTICLE.
§ 54. THE PREDICATIVE POSITION IS USED BY
(a) 0VT09, 6Se, eKGLvo^.
ovTO<; 6 avTjp \
or V this man,
6 dvTjp ovTO<;, )
rjSe 7) TToXf? "I
or Kthis state.
T) TToXt? rjSe, }
Kara rov^ vofjLov<; eKeivov^ \
or y according to these laws.
Kar eK6LVov<^ tov<; i^o/xof?, J
(&) eKarepo^, a/ji(f)co, a/jLCJ^orepof;.
ev eKarepa rrj iroXet, in each state.
a/jLcf>a> Tco %et/3e, hoth hands.
eir dfi^orepoL^ to2^ Xijieo-L, off hoth harbours.
Note. Where there is an Adjective also the usage varies.
07 o-Tcvr) avTY) 080s. Xen. Anob. iv. 2. 6.
This narrow way.
But €K€Lvr] rj vipr]XoTdTY) irXdravos. PlAT. Fhaed. 229.
That most lofty plane.
(c) €KaaTo<; is variable.
6v eKaaTTj ry iroXei Kara rrjv rj/juepav eKaajTjv
or ev eKaaTTj TroXet. or kuO rnxepav eKaaTTjv.
In each state. Day hy day.
Note. The Demonstratives, especially oSe, are often used in
the poets without the Article.
yvi'aiKos rrja-Se. AeSCH. Ag. 1438.
^vv rySe x^P^- SoPH. Antig. 43.
And also in their deictic use.
K/otTcuv KpLTo/BovXov TovSc TTaTrjp. Plat. Apol. xxii.
Crito, father of Critobulus, here {in court).
THE ATTRIBUTIVE POSITION.
§ 55. THE ATTRIBUTIVE POSITION IS USED BY
(a) TOLOVTO^f TOLO^Se.
77 roLavTT) e7rccrT7]/jL7}, such knowledge,
ev T7J TOLaBe avayKrj, in such a difficulty.
Note. 6 TOLovTos, such a person; Iv tw tolovto), in sv/^h a case.
The Article is also so used with ttolos: Tyj<s iroias ijl€pl8o<5;
Dem. 246, 10, of what division ? OeXw o-ol t^s ywaiKos €pya
Strjyqa-aa-dai. ret TTota ; Xen. Dec. X. 1, I want to describe to
you the deeds of the woman. What deeds ?
So 6 TotovTos, 6 TotosSe : 6 r^XtKovros, 6 rr^AiKosSe : 6
Toa-ovros, o rocrdsSe : e.^. 6 toioiJtos avi^p, S2iC^ ft man ; Xafik to
Totd;/8€, Plat. Phil. 29, ^a^e a c^^se of this kind.
(h) Possessives, efJLo<;, ao^^ rjfjuirepo^, vfierepo^, at^erepo^.
6 i/jLO<; BovXo<; or o BovXo<; fiov (fjbou 6 Bov\o<; when
My slave, servus meus. [words have preceded).
o i^fjU6T6po<; '7raT7}p or TraT7)p rjfiwv (tj/jLwv 6 Trarrjp).
Pater noster.
Note, e/xos SovXos, a slave of mine, one of my slaves^ unus ex
servis meis.
For the position, p.ov 6 SovXos, see Arist. Ach. 12, Neph.
1368, Antiph. Tetr. b. b. 2, Andok. de Myst. 50. os e^et a-ov
rrjv dSeXfjirjv, who is married to your sister.
(c) Reflexives.
6 6/jLavTov 7raT7]p, my oivn father.
oa-a 8rj SeS-qyfxai rrjV epLavrov KapSiav. ArIST. Ach. 1.
How oft have I fretted this heart of mine.
Cf. Andok. de Redit. 10,
§ 56. Words which vary their meaning according
to the position of the Article.
(a) Tras and oAos.
6 Tras xpo^os = eternity. Apol. xxxii.
42 THE ARTICLE.
1. Tracra ttoAi?, every state (but in plural, iravr^<s av9po)7roL,
all men).
2. Tracra i} ttoAis, a// the state.
3. 17 Trao-a ttoAis, ^A^ ?i;Ao/e s^a^e, ^Ae state as a whole.
6 Tras dpidfios, the sum total.
There seems to be no appreciable difference between 2
and 3.
4. TO. iravra [xepr], all the parts together.
5. Tovs Trai/ras SicrxtAtov?, two thousand in all, or all told.
^vfjLTravres eTrraKocnoL oTrAtrat, seven hundred heavy-armed
all told.
6. €v Trda-Yj TToXefiLi} ^LKeXi<^, in Sicily altogether hostile.
7. XvTrr) Trds iXrjXaTai KaKrj, SOPH. Ai. 275 (cf. //. xi. 65),
he is altogether harassed (all vexed) vnth ill grief.
t) ttoXls oXr], J
rj o T] TTo^ ts I ^j^^ whole state, the state as a whole.
rj TToAi? r] oArj, J
oAt^ TToAfcs, a whole state. oAat TroAet?, whole states.
(b) fXGcros, oLKpos, 'icrxaTO<s.
rj fxea-rj dyopd, the central market.
fxecrr] rj dyopd, the centre of the market.
Forum medium for both in Latin.
err' aKpoLs toU kwAois, at the extremities of the limbs.
6 aKpos TToXirrj^, the perfect {tip-top) citizen. Donaldson.
rj kcrxdrrj vrjcro?, the furthest island,
icrxdrrj rj vrja-os, the end {or verge) of the island.
(c) a-UTOS.
avTos 6 dvrjp, the man himself, ipse vir.
6 avTos dvyjp, the same man, idem vir.
Note, diras, (TVjXTras, all, the whole ; o-u/xTrao-a TroAts, dper'q, the
state, virtue as a whole, or the whole of, etc. (ttcis is sometimes so
used in poetry). Observe the predicative use of Tra? —
ov TToiv dyaOov rjSovrj eo-rt. PlAT. Phil. 27. 28.
Pleasure is not altogether a blessing.
OBLIQUE OR DEPENDENT PREDICATES. 43
§ 57' Oblique or Dependent Predicates.
An Oblique or Dependent Predicate is simply a Predicate
which is not in the Nominative case, but in the Genitive,
Dative, or Accusative, most often in the Accusative.
This is an exceedingly common construction in Greek, and
one which has to be rendered in many different ways into
English. The essential point to notice is that the Predicate,
in whatever case, is the really important statement, or
emphatic word.
The simplest case is where the Accusative is used with
Transitive Verbs of making, naming, appointing, deeming,
etc.
01 KoAa/ces 'AAe£avS/oov Q^ov (hvofia^ov.
Flatterers used to call Alexander a god.
ot Tlkpa-at Tov l^vpov €i\ovTO jSaaiAea.
The Persians chose Cyrus king {to he king).
6 TOV I^TTCi) XoyOV KpeiTTCi) TTOIWV. PlAT.
W^ho makes the worse reason (appear) the better.
§ 58. Very often the Greek language expresses a Prolepsis
{i.e. an anticipation of the result) by this construction.
irapacTKevda-avTes evreXrj Traa-av Trjv Svvafjiiv.
Dem. Phil. 1. 9.
Providing all your force so that it shall be complete.
{bicrre evreXrj etvai. Of. ThUC. iv. 17, fxaKporcpovs.)
Cf. Latin — paullatimque anima caluerunt mollia saxa {=ita ut
mollia Jierent), Juv. i. 83.
So av^dvo) TLva fxkyav. Cf. AeSCH. Ch. 262, fieyav.
So SiSdcTKO) Tivd linrka (sc. eivai), I teach one to be a horseman.
§ 59* With the verb e'xw by an idiomatic usage, similar to
the French, the properties of persons or things are described
by this construction.
KaXovs e'x^^ Tovs 6cjiOaXfjLov<s.
He has fine eyes, his eyes are fine.
II a les yeux beaux (so il a le front large, etc. etc.)
In such examples, e'x^^ (like xp^I^oll with Dative) is merely
an alternative for the copulative verb elfxi. The use of habeo
44 THE ARTICLE.
in Latin is parallel; {e.g. cum haberet collegam in praetura
Sophoclem, Cic. Off. !, when S. was his colleague in command).
TO o-w/xa dvrjTov aTravres '^xofiev. ISOCR. Fhil. 134.
W^e all have mortal bodies.
§ 60. Sometimes we must, in translating, make the Oblique
Predicate the real Predicate, turning the rest of the sentence
into a relative sentence, or using some such device,
a^ttoaare Sltto'vs fJ'OV tovs KaTr]y6pov<s yeyovevai.
Plat. A_pol ii.
Consider that my accusers who have a;p]peared fall under two
heads,
ov yap efxbv ipio tov Aoyov, dAA' els a^to^/aewi/ vfJLiv rbv
Xeyovra dvotcro). PlAT. Apol. V.
The words which I shall use are not mine: the speaker to
whom I shall refer you is trustworthy.
LKavov irapkyo}xaL tov fidpTvpa. PlAT. Apol. xviii.
Competent is the witness whom I produce.
ov yap ^dvavcrov tyjv T€)(yr]v iKT-qcrdfJLrjv. SOPH. Ai. 1121.
Ay, for 'tis no mechanic art that I acquired. (Of. Electra.)
rovpyov ov fiaKpdv Aeyets. SoPH. Fhil. 26.
The task thou settest is not far to seek.
§ 61. Very often, especially in the poets, o8e is the subject
to an Oblique Predicate. The Predicate is often an interro-
gative. We may often translate this demonstrative in English
by " here," " herein."
(XTro/a^ ye TwSe f v/xTrcTrAey/xc^a ^evo). EUR. Bacch. 800.
Truly an unmanageable stranger this we have come across.
(aTTopo) Predicate, T$8e Subject.)
TTOtatcrt ToA/xats ratsSe Kal <^pevQ>v OpdaeL ; SoPH. Ai. 42.
}Fith what hardihood herein, and boldness of soul ?
(TToiata-t the Predicate, raUSe the Subject.)
Of. Ant. 1295, rSSe—Sevrepov.
So, like the last —
TTOO-ov dyet to (rrpdrevfjia ;
Holo many battalions does he bring into the field .?
Tavry aTToXoyi,^ ^prJTaL. DeM. 49. 63.
He makes this an excuse.
WITH GENITIVE AND DATIVE. 45
Many excellent instances of the Oblique Predicate occur in
Antiph. TetT. B. B. 10. 11, 1. a. 2, Eerod. 1, 9, 11, 16, 18,
84, 93; Ant. 1178.
§ 62. Oblique Predicates are found in Latin, but they
can be detected only by the emphatic or artificial position
of a word.
Omnem crede diem tibi diluxisse supremum.
HOR. Ep. I. iv. 13.
Live every day as though thy last.
Compare the example below, § 65, a^Ua-av rr^v Sokoi/, with a
line in Propertius —
Fidaque suggesta castra coronat humo. Prop. v. 4. 8.
He enrings a trusty camp by throwing up the soil.
§ 63. Oblique Predicates in the Genitive and Dative.
rjyovfJLevoi avrovofxiov to tt/owtov ^vixfid)(0)v. ThUC i. 97.
At the head of allies who at first were independent.
TOVTiDV Ticrl (fivXa^iv ixpyJTO.
Some of these he was using as guards.
Cf. Soph. Antig. 556.
§ 64. Free use of the Oblique Predicate.
Sometimes it expresses a mere emphasis.
fieydXy rfj <f)(j)vfi i/Soa.
He cried with a loud voice.
KaravrX-qcras ttoXvv rov Xoyov. PlAT. Rep. 1. 344.
Having deluged us ivith a long sermon.
§ 65* Sometimes we shall have to translate more freely.
(xtt' 6pdrj<s Kal SiKatas rrjs ^V)(rjs rot Travra fiot TreTrpaKrai.
Dem. 18. 298.
JFith uprightness and integrity of heart I have done all (in the
uprightness and integrity of my heart).
d(j>U(Tav Tr)v Sokov xa^ct/oat? TCtiS dAvo-ecrt. ThUC. ii. 76.
They were lowering the team by loosening the chains (with the
chains loosened).
46 THE ARTICLE.
§ 66. Idiomatic Phrases with the Article.
TToXAot, many, ot TroAAoi, ^Ae many, the iJeople. Populares.
TrAeoves, more. 01 TrAeoves, ^Ae majority. Maior pars.
oXtyoL, feiv. 01 oXiyoi, the oligarchical party or faction. Opti-
mates, optimus quisque (also ot dyadot, etc.)
aAAot, others. ol aAAot, the others, the rest. Ceteri.
TO (rot) vvv, TO Tijfxepov, the present ; to avriKa, the present.
(6 avTLKa (^o^osr), momentary terror ; rj avpiov, the morrow.
to fxeXXov^ TO hreiTa, the future ; 6 CTretTa ySios (PlAT.), /^g
TO AotTTov, Tot XoiTTo^ for thc futwe, for the rest.
TO TTpiV, TO Trdpos, TO TTpoddev, the past or former time
(chiefly poetical phrases) ; to a/axaiov, to -n-aXaiov, of
old ; TO, irapeXBovTaj Tot TrapeXrjXvdora, the past (in prose).
TO TOT€, €v TO) TOT€, cit that timc / ev Tw TT/Jo Tov, prcviously.
TO 7r/3WTOV, ft^ j^rs/ / TO TcAevTaiov, at last (so TO SevTcpov,
TO rpLTOv).
Tct TToAAa, /or ^Ae ??zos^ ^ar/ (so to ttAcov, to, irAeiw) ; to
fxeyLo-Tov, for the greatest part, or the chief point ; to.
fxaXia-ra, in the highest degree ; tos i-n-l to ttoAv, for the
most part ; to -k^v, I? to Tzdv, on the whole.
rd Tijs Tvx^?, Fortune and her dealings (a periphrasis for
1 Tvx^').
Tot T^s TToAews, politics.
6 (oi) Trdvv, the excellent, on: famous ; ot -n-dw twv o-rparLio-
Tiov, the pick of the troops ; 6 ttccw IleptKA^s, /Ae admirable
Pericles.
Iv Tots irpdrovy first of all. Omnium primi.
€/c Tov €7ri Odrepa, from the opposite direction; €k tov Itt'
dpL(TT€pd, from the left.
ot re/ot, ot d{xcfiLj ol dwo, Ik. See Prepositions.
CHAPTEE III.
PEONOUNS.
§ 67. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
1st pers., 7, we. l-yw, ^^cts.
2d pers., Thou, yon. o-v, vjicts.
ou pers., XI 6, 6//,e, zt, t/Z/e?/. ^ heginning of sentence.
( 1. Ik€ivos, oStos, t«7ie?i empJiatic.
J 2. 6
V 3. Oblique cases of avT<Js.
The personal pronouns in the nominative are not
generally used unless there is a contrast expressed or
implied, or more or less of an emphasis.
e'jreo Oavovra^ avTc^etp v/jLa<; eyco
ekovaa. SoPH.
Seeing that luhen ye died, with my own hands I
lathed you.
eyco crcf) uTrelpyco. SoPH.
7, even /, withhold him.
<7V Be fioL avTov<; KaXei. AndoK.
Clerk, summon the witnesses.
Note 1. — or<^€ hiniy her, it, them (sing, and pi. accus.) is used
in tragedy.
viv (Doric), Do., do.
fxiv (Ionic), Do., do., but only as accus. sing.
Note 2. — €fjLov is more emphatic than {xov. When the
pronoun is emphatic it is accented, e.g. efie /cat o-e, not c/xe
Kttt ere.
47
48 PRONOUNS.
§ 68. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
1st pers. my, mine, ours. ijios, TjiJieTcpos.
2d pers. thy, thine, yours. <r6s, vp-crepos.
3d pers. his, her, its. Wanting in Attic.
The possessive of the 3d pers. 6? (eo?) is Epic : a<^eTepo^
is reflexive (suus). The genitive of avro^ supplies the
possessive to the 3d person.
Besides the possessive pronouns there are the following
synonymous usages : — (1) the genitives jjlov, aov, avrov ;
(2) the reflexive genitives ejjbavrov, aeavrov, iavrov;
(3) the Article.
Thus, for " I sent my slave," we may write —
1. eirefi-yjra top e/jLov BovXov, or tov BovXov top ejiov.
2. eirefjb'y^a tov BovXov fjbov.
3. €7refjb'\jra tov efiavTov 8ov\ov, or tov SovKov tov
e/juavTov.
4. eTrefiyfra tov SovXov.
And so with the other persons, e.g. eTre/juyjre tov BovXov
avTov.
After a preceding word the order may be yJKei fiov 6 SovAos,
my slave is come; e.g. aaro^k^aa-Bk fiov tyjv diroXoyLav, Antiph.
Tetr. B. B. 2, listen to my defence.
Note 1. The personal pronoun is sometimes used for the
reflexive.
lyo) v[xa<s KeXevo) e/xe /xt/xcwr^at. Xen. Cyr. viii. 6. 13.
/ beg you to imitate me.
And as the subject of an Infinitive, with a reflexive object.
Set rjjxas IJerao-ac ij/xas avTOV<s. PlAT. Gorg. 514, A.
/Fe must examine ourselves.
And often in the phrase : /xoi or efxol 8oko) (eSofa).
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS. 49
Note 2. The possessives are sometimes used for a genitive,
which is usually subjective, but occasionally objective. Thus
i} kiL-t] cvvoia {=rj evvoid fiov)^ the good-mll which I feel. But
also evvoL(;L ry (rrj, from good-will towards thee : r/ diaPoXr] rj efi-q,
the prejudice against me. Plat.
An adjective in the genitive may qualify a possessive
a^eeing with the personal genitive implied in the possessive;
rafia 8v(rrrjvov /caKa, the woes of me, wretched mauy mea miseri
mala. Cf. Latin, mea ipsius culpa; nostros vidisti flentis
ocellos. Ov. Her. v. 43; (cf. HoR. Sat. i. iv. 23).
§ 69. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
1st pers. of myself,
(TcavTOv, cravTOv, vficov avrwv.
IpXlVTOV, TJfJ.WV avTuv.
2d pers. of thyself, \
yourselves. \
3d pers. ofhim-Mr-, , \ ^^'J*"^ *^^"^
u 7j^ \c*^ 7 MavTov, oiTov< and
zt- self of themselves. ) ( iavT«v.
Eeciprocal pronoun : dXX^\«v, of one another.
fiaKc(TTa TTjv aavrov (ppovrjaov aa-Kec. ISAEUS.
Ahove all things cultivate self-knowledge.
Ka& iavTov^ povXevaaixevoL Ta bifka TrapeBoaav koI
cr(j)a<; avTOV^. ThUC.
After deliberating apart hy themselves, they surren-
dered their arms and themselves (their persons).
Note 1. The separation of the word in the singular makes
the expression stronger, especially if avros comes first, e.g.
aVTOV /X€.
Kal Tovs TTtttSas Tovs €fiov<s y(rxvv€ kol ifxe avrov v/^purev.
Lys. i. 4.
He disgraced my sons and outraged me myself.
avTos often strengthens the reflexives.
KaraXeXvKe tyjv avTo<; avrov dvva(TT€Lav. AeSCHIN. 3. 233.
He destroyed his own power.
Ipse suas evertit opes.
D
50 PRONOUNS.
Note 2. A reflexive pronoun in a subordinate clause may-
refer —
1. To the subject of its own clause.
2. To the subject of the principal clause. When
so used it is called an Indirect Reflexive.
, 1. K.vpo<s TracTi TraprjyyeXXev KaOicrrao-daL c^s rrjv
eavTOV Ta^6v eKao-rov. XeN.
Cyrus was issuing orders to all that each man should
stand quietly in his own rank.
2. 6 TVpaVVOS VOfXL^€i TOVS TToXlTaS V7nf]p€T€iV laVTW.
Plat.
The despot thinks that the citizens are his own
servants.
Note 3. As indirect reflexives may also be used (1) the oblique
cases of a^ros ; (2) the datives of, cr^iLa-t (o5 and e are very
rarely thus used : they are found chiefly in poetry, and in
poetical passages of Plato).
(1) ^^X ^^^'•^ tJ/Aas o,Tt xpi^a-ea-de avT(^ vo/xt^et. DeM.
He thinks you won't know what to do with him.
(2) If^-q crvat av^paTTohov ot kirl Aavpit^. AnDOK. de Myst, 38.
He stated that he Imd a slave at Laurium.
ot 'AOrjvaiOL ovSev cr<jiL(Tiv e(f>a(rav TrpodrjKciv. ThUC.
The Athenians maintained that it was no concern of theirs.
Thucydides and Xenophon are partial to this use of ol and
(T^idi.
Note 4. lavTov, lavTwi/ are sometimes used of the first and of the
second person.
TOL ai'Twi' afxa iKiropi^c^fieOa. ThUC.
Let us at the same time furnish all our own resources.
ovSe yap rrjv eavrov crv ye xpvxrjv opcts. XeN.
^hy you anyhow do not even see your oum soul.
Antiph. Herod. 11.
Note 5. The reflexive is sometimes used for the reciprocal
dXXrjX(j)v.
jSovXearOe TrepuovTes avTwv irvvBdveadai ; DeM.
Do you wish to be running about and inquiring one of
another 2
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 51
Cf. S. Luke xxiii. 12, "for before they were at enmity
between themselves."
Note. — o-</)a)v avTwi/ %s also ttsed like suus and not se, meaning
their own men, their own side.
wpfxrjvTO ot €v ^djxo) 'AOrjvaLOL rrA-eiv €7rt cr^a? avrov?.
Thuc. viii. 86.
The Athenians in Samos were lent on sailing against their
own countrymen.
So T^/iwi/ {vfi(j}v) avTwi' partitively.
TO rpiTOV /xe/30S i^juwv avrwi/. ThUC. iii. 54. 3.
-4 ^Air^Z of our own numbers.
§ 70. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
{ ^ ( TOOrOVTOS,
This -J gg]"®^' ^0 gre-at, so many < tantus, tot.
( ' I T0oros8€,
rm , , So old, so young ( ttiXCkos.
That IkCIVOS, , \.\ •{ TTlXlKOVTOS.
{so great) ( tti\ik<5s8€.
SuchizTir't^s.
I TOl<$sS€,
Toios is Epic and poetical.
For hepo^i see Indefinite pronouns.
oS/, ovToat are emphatically deictic forms, this here;
0UT09 and ohe point to something near in space or time ;
eKetvo<;, to something more distant ; ohe points to something
present; o5to9, to something mentioned, though o5to9
also has the deictic force of oSe.
7] TpayayBla eari Tr]<;Be ttJ? ttoXcg)? evprj/iia. Plat.
Tragedy is the invention of this city,
TovT exelv ovyco '\eyov, Ak.
This is that ivhich I was speahing of,
ovTO^ OTTLo-Bev 'n-poaip')(eTaL. PlaT.
Here he is coming behind.
52 PRONOUNS.
TovT iar eKelvo, tovt eKelvo=^as the saying is, illud
quod dicitur.
Note 1 . — ovTos and oSe for first and second person. oSe is often
used in poetry of the first person, dvrjp oSe is common in
Trag. for eyw.
oS' eijx' 'Op€(rTri<s, McveAew?, ov IcTTopeis. EuR. Or. 374.
I am Orestes J Menelaus, whom thou seekest
ct Tov veKpov ^vv rySe Kovfjaeis X^P'* SOPH. Ant. 43.
(Consider) whether thou wilt uplift this corpse together with
this my hand.
ris ovTocrl tI<s ovTO(rt; Ar. Ach. 1048.
WTio's this here ? i.e. who are you ?
Note 2. — TaSe, TaSe Travra, ravra Trai'Ta are used in prose and
verse of something near.
ovk"Io}V€<s rdSe elcrlv OTjSe *EAA'>;cr7rovTiofc. ThUC. vi. 77. 1.
The people here are no lonians or Hellespontines.
Cf. Eur. Androm. 168.
Note 3. — ovTos and 6Be contrasted, ovros generally refers to
what has preceded, oSe to what follows. So with all demon-
stratives in -ros and -Se. But the rule is by no means
invariable.
TO 8e ovK ecTTL roLOVTOV dAAot TOLOvSe fiaXXov. PlAT.
However, it is not so as you think, but rather as follows.
TOtaSe e'Ae^ev, ) j y r n rocravra ) , , j.,
„. ^ ,% ^ )■ he spoke as follows, - > inriov, after
€A€^e Totaoe, J -^ ./ ' roiavra J ' ''
speaking thus, are common phrases in Thucydides.
Note 4. — o^To<; (not o8e) and avros (the latter especially in
Plato) are the usual antecedents to the relative, like is in Latin.
ovros and €K€Lvo's contrasted. Like hie and ille in Latin,
sometimes, but not always, ovros means this nearer {i.e. the
latter), IkcIvo^, that distant (i.e. the former), in space or time.
Note 5. — oSros and cKctvos in the neuter, like hoc, illud in
Latin, often draw attention to and point the coming word
or phrase. See Peculiarities of Apposition 3.
They also gather up and emphasise what has preceded.
d dv ct7rr/s efifxeve tovtol<s. PlAT.
Whatever you say, keep to that.
THE PRONOUN AIt6s. 53
Note 6. — ovTos, oSe, eK-etvos, compared with Latin.
oStos often denotes contempt like iste; ck€ii/os, praise
(the famous or illustrious), like ille.
ovTos is the opponent (plaintiff or defendant) =^s/e, hie
being the client, ovtol^ the judges, the court, or the
opposite party.
ovTos, as antecedent to the relative = is (qui).
ovTO(rL=hicce, celui-ci, this man here.
oSe is much like hie, this man here, marking simply the
presence of something, e.g. olktyj filv ijdi, here is the shore,
voici la plage.
§ 71. THE PRONOUN Avtos.
AvTd<; has three usages which must be very carefully
distinguished.
1. It is a definitive adjective pronoun, like ipse,
meaning self.
2. With the article, avTo^i means the same, idem.
3. In its oblique cases it is the pronoun of the third
person, him, her, it, them.
1. AvTo<; in all its cases may mean self, myself, thyself,
himself, herself, itself, themselves. It has this meaning
when it occurs : —
a. In the nominative case.
h. In any case in agreement with a pronoun, or with
a noun and article w^hen placed outside the
article. The pronoun or noun must often be
supplied from the context, avro^; occupying an
emphatic position. The pronoun to be supplied
may be the indefinite t^?.
avTOL 8 brav crcpaXco/jLev ov ycyvaa-KOfiev. EuR.
Wheneer ive trip ourselves ive mark it 9iot.
54 PRONOUNS.
auTo<; eycoye ererapdyfnjv. Plat.
/ myself was quite upset.
avTov yap ere 8el npofirjOeco^. AesCH.
Thou thyself needest a Prometheus.
avrrj ttj '^V'^rj Oeareov avra ra irpdyfxaTa. Plat.
With the soul itself (i.e. apart from the hody) we must
hehold things in themselves (i.e. actual realities).
BpaaiSa^; tt) QecraaXSiv yrj kclI avTol<^ (f>tko<^ rjv.
Brasidas vjos friendly to the land of the Thessalians,
and to (the Thessalians) themselves.
Cf. Xen. Anah. vii. -8. 22.
ov^ OLov re earcv a/xeXr} avrov ovra a\kov<i iroieiv
eTTt/xeXet?. Xen.
It is not possible that one who himself is careless should
make others careful.
"With a proper name the article is not necessary.
avTO<; X^vOr}<; ave/cpayev. Xen.
Seuthes himself exclaimed.
So avTo<; ^aaiXevf}, the Great King himself.
2. auro^, rj avrr], to avro, and in Attic ai^ro?, avTi],
ravTo and ravrov, genitive tuvtov, etc., means the same.
Tou? avTov<; irepL tcov aurwv Xoyov<; Xiyovai. AntIPH.
They make the same statements about the same things.
3. AvTo^ in its oblique cases only, and never at the
beginning of a sentence, is the third personal pronoun,
him, her, it, them.
airoTrefiTTOvo'LV avrov irplv aKovcai. ThuC.
They dismiss him before hearing him.
7roWov<i avTfov arreKTecvap. Xen.
They killed many of them.
Trecpaaofiai ^vfiixa')(elv avr^. Xen.
/ will endeavour to help him.
So we should write ^v/uL/jiaxelv avrrj, avrah»
THE PRONOUN AirSs. 55
Note 1. — Like the Latin is, avros (!) recalls a noun which
has been mentioned, and (2) it is used, instead of the more
usual ovTo<s or €K€lvo<5, as the antecedent to a relative sentence.
This second usage is uncommon, except in Plato. In most
instances the relative sentence precedes.
(1) erpaTTovTO IttI tov /Syevo^wvro. Kal eXeyov avrio.
Xen. Anab. vi. 1. 21.
They turned to Xenaphon, and said to him.
(2) avTo ovK eLprjTau o /xaAwrra c8et p'qdrjvac.
Plat. Bep. 362.
The very point, which above all ought to have been stated,
has not been stated.
avkXapov avra ocra v-rrrjpx^v eTTiT'qSeLa. THUC. vil. 74.
They took with them just whatever was necessary.
Cf. Eur. Tro. 662, /. A. 1025.
Note 2. — Avt6<s meaning self will have to be rendered in
many different ways.
(a.) In or by oneself, unaided,
TO \(y>piov avTo Kaprepov V7rrjp)(€. ThUC.
The spot in itself was strong (i.e. without artificial forti-
fication).
avTos eTTOLTjcra, I did it myself (without help).
(b) Voluntarily, sponte.
■t]^€L yap avrd. SoPH.
Words will come of themselves {unhidden).
(c) The great man himself, the Master.
Tt9 ovro'i ; avTO?. ris avros ; ISw/cparr;?.
Wilds this ? the Master. Who's the Master ? Socrates.
avTos €(f>r], Ipse dixit.
(d) With Ordinals.
ka-TpariqyeL Ile/jtKATjs rkrapro^ avros.
Pericles was general with three others.
(e) The neuter avro is used by the philosophers with sub-
stantives of all genders to express the abstract idea of a thing :
avTo ^LKaioa-vvr], ideal justice, or justice in the abstract ; avTrj
a^LKta, avTo to KaXov, avTo KaXov constantly in Plato.
In Aristotle avro forms one compound word with the sub-
stantive avTodvdpo)7ro<i, the ideal man ; avToayadov, the highest
good, summum bonum, etc.
56 PRONOUNS.
§ 72. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
Who, what (Direct), tCs, tC ; (Indirect), 8<rTis, 8ti.
Whether of two (uter) irdreposj 6Tr<jT€pos.
How muchy how great ") ,
How many (quantus). J
Of what sort (qualis) irotos ; oirotos.
How old, how great ir^XCKos ; otttiXCkos.
The pronouns in the second column are also relatives.
The Direct pronouns are however constantly used instead
of the Indirect {see Indirect Question).
(TV el t/9 dvSpcov ; oaTL<i elfi eycD ; Mercop, AriST.
What man art thou ? (ask you) what man am I? Meton.
See Ack 106. 959.
Note 1. — TToios; is often used in a sarcastic repetition.
ol 7rp€(T/3€i<s Oi Tra/oct /3acnXe(as. ttolov /Jao-tAews;
The envoys from the King I King quotha I {King indeed !)
So TTo^ev, An. Ban. 1455 j Ach. 109; Nub. 366 (a good
instance).
Observe that in asking a question the article is generally-
used with TTotos when there is no noun.
otixai ere 6/xoAoyiycretv to roiovSe. to ttoloVj
Plat. Rep. 475, e.
/ think you will make the following admission. What
admission ?
So TO Ti; Arist. Batr. 40. Cf. Ar. Ach. 418.
Note 2. — Observe the idiomatic use of double interrogatives.
Tts TTodev jxo\(i)V (Toi jxapTvpr^(Tii ', Soph. Tt. 421.
Who is he, whence comes he, who will hear thee record ?
So TTws Tt toi^t' cr-TTcs ; Plat. So^h. 261, c. Soph. Ant. 401.
Rarely os is used like oo-tis in a' question. eyiSS' 6s etrrt,
I know who he is, Ar. Ach. 118. The Greeks said olSa (avrov)
OS CO-Tt or OtSa Tts (oO-Tts) CCTTt.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ATTRACTION 57
§ 73. RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND ATTRACTION,
XIT7 / -x f whosoever
W/w 6s (qui) SoTis i / .
( {quicunque),
/'(esp. poet.)
0/ i(;^^ sort otos, oirotos (qualis) fiorr* •< ,
\ like goTis.
5'ot^ great, f 8<ros, oiroo-os (q-uantus ^ I ,,
, ^ > ^ In 6o-ir€p, -< oTie, exactly
h^manyj quotquot) LAeo«.«;J.
TF^a^ numher in a series 6ir<5<rTos (quotus).
How old or ) 6irdT€pos, which-
7 , > -AXCkos otttiXCkos j, .
flow great J soever of two.
Ohs. arra, Attic (ao-cra, Ionic) for artva, Tie?^^. ^/. 0/ oVri?.
ttTTtt, Attic (oo-o-a, Ionic) for rti/a, neut. pi. of tU.
09 is definite.
€(TTLv ^CK7)<; o(j>Oa\fio^f 09 ra rrravO' 6pa» MenANDER.
There is an eye of justice which sees all things.
ocTTi^ is indefinite.
aveXevdepo^ '7ra<; oaTC<; €t9 ^d^av ySXeTre*.
Cleanthes, the Stoic.
Slavish the man whoever looks to fame.
For other usages of o<ttl<; see Index.
oairep is particularly definite (irep adds this force to
other pronouns and adverbs, e.g. &a7rep, elirep, eireLhri-
irep, etc.).
ravTov e^ovaiv d/xapTijfjLa birep koI ol TrotTjrai.
Plat.
They are making exactly the same mistake which
the poets make.
58 PRONOUNS.
XvaireXel fiot wairep e;j^ce) e')(eLV. Plat.
It is good for me to he just as I am.
So jjirep Ar. Ach. 364. 474.
Note. — ovv [Srj, SrjTTore, Stjttotovv), added to relative pronouns,
alters them from relatives, and makes them indefinite, oo-tlctovv,
any whosoever; ovS' onovv, not even anything whatsoever, ne
tantillum quidem; oTroa-ocrovv, how great soever, quantuscun-
que ; ottoloctovv, qualiscunque ; brroa-Toa-ovv, quotuscunque ; ot
oTTotoiSiyTTore a-rpaTrjyot, generals of any sort whatsoever, no
matter ivho.
§75. ATTRACTION.
A Eelative which would be in the Accusative is often
attracted into the case of its Antecedent, if that Ante-
cedent is in the Genitive or Dative. This attraction
sometimes, but rarely, takes place when the Eelative would
have been in the Dative.
'^(pco/jLaL ^L^LOL<; ok exd^'
I iise the hooJcs which I have.
For a e')(03.
Tok ayaOok oh e%o/iei/ KTCjfieda Kai Ta<; aXKa<;.
ISAETJS.
By means of the advantages which we possess we gain
our other advantages also.
The Antecedent is often attracted into the clause of
the Eelative.
'^wfjuai ol<; e^ft) fii/3\L0i^ for y^payfiai I3l0\i,ol<; a e%ft>.
dfjuaOearaTol eare tav eyo) olBa^EXK7]vcov. Thuc. vi. 39.
You are the most ignorant of the Greeks wlwm I know.
For EWr}V(ov ov? olBa. S
Note. — The attraction takes place even where the antecedent
is omitted.
TT/Do? w etx^ ^vveXeye crTpdrevpa. XeN. Hell. iv. 1.41.
He was collecting an army in addition to that which lie already
had.
For Trpos TovT(^ o €?x€. Cf. EURIP. 3Ied. 753.
MISCELLANEOUS INSTANCES OF A TTRACTION. 59
Adverbs of place are thus attracted.
SiCKOfXL^ovTO odcv VTTe^WcVTO TTtttSa?. ThUC. i. 89.
They now conveyed across their children from the places where
they had sent them for shelter.
For ivrevB^v . . . ou
§ 76. Miscellaneous instances of Attraction.
T>)v ovcTLav 7yv KaTeXiTTev ov TrAetovos a^tct iarriv.
Lys. 19. 49.
The property which he left is not worth more.
rj ova-ia, the subject, is attracted into the case of the
relative.
So ov 06 Oeol <f>i\ovcriV OLTrodvi/^a-Kei veos. Men. 128
(He) whom the gods love dies young.
The demonstrative subject, o^tos, is omitted.
So TToXXol dvaXia-KovcTLV ovk eis a Set. XeN. Oik. 3. 5.
Many spend money on objects which they ought Twt (to spend
it on).
For €is ravTtt €ts a.
So a^w v/zas ivOa to 7r/)ay/xa kykvero. XeN. Cyr. V. 4. 21.
/ will bring you where the affair took place.
For kKela-e cvOa.
Several common idioms come under this head of
Attraction.
[a) ovSets o(TTL'i ov (i.e. ovSets ecmv oo-rts ov) is declined as
one word in Ace. Gen. Dat.
Topy tas ovScvL ot^ ovk aTreK/otvero. PlAT. Men. 70.
Gorgias was replying to every single questioner.
In Soph. Ai. 725, ovtls ea-9' os ov.
(b) 6aviiaa-To<s 00-09, vTrepcfivrjs 00*0? are similarly declined,
and their adverbs davfxaa-Tios, vTrepcfivQs.
<s)fJLoX6yir](T€ raura /xera l8pu)Tos davfJiacTTov oarov.
Plat. Rep.
He made these admissums with an astonishing amount
of perspiration.
vTTcpcpvQs o)? x^tp(j). Plat.
/ am surprisingly glad.
(i.e. V7r€p(f>v€<s ea-TLV ws).
6o PRONOUNS.
(c) ofo?, and aAAos oo-os, ct rts.
cAeye Trpos aySpas roXfL-qpovs oiovs Kal ^AdrjvaLOV?.
Thug, vii 21.
^(2 ^i;as speaking to hold men like the Athenians.
For otot ctcrt Kttc 'Adrjvaioi,
avidTT) 'Ay/otavas Kat aAAa oVa e^vr; IlatoviKa.
Thug. ii. 96.
He was raising the Agrianes and all the other Faeonian
lyyvu>/JLe9a ^fieis, eyw, ^opucwv, aXXov €l Tii'a
fSovXerai.
Dem. 20. 100.
Let us promise, I, Phormio, any one he likes.
For aAAos Tts €i nva aXXov /^ovXerai.
otos T€ for ToiovTos ofos T€ ID. the scnsG of " able," like BwaTos,
is exceedingly common.
otos T€ €lfu ravTa Trotetj/.
/ am able to do this.
0V\ OtOV T€ k(TTLV,
It is not possible ; it cannot he.
In the same way, by the omission of the Antecedent,
are formed many indefinite pronouns and verbs.
io-TLv oL, commoner than cto-iv ot (sunt qui).
€VLOL (evt, there are . . . ot, those who) ; hiore, sometimes.
ccTTtv oS, somewhere; ^o-tlv J, in some way ; €(ttlv ottws,
so7nehow.
The Eelative preceding the Demonstrative throws great
emphasis on the Demonstrative (as in Latin).
a TTouLv aicr^pov, ravra v6fXL^€ firjSk Xeyetv ilvai KaX6v»
ISAE. 1. 15.
Quae factu turpia sunt ea ne dictu quidem honesta habe."^
Observe the phrases : o Aeyw, as I say, ot as I was saying ,
oTTcp, or 6 apTL cAeyov, oVe/) etirov.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
§ 77. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Some, any, 1 none, nothing, ovUi% ovZiv {o^\.%) poet.
A kind or J>tis, n
zortof, J R8.Cs,^t,8^v.
/S'ome (2^zY^ r ^^;JJJ^ Ss ^(,;^e (emphatic) J o^s^ els.
emphasis), \ tia-Xv oi (less common). \ R^^ ds.
5sTis o5v.
&me . . . others, | jiTfrJ^i
Each,
every, all
* I ?Ka<rTOs, iras ns, iras, &iras (stronger than -iras)
orvjjnras (all together).
Other 1
' \ &\Xos (alius) oi &\\oi, ^Ae re5^, ceteri.
One of two 1 „ /^ if >. ^^^'^^^^' ^^^ \ ov8^T€pos.
(different), J * ^ * '^ ''' nor other J (i.T]8^T€pos.
Note 1. TTOTcpos, and its indirect form, oTrore/oo?, = ut&)-,
whether, or which of two ? But they may also = alteruter, one,
m' either of two. In this latter sense irorepos is sometimes
written oxytone.
TTotos, of some sort ; irocros, of some size or number (observe
the accents).
€T€pos should perhaps be classed among Demonstratives,
but it is put here in contrast to aAAos.
Note 2. Idiomatic uses of tls.
(a) TLS means sometimes many a one.
fjiL(T€l Tts €Keivov, (S ttvS/oe? 'A6y]vaL0i, /cat SeSiev.
DE3I.
There are those (there are many) who hate him and
fear him, Athenians.
62 PRONOUNS.
(b) It means, like aliquis, some great, some important person,
or thing,
r)v)(eLS TLs etvai, tolctl yjprniaa-i crdeviov. EUR. El. 939.
Thou ivast boasting thyself to be some great one, trusting
to thy riches.
Cf. S. Paul, ad Gal. ii. 6.
So ^pav TL, to do some great thing. SoPH. M. 305.
Si vis esse aliquis. Juv. i. 74.
(c) It is constantly joined to adjectives, numerals, and
pronouns, sometimes to strengthen, sometimes to
weaken the expression, in a way for which, in
English, we have frequently no equivalent : —
fieyas tls, ttols tls, cKa(rros Tts. ovSct? rts, oAiyot
Ttves. f^pa')(y ri, ovBev ri, o^^j^cSov Tt, rpets tlv€<s,
etc. etc. TTOtos ns ; ttoctos rts ; a-xeSov TL, eyyv rt,
OV TToXXot TtVCS, TptOLKOVTa TIV€S, TfcVCS StJO VrjcS,
Thuc. viii. 100.
(t/) i] Tts ^ ovSets — 7] Ti ^ oTjSev, hardly any on£, hardly
anything.
ovTOL ix€V ovv 7] TL rj ovSev dXr)6h elp-qKac-L.
Plat. Jp. 1.
These men then have spoken hardly a iwrd of truth.
(e) TLS also covertly alludes to some known person.
7]S' ovv OaveLTaL kol Oavova-' oAct rtva.
Soph. Antig. 751.
She then must die, and dying slay another (hers will
not be the only death.)
(/) TL<s=here and there one.
Tiov ev oXiyap-x^L^ diro6av6vT(j}v iVcos tls "^v irovqpos.
Lys. 30. 13.
Note 3. aAAos must often be rendered adverbially, besides,
mmeover, as well, adding as well as opposing. This is very
common in Attic.
TTC/XTTTOS TTOTapLOS aXXoS. HDT. V. 54,
Yet a fifth river.
Cf. Soph. El. 707; Aesch. Sept. 481.
OV yap tJv xopTOS ov8e dXXo ShSpov ovSh. XeN. An. i. 5. 5.
There ivas no grass, no, nor any tre^ at all.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 63
Of. Plaustra iumentaque alia. Liv. iv. 41. Wagons and
beasts of burden also.
And there were also two other, malefactors, led with him to he
•put to death. S. Luke, xxiii. 32.
All these (vices) are poniahle, with other graces weighed.
Shakspere, Macbeth, iv. iii. 90.
6 aAAos may often be rendered in general or usual.
irapa rov aXXov rpoirov. AnTIPH. Tetr. B. B. 1.
Contrary to my general disposition.
Note 4. irav like quidvis, quidlibet, may mean anything, no
matter what.
ov6eva Set ixrjxavacrdaL oVws dTro^ev^erai irav Troidv Odvarov.
Plat. Ap.
No man should endeavour to avoid death by every means.
Toiavra dXXa, cf. alter idem. Soph. El. 337.
Obs. TO TTOLov, quality ; to ttoctov, quantity.
CHAPTEE IV.
THE CASES.
§ 78. Preliminary Note on the Cases.
Greek is developed from a language which had eight cases,
or nine, if we regard the separate meanings of the last as
belonging to two distinct cases. Of these eight or nine Greek
retained only five, although comparative philology shows that
traces of the others survived. The work of the lost cases was
carried on by the remaining five, as the following table will
explain,
Indo-European. Greek.
Nominative Nominative
Vocative Vocative
Accusative Accusative
^tw-""^ I Genitive
Ablative j
Dative S
Locative ( Dative
Instrumental f
Comitative or Sociative )
The Greek Genitive and Dative have been called mixed
cases because they have assumed the functions of the lost
cases.^
1 The following declension of an Indo-European noun, taken from
Schleicher, will show the cases.
Stem Vak (voice, Fo7r(s), voc(s) i.e. vox.)
Singular Nom. Vak-s the voice
Voc. Vak- voice.
Ace. VAK-am the voice. ^
Gen. VAK-as of the voice.
Abl. VAK-at from the voice.
Dat. VAK-ai for the voice.
Loo. VAK-i at or by the voice.
THE NOMINATIVE. 65
The Nominative, Vocative, and Accusative form one group,
the Genitive and Ablative a second group, the Dative, Loca-
tive, Instrumental, and Comitative (the latter being perhaps
another aspect or shade of the Instrumental) a third group.
The Nominative is the case of the siibject
The Vocative is the case of the person or thing addressed.
The Accusative is the case of the object.
The Genitive is the case of the class (yevos, genus) to which
a thing belongs.
The Ablative is the case of that from which another thing is
separated^ the case of separation.
The Dative is the case of the person or thing remotely connected
with an action (the remoter object), for whom or which anything
is done.
The Locative is the case of the place where an action takes place.
The Instrumental is the case of the instrument by which an
action is performed.
The Comitative (or Sociative) is the case of the accompanying
circumstances.
The details of each case will show that the five Greek cases
retain their original meanings, while the mixed cases (Genitive
and Dative) acquire in addition the meanings of the lost ones.
But nearly all the cases, especially the mixed ones, have
assumed other shades of meaning and other uses, from analogies
which we cannot safely trace now. In treating of any case
therefore we may distinguish between (1) its primary and
distinct use, (2) its freer, looser use. Attempts to explain and
classify the freer uses must necessarily be more or less
arbitrary.
§ 79. THE NOMINATIVE.
The Nominative is the case of the Subject, and of the
Predicate or Apposition in agreement with the Subject.
^ikiinro^ KaOlaTaraL ^aaiXev<;,
Fhilip is appointed King,
The Nominative is often used for the Vocative.
L$L ix€V ovv (TV, 6 Trpecr/SvTaTOS. XeN.
Come then, you, the elder one I
66 THE CASES.
oStos especially is so used.
5 oSros Atas. SoPH. ^i. 89.
/F/i^/ ho ! Ajax !
Cf. Oed. Col. 1627.
6 'AttoAAoSw/oos oSto9, ov 7r€piii€V€L<s ; Plat. Symp.
Apollodorus, you Sir / stop, won't you ?
§80. THE VOCATIVE.
In Attic Prose oi is generally added.
cTKOTrei Tocvvv, CO ^coKpare^;, e(j)7]. PlaT.
Consider therefore, Socrates, said he.
jjLT] 6opv06LT6, w avSp6(; A$r]valoi. Plat. Apol.
Do not interrupt, Athenians.
The omission of the w makes the address curt, tart, or
businesslike, as aKovei^ Ala'^lvrj ; d'ye hear, Aeschines?
THE ACCUSATIVE.
§ 8l. Preliminary Note on the Accusative.
The Accusative, unlike the Genitive and Dative, is formed
with no suffix which in itself gives the case a special applica-
tion. But it came to denote the object of the sentence, as
the Nominative denotes the subject. In speaking of the ob-
ject, however, we must very carefully distinguish between
two distinct significations of the Accusative. Thus Antiphon
writes, Tv-rrrei rov avSpa TrXrjyds^ he strikes the man blows.
Here 7rAr;yas, blows, is already contained in the meaning of the
verb TVTTTet. This Accusative has been called the Internal
Accusative. On the other hand, rov avSpa, the man, is not
contained in the meaning of TvirreL. This is called the External
Accusative. The Internal Accusative is of much freer and
wider application than the External, varying from the Cognate
Accusative, p-a-xw fJ^^^X^f^^h ^fyht a fight, to any word which
is substituted for the Cognate Accusative, such as, a-n-ovSas
TTOLovp^aij I make a treaty ; eTrca-ToXrjv ypd(fi(D, I write a command ;
THE ACCUSA TIVE. X^/, r^Q p^-g^
tX¥i
irXkiii OdXaara-av, I sail the sea ; jxkyaXa o-<^aA.Ao/xat, I am greatlf
disappointed. The External Accusative is a natural extension,
not of the meaning, but of the direction of the verb. The
Accusative is naturally associated with a verb, and, when it is
not an External Accusative, qualifies the verb almost as an
adverb. Thus Trata-ov SittA^v (Soph. El. 1415), strike a double
blow, strike twice ; aK-qv ecrav, or eyevovro (HoM. H.) they were
or became silence^ i.e. silent. Hence the many quasi-adverbs of
Accusative form, OLpxqV) aKfi-qv, Tr/oo^ao-tv, X^P''^^ rrpoiKa, etc.,
and the wide use of neuter adjectives used adverbially, 7roAA,a,
TTVKvdj TO XoLTTov, etc. TLpoiTov, TTpoTcpov, again are Accusative
forms. Indeed we may say that all Accusatives fall under
two heads, either — (1) the Internal Accusative, or (2) the
External Accusative,
§ 82. Conspectus of the Internal Accusative.
The Internal Accusative denotes either the state or the
operation of the verb (the state of neuter and passive verbs,
the operation of active verbs).
It is either
A. A word kindred in stem or meaning to the verb (the
Cognate Accusative), e.g.
fxd)(r]v fid)(€(T6aL.
^rjv fStov.
B. A word substituted for the Cognate Accusative, and
limiting or defining the verbal notion.
xlz-qcfaa-ixa viKoiv, to win, i.e. carry, a meamire.
Accusatives of this class denote
{a) That with respect to which the state or operation occurs,
often the part affected (Accusative of Eespect).
davpiaa-Tos €tmt to KaAAo?, to be remarlcdble in respect of
beauty.
^v)(rjv vo(T€Lv, to be ill in mi'nd.
(b) The extent of the state or operation in degree, space, or
time.
ovT€ pkya ovre crpuKpov oroc^ds ei/xi.
In no degree, great or small, am I wise.
THE CASES.
d7re)(€i crTaStovs I/^So/xt^kovto.
It is seventy stades distant.
TToXvv xpovov Trapcfieiva,
I waited a long time.
Two further remarks may be made :
(1.) The Accusative follows Adjectives (and Adverbs) as
well as verbs, e.g.
dyaOos rracrav 'dpcTYJv.
an fJLOi drLfJLtav rotavSe.
(2) Adjectives, especially neuter Adjectives and Pronouns
in agreement with the Accusative, are freely used instead of
the Accusative, which is unexpressed.
fxeyaXa KivSvveveL,
TOVTO KLv8vV€V€L.
§ 83. The Internal Accusative.
The Internal Accusative is,
A. A word kindred in stem or meaning to the verb.
This is called the Cognate Accusative.
t/ fjLo'^Oov ovBev ovaa fio')(6el<; ; EUR. And. 134.
Why, being naught, toilest thou with toil ?
^T^o-et? ^lov KpaTL(TT0V rjv Ovfiov Kparrj^. Menand. 186.
Thou wilt live the test life if thou wilt control thine
anger.
^w€(fivy€ <f>vyriv, he sJmred the flight, Pl. Ap. v. ; ttovovs
TTovelv, to undergo labours, Pl. Ap. vii. ; dpx-qv rjp^a, I held office,
Pl. Ap. XX. j oj/€t8os ovttSto-ae, to upbraid with reproaches, Soph.
PhU. 623.
voo-eis aXyos, thou art sick with grief, SoPH. Phil. 1326;
ypa(f)rjv StioKeiv, to bring an indictment against (cf. ypa<f)rjv
ypdcftea-dai, cognate in stem) ; TroAe/zov crrpareveLv, to engage in
war, ThUC. i. 112 (cf. TroXefxov TroXefi^LV and o-Tpareiav
(rTpaTev€LV.)
A ecus A TIVE OF RESPECT. 69
B. A word substituted for the Cognate Accusative,
and limiting or defining the verbal notion.
^Tepov yjn^cjyicrfJLa vlko, Arj/jL0(76ev7](;. AesCHIN.
Demosthenes carries a second decree (or measure).
iqycovi^ovTo a-TaBiov, nTa\7]v, Kau irvyjJbTiv. Xen.
They were contending in the race-course, in wrestling,
and in boxing,
8iKY]v ocfiXeLVf to lose a lato-suit ; 'OXv/nna vt/cai/, to win an
Olympic victory ; ydfMovs eo-rtav. to give a wedding feast, EuR. ;
xp-qfjua-ixa. viK^, he carries (or wins) a decree, Aeschin.
Note. An extension of this Accusative is found in the Poets.
This Accusative denotes the result of the verbal operation.
Practically the verb yields an epithet in agreement with the
Accusative.
IAkos ovrdcrat, HoM. //. V. 361, to stab (and so make) a wound.
Goodwin compares "to break a hole." Tpo-n-as Karapprj-yvva-L,
Soph. Ant. 675, breaks to pieces (and so causes) a rout; Ta/ccts
oifjuaydv, SoPH. El. 123, thou meltest a (makest a melting)
lamentation; ireipav €ixa>pavev, Aesch. Fers. 715, he made a
foolish attempt; reyyeiv Sa/cpva, PiND. Nem. x. 141, he wetted
(i.e. shed wet) tears.
In Soph. Ant. 973 the passive of this construction occurs.
eA/cos TV(fi\a)dev, a blinded wound^ i.e. wound inflicted which
caused blindness ; the active form would be TV(f>\ovv cAkos, to
inflict a blinding wound.
§ 84. Accusative of Respect.
An Accusative is constantly joined to a verb, adjective,
noun, or even a sentence, to denote that in respect to which
the state or operation of the verb, etc., takes place. Very
often the Accusative denotes the part affected, e.g.
Kcifivco or dXyo) T7]v fce(f)a\r]v (ra ofifiaTa, tov<; TroSa?,
Tou? BaKTvXovsi).
I have a pain in the head (eyes, feet, fingers).
70 THE CASES,
^iXTLov lari awfia y y ylrvxvv voaelv, Menand.
Better to ail in body than in mind.
TV<j)Xo<; rd r ayra, top re vovv, rd r ofifxar el SOPH.
Blind art thou both in ears, and mind, and eyes.
'E^aKoaiot TOP dpiBfiov, six hundred in number.
"E\\'r]ve<; TO yevo^ (to wofia), Greeks in race (in name).
Compare this Accusative with the Dative of Circum-
stauce.
§ 85. Accusative of Space and Time.
The Accusative denotes extension of space and duration
of time.
ifkelv TTjv Oakacaav, Andok., to sail the sea.
TTopeveadat oSov, yrjv, oprj, Xen., to travel over a road,
land, mountains.
al airovhcLi eviavrov eaovraL. Thuc.
The truce shall be (i.e. last) for a year.
aTTe^^et rj IlXaraia rcov ©rj^wv (TTaBLOV<: e^So/jL7]-
Kovra. Thuc.
Plataea is seventy stades distant from Thebes.
Tr]V TpLTTjv rjfiepav ecpya^ovTO koI rrjv TerdpTrjV,
Thuc.
They were working throughout the third day and the
fourth.
K€\€v6ov IpTTtiv, to CTdwl olong a road, SoPH. Phil. 1224;
6801/ <f>avrjvai^ to appear on a road, Soph. El. 1274; ttjv (opav
Tou €Tovs, Dem. Phil. i. 8, during the season of the year.
Note. An Accusative with ordinal numbers means how long
since, or ago.
k^-qXdofxiv rpirov eros rovri DeM. 54. 3.
We came out three years ago.
Cf Plat. Protag. 309.
A ecus A TIVE OF MO TION. 71
§ 86. Accusative of Motion.
The Accusative denotes motion to a plax^e, without a
preposition in Poetry ; but in Prose a preposition is
required.
ouTTO) vevoa-T-qK^ oLKov. Eur. /. T. 534.
Not yet hath he returned home,
Cf. Soph. Ant. 152, Phil 244; Eur. Bacch. 1, 5. Cf.
Julius Caesar — Ere we could arrive the point proposed.
Very seldom motion to a person. EuR. Bacch. 847, 1353.
at vrJ6<i a(f)CKvovvTai. eirl UvXov, ThuC.
The ships arrive against Pylos.
evrevOev e^eXavvei 6t9 KoXoo-aa^;. Xen.
From this place he marches to Colossae.
§ 87. Accusative of the Object and Predicate in
agreement or in apposition with it.
For this construction, a very common and easy one, see
Oblique Predicate.
Verbs of naming (/caAw, ovo/xafoo), addressing (Trpoo-ayo/oevw),
dividing and distributing (vefxio, Karai/e/xa), Staipio, reixvu)), take
this construction both in the active and passive.
KaXovoTL fie TOVTO TO ovofia. XeN. Oik. 7. 3.
They call me (by) this name.
6 Kvpos TO crrpaTevfxa KaTeveifxe Sio8€Ka p^ep-q.
Xen. Cyr. 7. 5. 13.
Cyrus divided the army into twelve parts.
'q yrj to, avTa /xe/017 8iav€/x€Tat. Pl. Leg. V. 737.
The land is divided into the same parts.
§ 88. Double Accusative.
Certain classes of Verbs in Greek regularly take
a double Accusative.
72 THE CASES.
Verbs of : —
asking, i.e. interrogating : epwrw, r^pofx-qv.
asking, i.e. petitioning : atVw (and compounds), Trpdcra-o), els-
irpdcra-b), 7rpd(T(T0fjLaL, I demand,
exact.
concealing : k/ovtttw {airoKpxmTisi).
teaching : BiSda-Kw.
putting on or off: evSvo), ckSvoi, d[X(^LkvvvjXL, irepLpdX-
Kofxai.
depriving : d(fiaipovfiaLj diroa-Tepia, (TvXQi.
saying or doing anything dyaOov (KaKov, rt, rovro, ev, KaAw?,
good or ill : KaKWs), Aeyw, Ipw, eTTrov, 8pQ,
TTOtw, epyd^ofiat (rarely Tr/oaa-crw).
Similarly : evAoyw, eTratvw, xj/^vBofxai, 8taj8aAA(t>, v^pi^ai^
dScKW, avTtTTOtw, f^XdiTTdiy KwAuco, avayKa^o).
OU TOVTO (T6 epCOTM. ArISTOPH.
That's ?io^ ^Ae question I'm asking you.
TToXKoi fie alrov aiTOvai, iroXKoi Be Ifiaria. Xen.
Many are asking me for food, many for clothes.
aWov<i ravra ravra BiSaaKco. Plat.
I teach others these self-same suhjects.
ovBev (76 Kpy-yfrQ). SoPH.
Naught will I hide from thee.
Uiov o AiroWoiv avTO<; eKovayv efie
^pTjo-TTjpcav eadrjra. AescH.
And lo I Apollo's self divesting me
Of garb oracular.
aWrjXov^ ra €a')(aTa Xeyovcrtv. Xen.
They say the most atrocious things of one another.
OL ficp 7rov7)poc KaKov TL cpya^ovTai tov<; av6 pwirovf;,
Ofc S' ayaOol ayadov. Plat.
Bad men do harm to others, good men good.
DOUBLE ACCUSATIVE. 73
Note 1. The construction of the Double Accusative is much
commoner in Greek than in Latin. Almost any Greek transi-
tive verb can take an Accusative of the External Object, and
some one of the many varieties of the Internal Object. The
Internal Accusative is often a neuter pronoun, or an adjective
agreeing with a suppressed substantive.
MeAiyTO? jote eypd^aro rrjv ypdcfirjv ravrrjv. PlAT.
Meletus brought this indictment against me.
In the Passive —
TO,? aAAas /xa^a?, ocras Tlcpcrat "^TrTJOrjcrav, Iw. IsOCR.
/ ])ass over all the other battles in which tlie Persians were
The poets, as might be expected, use great freedom with this
construction, from Homer downwards.
Xpoa vtfero dXfxrjv. Od. vi. 224.
He was washing the brin£ off his skin,
(He was washing his skin : he was washing off the brine.)
aAA' ovK edcni tovto y -q Slky) ore. SoPH. Ant. 538.
Kay, Justice will not suffer thee to do this.
TOtovTOV Opdcros
avrri 6' birXi^n. SOPH. El. 996.
Thau arm'st thyself in such boldness.
Note 2. In the passive Construction one accusative becomes
the subject. E.g. —
TToAAot imrorjs aTrecTTeprjvraL.
Many have been deprived of their horses.
The passive of cv, KaKw?, ttouIv is not ev etc. Trouia-Oai but €v
etc. Trd(T\€LVj and of €v etc. Xeyeiv not XeyearOat but aKovetv
(cf. beTie, male audire), e.g. /xeyaAa, cv, iraddv, iroXXa KaKo.
aKoveiv.
Note 3. Many of these verbs take other constructions, e.g.
dvafiLlxvi'^crKOi Tivd Ttvos, atrw Tt Ttapd t6vos, a<^ai/30v/jiat rt Ttvo?,
aya^ov Trotw (rot. Xoi^opelv takes an accusative, AotSo/aeitr^at a
dative : ftc/xc^o/iat an accus. of thing and dative of person, tovto
a-oL ; also an accusative of person ; also a dative alone of
person.
74 THE CASES.
§ 89. The External Accusative.
The Accusatives denote the direct object of a transi-
tive Verb.
Tiyv i^n-X^v TOf 9 pap^apov<; eviKfjaev. AeSCHIN.
He conquered the barbarians in battle.
fid')(rjv internal Acciis., ^ap^dpov^ external Accus.
Note 1. The Accusative depends almost universally on a Verb.
But there are few cases in which it depends on a noun (gene-
rally a verbal adjective, or a noun of verbal character).
Kat (re (jiv^Lfios ovSeis dOavdroiV. SoPH. Antig. 789.
And none of the immortals is able to escape thee.
TToAe/AOS diropa iropLfjios. AeSCH. F. V. 904.
TO irav pJqxap ovpios Zevs. AeSCH. Suj)p. 594.
Perhaps we may add e^apvoi rd MfioXoyrjfieva, IsAEUS V. 26 ;
eTTLo-T-qpoves rd Trpoa-qKovra, XeN. Cyr. 3. 3, 9 ; SwK^arrys rd
fterew/oa (fypovna-T-qs, Pl. Apol II. ; unless we regard the accu-
satives here as accusatives of respect.
The construction is not unknown to Latin —
Quid tibi banc digito tactio est, Plaut. Foen. v. 5. 29.
Reditum domum in patriam. Liv. xxx. 32.
On this construction see Peile, Frimer ofFhilology, ch. vii. 5.
Note 2. An Accusative stands in apposition not to the
object of the verb, but to the state or act jointly denoted by
the verb and its object. Very often this Accusative in
Apposition has a proleptic force. See Feculiarities of Apposi-
tion.
alal, KaKiov v\pi(na Brj kXvo) raSc,
aL(r)(T] T€ Ue/jcrats Kat Atyca KiOKvpara. AeSCH. Fe7'S. 331.
TFoe ! woe ! the top of sorroiv hear I now,
Shame to the Fersians, arid shrill lamentations.
Other instances occur, Aesch. Ag. 225, Cho. 200, EuR.
Bacch. 29, 250.
Cf. Verg. Aen. xi. 381, Proinde tona eloquium, soli turn tibi.
THE EXTERNAL ACCUSATIVE, 75
§ 90. Verbs which take an External Accusative.
The following classes of Verbs should be noticed as taking
an Accusative of the External Object.
1. Many Verbs of Emotion :
alSovfiai, I revere. l/cTrA-Tyo-o-o/xai, ) I am alarmed
aKTxyvo fxai, I feel awe or shame KaraTrX-qa-crofiai, ) at.
in the presence of. <f>pL(T(ro), I shudder at. SoPH.
OappCij I feel confidence in. Ant. 997.
atcr^vvojuat tov TroXvvfxvov Oeov. EUR. Ion, 1074.
/ am abashed in the presence of the god renowned in song.
TO TOLovTov (Tw/xa 01 €xOpol dappovfTiv. Pl. Phaed. 239.
The enemy feel confidence in such a body.
[xr] dvyafMLV TCov'AOrjvaioyv KaraTrXayrJTe. ThUC. vi. 76-
Do not be dismayed at the power of the Athenians.
2. Many Verbs of Motion compounded with Prepositions,
such verbs taking the meaning of their kindred transitives.
5ia/3atva), jj^^,^^^ ficrecfiL, )I pursue, go in
Supxop'ai, \ ' fi€T€p)(OfJiaL, ) quest of.
Stair Xco), I sail across. cK^aiVw, / exceed.
TrepiepxopLai, I go about. i^ia-T-qixL, I avoid.
TTcpiTrXko), I coast along. v7r€pl3dXX(D,I cross over, surpass.
aTTOOiOpouTKO), ) ^"^ VTTOovoixaL, ) cipio).
vTro(f>€vyco, I avoid, shirk.
ra eTTiT'^Seta gk '2rj(TT0V juertovTe?. XeN. Hell. ii. 1. 25.
Going in search of provisions from Sestos.
virepkf^aXov ra oprj. XeN. An. iv. 4. 23.
They crossed the mountains.
orav ot avSpe's eK^wcrt tyjv rjXtKLav, d(j>rj(roixev ttov avrovs
eXevOepovs. Pl. Bep. 461.
As soon as the men exceed the prescribed limit of age we shall,
I presume, set them free.
ol irpoyovoi ovSeva TrwTTOTe klvSvvov l^kcr'qo'av. DeM. 20. 10.
Our ancestors never shirked any danger.
Cf, Verg. Aen. v. 438, vim viribus exit {i.e. evitat).
TO rov<s rvpdvvovs elcnevaL. DEM, 418. 13.
To act the part of tyrants.
76 THE CASES,
3. Many Compound Verbs, which in their composite form
are equivalent to transitive Verbs :
8r)fMayo)y€L tov5 dvSpas. XeN. An. vii. 6. 4.
He wins men by popular acts.
Tr)V €avTov irarepa yr]porpo<^el. DeM. 24. 203.
He nurses his father in his old age.
fir) TO, x^^P^ cf>LXov€LKrj(Tai. Thug. v. 111.
Not through contentiousness to choose the worse.
Cf. Soph. Ant. 994, Schneidewin, w. note.
So oLKovofxCi (tov JBlov), I manage, or regulate.
(TVKocfiavTio (tivo), I calumniate, or accuse falsely.
AoyoTTotw (a-v 11(^0 pd<s), I make up tales (of troubles).
Karavaviiayfo, I overpower in naval warfare.
KarairoXefxio, I overpower in war.
4. Special Verbs.
•yeAw, / ridicule (rtva); ^aKpv(a, I weep for (<^tAov?, friends),
Eur. Frag.
<f)6dvoi, I anticipate (tov? /xeXXovras, those who are purposing).
^r)XQ, I emulate (tovs dyaOov<i, the good).
M ^^^^f^^''* L / heware of (tov Kvva, the dog).
ivAapov/xaL, ) *' ^ ' ^'
dfivvofxat, I defend myself against (tov<s TroXefiiovs).
TLiMojpovjxaL, I take vengeaTice on {tov ^oi/evo-avra, the mur-
derer).
Pid^oixaL, I force, win by force (tov eanrXovi/, the entrance,
Thug. vii. 22).
(TtwTrw, I pass over in silence (ra SiKaia, what is right).
XavOdvd), I elude the notice of (tov SicoKovra, the pursuer).
TTpodvfxovixaL, I promote {rrjv ^v/x/Jao-tv, the treaty, Thuc.
v. 17).
06 'Ad-qvaioL rovs twv '2vpaK0(ri(DV linreas icfto/Si^Orjcrav.
The Athenians were afraid of the Syracusan cavalry.
dBvvara ^v tovs AoKpovs d/jLvveo'dac. ThuC. iv. 1.
It was impossible to keep off the Locrians.
Tt (jiuXd^aa-QaL <firjpu Setv 17/xas ; Dem. de Pace iv.
WTiat do I maintain we must guard against ?
6 KXecjv V7r€(f>€vy€ tov ttXovv . . . V(j>i<TTaTai tov ttAovv.
Thug. iv. 28.
Clean was trying to back out of the expedition : he undertakes
the expedition.
THE EXTERNAL ACCUSATIVE, 77
5. "O/jLvvixL and expressions of swearing^ fid, ov fxd, vat
fxd, v-q.
fxa Ata, nay, hy Zeus.
vr) or val rov Aia, yea, by Zeics.
ov Tov Aia, ov fia rov Ata, nay, hy Zeus.
6]jiO}fxoKO)s Tovs deov's, having sworn hy the gods, Dem. 301. 1.
ov fxa Tov At', ov (in answers), No, by Zeus, not, etc.
ov fia TOV At', ov fiev S-q, No, by Zeus, not so indeed.
Note 1. The poets use great freedom in making Verbs
transitive.
TOVS fap €V(T€(3€iS deol
Ovqa-KovTas ov yaipovcn.
At a good man^s death
The gods rejoice not. See Peile, Primer of Philology^ p. 1 3 ] .
So y^€v x^po^? Soph. Ai. 44 (J ebb's note); x^P^"^^ ^^o^j Ic^^^
brate the god in the dance, PiND. Isth. i. 7, Soph. Ant. 1152;
Xopev€LV ydfiovs, EUR. /. A. 1047. So ^atvttv (7r/oo/?atv€iv)
TToSa.
Note 2. An Accusative is found after a compound expres-
sion which is equivalent to a Verb. Many accusatives in the
poets may be thus explained.
Kttt Travvv^ot 8r) SictTT Aoov Kadio-racrav
vawv avttKTCS iravra vavTiKov Aewv. AeSCH. Pers. 384.
So all night long the captains of ships were keeping afloat (or
sailing in and out) the whole naval host (Starr. — KadUrraaav
=one verb).
Ttv' act TttKets oljusiydv 'Ayafxefivova ; SOPH. El.
With what melting lament hem.oanest thou Agamemnon ?
(TttKets — oljxiMydv = one verb. )
ct 8e /a' tuS' aet Aoyovs
^^IPX^^ {^oyovs €^y]px^'S=7rpo(r€(liiov€Ls, Jebl)).
Soph. El. 556.
If thou hadst been ever accosting me thus.
Cf. Aesch. Ag. 788 ; Soph. O.C. 583.
See Schneidewin on SoPH. Ant. 212.
Cf. Terence, Hauton, Prol. 41, Mea causa causam hanc
iustam esse animum-inducite.
78 THE CASES.
Note 3. Poetical and comic use of the Accusative with verbs
of looking (an Internal Accusative).
There are many Homeric phrases.
TTvp 6cf)9aXfjiOL(rL ScSopKws, Od. xix. 446 (looking, i.e. flash-
ing fire).
^a'Ap-qv pXkTTUVj BcpKea-daLj dXKrjv opav,
"Apr] SeSopKOTuyv. Aesch. Se^t. c. Theb, 553.
Aristophanes is very fond of this idiom.
Tvpos Twv ^ewi/, avOpoiire, vav<j>paKTOV /JAeTrets.
Arist. Ach. 95.
'fo7X heaven, fellow, thou looh'st an ironclad.
So pXcTTCLv vairv (mustard), o/x<^aKas (sour grapes).
Cf. " to look black," " look daggers," and Hamlet, " I will
speak daggers." "He speaks holiday, he smells April and
May," Merry Wives, iii. 2.
§ 91. THE GENITIVE.
Preliminary note on the Genitive.
The Greek Genitive is the case of Connexion and its op-
posite, dis-Connexion or Separation. The Genitive proper
denotes the class (yevos) to which a thing belongs. Thus
vofxio-fjia dpyvptov, a coin of silver; the coin belongs to the
class silver. Both in etymology and signification the Genitive
is akin to an adjective. (See Max Muller, Lectures on the
Science of Language, i. 105; second edition.) The Ablative,
on the other hand, denotes that from which a thing is re-
moved. The signification of the lost Ablative has passed
into the Genitive. But in the Greek Genitive we can never,
perhaps, be sure where we have a strictly Ablative meaning,
for as the Genitive denotes Connexion, by a natural law of
association, it also denotes the opposite, dis-Connexion, i.e.
Separation. Further, Connexion (or Eelation) is so elastic a
conception, that the usages of the Genitive have, by a series
of loose analogies, been almost indefinitely extended. This
is what we should expect when we consider the popular and
unscientific growth of Syntax. It is not possible to tabulate
all the usages of the Genitive, or to avoid cross-divisions.
POSSESSIVE GENITIVE. 79
The Partitive Genitive so-called is a misnomer, due to a
confusion of thought. The Genitive denotes the whole, that
on which it depends denotes the part. Lastly, as the Accu-
sative essentially depends on a Verb or Verbal notion, so the
Genitive essentially depends on a Substantive or Substantival
notion,
§ 92- Possessive Genitive.
The Genitive denotes the Possessor, that to which a
thing belongs ; with
A. Nouns and Adjectives, ot/ceio?, tStos [own, peculiar, or
belonging to); ie/)o?, consecrated to; and their opposite, dAAo-
T/)ios. These also (Up6s very rarely) take a Dative.
Nouns, etc.
T) Tov irarpo^ OLKta or r) olklcl tov irarpo'^.
The father s house.
7) TToXt? diraVTCdV TCOV TToXlTCOV K0LV7] eCTTlP. ANDOK.
Tlie city is common to all the citizens.
ipo<; yap ovto<; twv Kara '^Oovo^i OeSjv. EUK.
Consecrated is that one to the nether gods.
B. Verbs.
OL Uepaai ttjv Aaiav eavTcov nroLovvrai,. Xen.
The Persians are claiming Asia as their own.
TL'^ ead' 6 ^copo?; tov Oecov vofjul^eTai; SoPH. 0. C. 38.
What spot is this .^ To which of the gods is it held
sacred {considered to belong) ?
Note 1. The Neuter Article with the Genitive is freely
used : to, tiov ^ewv, ra t(ov 'EAA^^vov (to. 'EAAr^viKct), the affairs,
coTicerns, lands, history, etc., of the Greeks; to rrjs oXiyapx^s,
tlie nature of oligarchy, or oligarchy.
Note 2. In certain familiar phrases there is an ellipse of the
word on which the Genitive depends : ei/'AiSov, in Hades ; h
"AlSov, to Hades ; eis StSaa-KaXov, to the master's {sc. house).
8o THE CASES.
Note 3. The Genitive denotes the person or thing to which
something is suitable or becoming (it is a sign of, a mark of,
it requires, etc.).
TovTO ccrrt 7ra tfovro?. PlAT. Apol. 14.
This is {the coriduct) of one who is jesting {this is mere banter).
ecTTiv apa SiKatov dvSpbs f^Xdimiv /cat ovrivovv dv$p(07r(i)v ;
Plat. Bep. 1. 335.
Is it the part of a just man to {will a just man) injure any
one whomsoever ?
TToXXyj'S dvotas kol to Orjpaa-dai K€vd. SOPH. El. 1054.
It shows {it is) great madness eun to engage in an idle qusst.
In expressions of sonship the substantive on which the
Genitive depends may be omitted : UtaKpar-qs 6 ^(Dcfipovio-Kov,
NtKtas 6 NtK>//)aTov, OovKvSlSrjs 6 'OXopov. More briefly, Mt'A-
TiaSrjs Ki[x(avos. Poet. , Atos " Apr € fits, Artemis daughter of Zeus ;
'OtXrjos rax^s Atas, Aias swift son of Oileus. HoM.
Ohs. — This is sometimes called the Genitive of Origin, or
Descent, or Source. It is a genitive of the possessor, or of the
class, for, as Max Miiller points out, it is equally correct to say
o vlos Tov Trarpos, as to say 6 TraTrjp rov vlov.
Trarpbs Aeyerat Kvpos yevecrdaL Ka/A^vcrov,
Xen. Cyr. 1. 2. 1.
It is said that Cyrus was the son of Cambyses.
So in poetry, ^vvat, f^Xaa-reLv, rpa(j>rjvai tivos.
§ 93* Genitive of Material or Contents.
The Genitive denotes the Material of which a thing
consists, or the Contents of a thing.
With Nouns, etc. : —
vofiidfia apjvpcov { = vofJii,(rfia apyvpovp).
A coin of silver (Old Eng. adj. a silvern coin).
opcoat acopov^ crlrov, ^vXcov, \l6cov. Xen. Hell. iv. 4. 12.
ThcT/ see piles of grain, timber, stones.
acofia SetAaias (tttoSov. SoPH. Elect. 758.
A body of pitiable ashes.
GENITIVE OF AMOUNT.
B. With Verbs:—
01 (TTe(f>avoL pohwv rjaav aX\! ov '^pvalov. Dem.
The wreaths were of roses, and not of gold.
BeixekioL iravTOLODv XiOcov VTroKeivrai. Thuc.
The suhstr lections were made of stones of all sorts.
Free and poetical uses : —
cftoivq opdiOiv KiOKVfxaToyv. SOPH. Antig. 1206.
A voice of shrill laments.
TTVorj (fiOLVtov o-TaXdyixaros. SoPH. Antig. 1239.
A gasp of bloody deiv.
Expressions such as 'K6rjvQ>v ttoAis, the city of Athens {con-
trast with "urbs Roma") ; Tpotrjs TrroXUOpov, the city of Troy,
are poetical.
§ 94. GENITIVE OF AMOUNT.
Another aspect of the Genitive of Material is where it
denotes the Amount of Space, Time, Money.
OKTco aTaBicov rel'^of;. ThuC.
A wall of eight stades.
Tpiwv r]fjbepcov 6B09. XeN.
A journey of ten days (a ten days' journey).
TpiaKovra raXavrcov ova La.
A property of thirty talents.
eTTLTT^Seia TpiCtv rjfxepoyv eXa^ov. XeN. Cyr. V. 3. 35.
They took provisions for three days.
yapcLV Set eTretSctv irojv y tls TpLOLKOvra. PlAT. Legg. 721.
A man should marry when he is thirty years old.
TTvpapls XiOivYj TO pkv evpos kvo'5 irXkdpov, to Se v\pos Svo
irXkOpoiv. Xen. Anab. 3. 4. 9.
A stone pyramid in breadth on£, plethron, in height two
plethra.
yiXioiV ^pa\pQ>v 8tK7;v (fievyco. DeM. 55. 25.
/ am defendant in a suit involvim^g a thousand drachm^e.^
^ With the Genitive of Amount may be connected the Genitive of
Value.
82 THE CASES.
§ 95. GENITIVE OF PLENTY OR WANT
With the Genitive of Material may be associated the
Genitive after words of Plenty or Want.
A. Adjectives and Adverbs : /aco-tos, TrXrjprjs, e^TrAews,
TrXovcTLOS, evSe-qs, Trevrjs, K€v6s^ cprj/xos, yvjxvos, Kadapos, aAts.
7roTafio<; 7r\r]p7]<; l'^Ovodv. Xen.
A river full of fishes.
TO Trj<; Ar]0)]<; nrehiov Kevov ean Zivhpcov.
Plat.
The plain of Lethe is hare of trees.
rvpavvos ttoXXcov cfiofioyv Kal ipcjroyv /xecTTOs.
Plat. Eep. 579.
A despot filled with many fears and desires.
So with a Substantive : airopia a-trov, scarcity of provisions.
B. Verbs : Tri/XTrAr^/xt, e/XTTt/XTrAiy/xt, TrAr^/OW, TrX-qdio, ye/xw,
/xeoTTW, evTTopo), 8eo/xat, Sei, (nravt^ia {Kk\pr]ix.aLj Ke^p-qp^kvos, Epic
and poetical).
ra ^L^Xia Ava^ayopov yifiei tovtcov twv Xoycov.
Plat.
The hooks of Anaxagoras teem ivith these statements.
eairdvL^ov rpo(f)rj(; rol^ ttoXXoU. Thuc.
They were in want of 'provisions for the majority,
Travo-ai, Trplv opyyjs KapX p,€crro)(raL. SoPH. Ant. 28.
Feace ! ere thou fill Trie too with wrath.
6 Trapwv Kaipos rroXXrjs (f>povTi8o<s kol ^ovXrj's Seirat.
The present occasion requires mu^h thought and counsel,
ov iroviov Kexp'qp^eda. EuR. Med. 334.
We have no lack of troubles.
Ohs. XcKTpa TrifMrXaraL 8aKpvp.acriv. AeSCH. Pers. 100.
Their couches are filled {watered) with tears.
Here the dative of Instrument is used.
THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE. 83
Note, The constructions of Set, Sew : —
ov "KoWov Tcovov fie Set,
I have no Tieed of much troiAle.
TTOta? ixoi Set <:j)povTt8o<s ; SoPH. Elect. 612.
TFhat care need I?
TToXXov Sew ejJLavTov ye dSiKT^aretv. PlAT. Apol. 17.
/ am far from intending to ivrong myself.
Common phrases with Set are ttoXAov Sel, far frcmi it ; or,
TToAAov Sew (personally used) {nothing of the sort) ; oXiyov Set,
there wants little, all but ; oXtyov, (alone) almost ; oXiyov ifiavrov
eTreXadofxrjv, Plat, Apol. i., I wellnigh forgot myself {who I was).
So ixiKpov, within a Utile, almost,
OKTW (XTToSeovTes T/otaKocrfcot^292. ThUC. iv. 38.
Svolv Seovres 7revT7JK0VTa = 4:8.
§ 96. THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE {SO CALLED).
The Partitive Genitive so called (the Genitive is the
whole, the word on which it depends is the part) is
used : —
A. With any part of speech denoting participation.
TToWoc Twv Adrjvaccov.
Ma7iy of the Athenians.
TO. Bvo fjL€p7j T7]<; aTpaTLa<i.
Two-thirds of the army.
A6r]vac(ov 6 ^ovXo/jL€vo^.
Any one of the Athenians who wishes.
TCDV TToXe/jLicov ol /JL€V aTTOjXovTO, ol Be ecjivyou.
Of the enemy some fell, while others escaped.
Twv TToAtTwv Ttg, oi)Tts cTTpaToy. Soph. Ai. (twice.)
O'm of the citizens, na one in the host.
dvrjp TWV pr]T6p(j)V (ArIST. Eq. 423, dvrjp = rts).
One of the speakers; so, S'qfxov dvrjp, a man of the people
(Xen. Cyr. ii. 2. 22).
1^ vavs dptcTTa eirXet Travrbs tov crTparoTreSov. LyS.
The ship loas the best sailer in the whole squadron.
84 THE CASES.
B. Especially after adjectives denoting participation
and their opposites : — [xero'x^o^;, afieTo^o<;, icrofjLoipo^,
aK\7}po<;, ajJLOipo^, ayeuaro^;.
/jb€TO')(^o<; av ecr)<; rod (J3ovov Spacra<; raSe. EuR.
Thou wouldst this bloodshed share shouldst thou do
this — {partice'ps sis caedis).
C. With Verbs, especially with those of giving or
taking a share.
/xerexw, fierecTTi (//.ot), fieraXafifidvo), I have, or take, a shai^e ;
fxcTaTTOLOVfJiaL, I claim a share ; /xeraStSw/xt (tlvl), Koivdyvoi) (tIvl),
I give a share (to a person, tlvl), irpoa-r^Kei /xot, / have a con-
cern in.
avOpcoTTov '>{rv')(rj rod detov fJueTeyei. Plat.
The soul of man partakes of divinity.
ov fieraBcoo-ovai, rjfMv t?}? apXV'^ AaKeBai/JLOvLoc.
Herod.
ITie Lacedaemonians will not give us a share in the
empire.
ovBev •Trpoa7]K€L fioL Trj<; aLrla^; ravrr)^. Antiph.
T have nothing to do tvith this accusation (i.e. it does
not concern me).
D. Also Verbs of eating, tasting, or drinking, or any
Verb denoting participation in a thing : — ttivco, eaOlco,
yevw, yevofiai.
iTLVco Tov Oivov, eadlo) Kpewv.
I drink wine, I eat meat.
T7J9 77)9 erejjLOv.
They ravaged (some of) the land.
nrepbTrei twv AvBwv.
He sends some (of the) Lydians.
ocroL €<f>ayov t(ov Krjptojv iravTes' acjipoves iyiyvovTO. Xen.
All who ate of tJie hoTieycomhs soon became mad.
THE PARTITIVE GENITIVE. . 85
The partitive rt may be inserted, cf. h:o\a.miv rl Ttvo?, to
enjoy some advantage from some source.
Note 1. Many of these verbs are used transitively and take
an Accusative (denoting " an object completely overpowered,"
J. Grimm). Trtvco olvov, Xayy^avm rt, / attain something J rivds,
a share of something ; so irXda-Tov jxepos nvos iierk^uv^ to have
the greatest part of something (where i^kpos is a whole).
Note 2. Instead of a neuter singular with a partitive Geni-
tive the adjective of certain words {-qixia-vs, ttoAvs, TrAeto-ro?,
AotTTos) often agrees in gender with the genitive : 6 ijfMLavSj or
6 AotTTo?, Tov )(^p6vov ; Tov )(fi6voi^ 6 TrAetcTTos, TToAAr) rrjs ^w/aa?
(Xen. Cijr. iii. 2. 2). Cf. Thuc. i. 2, -njs y^s 07 dpta-TY).
Note 3. Many Adverbs of place are joined with a partitive
Genitive : ttov yrjs ; ubi terrarum 1 Travraxov yrjs, ovSa/jLov yrjs'
aAAofc dAAr} TYJs TTo Aews, ThUC. ii. 4 ; TTTjVLKa rrjs rnxkpas ', at
what time of day ? Troppto r^s -qfjiepas, tc3v vvktiov, 6\pe tiJs
iopas.
Many such phrases pccur in the poets : —
TTOV yviofXYjs ttot' el; SoPH. Antig. 42.
What is thy purpose ?
irov ttot' €l cfipevw ; SoPH. Elect. 390 (see 404).
What is thy mAjsterious intent ?
TTol Aoycov '4X6(0', Soph. Elect. 1174.
What ivords shall I utter ?
yatas opv^as ev9a, k.t.X. SoPH. Aiax 659.
Hiding it in the earth where, etc.
OL fx' GLTLULas ay€Ls ', Soph. Elect. 1035.
To what infamy art thou leading me ?
Note 4. The neuter of a pronoun or adjective, or adverb,
is not unknown to Greek, but not so common as in Latin
(paullum sapientiae, parum sapientiae, aliquid divitiarum,
quicquid deorum, etc.). n o-Tao-tacr/xov, Thuc. iv. 130;
ajxrixo-vov eijSat/xovtas, PlAT. Apol. ; aroira rajs (TfXLKpoXoyias,
Plat. Thaeaet. 175; kirl fikya Swa/xew? x^P^^^^ Thug. i. 118;
€7rt TrActo-Tov dvdpiOTTMv, Thug. i. 1 ; €v 7ravT6 KaKov, Plat. Bep.
679; €v T(o crvfxijiopds ; Soph. Antig. 1229.
86 THE CASES.
Note 5. The word on which a partitive Genitive depends
has often to be supplied : —
€/X€ des Tt3i/ TreTreia-fxeviov. PlAT. Bep. 424.
Set me down as one of those who are convinced.
2oAwv TW]/ Ittto, (ro<liL(rTOJV CKX'qdrj. ISOCR. Antld. 235.
Solon was called ons of the Seven Sages.
§ 97. GENITIVE OF CONNEXION.
The following Verbs denoting Connexion take a Geni-
tive : —
A. Verbs signifying to aim at, hit or attain, miss.
o-Toxafo/xat, aim, at ; opeyofxat, reach out towards, strive for ;
Tvy-^dvo), Kvpo), e<j)iKvovfj,aL, hit, secure^ obtain, attain ; oltto-
Tvy^avw, afxaprdvoi, miss, lose ; xp€v8o/xai, crcfidWofJiai, I am
disappointed, balked of {N.B. klxolvo) generally takes an
Accusative.)
B. Catch hold of, touch, cling to (he separated from, see
Gen. of separation).
XafjLJSdvofiai (and compounds with eTrt, avrt), aTrro/xat,
etfydTTTOfiaL, diyydvta, I catch hold of, touch, grasp ; e'xojuat, /
cling to, etc. (see examples), avrcxo/zat, / cling to, uphold.
C. Make trial of, begin, have experience in,
TTcipQi, Treipw/xai, / try, attempt ; dpyyi, dpyopiai, I begin ; l/A-
Tret/ows e'xw, / am experienced in.
D. Verbs of the senses : hear, smell, taste, touch (see B.),
enjoy. (But verbs of seeing take an Accusative.)
aKovoi, I hear ; aKpocofxat, listen to, attend lectures ; oacfipaLvofxai,
smell (trans.) ; o^w, sniell (neut.); yevn), give a taste of; yevofiai,
taste ; aTroXavo), enjoy. (The last two verbs more often meta-
phorically than literally.)
E. Perceive, understand, remember, forget.
alcrddvofMai, I perceive ; TTwOdvo/jiai, learn by inqui/ry ; ^vvirjfiif
wnderstand ; iiipivrio-KOjxai, remember ; iTriXavOdvo/xat, forget.
GENITIVE OF CONNEXION, 87
F, Care for, long for, desire, neglect, desjpise.
fieXcL (jtxoi), iirLfxeXovfjuiL, I care for ; ttcivw, St^Ay, hunger ^
thirst after (literally and metapliorically) ; epw, love, long for ;
ivTpkirofxat, respect ; oAtyojpw, a/xeAw, disregard^ neglect ; k(xt<x-
cf)povo), despise.
A. Examples : —
Set o-ro^aaaadac Biavola^. ISAEUS.
We ought to aim at intellect.
Tov cr/coTTov djiiapTcoi' ruv TraiBoi; erv^ev. Antiph.
Missing the mark, he hit the child.
. e^LKvelraL Tr]<; aperrj^i. IsOCE.
He attains unto virtue.
7ravT€? wcrre To^orcit (tkottov
To^emr dvSpos TodSe. SoPH. Antig. 1033. Cf. 1084.
Ye all, as archers at a mark,
Are shooting at this heart.
Tt p.OL rdv 8v(r<f)6p(t)v icftUt ; SoPH. Elect. 141.
Why art thou aiming at the insupportable ?
(jitX-qs yap Trpo^evov KaT-qwcrav. SoPH. Elect. 1451.
They met with a kind hostess.
(TTpaTos Kvp-qa-ei voa-rifiov (riorrjpias. AeSCH. Fers. 793.
The host shall meet with returning deliverance [i.e. a safe
return).
Ohs. iTnrvyxo-vdi, Trpocrrvyx^^^} l^ ^^^"^ across^ fall in with
one, take a Dative.
B. Examples : —
A^.jS. — XapL^dvcD, Kparco take an Accusative of the per-
son or thing seized, and a Genitive of the thing seized.
TOV \VK0V TWV COT(DV KpaTCO.
I get hold of the wolf by the ears.
So dyecv ^etpo?, to lead by the hand.
eXafSov rrjs ((ovrjs Tov'Opovrrjv. XeN. An. i. 6. 10.
I%ey seized Orontes by his girdle.
THE CASES.
C. Examples : —
Kvpo'!; ^px^ '^^^ \oyov (oBe. Xen.
Cyrus began the conversation as follows (i.e. was the
first to speak).
^evocpcov Tov \oyov rjpx^ro w8e. Xen.
Xenophon hegan his speech as follows.
N.B. — apx^i'V y^oycov, to he the first to speak; apx^o-^a,''
Xoycou, to begin one's speech.
aTTOireipco/jLevo^; tj/mcov eypa-^jrco ttjv ypa(j>r]v ravrrjv.
Plat.
Tou were making trial of me when you brought this
indictment.
D. Examples : —
l3povTrj<; aKovaa<; fJbrjSafJLoo^; iroppw (pvyrj^. Philemon.
When you hear thunder by no means run aivay.
TL Brjra Kkdei<^ ; KpofjL/jbvcov oacfypaivo/JLaL Ak.
Why are you iveeping then ? I smell onions.
So 6<T<j>palv€cr6ai, rr}? rvpavviBo^i. Ae. Lys. 619.
^vdv<s 8e Setcras kp.irvpoiV eyevop-qv. SoPH. Ant. 1065.
Straightway in terror I made trial of burnt-sacrifice.
OTTOt av eXdoDj XeyovTOS kpov aKpoacrovTai ot vkoi.
Plat. Ap. xxvii.
Wherever I go young men will listen to my words.
Note. With aKpocofxai cf. the use of aTroSexopat (/ accept from,
approve): pi] ravra diroSex^a-de 'Ayvpdrov (Lys. 13. 83), do not
accept this statement from (a Genitive of Separation) Agyratus.
So (XTroSexecr^at tivos AeyovTOs. diroXavui rtvos {I enjoys literally
and figuratively).
ofo), / smell of.
aSrat pkv o^bvcr' dpfSpo(ria<s Kal veKrapos. Ar. Ack. 196.
These smell of ambrosia and nectar.
Verbs of perception also mean to hear from, as well as to hear.
rotavTa tov Tvapovro^ 4'kAvov. SoPH. £Jl. 424.
Thus much was I heading from one who was present.
GENITIVE OF CONNEXION. 89
See Ai. 318. So—
■ el^kvai aov TT/owrtCTTa XPVC^' SoPH. El. 668.
Fain would I first and foremost know from thee.
So with a sentence : —
rovTOiv aKov€ ri Xkyov(TLV.
Hear from these men what they say.
But more usually a preposition (irapd, irpos, e^) is added.
E. Examples : —
avdpco7ro<; oiv fiefjuvrjao Trj<; /coLvrj<; tv')(7)<^. MenAND.
Being a man, rememher the co7nmon lot.
6Xt,<yov efiavTov eireKaOofJUT^v. PlaT.
/ almost forgot myself {who I was).
ovK rjaOavovTO Trpoaiourcov rcov iroXefjuKOV. Xen.
They were not aware of the a'pproach of the enemy.
eirvOovTO Trjf; IlvXov KaTeCkT^fjuixevrj^, ThuC.
They heard of the capture of Pylos,
P. Examples: —
rl r)/jblv rrj^ rcov iroWcov Bo^rj<; pueXeL ; Plat.
What care we for the opinion of the world ?
irecdco vfjba^ pLTjre acopLarcov eTrifieXelcrOac purjre '^prjpua-
Tcov. Plat.
I try to persuade you to care neither for the body nor
for money.
Tretvw xprjpLaTOiv, kiratvov, XeN. aya^wv, PlAT.
I hunger after (i.e. long for) money, praise, good things.
So ht^pCi, Plat. Rep. 562 c.
Tov Oavarov Kai, klvSvvov coXcycoprjae. Plat,
He disregarded death and danger.
Note 1. peXcL and p^rap^kXa take a genitive of thing, and
dative of person.
/xeAct poi rovrov.
I care for this, hoc mihi curae est.
/xera/xeAet /xot tovtov.
I repent of this ; huius rei me
90 THE CASES.
Note 2. Adjectives with these significations are found with
the Genitive : —
Ihpav TravTos cvdyrj (rrparov. AeSCH. Fers. 465.
A throne in full view of all the armada.
€7rrj/3oXo<s (fipeviov. SoPH. Antig. 492.
Possessed of reaso7i (compos mentis).
Note 3. In the following examples observe the various
meanings of e'xo/xai : —
Ta>v 'Evvea oBcov eKparrjaav.
They obtained possession of the Nine Roads. Thug.
T'^S fxkv yvw/xry?, w 'AOrjvaiOi, del Trj<s avT7]<s e'xo/xat. ThUC.
/ hold, Athenians, to tlie same unchanged opinion ever.
eTTOvrai e^o/Aevot twi/ dpfidrcDV. XeN.
They follow, coming next to the chariots.
6 TrAryyeis det t^§ TrXr]yr]s ^x<ETat. DeM. Phil. 1, 10.
The boxer who lias been struck ever follows the blow.
TrdvTes KOLvfj rrj<s croyrrjpias ex^a-Oe. XeN. Anab. vi. 3. 17.
All together provide for your safety.
With e'xo/xat compare the parallel meanings of dpLi. t^'Js
avTTys yvMfxrj^ elvai, ThuC. V. 46. rdv avrtav Aoycov elvai, PlAT.
Gorg. 489 (to keep to the same tale).
§ 98. SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE GENITIVE.
o ^0^0'^ Tcjp TToXefilcov.
The fear of the enemy.
This Genitive of Connexion is naturally ambiguous.
It may mean either (1) the fear which the enemy feels.
Here rwv TroXe/jilcov is Subjective, being equivalent to the
subject of the verb, and the sentence = ol irdXe^Lov <f>o-
Povvrat (jJyLta?) : or (2) the fear (which we feel) of or for
the enemy. Here tc3z^ irokejjbiwv is Objective, being equi-
valent to the object of a transitive verb, rjixeh (potSorj/jbeOa
TOV<; 7ro\€/JLcov<;.
GENITIVE OF TIME AND PLACE. 91
ot avOpioTTOL 5ta to avroiv (Subjective Gen.) 8io<s rov Oavd-
Tov KaraxpevSovTaL, PlAT. Phaed. 85 ( = ai;TOt SeSiores
Tov Bdvarov). y
Men, hy reason of their fear^ of death, tell lies.
8ta T-qv rov dvcfjLov (Subjective) aTrwo-iv twi/ vavayiwv (Ob-
jective). Thuc. vii. 34.
In consequence of the wind driving tJie wrecks into the open sea.
The Objective Genitive represents usually an object in the
Accusative or Genitive after a verb, more rarely a Dative.
Ace. Sta Uava-avLov fxicros, ThUC. i. 96. irodos rov aTro-
OavovTOS'
Gen. liriOvixla yji-qixaTiav, iTTifxeXeia twv Trpay/xdrcdV.
Dat. €fMfJioi/r] rov KaKOv, PlAT. Gorg. 479. Cf. iixfieveiv T^ Ka/co).
Trarpos npnapos KapLov TaXaivT]s, SoPH. Elect. 811.
The following may be regarded as free uses of the Objective
Genitive : — XvpLrj j3iov, Soph. Elect. 1195, outrage on life / Svcr-
pb€v(ov $7] pa, Soph. Ai. 564, hunting the foe. So 7r€ipa k^dpOiv,
Soph. Ai. 2, an atterajpt on, or against, one's enemies ; to twv Mc-
yapkoiv xp-qcfao-pia, Thuc. i. 140, decree against the Megarians
(where the preposition irepi would have been more usual.)
§ 99. GENITIVE OF TIME AND PLACE.
The Genitive denotes the time within which anything
takes place. The Genitive is the whole, the time is
either indefinite, or recurring, vvkto^, hy night; r^?
r][jbepa<iy hy day ; rov avrov depov^, during the same sum-
mer ; rov XoiiTov, for the future ; eKciarov erov<i, each
year ; rpl<; rov evtavrov, thrice in the year.
N.B. — With the Article the Genitive is distributive.
ScoKparr}<; to avro l/jbarcov '^pLCptearo 6epov<} re Kav
'X^eipLcovo';. Xen.
Socrates tvore the same mantle summer and winter.
SpaxfJ'W eXdfjL^ave rrj<; rjfiepa^ (or r^? r)/j>epa<;
eKa(Trr}i).
He used to receive a drachma a day {each da,y).
92 THE CASES.
Note 1 . Trys avTTjS rjfjiepas or nj avrfj rifJ^cpa (often with small
difference, MadvIG) ; tov avrov dcpovs and Iv r^ avrc^ depet
(Thuc. iv. 133); tov Xolttov or to Xonvov^ for the future.
So aXXrj<5 r)fi€pa<s, SoPH. El. 690, on another day : ov fxaKpov
Xpovov, Soph. El. 478, within no long while : tov Xolttov xp^vov,
Soph. El. 817, for the future: aKpas wktos, Soph. Ai. 285, at
dead midnight: rrjs Trdpocdev evcf)p6vr]s, Aesch. Pers. 182,
during the past night.
Note 2. The Genitive also denotes the space within which
anything takes place (a very rare and poetical, chiefly an
Epic, usage).
"^fxcpcvovTas ^evovs
fxaKpas KcXevOov. AesCH. Ch. 705.
Guests who have been spending the day
On a long journey.
Cf. the Homeric TreSiOio tevat, TrpT^o-o-etv, etc.
Note 3. The ordinary prose Genitive of place is either the
possessive, or the (so-called) partitive Genitive. Observe that
it takes the Article : —
ia-TpoLTeva-au t^s 'ApKaSias Is JJappacrLov<;. ThUC. V. 33.
They marched against the Farrhasians in Arcadia.
Note 4. To the genitive of place, however, belong certain
prose usages.
eTrera^vyov r^s 68ov tovs crxoXaiTepov 7rpo(rLovTa<5.
Thug. iv. 47.
They were hastening on the way those who zuere advan/^ing
slowly.
€iropevovTO tov Trpocrii). Xen. An. v. 4. 30.
They were marching onwards^ forwards.
Cf. irpoKOTTTeiv Trjs OLpxrjs, ThUC. iv. 60. VTrdyeiv ttJs oSov,
etc. irpoXap^pdveiv t^s (l>vy7J<s, ThUC. iv. 33.
§ 100. GENITIVE OF VALUE.
The Genitive of Value goes with Verbs of Estimating,
Buying, and Selling (cf. Genitive of Amount).
GENITIVE OF VALUE. 93
Value or Estimate : aftw, judge worthy ; Taa-a-u), rate or
value; rt/xw, value, assess {rifxtofxat).
Buy: TrpLa/xai, I buy ; Uivovfxai,' I buy.
Sell : TTcoAw, I offer for sale; dTroSiSoixaiy I sell.
Bo^a ')(^p7]fjbaT(ov ovK covrjrr}. ISAEUS.
Reputation is not to be purchased with mon^y.
OVK av aTreBo/jLTjv 'ttoWov ra? eXTrlBa^;. Plat.
/ would not have sold my hopes for mioch.
Ti/juarac jjlol 6 avrjp davarov. Plat.
My accuser proposes death as my penalty.
Xpv(ra )(aXK€L(ov Sta/xet^eo-^at voets. Pl. Symp. 218 C.
You are intending to exchange golden for copper.
Note. Verbs of buying more rarely, and only in poetry,
take a dative of the price paid. See EuR. Hel. 885, Med. 233.
Free use of the Genitive of Value.
Tts fMera/SaXoLr' (uSe o-cyav Xoyayv. SoPH. El. 1262.
(Of. Aesch. F. V. 987.)
Who would change thus silence foi' words .?
avT L(Tr aO ixov rov 6r]pos Kop-qv. SOPH. El. 571.
A daughter weighed in the balance against a wild beast.
Kairoi TaXdvTov ravr'' €/xa^ev'Y7re/)^oAo9. AriST. Nub. 876.
And yet Hyperbolus was taught this for a talent.
iCTTL p.OL 6vydr7]p ydfiov wpaia. XeN. Cyr. iv. 6, 9.
/ have a daughter ripe for marriage.
Under the Genitive of Value may come the Adjectives with
their Adverbs : — d^ios, ava^tos.
§ lOI. CAUSAL GENITIVE.
The Causal Genitive (so called) goes with verbs (and
other words) denoting emotion. It is probably a Geni-
tive of Connexion or Eelation, meaning with regard to,
in connexion with.
94 THE CASES.
Oavixd^oi^ I wonder at or admire; evSaiixovL^o), I congratu-
late; oiKTeipd), I pity ; opyt^o/xai, I am angry; cfiOovc^, I envy
or grudge ; irjXw, I envy (in good sense) or praise; /AaKa/otfw,
I felicitate ; aya/xat, / wonder at, admire.
^rjko) ae rod vov, Trj<; Be BecXta^; aTvyco. SoPH.
I praise thee for thy wit, hut for thy cowardice Iloathe
thee.
evBatfjLOVi^co ae rod rpoirov. Plat.
I congratulate you on your disposition.
<f>€V, Trj<s dvoias w? cr' iTroiKTetpo) Trdkai. SOPH. El. 920.
Fie ! how I have been pitying thee this long while far thy
folly.
(t^s dvoias may go with </)ei;.)
Opdxrovs TouS' ovK dXv^ei's. SoPH. El. 627.
For this daring thou shall not escape.
€L7r€p TL KXdeis Tiov 'O/JCCTTetwv KaK(x)V. Soph. El. 1117.
If thou hast a tear for the woes of Orestes.
Note 1. A similar Genitive is used in exclamations : —
cfiev rov avSpo?, woe for, or, Jie on the man ! S> Zev fSaa-LXev
Tijs XeTTTOT-qros Twi/ <f)peviov, Ar. Nuh. 153, Eoyal Zeus! what
subtlety of wit ! ot/xot t'^s ''"^X'?^) ^ fxaKaptov ttjs cf^va-ews, etc.,
a-yerXia roXjxrjs, EUR. Al. 741. w raXatv' iyo) crWev, SOPH.
El. 1210, ah, woe is me on thy account. w/xot yeAwros, Soph.
Ai. 367, ah me for the mockery. Curtius compares des Leides.
Note 2. Tov, with the Infinitive, denoting the Aim or Purpose
of an action (Final), seems to be a Causal Genitive.
Mtvcos TO XycTTLKov €K TYjS 6aXd(T(Trj<s rov rots 7rpo(r68ovs
fxaXXov livat avT(p. ThuC. i. 4.
Minos used to sweep piracy from the sea for the sake of his
revenues coming in to him.
Cf. Xen. Cyr. i. 6. 40; Soph. Phil. 197. This construction
occurs frequently in late Greek (LXX. and N. T.)
GENITIVE WITH JUDICIAL VERBS. 95
§ 102. GENITIVE WITH VERBS OF JUDICIAL
PROCEEDINGS.^
The Genitive is used with Verbs (and words) meaning :
A. To accuse : atnw/xat, StwKO), Karrjyopo), <f)€vy(i) (/ am pro-
secuted) ; 6 (fiivyoiv, the defendant ; 6 StwKwv, the
prosecutor.
So also TrpoKaXovfiai, kirk^eLfxi.
B. To acquit : a^tr;/xt, / acquit ; a7ro<^evya>, / am acquitted.
\j. To condemn : alpio^ I convict; KaraKpivo), KaTaytyi/wcrKW,
KaTaxfrjcfiL^OfxaL [blj vote)^ I condemn ; (xAiO-KO/xat, /
am convicted ; 6<j)XL(rKdv(j)j I am cast in or lose
my suit.
Slcokco fiev KaTTjyopia^, <f>6vov he (pevyco. Lys.
/ am prosecuting for libel, hut am prosecuted for
murder.
7ravT€<; K\o7rrj<; rj Bcopcov eaXcocrav (or ct)(p\ov).
All ivere convicted of theft or hrihery.
So aktovau XiTrora^iov, yjrevBofiapTVpiayv, to be convicted
of desertion, perjury, passim.
(Tvyyiyvwa-Koo tlvl Trj<; €7n6vp.La<;. PlaT.
I pardo7i any one his desire.
ypa(f)6cr6ac riva irapavop^cov.
To indict a person for proposing unconstitutional
measures.
In the passive : —
ra fiov rpevSrj Kar'qyopiqp.kva. Pl. Apol. ii.
The false accusations which have been brought against me.
Note. The case in which the person or thing is put varies
greatly. The charge is generally in the Genitive, the accused
1 According to Curtius, a Genitive of Cause : perhaps a Genitive of
Connexion.
96 THE CASES.
in the Accusative : e.g. Slmku) tlvo, <f)6vov. But with soma-
verbs it is the reverse : KarrjyopC) ri nvos, /carayiyi/wo-Kw
(KaraKptvo)) cj)6vov arov. Other verbs take a dative of the per-
son, kTna-KrjiTTO [xai crot <^6vov, ey/caAw cf)6vov (Tol. The suit or
sentence is in the Accusative, (ftevyo) Slktjv, Slkol^o) <j6^<^icr/xa,
"^voxos Tov cfiovov Tots eTTLTLULOLs, Uoble (o tJic penciUies for
murder.
§ 103. GENITIVE ABSOLUTE.
The Genitive of a noun with a participle, not con-
nected with the main construction of the sentence, denotes
time^ cause, condition, etc.
6eov hi^ovTO'^ ovSev co-'^vet ^Oovo^;,
Kol fjbTj BlBovto(; ovBev layyei 7rdvo<;. Menander.
If God should grant, ill-will availeth naught ;
Nor, if he grant not, toil availeth aught.
ovTO^ '^IrevSov; eaTLV airarr]. Plat.
Where is falsehood there is deceit.
The participle alone is sometimes found : —
cfTTOt/, e/3WTi^(ravTos (sc. avrov) on MdKp(i)ve<s elcriv.
Xen. An. iv. 8. 5.
They said, on his asking them, that they were Macrones.
So €^ayyeXOevTo<s, on its being announced; vovto<s, ivhile it
was raining ; a-va-KOTa^ovTos., when it was growing dark; reXov-
fi€vi»v eiTToi/x' av, SoPH. El. 1334, when the end is come I will
tell thee. See Participle (Genitive Absolute). ^
^ It is difl&cult to decide whether this usage belongs to the Genitive
or comes from the lost Ablative. A comparison with Latin seems to
favour the latter view. On the other hand, German uses the genitive
Absolute (see Curtius, Elucidations 197, note). In old English the
Dative was thus used. Each language seems to have proceeded inde-
pendently in its own way.
GENITIVE OF COMPARISON. c^-j
§ 104. GENITIVE WITH COMPARATIVES.
The Genitive is joined to ComJ)aratives.
E.g. fiei^cov tov dB6X<j)ov, i.e. fiet^cov rj 6 a8eX<^09.
TTovTjpla dcLTTov davuTov del. Plat.
Wickedness runs more siviftly than death {flees faster
than fate).
Note 1. The Greek Comparative, like the Latin, often
is rendered into English, " too great," " too good," etc.
K/)£iTTOi/ rjv Aoyov TO KaAXos T^s yvvaiKos.
Xen. Mem. iii. 11. 1.
TJie beauty of the woraan was too great for description (lit.
greater than ivords).
Note 2. Adjectives in -TrXao-tos, -a-ro^ take the same con-
struction as Comparatives.
€K <^€tSa)Xtas KarkdeTO fxtcro<; SiTrXdanov ttJs ovarias.
In consequence of stinginess he incurred a hatred double (that
of) his property.
TToXXoa-Tov fiepos ^v to, \pripiaTa wi/ t^/zet? TrpocreSoKaTe.
Lys. 19. 39.
His property vms a very little part of what you were expecting.
Sevre/aos, second (ovScvos) to none; vcrrepo?, later than; erepos^
other than ; 8i.d(jiopos, different from or excelling, similarly take a
Genitive ; so vcrrc/oatos, TrpoTcpaLos.
§ 105. THE GENITIVE WITH VERBS CON-
TAINING A COMPARATIVE NOTION^
The Genitive is used with many Verbs which imply
better than, worse than ; greater than, less than.
Such verbs are : — Kparo) (J prevail over), irepi^^i^voyLai,
irapLeipiL, virepexf^ (^^ superior to), Bcacpepo), hLa(f>€p6vT(D<;
Ip^o) {excel, diff'er from), vcKcojjLai, rjTTodpLat {am conquered
by, inferior to).
^ The Genitive used with Comparatives may be an Ablative use (cf.
Latin), or it may denote a general connexion, "greater in regard to."
G
98 THE CASES.
Verbs of ruling :—'^you fiat, (also with dative), apxcy>
Tvpavveuco, TVpavvw, (rrpaTrjyco.
Many others : — irXeoveKTWy fiecoveKTco, v(rT€pa>, varep-
1^0), eXaTTco, ekarTovfiai, Xecirofiai,.
Many take a dative (tlvl) in respect of which the
superiority or inferiority is shown.
MB. — BLa(j>6pofjbai, I quarrel withy takes a dative.
€p(o<; Tcov Oecov ^aaikevei. Plat.
Love is king of the gods.
TOVTO BLa<l>ep(o rwv iroXkwv. Plat.
In this respect I differ from (or excel) the rest of
mankind.
yvvaiKO'i ovSa/JLco^ r)(T<r7}Tea. SoPH.
We must in nowise yield unto a woman.
yXcoaarjf; ixuXLcrra TravTw^ov Treipoo Kparelv. MenaND.
Strive ever chief est to control thy tongue.
ap'^ovTL TTpoanqKei KapTepia t(dv iBlcotcov irepielvaL.
Xen.
A commander should in endurance surpass private
men.
§ I06. GENITIVE OF SEPARATION.^
A Genitive denoting that from which anything is
separated is used with many verbs expressing removal,
distance, separation, loosing, delivering, and the like.
1 The Genitive here is the representative of the Ablative. It is im-
possible to group the usages of the Genitive under two distinct headings
(1) Genitive or Connexion, (2) Ablative or Separation. Many Ablative
or Separative uses have already been noticed (e.g'. Partitive afiiroxos,
Connexion afxaprdvu)). Any attempt at too rigid symmetry would
violently put asunder usages which are closely connected. See Intro-
ductory Note.
GENITIVE OF SEPARATION. 99
Such verbs are — Stex^, / am 'Instant ; x^P^C^t I separate ;
(Xdip^Cofiai), etpyo), I exclude ; arexw (^X*^)? I withhold; crrcpi-
(TKOfxaL, I am deprived of; cXevdepio, I set free ; ^tAw, / strip ;
d<f>t(rTrjfxL (with its intransitive tenses), I cause to revolt; Travw,
I make to cease (from); Travo/xai, Xrjyta, I cease; aTraXAao-o-w, /
deliver from ; dTraWaara-ofiai, I escape ; itKco, Trapax(t)p(ii, lyield ;
^eiSo/xat, / spare.
7] vrjao'; ov iroXv Bte^ei, T179 rjireLpov. Thuc.
ITie island is not far distant from the mainland.
'EWtjvlkov TToXe/JLOV e(T')(pv oc 'AdrjvatoL.
The Athenians desisted from the Greek war.
^rjTeLTe avTwv vvvt aTraWayrjvaL Plat.
Tou are seeking nxfw to be set free from them.
fi€ra ravTa ^vvel^-q Oacriovs twv 'Adrjvaiiov aTrocTTrjvaL.
Thuc. i. 100.
After this it happened that the Thasians revolted from the
Athenians.
Orjcrcvs Ttts 'A^ijvas Setvov Trpoarrdy pharos T^XevOepcacrev.
ISAE. 10. 28.
Theseus delivered Athens fro-m a terrible tax.
eiirov TU) Ilavcravt^ tou KijpvKos p-rj XeiireorOaL.
Thuc. i. 131.
They told Pausanias not to leave the herald (see Soph. El. 4:79).
Similarly with nouns, Trava-Trjp rwi/Se (ttovojv), Soph. El. 384;
XvTrjpia (fiOvoVf El. 447.
Many Adjectives may be brought under this head, as
yv/j>vo<;, >|ri\o9, Ka6apo<;, op(f)avo<;, eXevOepc^ : and all
words compounded with a privative, d/jbvrjfzcov, dfieXrlf;,
apLoipo<;, ayevaro^;. Most of these have already been
brought under other rules.
7) eTTidvfiLa dfivrj/jLcov twv klvBupcov. Antiph.
Desire is forgetful of dangers.
ev^^rjf; BiKaia<; ov/c avT}Koo<; 6eo^. MenaND.
God is not deaf unto a righteous prayer.
[oo THE CASES.
§ 107. Genitive with Compound Verbs.^
The Genitive is used with many Verbs compounded with
Prepositions, especially aTrd, e^, tt/oo, virkp^ Kara. Sometimes
the Preposition seems to demand the Genitive, sometimes the
signification of the Compound Verb.
Such verbs are drroTpeTro), cK/^ati/w, e^LcrrrjjJiL, Trpo/cet/xat, Trpo-
ridkvai^ TTpOTifJiio, virepopCi (also with Accus.), virepaXyOt, Kara-
ycAw, Karacf)povio, KarayLyviocrKOi^ and many others.
TTpoa-T^vai, Tvx^5, SoPH. Ai 803 ; mrepta-Taa-dai (as, in whose
defence), Soph. El. 188.
§ 108. A Double Genitive.
Sometimes there are two Genitives in the same sentence.
In such cases the first generally refers to the agent, the
second to the object of his action.
Ttts Twv oiKctcov 7rpo7rr]XaKL(TeL<s rod yi^pdis. PlAT. Bep. 329.
The insults by relations on old age.
6ta TO avTiov Seos rov davdrov. PlAT. Phaed. 85 A.
In conseqitence of their fear of death.
avTwv Subjective, Oavdrov Objective.
TO kAcivov 'EAAaSo?
TTpoa-xW aywvos. SoPH. El. 682.
The glorious pageant of Greece, consisting in a contest.
Here the Genitives are freer ; *EAAaSos is possessive, dyiavo<i
epexegetical.
§ 109. The Epexegetical Genitive.
What is called the Epexegetical {i.e. explanatory) Genitive
is a free application of the Genitive of Material.
dfiadia avrr] ^ €7rov€tStcrTos 17 tou ouddai elSevai a ovk otiSc.
Plat. Apol. xvii.
This culpable ignorance of (which consists in) thinking one
knows what one does not knxm.
1 Some freer and miscellaneous uses of the Genitive are added. They
have been brought together at the end of this Section in order not to
lengthen previous headings with notes on less common constructions.
GENITIVE OF THE AGENT.
6 8e €yK€(f>aX6<s icrriv, 6 ras ato-^T^crets Trapk-^^iav rov aKovnv
KOL op^v KOI 6(r<f>paiv€(Tdai. Pl. Fhaed. xlv.
It is the brain which furnishes the sensations of hearing, and
sight, and smell. C ^^^
§ 110. Genitive of the Agent (so-called).
In Poetry passive Verbs and passive Verbals sometimes
take a Genitive which practically is like an Agent, and which
in Prose would be expressed by a Preposition with vtto, or
some such construction. It is not possible to refer these
constructions to one explanation. Many look like a Genitive
of the source whence, like the old English "of" (i.e. off) with
the Agent (aTro, ab). In some cases it is possible that the
governing word is used like a Substantive on which the
Genitive depends.
airavra yap crot ra/xot vov9 eTrj/JiaTa
K€LVYJ<S SlSaKTO,. SOPH. El. 344.
For all these thy admonishings of me are taught by her (come
from her).
So TrXrjyels Bvyarpos Trjs cfJLrjs. EUR. Or. 497 (cf, Electr. 123).
Smitten by my daughter.
ovT(i)<s ari/xos clfii rov redvrjKOTos ;
aTLfios ov8€vos o-v. Soph. El. 1214:.
= dTLfxd^oiJLai Trpos tov reOvrjKoroS'
The connexion of arifios with words of value may influence
the constmction.
And am I thus dishonoured of the dead (i.e. by the dead) t
Thou art by none dishonmired.
0. T. 1437 Trposrjyopos, and cf. Ai. 807, <^a>Tos '^QTrarrjfievrj.
§111. Free use of the Genitive of Connexion.
"^ l^kpKvpa T^s 'IraAias koX StKeAias KaAws irapdirXov Kcirat.
Thuc. i. 36.
Corcyra is Ml situated for a coasting voyage to Italy and-
Sicily.
frapdirXov is a Genitive of Connexion, 'IraAtas a sort of
Objective Genitive.
Tt Se LTnrdiv otei 17 rwi' aXXtav ^(ixnv ; Pl. Bej). 459 (cf. 470).
WTiat do you think about horses or other animals 1
I02 THE CASES.
In Plato a Genitive thus introducing a Subject is often
thus introduced at the beginning of a sentence ; see Kiddell,
Digest f p. 126.
rv(f>Xov Tov fiiWovTOS avdpiDTros. PlAT. SoL 12.
Man is blind concerning the future.
d)S €t Tts avTiov cXttlo-lv K€vaU 7rdpo<s
e^ripcT dvSpos rovSe k.t.A.. SoPH. JEl 1460.
That if any of them hitherto were buoyed up tvith hopes con-
cerning (centred in) this man, etc.
TOV KacriyvqTOv ri <f>yj^ ; SoPH. El. 317.
JFhat say'st thou of (about) thy brother ?
Cf. Antig. 11 ; fxvOos «^4A.(i>v, news of friends; cf. Antig. 633,
1182, 0. a 317.
a Se /xeyto-r' e^Aao-re vofxifxa, twvSc <j>€po/x€vav
apia-ra. SoPH. El. 1095.
But as to the mightiest of ordinances that exist, in respect of
these, prospering right nobly.
T'^S fir^rpos T^KO) rrjs efxrj<s <f)pdor(av iv oTi vvv Icttiv.
Soph. Tr. 1122.
J am here to tell thee of my mother, what her present plight.
ovSa/xws €fiavTrj<s ovcr^ dSet/xavTOS (j>iXoL. AeSCH. Pers. 164.
Being by no means without fear far (concerning) myself, my
The a privative in dSetfiavro^s does not here take a genitive
of want or separation (like TreTrAcov dfxotpos, without a share of
robes). But by a loose analogy common in all language, it
may help to account for the use of the genitive.
§112. The Genitive with Adjectives and Adverbs.
Partitive, fxhoxos, dfiho^os : la-6p.oLpos, dfiotpos, dKXrjpoq,
ayevcTTOS.
Perception, (dKovio) : KariyKoos, vti^koos, IttiJkoos, (rvvTjKOOs,
dvqKoos : VTTT^KOov SiL elvat tcHv yov€(ov.
Plat. Bep. 463.
These are also found with the Dative.
Trj TToXec Kar-qKooi iyevovro. PlAT. Bep. 499.
They became obedient to the state.
GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES AND AD VERBS. 103
Caring for^
neglecting,
remembering,
for getting, Qtc,
eTTtfxeXrjs, dfX€\y]<s: fiv^/xoiv^ dfivqfioiv, ^inX'qa-fJUOv.
(fnkoixadrjs, fond of learning ; oxj/iixad-qs, late in
learning (serus studiorum).
Experienced in, efxTreipos, aireipos : eTncrr-qjjLwv, Tpi/3(av (versed in).
8txr€/3ws (perdite amans), love-sick for ; Itttj^oAos
(compos), possessed of, or having succeeded in
gaining.
MecTOS, 7rA,€<os, TrXrjprj^ : irXova-ios, airX-qa-Tos.
irev'q's, Kevos, evSerjs, ^inScrjs, cXXi-n-qs, yvfivos,
rpiXos, Kadapos.
€pr}fios, o/)0avos, eXevOcpos, ayvo? (pure from),
<}>€i8(aX6<s (sparing of).
TipLLos, d^tos, (oi/?^Tos (purchaseable) : wpalos,
ripe for (Xen. Cyr. iv. 6. 9).
lyKpaT-qs, aKpari/js, OLKpariap : Kvpios, avTOKpdroip.
dXXoS, dXXotOS, €T€pOS, 5ta^O/)09, 8La(f)€p6vT(i)S.
pecros (e.g. €vo<s Kal irX-qOovs to oXtyov pkaov,
Plat. Politicus, 303, a), kvdvri6<s tlvos, the
reverse of a thing ; €vdvTi6<s tlvl, opposed to a
thing.
Aiming at,
Plenty,
Want,
Separation,
Value,
Comparative
notion : — -
Better, stronger
than, and the
reverse.
Different from.,
Connexion vTrevOwos (responsible for a thing, but vttcvOwos
generally, some tlvl, responsible to a person) ; vttotcA^s (<f>6pov,
objective, liable to pay a tribute); kirUovpos, assisting
or serviceable against (e.g. \pvxpvs, cold) ;
Tv<^Aos (rov pkXXovTos, blind with regard to the
future) ; a-vyyviopotv (dpapTrjpdriov, forgiving
of wrongs) ; KaKovpyo<s (eavrov), inflicting
wrongs on ; <j>LX68(opos (fond of giving).
Ending in -k6s, irpaKTLKos, TrapacrKCvaa-rLKos, SiSaa-KaXiKos, Troptcr-
TLKOS, K(i)XvTLk6s (tTJS dp€T1]S).
All words com- dirad-js, aSwpos, dvrJKOOS, dOkaTOS, dyvpvaxTTOS,
pounded with da-Kcvos (unfurnished) ; arcA^js (immunis) ;
a privative. art/xos, etc. etc.
Others have been given under previous Rules.
I04 THE CASES.
§ 113. Free use of the Genitive with Substantives.
A few instances are given to show how the Genitive lends
itself to the loosest connexion. Some may be regarded as
free Objective Genitives, some as Genitives of Separation,
others can only be regarded as Genitives of Connexion.
TTpog^oAij 2tK€A.ias, Thuc. iv. 1, means of approaching Sicily,
road to Sicily ; ZikoX ttoAAwi/ raXcivTwi/, a lawsuit involving many
talents (cf. Genitive of amount) ; Kpdros twv SpiDfievwv, SoPH.
EL 85, victory in our enterprise; Trarpos Xovrpd, Soph. El. 84,
libations in memory of a father ; apyj^ts irTjfxdrtov, Soph. El. 875,
help in or against troubles (cf. eTrUovpos) ; -n-arpos rifiuypos, Soph.
El. 811, an avenger whom a father has (Subjective), an avenger
of a father (Objective) ; ai twv KaKiov o-vvova-tai, intercourse with
had men (freely Objective) ; ^i^ ttoAitwi/, in spite of citizens
(freely Objective) ; aTroa-raa-ts rdv 'AOrjvaiiov, revolt from the
Athenians (separation) ; Xvoris davdrov, deliverance from death
(separation); yOds /xv^wv, SoPH. El. 372, schooled to words,
accustomed to (cf. iTrKrT-qfxtov, etc.); ijo-vxta k^Opiav^ rest from
enemies (freely Separative) ; dcj)opp.r] epyiov, Xen. Mem. ii. 7. 11,
means of setting about, or stimulus to, deeds.
THE DATIVE CASE.
Preliminary Note on the Dative.
§ 114* The Dative denotes generally the person or thing
more remotely connected with the action than is the Accusa-
tive. It thus denotes that to which the direct object is made
over or transferred (Dative of the Eemoter Object) after verbs
and adjectives which seem necessarily to require such a case
in order to complete the information they have to give {e.g.
BlS(i)/xl paa-dov — t$ a-TpaTnaTy. By a natural extension the
Dative also denotes the person or thing, affected beneficially
or injuriously, interested in the action (Dative of Interest),
and can be added at pleasure to any verb whose meaning does
not necessarily demand it {e.g. ot Kaipoi irpoilvraL rrj ttoAci, our
opportunities have been let slip, to the injury of the state). The
Dative of Interest includes the Dative of the Possessor, and
the Ethic Dative. Next to the Dative of Interest, as akin to
it in sense, although probably the use of the case has been
DATIVE OF COMMUNITY. 105
transferred from the old Instrumental, may be placed the
Dative expressing Contact with or Community, one of the most
important and extensive rules belonging to the case. Further,
the Dative has inherited the meanings of two lost cases, first
the Instrumental, including not only the Instrument and
Means, but also the Agent, Cause, Measure of Difference, and
the accompanying Circumstances ; secondly, the Locative in its
double reference to Place and Time. The Dative of Place,
however, is used as a rule only in Poetry ; in Prose, to express
motion to, not the Dative, but a preposition with the Accusa-
tive, is required.
§ 115. THE DATIVE OF THE INDIRECT OBJECT
TO WHOM ANYTHING IS SAID, DONE,
OR GIVEN
17 fjLwpla BiBcocnv avOpoairoi^ KaKa, MenANDER.
Folly hringeth troubles on men.
T) yeyevTjfjLevT] fJ'axV "^^ ^aaiXel dyyeXkerai, Xen.
The battle which had taken place is reported to the
king.
BlBoyai fjiio-dov rw arpaTevfiari. Xen.
He gives pay to the army.
With a substantive —
fXTj €^afxdpTy]T€ ircpl rrjv tov GeoO 86(riv vixtv. Pl. Apol. xviii.
Lest you commit some great error in regard to the gift of the
god to you.
§ 116. Miscellaneous examples showing certain verbs
which in Greek take a Dative of the Remoter Object.
oXiyapxCa riov kiv8vv(ov rots 7roAA.ors ixeTaSiSaxri.
Thuc. vi. 39.
Oligarchy gives a share of its dangers to the many.
SiavefJLiu ^prifxara tois TroXirais.
I distribute money among the citizens.
5taAAao-(ret TlcpBLKKav to?? ^ Kdr]vatot<s. Cf. ThUC. ii. 95.
He reconciles Perdiccas unth (to) the Athenians.
io6 THE CASES.
I bring a lawsuit (accusation) against Demosthenes.
Demostheni litem intendo.
Ax^povTi vvix(fi€V(r(a. SoPH. Ai. 816.
I shall marry Acheron. (Cf. nuho in Latin.)
(TV 8' etK^ dvdyKy kol Oeolcri firj jxd^ov. EtJRIP. Tel. Frag.
Yield thou to necessity, and war not with the gods.
Cf. Soph. Ant. 718.
€iK€iv Tivt Tijs oSov. Herod. ii. 80.
To get out of the way for anybody (or to yield the way
to anybody).
§ 117. THE DATIVE OF INTEREST, INCLUDING
THE DATIVE OF THE POSSESSOR,
ETHIC DATIVE, etc.
The Dative of Interest denotes the person or thing
interested in the action (Dativus cominodi et incom-
modi).
TTOb^ av7]p avTW iTovel, SoPH.
Every man labours for himself,
flKTO) aO^LOTTJV 0(TTL<i OV^ aVTM CTO^O?. MENANDER.
/ hate a wise man who is not wise for himself.
KaipoL Trpoeivrat ttj TrdAet. DeM. 19. 8.
Opportunities have been sacrificed, to the injury of the state.
Good instances occur in Soph. Elect. Q^ (^x^poLs), 496 (^fttv),
979 (exOpoLs), Antig. 618 (eiSort), Dem. 18. 205 (t^ Trarpi),
§ 118. Free Use of the Dative of Interest.
KairoL <T eyo) 'rifirjaa rots <}>povov(rLV ev.
Soph. Ant. 904 (cf. 25).
And yet I did honour thee in the judgment of the right-minded.
(TX^Sov Tt /xwpw fnopiav ocfiXurKdvo). SOPH. Ant. 470.
Belike I incur the charge of folly in the eyes of a fool.
DATIVE OF INTEREST. 107
€X€t TcAos ^. Aesch. p. r. 12.
For you (i.e. 50 /ar as you are concerned) the hest of Zeus
hath ending here.
ovSev elfu kol rkOvrfy^ vfiiv TraAat. SoPH. Phil. 1030.
Naught am I, dead to you long since.
(i.e. you thought me dead.)
VTroXafi^dveiv Set t^ tolovtc^ on €VT^6r)s ecrrt. PlAT.
We must assume in the case of such a person that he is simple.
XayxoivcL Tov KX'qpov rrj yvvaiKi. ISAEUS, 3. 32.
He claims the inheritance in behalf of the woman.
The usual construction would be virep r^s ywaiKos.
(rT€cf)avov(r6ai, t^ Oe^. XeN. Ages. U. 15.
To he crowned in honour of the god.
So K€Lp€(r9ai o-oi, to be shorn in honour of thee, EURIP.
Hip. 1425.
Note. Several idioms with participles should be noticed :
T^ TrX'qOcL Tiov nAarataJy ov /SoyXofxevi^ -^v riov 'Adrjvamv
d<f>L(rTacrdai. ThUC. ii. 3.
The Plataean democracy did not wish to revolt from the
Athenians.
Cf. Tag. Agr. 18, quibus volentibus bellum erat.
rjfxcpai fidXta-Ta ^(rav rrj MiTvX'qvy eaAwKvt^ ore, k.t.X.
Thug. iii. 29.
Seven days had passed since the capture of Mitylene when, etc.
See Temporal Sentences, § 211.
Tcp fiev e^oiOev d7rrofX€V(Ji crt3/>ta ovk dyav Oep/xov ^v.
Thug. ii. 49.
To the outward touch the body was not very hot.
'ETTtSa/Avos €(rTt TToAts €V Sc^t^ i(rTrX€ovTL TOV 'loviov KoXirov.
Thug. i. 24.
Epidamnus is a town on your right as you enter the Ionic Gulf.
So a-vveXovTL {(Twr^ixvovTi) ciVetv, or simply (tvv^Xovtl, to
speak shortly, concisely, in brief, in short.
io8 THE CASES.
§ 119. THE DATIVE OF THE POSSESSOR.
Especially with €t/-t/, ^l^voybai, vTrdp')((o.
VTje^ ovK eicrlv rjfilv.
We have no ships.
aWoL<; iiev ')(^p7]fiaTa earc TroWa, rjfuv Be ^Vfjufia-^OL
ayaOoL. ThuC.
Some have plenty of money, hut we have good allies.
ovSev kjxoi Koi ^t\i7nr(^.
Philip and I have nothing to do with each other.
Ti €fiol Kal (TOL ;
What have I to do with thee ? What have we in common i
§ 120. THE ETHIC DATIVE, DENOTING THE
PERSON WHOSE FEELINGS SYMPATHISE
WITH THE A CTION.
o) TeKVov, 77 ffe^rjKev tj/mv 6 f 6I/09 ; SoPH.
My child, say (tell me), is the stranger departed ?
fi€fivrj(T6€ fJLOi fJLrj OopvPeiv. PlAT. Apol. XV.
BememheTf I pray you, not to interrupt.
TTWS ^fxiv e^cis ;
How are you ?
iyo) crtcoTTw r^Se ; Ar. Batr. 456.
WTiat, I hold my tongue at this fellow's bidding ?
So, elliptically —
firj fioi fivpiovs ^evovs. DeM. iv. 19.
Talk not to me often thousand mercenaries.
Sometimes a mere interjection expresses the Ethic dative,
e.g. Soph. Elect. 272, rip.Lv, fie onH!
THE DATIVE OF COMMUNITY OR CONTACT
WITH.
§ 121. The Dative of Community or Contact with is
words (Verbs, Adjectives, and Adverbs) which denote
likeness or unliheness ; agreement or disagreement ; meeting,
encountering, following.
DATIVE OF COMMUNITY. 109
A. With Verbs.
KaKoi^ ofuXcov Kavro^ eK^rjorr} KaKo<;. Menand.
If thou associate with the had, thyself too wilt turn
out bad.
OeS ixa')(ea6av heivov eo-n Kal Tv^r). MenaND.
'Tis terrible to fight with God and Fortune.
ovK €(f>r] Ttt epya tols Aoyots 6f*oX.oy€iv. ThUC. V. 55.
He said that their deeds did not correspond with their words.
OVK alcr^pov kcnX rots Trovrjpocs Suacficpea-Oai.
Xen. Mem. ii. 9. 8.
It is not wrong to quarrel with (differ from) bad men.
Contrast the use of 8ia(j>€po) with a Genitive.
hvx^ov TTpoaeXOwv KaXXCa,. Plat. j4p. iv. (cf. xviii., €v-
Tvyxdvto).
I chanced to meet Callias.
So TrpocTvy^ydvia, €VTvy^ai/(u, aTravrw, irpoaKpovia^ tivl.
T$ ^AXklPiolS-q Ttv€s cs Xoyovs -^XOov. Thuc. viii. 48.
Certain persons had a conference with AlciUades.
So SiaXeyofjiai tivl.
/3ovX€<rd(i) eveXTTis o/xoa-e )(^ii)prj(rai rots ivavriOL<s.
Thuc. iv. 10.
Let him with good heart resolve to close with the foe.
Cf. fxd)(OfiaLj TroXefXb) tivl.
Xpr) cTTCcr^at to) vo/*y. ThUC. ii. 35.
One must follow the custom.
B. With Adjectives.
o aya6o<; rat ayaOa> (f)l\o<;. Plat.
The good ma'^ is dear to the good man.
T0t9 Tvpavvoi*; ael BLacl)opol eafiev. Thuc.
We are ever hostile to tyrants.
avOpaMTOLf; pXa^epov pukv "^^evhof;, ^7]<Tifio<; B ae
aXrideia.
To men falsehood is injurious, truth is ever useful.
no THE CASES.
Note 1. Constructions of o avros, idem: —
a. Tovro ravTov ( = to avTo) kcrriv €K€ivii).
This is the same as that.
Hoc idem est quod illud.
TO. avTO. (jipovia ArjuocrdeveL (really = ols (ppovet A.)
Dem. 18. 30.
/ hold the sam£ opinions as Demosthenes.
b. TavTOi 7rao-X€ts aTrep Kal eyw.
You experience the same as I do.
This is a very common construction of 6 avros in Demosthenes.
€i Tis SiurxvpL^OLTO T(^ avT(^ Xoyoi uxnrep (tv.
Plat. Phaedr. xxxvi.
If any one were to affirm positively {with) the same statement
as you {that you make).
C. HovSlvoi §€ ov Ty avrfj yXiocrcry )(fi€(0VTai Koi TeXcovoi.
Herod, iv. 109.
The Budini do not use the same speech as the Geloni.
Cf. idem atque {ac) in Latin. This is not so common a con-
struction in Attic.
Brachylogy is very frequent in the construction of o avrds.
(oTttv) €icrtS(o 8' ecrO'qfxaTa
(f)OpOVVT' €K€tVOi TaVTOL {=a7r€p Kal €K€lVO? C(f>€p€).
Soph. Elect. 269.
Whenever I behold him wearing the self-same robes as my
dead father {as those of my father).
Note 2. L(To<s, TrapairX'qa-Los, o/xoios have the same construc-
tions as 6 avTos.
ov Kal (TV TVTTTCt TttS tcras TrAryytts efiOL ; Ar. Ban. 636.
Shan't you be beaten with the same number of blows as I?
§ 122. DATIVE OF THE INSTRUMENT,
INCLUDING MEANS, AGENT, CAUSE,
MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE.
The Dative in expressing these meanings has inherited the
work of the lost iiistrumental case.
A. Instrument or Means.
')(pr](TTO<; irovrjpoli; ov TcrpcoaKeTaL \6yoL<;. MenAND.
A good man is not wounded by had words.
DA TIVE OF THE A GENT. 1 1 1
e^aXkov avTov; Xt^ot? re /cat To^eufiacrc kcu clkov-
tIoi<;. Thug.
They were attacking them with stones, and arrows, and
javelins.
eaff 0T(p av t,hoL^ ^ 6(j>6aXfio2^ ; Plat.
Is there anything you would see with hut eyes ?
Hate. xpCifxai, I use (and sometimes vofii^ta in the same sense)
takes this dative. (Cf. ufm- in Latin.)
XpiofJ'Oii' dpyvpttj), ^Ll3Xiois<) etc.
I use silver, books, etc.
lit. / get service done (with), or, / employ myself {with).
aySxTi Koi OiXTiaLS vopLL^ofiev. ThUC. ii. 38.
We use festivals and sacrifices.
Cf. dfiet/Soiv /?a<^>J, a dat. of instrument, Aesch. Pers. 319.
Pi<}, by force (per vim); dvdyKr), do., are instrumental datives.
B. Agent (cf. viro with Gen.).
The Dative denoting the Agent is used in Prose chiefly with
the perfect and pluperfect passive. In Homer the same case
may refer both to things (Instrument) and persons (Agent).
(Compare II. iii. 428 with 436, and see Peile, Primer of
Philology.) In Attic, however, the so-called Dative of the
Agent oftener appears to be a Dative of Interest.
ravra dTTOTereXea-Tai. crot. XeN.
Those things have been finished by you (ifor you).
cttciSt) TrapecTKevacTTO KopcvdiOLS. ThUC.
When preparations had been made by the Corinthians {1 for).
Cf. Thug. iii. 64 CEXXtjo-l). Eur. Eec. 1085 (a-ot) : Dem. 844
1. (tovt^).
rjcrcrdcrOaL, vcKoia-Oat tlvi, to be beaten by any one, are used as
well as rjcrcrdcrdaL, VLKoicrOai Tii/09, or vtto tivo<s.
Verbals in -Teo<; regularly take a Dative of the Agent
(see Participles).
112 THE CASES.
C. Cause. (This may, in some cases, be a Dative of
Circumstance.)
evirpaylai^ ovk e^u^pi^ofjuev. Thuc.
We do not break out into insolence in consequence of
prosperity.
OVK elfju TOis 7r€7rpayfJL€VOL<s
Sva-evfjios. Soph. EL 549.
I am not despondent because of what has Jmppened.
Cf. Thuc. i. 95, exe^i.
So <^tXt^, through friendship ; €vvol<^, through goodwill (volun-
tate) ; ayi^ot^, through ignorance ; tw ixio-clv, through hatred (Dem.
45. 30) ; and c^wret, naturally.
avOpiDTTOs <f)V(T€i ttoXltikov ^wov. AriST. Eth.
Man is by nature a creature adapted to social life.
The Dative of Cause is joined to many verbs express-
ing Emotion (ax^o/xat, / am vexed ; xaXiiraivio, I am vexed ;
d^v/1,0), / am despondent ; yj^ofiai, I am pleased; ayaAAo/iat, 1
exult ; €7raipofiaL, I am elated ; ala-xvvoixai, I am ashamed (also
with Accus.), (TTepyu), ayaTTw, I am content). Cf. ctti with the
Dative after such verbs.
^609 €pjoL<; rot? StKaioLf; rjSerai. Philemon.
God is pleased with righteous deeds.
Ava-avBpo^ /3ayO€a)9 €<j)€p6 rrj arLfiia. Xen.
Ly Sander was offended at the affront.
TOis crots a^co-t Ka0vj3pi^(i)v. SoPH. Ai. 153.
Mocking at thy woes.
k'Traipop.ivos y] ttAovt^ rf lcr\vL rj aAA^ toJ toiovto).
Plat. Bep. iv. 434.
Elated either by wealth or strength, or some other such ad
vantage.
So xaAcTTws (t)€p€Lv. Both phrasBs also take the Accus. (EuR.
Med. 1018).
DA TIVE OF CIRCUMSTANCE. 1 1 3
D. Measure of Difference, especially with Comparatives.
eT6po<; erepov KecfiaXrj fjuet^cov eart. Plat.
One man is taller than another hy a head (i.e. is a
head taller).
8€Ka eT€0"6 Tvpo TYJ<5 €V ^aXafMLVi vavfJ,a\La<s, etc.
Plat. Leg. 698.
Ten years before the sea-fight at Salamis {before by ten years).
TocrovTio 't]8iov ^w 00-^ fiaXXov KCKT-qtiai. Xen. Cyr. viii. 3. 40.
/ live the more pleasantly the more I possess, i.e. by so much
the more pleasantly.
So iro\\(Z, oXiyo), P'^xp^, paKpto (pct^ov, fikXriov^ etc.). A
neuter accusative is also used with comparatives, especially
TToXv, oXiyov, Qv8kv, prjSkv (^ttov, poiXXov, etc.). See Com-
parative and Superlative.
§ 123. TffE DATIVE OF CIRCUMSTANCE.
The Dative expresses the accompanying circumstances.
The Dative has taken on the meaning of the lost Sociative
or Comitative Instrumental Case.
In mentioning details of military or naval forces this Dative
is constantly used ; e.g. etKoo-t vavcri, ttoAAw crraT^vpaTi,
o-ToA(p, etc.
€(j)o^ovvTO pLT) pLel^ovL TTapaaKevj} eireXOayaiv. Thuc.
They were afraid that they luoidd come against thein
with a greater force.
oi ^AOrjvaloL dreXei ry vUrj dvecrrrjaav. TlIUC.
The Athenians retired with the victory incomplete.
KaKouTiv ocTTt? prjSev e^aXXda-arerai. SoPH. Ai. 474.
Whoso hnoweth no change in respect of ills.
€KTos €^ AtrwAtas
^avOaiCTL 7r(oXoL<s. SoPH. El. 705 (see 1343).
A sixth out of Aetol'm
with bright bay mares.
Cf. Soph. Antig. 589 (7rj/oa?s).
H
114 THE CASES.
Note 1. The preposition which would be used in such a
construction, and which is sometimes used, is avv.
e.g. eVAeov ^vv iravrl tw err par ^vfiaTi. ThUC. vi. 62.
Note 2. Many adverbial Datives are thus used : 8p6/x(^^ at
full speed ; kvkXo), round about ; (nyfj, silently ; tovtm tw t/dotto),
in this way, thus ; Brj/jLoarL^, publicly ; ISia, privately; 7re^>y, on
foot ; ravTy, thus ; y, in which way ; to) ovrt, in reality.
fierd with Genitive, a-vv with Dative, or adverbs proper, are
synonymous expressions : e.g. orvv Slkyj^ fxera. SUris, SiKaiois
(for the Dative of Circumstance).
In Soph. Ai 767, deot^^crvv Oeots, deo favente.
In Pl. Apol. XV. ev Tw emdoTi rpoTroy, in my usual way.
Note 3. The use of avros with the Dative of Circumstance
is specially to be noticed.
fxiav vavv 'iXafSov at'rots dv8pdcrL. ThUO.
They captured one ship, with the men themselves (crew and all).
aVTOLS TTOt/AVtWl/ CTTtCTTaTatS. SoPH. Ai. 27.
Together ivith the masters of the flocks.
Cf. Eur. Bacch. 946, 1134.
a-vv and a/xa are rarely used.
etTTCTO Tw Aoxayw ^vv avT(^ t^ OwpaKL Kal rfj kottlSl.
Xen. Cyr. ii. 2. 9.
He was following the captain with breastplate and v:ith bill.
So a/xa, Soph. Antig. 115.
§ 124. DATIVE OF TIME AND PLACE.
The Dative, as representing the defunct Locative, denotes
Time when and Place where.
A. Time. The Dative denotes a definite point of time
when something occurs, in certain phrases without the
Preposition ev.
It is used chiefly of day, night, month, year, and
festivals.
T^Se TTj r]fjL6pa:= (rr]fjb€pov, T7]pbepov, on this day, to-day.
rrjhe rfj vvktl airidavev, he died to-night.
DATIVE OF TIME AND PLACE. 115
TTj TTporepala, the day before. (So rf) va-repala,
irporepa, Bevrepa.)
ol ev IOco/jLT} rerapra) erei ^vve^rjo-av. Thuc.
' The (Helots) in Ithome surrendered in the fourth year.
T/)ayw8ots Katvot?, Dem. 243. 17, at the representation of the
neiv tragedies; aOXoia-i HvOlkolo-l, at the Pythian games, Soph.
El. 49. So QeafJLOcfiopLOLSj tols 'Eittlvlklol^, Alovvct L0L9, Ilava-
drjvaiois, etc.
So in reckonings of the month : evy Kal vect, on the last day
of the month (see Lexicon) ; BoT^Spo/xtwvos fxrjvos reTapTy
tcTTa/xevoi', on the fourth day of the first decade of Boedromion.
A prose instance of this Dative of Time occurs in IsocR.
Evag. QQ.
TtVa evp-qcroixev twv rots TpwtKois xpovois y€vofx€vo)v ;
Whom shall we find of those who were horn in the Trojan age ?
A poetical one in Soph. El. 193.
oiKTpa fX€v vocTTOLs av8d.
A voice of woe on the return.
Note. As a rule ev is added with other expressions, though
sometimes it is omitted. Sometimes kv is found with the
above expressions, except in names of festivals. 'Ev is more
likely to be omitted when an adjective is used, e.g. ev wkti,
but /xt^t vvKTi. In Thucydides ev is sometimes omitted where
we should have expected it, e.g. iKecvrj rfj ia-poXfj^ Thug. ii.
20, in this invasion. So ry irporepa Tra/aovcri^, ThuC. i. 128,
during his first stay ; ry irpoTkpq. (eKKkya-iijf), Thuc. i. 44, at the
former meeting of the assembly.
XpovM, in time, or at last; Kauptp, in season, =€? Kaipov, (ev
Katpw is extremely rare) ; x^''H'^^^'^ ^P^ without ev ; ol ev w/D^t,
men in the prime of life.
B. Place. This use of the Dative without the Pre-
position ev is poetical.
ert /xeya? ovpavi^ Zevs. SoPH. El. 174.
Still is Zeus great in heaven.
ii6 THE CASES.
Prose writers, however, use this case with names of towns.
Ma/oa^wvt /cat 2aAa/>ttn koX IIAarat'afc?. PlAT.
At Marathon, and Salamis, and Plataeae.
N.B. — lAapadOivi and 'ZaXafiivi are real Locatives.
So 'Kdr)vr](TL, Qi^^rjCTL, 'OkvfXTrLaGrL, IIAaTatacrt.
Veritable Locatives are otKot, at home (domi) ; x^H-^-h ^^ ^^^
ground (humi) ; aypoio-t, in the country (ruri) ; Ovpaa-t, at the
door (foris) ; HvOot, at Pytho ; 'la-OfMOL, at the Isthmus.
These are all, except aypoLcn, used in Prose. In Prose
aypois.
§ 125. Lists of Words which take a Dative.
Verbs.
1. Verbs of telling, promising, advising.
<t>Wh say. irapaiv^, ^ ) advise.
Aeyw, tell. arvfJi/^ovXevo}, )
d-yyeAAw, report. v7ro/3d\\a}, dictate.
[XYfvvio, inform. viroTtOefxaL, suggest.
vTTKTyyov pLai, proraise.
They take an Accusative of the nearer object, e.g. Tavrd o-ot
TrapatvCj, I give you this advice.
Obs. KcAevo) ore Uvai, I bid you go, Accus. and Inlin.
2. Verbs of obeying, trusting, and the contrary.
Tretdo/jiai, be persuaded by, com- avrtcrTw, disbelieve.
ply. vTraKovo), serve (and genitive).
TTtxrrevoi, trust (also intrust), Xarpevo), serve (Oeols).
olttclOo), disobey.
Obs. TTcidov fjLOL, be persuaded by me, hearken to me ; ttlOov fxoi,
obey me.
3. Verbs of helping and hindering.
oLfx-vvix) (in Act.), \ v7rr)p€T0), serve.
dprjyii) (poet), >help. yapi^ojxai, gratify.
pO',)dQ>,^ ) ejM7ro8i(ofxai, ) j^-^^^^
hriKovpOf, help. €fX7ro8ct)v elvai, j
TLfiMpo) (in Act.), avenge.
For dfxvvoixai and TtfjLOjpovfxat see Middle Voice.
WORDS WHICH TAKE A DA TIVE.
117
4. Verbs of heing angry with, blaming, threatening.
dyavaKTio, ] 7
„' n } vexed or v,
ipyL^ofiaL, angry.
XaAeTratvw, angry, annoyed.
eyKaAw, charge, accuse.
iin^pedlo}, threaten abusively, 01
treat clespitefully.
eTTLTLfjio}, censure,
XoiSopovfxai
fxe/j.(f)oixat, blame.
(f>Oov(o, envy.
/Sapeois (f)€poj (aegre, graviter,
XaAcTTws <^e/oa>, fero), / am
, annoyed, vexed.
N.B. — XoL^opd Act. takes the Accus.
Ixe/jLipofxaL TiVL, or Tt TiVL (jLva or TtVos), / complain of a
person or ' '
XvcTLTeXet /xoL, it is profitable for
me.
ixkrecrri fxoi TOVTbiv, I have a
share of this.
jueAet /xot dpeTrjs, I cai'e for
virtue.
/xera/xeAet /xot tovtwv, / rej^ent
of this, jpoenitet me huius rei.
fjLicrcj, hate, takes the Accus.
5. The Impersonal Verbs.
SoKet fioL, mihi videtur.
(8oK0i fioi, mihi videor. )
ov fjLOL 80KO), I think not.
TrpeTTCL fxoL, me decet.
Trpoa-qKei /jlol, it concerns me.
ovSev fjiOL TzpocrriKu, nihil ad me
attinet.
Sei /xot Ttvos, opus mihi est ali-
qua re, but 6et /xe kXdelv.
6. Likeness or unlikeness.
toLKa (impers. ioiKe), am like,
la-io, make equal.
o/i04(o, make like.
7. Agreement, disagreement.
dfx(f)L(rl3r}T0), dispute.
(XTrex^avo/xat, am odious to,
hated by.
evavTiOvfiat, oppose.
kivirWiixai, attack.
€pt((i), quarrel with.
(TvvaXXd(r(r<j) tovtov (tol, I re-
concile this man to or with you.
TToXefiio, at war with.
o-rao-i a^o), revolt, rebel, quarrel
(rv/x(f>o)vC), agree with (opp. to
a-vva.8o), agree ivith (opp. to
ofjLoXoyo), agree with,
ixdypiiai, fight.
Like TToAc/xw, Stot izoXkpov Ikvat Tivi, to be at war with one;
h x^^P^'^ eXdetv, or bixocrc yj^pdv rivi, to come to blows, close
quarters, ivith one.
djxffaa-jSrjTOi (tol rov ctltov, I dispute ivith you about the food.
i8
THE CASES.
8. Meeting i following.
aKoXovOoj, I follow.
eVo/xafc, / follow (also o-i'V Tivfc,
and /xera nviov).
diravTO), meet with, come across.
€VTvyxoLy(^, fned with, come
across.
TTposrvyxoivo), meet with, come
across.
TTpocTKpoviD, kuock up against.
SiaXeyofxai, converse with.
ofxiXw, associate with.
TTpoa-eLfXL, ajpproach.
(TvveifxL, associate with.
kirkpxop'O.i, advance against.
Traparacra-oiiaL, stand beside
battle.
am friendly dis-
9. Many verbs compounded with Prepositions, especially
with eVt, 7r/5os, (Tvv, 7re/ot, chiefly denoting contact. Some have
already been given.
dvrexio, hold out against.
dfKJiLa-prjTio, dispute with.
(or Trpos
Ttra) or
SLaTidcfxaL or
Trpos<f>€pofJLaL
ifi/SaXXo), throw in.
i/xixevo), abide by.
ifiTTOLU), introduce, p'oduce.
€7rdyio, lead in.
iTTLCTTpaTevo), make war on,.
eTTLTaTTO), impose.
€7rL(f)€p(D, bring up or against.
TrpospdkXoi, put, apply to.
Trapa/SdXXo), set beside, compare
(also Ti Ttapd, or TTpos rt).
TraparaTTOfiaL, stand beside in
battle.
TrepidirTO), fasten round.
irepipdXXofxai, throw round, cir-
cumfundere, circumdare,
e.g. rfj vqcro) relxo^, or vrja-ov
reix'^i.
TrepiTidrjfjiL, place round.
TrepLTTLTTTO), fall rouud or on.
7rp6s€LixL, come before, e.g. tc^
S^/itp, address the assembly.
(Tvyx'^'^p^i rejoice with.
(TvXXafxfSdvo) TLVL TIV09, (tl,
or €ts Tt) assist any one in
am
7rpos<p€p(j}, ) -^^ '^
(TvvoiSa, am conscious; e/xavrw ^vv-qSciv ovSev kirKTrapikvi^
(or €7rto-Ta/x€vos) / was conscious that I knetv nothing for certain.
Ph. Apol.
^vvLo-ao-L MeXrJTip ^cvSo/xevy, they are aware that Meletus is
speaking falsely (i.e. they know as well as he knoivs). lb.
WORDS WHICH TAKE A DATIVE.
119
§126.
Adjectives.
And their cognate Adverbs and Substantives, e.g. /3o7]66s,
/So-qdeta, TrpeiTov, 7r/)€7rovTco?.
Useful^ fit^ becoming, friendly, like, near, and their contraries.
dSeXcfios (and Gen.), akin or kolvos (and Gen.), common.
answering to.
aKoXovdos (and Gen.), follow-
ing after, agreeing with.
aAAoT/Dtos (and Gen.), foreign,
or different.
dvTio-Tpocfios (and Gen.), corre-
sponding.
6 avTos, the same.
Sia^o/oos (and Gen.), different.
'4fiiJLovo<s, abiding by.
€jxcf>vTos, imj)lam,ted.
iTTLT-qSeios, suitable.
eX^po5) hostile.
evvovs, well-disposed.
Sva-vovs, ill-disposed.
tStos (and Gen.), private, per-
sonal.
toros, e(^
dvi(To<5, unequal.
IdoppoTTos (and Gen.), equally
matched.
ofxoios, nice.
dvofjLOios, unlike.
6fxc!}vviJ.o<s (and Gen.), called by
the same name.
irapairXricrtos, similar.
TTLcrvvos, relying on, fretus.
aTTtcTTog, not to be trusted, or
not trusting.
7rpos<f>iX.'qs, beloved.
TToAe/xios, hostile.
crvfjifxaxo's, in alliance, friendly.
crvp(f)opos, )
o-vp,<j>€pov, j
d(rvfx(jiopos, inexpedient.
XaXeiros, difficidt, unfavourable,
iniquus.
XPWTo<s, J serviceable.
Xp-qa-Liios, j
O'XPW'^^'^) ( unserviceable.
axpeLos, j
Obs. Several take also a Genitive (especially those denoting
correspondency) sometimes with a slight difference of meaning,
for which the Lexicon should be consulted. Compare par,
proprius, similis, alienus, etc. in Latin.
Adverbs.
a/xa, generally temporal. Xoifios a/xa ttoAc/xo)
same time as war.
o/xou, local. v8(Dp ojxov Tw TTrjko), water and mud
€<ji€^7]^, TO. TOTJTois ctjbe^Ty?, wkat comcs next to this.
€yyvs, Dat and Gen. ; see Lexicon.
at the
r.
CHAPTEE V.
§ 127. COMPAEATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE.
The Comparative is followed by
A. A Genitive : —
vioL<i TO (TL'yav Kpelrrov ean tov XaXeov, MeNANDER.
Silence is tetter for young folk than speech.
B. By^:-
Kpelrrov (TLCCTrav eariv rj XaXelv /JLarrjv. Menander.
'Tis better to keep silence than talk idly.
Instead of rj the prepositions avri, irpo (with Genitive), or
irpos, irapd (with Accusative), sometimes.
dvTt, Soph. Antig. 182.
TT/oo, Plat. Crit 54, b.
TT/aos, ThuC. iii. 37. 1 ; -rrapa, ThuC. i. 23. 3.
TrAeov, e'AaTTov, /xetov, may omit the 17 (like plus, amplius,
minus, in Latin).
oLTrWavov oAtyw eAao-crovs irevr-qKOVTa. ThUC. i. 44. 5.
There fell rather less than fifty.
Instead of ttoAAw with a Comparative marking the measure
of difference, ttoAv may be used. Thus we may say ttoAAw
apLuvbiv or TToXv a/xetVwv, far, much better.
Note 1. The Comparative is constantly used, without the
other object compared, to denote a degree too high or too low,
a considerable degree or a degree greater or less than usual
{very, rather, someivhat) \ not seldom it is used as a matter of
idiom, where the Positive would be more natural.
k\B\ p.k\o% dypOLKorepov w? e/xe XaPovcra. ArIST. Ach. 675.
Hie thee (Muse), and bring to 7)ie a right rural melody
(dypoiKorepov, countrified).
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. 121
/xet^ocriv epyoi? €7rL)(€ipovvT€s ov jxtKpoiS KaKoi^ TrepiTnTnov-
crtv. Xen. Mem. iv. 2. 35.
By attempting tasks too great they encounter no slight troubles.
Tt veixirepov, S> 'ZioKpare'i, yeyovev ; PlAT.
TFliat new thing has happened, Socrates ?
ov xetpov iroXXoLKLs aKovetv. PlAT. Phaed. 105.
It is no had thing to hear often.
Note 2. To denote too high or too low a degree, r^ Kara is
used with the Accusative, or 17 w?, ^ lairre with the Infinitive.
(Cf. Latin, quam pro, quam ut, quam qui.)
elSe vcKpov fxei^o) rj Kar avOpwirov. PlAT. Mep. 360.
He saw a corpse of superhuman size.
01 'AOrjvaLOL ev StKeAta jxei^oi 7] Kara SaKpva eireirovOecrav.
Thuc. vii. 75.
The Athenians in Sicily had endured sufferings too great
for tears.
ipo^ovfxaL ii-q rt fxel^ov rj locrre (pepetv Svva(r6aL ^vfxfSrj.
Xe^. Ap. iii. 5. 17.
I fear that some evil, too great for us to be able to bear, may
happen. See EuR. Bacch. 840.
The Positive is sometimes so used with locne.
TO v^oip \pv^pov wcrre Xova-aaSai ecrriv. XeN. Ap. iii. 13. 3.
The tvater is too cold for bathing.
Cf. Thuc. ii. 61. 2; kyKaprepdv, without wo-re.
Note 3. fxaXXov r] (for which irXkov r/ may be substituted)
is used after a Comparative.
alp€T(i>T€pOV OLTTodviqcrKiLy fiaXXoV i] (fi€Vy€LV.
Xen. Cyr. iii. 3. 51.
It is more desirable to die than to run away.
Seei TO irXeov r| ^tAt^ ThUC. iii 12.
Through fear more than friendship.
So with a Positive.
uivyijr) 'Ad-nvauiov ri Swa/xts fxaXXov r) otKcia.
Thuc. i. 121. 2.
The power of the Athenians is purchased rather than their own.
122 COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE.
Note 4. Two adjectives or adverbs compared with each
other may both be in Comparative.
Tr]V €lp-jvr]v avayKaiQTepav yj KaAAiw vrreXdixf^avov ^Ivai.
Aeschin. iii. 69.
They were regarding the ^eace as inevitable rather tha7i
honourable.
So (rvvToiic^repov rj a-a<^k(TT€pov, curtly rather than clearly.
Is. 6. 24.
tw a-TpaTrjyol TrAetove? rj ftcXrioves. AriST. Ach. 1078.
Ho ! GeneralSj more numerous than brave.
Cf. Latin — PauUi Aemilii contio fuit verior quam gratior
populo. Liv. xxii. 38.
The speech of Paullus Aemilius was more true tlmn
acceptable to the people.
Note 5. Both the Comparative and Superlative may be
used with a reflexive pronoun to denote a comparative or
superlative degree reached by the person himself within his
own experience.
TToXXiu \(dpov kavrOiv Xkyovcriv. AnTIPH. V. 7.
They speak much worse than they generally do {much heloiv
their real powers, or their average).
o^vrara avTOS avTov opa. PlAT. Leg. 715, <?.
His sight is at its keenest.
Note 6. The Superlative is used, where the Comparative
would logically be correct, to denote a supereminent degree
of superiority.
KaXXiCTTOv Twv Trporepov ^aos. SoPH. Ant. 100.
Light most glorious of all former lights.
Cf. Jntig. 1212; Fhiloct. 1171.
khkdvfV irapavofXMTara aTrdvTiov dvOpiorrtav.
Antiph. Herod. 17.
/ was thrown into prison in a far more unconstitutional way
than ever man was.
Note 7. The Superlative is strengthened by ^, ttoXXm,
TToXv : —
/xeyto-Tos 8i}, quite the greatest; iroXXw, woXv dpca-Tos, far,
much the best.
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE. 123
(OS, oTi, and olov strengthen the Superlative : —
(OS p^a-ra, as easily as possible (quam facillime); (os or 6tl
IxaXiCTTa, raxio-Ta (quam maxime, quam celerrime).
oTi iv PpaxordTw, in as short a time as possible. Thuc. iii. 46.
(OS YjSvvavTo dSrjXoTara, as secretly as they were able.
Thuc. vii. 50.
olov ddXLioraTQv, in as miserable a plight as possible.
Arist. Ach. 384.
Note 8. The phrase eh durjp with a Superlative denotes an
unique personal pre-eminence.
€tS dvYJp TrAetCTTOV TTOVOV
ex^pots TTapaa-x<^v. Aesch. Pers. 329.
Wreaking^ beyond all else,
Most mischief to his foes.
(Or, with his single arm, what one man might).
Cf. Soph. 0. T. 1380; Ai. 1340; Thuc. iii. 39.
CHAPTEK VI.
VOICES AND MOODS.
§ 128. THE ACTIVE VOICE.
(1.) The Active Voice includes transitive and intransitive
verbs. On the other hand the Middle Voice includes deponent
verbs which are active and transitive, such as aiSov/xat tovs
^eovs, / reverence the gods ; ot/xat, / think.
(2.) Some verbs are both transitive and intransitive.
eXavvG), I drive, and / ride (so. ap/xa, linrov).
e^o), I have, „ I am (with adverbs only).
irpdaacoy I do, „ I fare.
BrjXa), I show, „ I show myself, am moMifest (sc.
ejJLavTOv).
reXevTO), I end, „ I die (sc. ^lov).
So in English / turn, I join, I move, I change, etc.
Both transitive and intransitive tenses are found in the
same verb.
E.g. caTr)fjLi,, I set (tip) ; earrjKa, I stand.
So <f)vcD, ^alvo), and others.
(3.) Some simple verbs become intransitive when com-
pounded with a preposition.
C fjL€Ta/3aWci), 1 change.
), I throw. ) ea^dWco, 1 1 rush in,
( efx^aXkeL, ) (of rivers
, / cut. TTpOKOTTTCO, I mO
(bepcD, I hear. hia<hep(o, \
^dWo), I throw. I ea^dWco, ) 1 rush in, attack, or
(of rivers) floiv in.
KOTTTCi), I cut. TTpOKOTTTCO, I make progress.
differ from, am su-
nor to.
^ f r J ( eWecTTco, 1 / fail ;
XecTTCD, Heave. { , ^ , h r j- S • ^
( €K\eLTT(o, J I die, faint.
124
THE MIDDLE VOICE. 125
(4.) The Active is sometimes Causative, i.e. it means
" I get, or allow, a thing to be done," not " I do it myself."
o Kvpo<; KarcKavcre ra ^aatXeia.
Caries had the palace burnt dovjui.
So in Latin —
Verres ad palum alligavit piratas.
yerres had thepirates hound to a post. Cic. Ver. iv. 29.
§ 129. THE MIDDLE VOICE.
In the Middle Voice the action of the verb refers in
some way or other to self. In some verbs, however, the
notion of self is so much lost that the Middle differs from
the i\.ctive only in giving a different meaning to the verb.
The chief uses of the Middle Voice are —
A. Eeflexive,! ; *^^ ..^^^^ *!^i
' ( (2.) Indirectly.
B. Causative.
C. Reciprocal.
D. The notion of self is so blurred or lost that the
Middle must be regarded as giving a new and
different meaning to the Active ; in some cases
there is no Active.
Note. The Aorist Middle is never passive.
The Future Middle is —
(1) sometimes apparently passive, but really middle, e.g. Xeixp-
ofxai, I will not leave (a-ov) ; Aet^^^Jo-o/xac, / sJmll be left ;
V] dpxq KaraXva-eTai, tvill fall to pieces; KaTaXvOrjcreTaL, be
destroyed.
(2) really passive with certain verbs : TL/Mrjo-ofxai, I shall be
honoured ; orTvyr^a-oiiaL, I shall be hated ; StSd^ofxaL, I shall
be taught ; o-TcpTJo-o/xat, / shall be bereft ; (rj/xLc^a-ofMai, I slmll
be fined ; wc^eAiJoro/xat, I shall be helped ; dSLKrja-ofxaL, I sJiall
be wronged.
In these cases the Future passive is rarely or never used.
126 VOICES AND MOODS.
> rr^-. -^ n ' ^ir-ini fl- Directlv Rcflexwe.
A. The Reflexive Middle. < ^ t j- ^i t, ^ •
'' (2. Indirectly Reflexive.
(1.) The Directly Reflexive Middle. Self is the direct
object or accusative.
\ov(o, I wash. Xovofiai, I wash w.yself.
Tpe'TTQ), I turn (trans.). rpeirofMai, I turn (intrans.), i.e.
/ ti07m myself.
B7)Xa), I show. BrjXovfjbai,, I show myself.
The Middle is very rarely used in this way. It is
more usual to employ the Active with a Eeflexive Pro-
noun : —
E.g., / hire out myself, fjno-Bw e/juavrdv, not iJnaOoviiaL,
which means / hire for myself : so aireKreLveu eavjov, not
aireKTeLvaro : eiraivelf; aeavrov, not eiraivel.
(2.) The Indirectly Reflexive Middle. Self is the Dative
of the Indirect Object, or of Interest.
Tropica), I jprovide. Tropl^ofiai (o'jrXa), I provide for
myself.
aTTOTidrj/jLL, I put off or aTTOTtOe/xai (top vo/jlov),I piot away
away. from myself, i.e. disregard.
aTTOTiOe/jLaL paOv/xiav, I put aivay
from myself, i.e. / overcome, lazy
habits.
airoTiOefiai Tpocj^rjv, I put away
for myself, i.e. hoa^^d or store
food.
Xovco, I wash. Xovofiac ra l/jbaria, I wash rfiy own
clothes (i.Q. for myself my clothes).
irapi')((id, I offer or pre- irape'^o/jiaL (BaTrdvrjp), I furnish
sent. my own expenses, from my own
resources ; /jbciprvpa, I bring for-
ward a witness for myself, my
oivn witness, in my support.
THE MIDDLE VOICE. 127
The chief notions are — (1.) for self.
(2.) from self.
(3.) ivJiat belongs to self.
But the notion of for self pervades and easily explains
all the uses.
B. The Causative Middle.
As the Active means / cause or allow others to do, so
the Middle means / cause or alloio others to do something
for myself or on myself.
irarrjp hihaaKeTai rev viov.
The father has his son taught,
ypdcpco, I write; (ypa(f)OfjLaL rcvd, I get one written doton,
i.e. / indict.
Cf. Latin euro, permitto, with ut and subjunctive, or with
Gerundive.
0. The Reciprocal Middle. Each agent acts for self, and
so the action is reciprocal. Verbs compounded with Bed
especially have this force.
dfjLelffco, I change, dfiei^o^eda, we a7iswer each other.
BtdXeyo/jLeda, we converse together.
BtaKeXevovTac, they en/^ourage one an-
other.
ScaKTjpeuovTaL, they negotiate by a herald.
D. See the following Miscellaneous list.
Note. A miscellaneous list of Verbs for reference showing the
difference in meaning between the Active and the Middle. In
some cases the Eeflexive meaning of the Middle is obvious ;
in some it is dubious ; in some it has practically disappeared.
For construetions with the Cases the Lexicon must be used.
dydXXoi, I adorn. dydWofxaL,I pride myself, exult.
ayw, / bring, lead. dyofxaL yvvaiKa, I Tnarry a wife,
alpo), I take. alpov/xat, I choose.
d^ai/Dw, / take away. dcfiaipovnaL riva Tt, / depri/ve a
person of something (for my
oum sake).
128
VOICES AND MOODS.
aipo), I take tip.
dfji€Ll3(x), I change (trans.).
aTrexw, / keep off, deter.
a7ro8t8a)/xt, / give back.
(TrtTrpacr/cco, I sell).
dfxvvia (see TLfMiopuj).
arraXXdo-a-O}, I set free.
dpx(o (ttoAc/xov), / am the first
of two parties to make (war) ;
so with Xoyov.
but
a/Q^w, / rule.
^ovXevo), I
ya/xw, / marry (duco).
yeijo), I give a taste of.
ypd(f)(}), I write down (cf. rt-
6r]fj,i).
Savei^o), I put out at interest,
lerid.
8i8d(rK(j), I teach.
SiKd^o), I decide.
cTTcty (o, / urge on, hasten (trans. ).
kinridy)p,i, I put OT place upon.
€xw, / have (neuter, I am or 1
am able).
kirayykXXdi, I proclaim.
€7rL\pr)(f>iC(o, I put to the vote (of
the President).
aipofxai, I take on myself, un-
dertake (suscipio), begin, gain,
(Ace.)
dfxdjSea-dai, to do by turns,
answer, requite.
dirk^ojxai tlvos, refrain from,
hold aloof from.
dTrcBofLrjv, I sold.
dTraXXdu-croixai, I escape, I de-
part from, I leave off.
dpxopLOLL {iroXkixov), I begin war-
like operations.
dpxofxai (Passive), / am ruled.
povXevop^aL, I deliberate, con-
sider.
yapLovuai, (1) / marry (nubo) ;
(2) I give in marriage, betroth.
y€vop,aL, I taste.
y pd(f>o pat, I get written down,
8av€i(opiaL, I borrow at interest
(so xpricaa-dai).
SiSdcTKopiaL Tov vlov, I get my
son taught.
8L8darKopai {iTTO nuos, I am
taught by a person.
SiKa^opiai {8lk7]v (TOl), I go to
law with you, conduct a case :
especially of the prosecutor,
opposed to (fievyetv.
kireLyopai, 1 hasten (intrans. ).
€7nTL0€fjLai, I attack, TLVI.
e^o/xat, 7 cling to, I come next to,
I am eager for (with Gen.).
kirayyeXXopat, I promise, I pro-
fess, I denounce.
kTrt\j/y]4>i^opaL, I vote, decree by
vote (of the Assembly).
THE MIDDLE VOICE,
129
Ovm {of tJie priest), I sacrifice.
iTjfXL, I send.
KaTa(TTp€(jno, I overturn.
Koifxio, I lull to sleep.
Ko/xi^w, I transport.
XaixfSdvco Tt, / take,
kavddvu), I escape observation.
Travo), I make to cease, I stop
(trans.).
TrdOo), I persuade.
TToiw, / do or make.
TTOiw \6yov, I compose a speech.
6S0V TTOLiOj I make a road.
TT/aoo-TToiWj I hand over (trado).
irovrjpevoi, I am vicked.
TToAiTevw, / am a citizen.
o-KOTTw, I look at, examine.
<To<f)L^(o, I make wise, I teach.
(TTrhSio, I pour out a libation.
TtdrjCTL vo/JLOv 6 vofxoOeTTjS, the
lawgiver makes a law.
6 6€Ls, the mortgager.
TifKopoj TLvd Tivi, / punish A
for B's satisfaction.
And so —
TLfxoypcj o-ot, / avenge or assist
thee.
Similarly —
dfxvvio Tt TLVL, I keep off some-
thing from B.
Ovofiai (of the general), I get a
sacrifice offered, I take au-
spices.
UpLai, I hurry, rush.
KaTa(TTp€(fiO/xat, I Subdue.
KOLixQfiaL, I sleep.
Kojjii^ojiiaL, I recover, get back
what was lost.
Xaiifidvo[xaL Ttvos, I lay hold of.
Xavddvo/xaL, emXavOdvop-ai, I
forget.
Travo fxai, I cease, stop (intrans. ).
Tveidoiiai, I obey. {iTiidov, be
persuaded ; ttlOov, obey.)
Troiovjxai, I consider.
TTOLovfxai Xoyov, I deliver a
680V TToiovfiai, I make a journey.
TTOLOVjxaL (TTTOvSds, ^Ip-qvqv, crvv-
drjKr]v, (TVfi^aa-LV.
7roL€L(rdaL TratSas, to beget chil-
dren. Crito, V.
TrpocnroLovfxaL, I claim, I aim at.
TTov-qpevofxai, I behave wickedly.
TroXiTevofjLat, I act or live as a
o-KoTTovfxaL, I reflect. [citizen.
(To<f)t^onat, I act the sophist, I
quibble, contrive.
(TTrevSopLai, I make a truce.
TLderai vo/jlov 6 8^/xos, the people
makes laws for itself.
6 defievos, the mortgagee (also
the depositor in a bank, etc.).
TLfjuopovfiat TLvd Tivi, I revenge
myself on A for wronging B.
TLfxtDpovixat (Tc, I m'eak venge-
ance on or punish thee.
(1) dfjLvvofxaL Tt, / defend my-
self against a thing.
I30 VOICES AND MOODS.
Hence —
(1) a/xTJi/o) TToAe/Aov, / he&p off (2) dfjLvvofxai nva, I requite or
war. punish aperson, — to h ofio tot?,
(2) dfjLvvo) 'AO-qvatoLs, I help with retaliation, Trept or vTrep
the Athenians. rtvos, for a certain thing.
TiviJ}8LK7]v,poenasdo,pendo,luo, rcvofiai 8lk7]v, poenas sumo, I
I pay a penalty. exact a penalty or vengeance.
<f>aiV(o, I show (trans.). <^atvo/xat, I appear, am seen,
X/3W, (1) I give an oracle. xP^f^^h 1 9^^ ^^ oracle given, f
(2) I furnish, lend. xp^ixai, I use.
Note. An examination of the above list will bring out two
points.
1. The Active is often transitive, while the Middle is
neuter.
2. The Middle is often used of mental rather than of
bodily actions.
§ 130. THE PASSIVE VOICE.
The Syntax of the Passive Voice is much freer in
Greek than in Latin.
Thus, besides the constructions noticed in the Notes
below, Verbs which take a Genitive or a Dative can be
used personally in the Passive, unlike the Latin.
E.g. KaTa(j)pov(o avrov, I despise him.
KaracppoveiTai vtt epLov, he is despised hy me.
TTLcFTevovaL Tc3 ^aaCKel, they trust the king.
6 ^aai\€v<; TncneveTai vtt avrcov, the king is trusted
hy them,
irax; av eTTC^ovkevaaLpLL avrw, ei firj Kat eirepov-
\ei>dr]v vtt' avTov ; Antiph.
How could I plot against him, sinless also I had been
plotted against hy him ?
Note 1. Neuter verbs can form passive participles.
dpx<f>, I rule ; dp^op-evos, ruled over.
This is chiefly the case with neuter participles.
TO. rjcrefS'qp^ha avTols (vtt'' avrwv), impious acts committed hy
them.
THE PASSIVE VOICE. 131
Tct Kiv^vv^vQkvTa, risks run.
ra rjiiapr-qfxha^ errors committed.
rot GrrpaTevofxeva, warlike measures.
rd (TOL 7re7roXiT€VfX€va, your political acts.
Or with impersonal passives.
irapea-Kevao-TaL, preparation has been made. ^
afxapTaveraL, error is being commuted.
ov8ev do-e/SeLTat, no impiety is being committed.
Cf. Lat. ventum est, erat ; factum est, etc.
Note 2. Deponent Verbs are those which have no Active
Form, e.g. Sexofxai, I receive; oifxat, I think. Passive Deponents
are those whose Aorist has a Passive (not a Middle form), e.g.
fSovXofxai, I ivish, kpovX-qdrfv. The exclusively Passive forms
of Deponents are sometimes Passive not Middle in sense, e.g.
pid^ofxac, I force; e/Sida-Orju, I ivas forced. Even the Middle
form of a Deponent may be Passive in meaning, e.g. Pcd^ofmt
I am forced, or suffer violence. In such cas^s there was an
original Active form, e.g. Ptd^o). See further, Jelf, § 368.
Note 3. It will be remembered that the Aorists in -r^v and
-Oy)v, with their corresponding futures in --qa-ofxai, -O-qcropLat, are
the only Passive forms of a Greek verb. The Middle forms,
except the Aorists, and as a rule the Futures, are of course
Passive as well as Middle in meaning.
Note 4. The direct object of the Active becomes the sub-
ject of the Passive, and the subject of the Active, the agent, is
expressed by vtto and the Genitive,
6 (f)LX6<TO(f)o<i StSdcTKei Tov TratSa.
6 Trats StSacTKerat wo tov <f)L\6(TO(fiOV.
The Agent is also expressed, but much less commonly —
(a.) By the Dative. See Dative of Agent.
(b.) By the Prepositions (xtto, I^, irapd, 7rp6<s. See these
Prepositions.
The object of the Active may however remain the object of
the Passive, and the dative of the Active become the subject
of the Passive. This is an extension of § 130.
ot eiTLTerpap^pievoL tyjv ^vXaK^v, ThuC. i. 126, cf. V. 37, Tavra
e7reo-TaA/x€vot, and EuR. Rhes. 5. So in English, / leave him a
fortune, He has been left a fortune.
132 VOICES AND MOODS.
§ 131. THE MOODS.
Introductory Note on the Subjunctive and Optative.
The Indicative is sharply contrasted with the Subjunc-
tive and Optative.
The Indicative simply and directly makes a state-
ment or asks a question without any qualification.
^aaiXev^ reOurj/cev,
The king is dead.
iroOev 7]K€i^ ;
Where do you come from ?
It is commonly said that the Indicative states facts,
but the statement need not express a fact actually true ;
e.g. ol TLepaai evLK7]aav tov<; ' A6r)vaLOV<; Mapa6(ovi>, the
Persians defeated the Athenians at Marathon.
The Subjunctive and Optative, on the other hand,
make assertions, not as real, but as conceptions present
to the speaker's mind.
The Subjunctive and Optative are two aspects of one Mood.
In the oldest Greek they represented originally the Willing
or Wishing Mood, the Subjunctive being the more peremptory,
JFill ; the Optative, the fainter and more remote, f^Tish. This
was soon modified into a second use, the Subjunctive express-
ing a more vivid, the Optative a fainter, remoter Expectation
or Possibility. Hence they soon came to be used in Sub-
ordinate Sentences, expressing Purpose, Condition, Indefinite
Frequency, etc. And though in Subordinate Sentences the
general rule is for the Subjunctive to follow Primary, the
Optative Historic tenses, yet there is no such fundamental
distinction between the two Moods as to prevent the Subjunc-
tive being used for the Optative, the two Moods sometimes
alternating in the same paragraph.
THE MOODS. 133
One or two instances from Homer will illustrate the
difference between the Subjunctive and Optative : —
M77 (je KLyeiw, II. i. 26, let me not find thee.
Mr] /X7]v aickeLw<; aTroXotfjuriv, 11. xxii. 304, let me not
fall ingloriously.
ovK eau ovTO^ ai/7]p, ovo eaaeTat, ovoe yevrfrai.
HoM. Od. xvi. 437.
Lives not that man, nor e'er will live, nor e'er is like
to he (born).
Here the Subjunctive differs from the Future Indicative
in stating what is thought likely to occur, not positively
what will occur.
pela Oeo<; 7' edeXcov Kav rrjXodev avBpa aacoaai.
HoM. Od. iii. 231.
Lightly a god, an he will, might save thee e'en at a
distance.
The Optative gives a more remote representation than
the Subjunctive of a future possibility.
Note. The Subjunctive and Optative (with two excep-
tions to be noticed in the Optative) refer to future time.
The reference to the future, however, is more vague in the
Optative, so vague that the notion of time is often scarcely
apparent in this mood. This, perhaps, may be why the
Optative lent itself to a connexion with past tenses in historic
sequence. But there is nothing in the form of the Optative,
neither its connecting vowel nor its suffixes, which per se
denotes past time. And the only two usages in which the
Optative really refers to past time are: (1) in General Sup-
positions (see Conditional Sentences) ; and, (2) in Oratio
Obliqua, where occasionally it represents a past tense of the
Indicative (see Oratio Obliqua).
The Subjunctive and Optative are both used (1) in Inde-
pendent, (2) in Subordinate Sentences. Their uses in Sub-
ordinate Sentences are given in the Syntax of the Compound
Sentence.
T34 VOICES AND MOODS.
§ 132. THE SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT
SENTENCES.
The Independent Subjunctive is used : —
A. In Exhortations. First person often with (j)epe, aye,
ay ere, Wc (hri or vvv added).
<j)epe Br] enrw irpo^ vfia^. Dem.
Come now, let me speak before you.
aAA' r^t, twjxev.
Come then, let us go {suppose we go).
In Soph. Phil 300 the 2d Person (fMaOys).
B. In Prohibitions (with /atJ).
(a) First person plural (singular very rare, of. EuR.
Hipp. e567, Heracl. 559).
(h) Second and third person with aorist subjunctive.
{a) fir] <po^(ofjbe6a, let us not he afraid.
fxr] arek?) rov Xoyov KaraXiirwixev. Plat.
Let us not leave our argument incomplete.
(h) fir] ravra iroLr\<Tri<^.
Do not do this.
Ne haec feceris.
firjSevl o-Vfi(popav 0V6lBl(T7)<;. IsOCR.
Taunt no 07ie with a misfortune.
C. In Questions of doubt (Deliberative Questions)
with the First Person. ffovXec, ^ovKeaOe (OeXcK}, diXere
in poetry) are often added.
ebirayjiev, rj acyw/iev, rf tl Bpaao/iev ; EUR.
Are we to {should loe, must we) speak, or keep silence,
or what shall we do ?
OPTATIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES. 135
Ti jBovXeade Spaa-co ;
Quid vultis faciam ?
What would you have me do ?
oifiOL Tt 8pdcr<a; Trot 4>vy(i) ix-qrpos X^pa's; EUR. Med, 1271.
Ah me, what must I do? whither escape a mother's hands ?
Note 1. — The third person, however, occurs pretty often,
especially in Plato and Demosthenes.
TTOTcpov fT€ Tt9 Trjs TToAecjs k^dpov Tj ifiov €Lvai (jyrj;
Dem. 18. 124.
Should one mil you the enemy of the state, or my enemy ?
•jTodev TL<s ap^YjTai; PlAT.
Where is one to begin ?
rt etTT^ Tts/
JVlmt must one say ? Plat, and Dem.
•jTol Tis ovv <j>vyrj;
TTot /xoXmv p€vu); Soph, At. 403.
Here this rts refers to the first person.
Note 2. — The Subjunctive, expressing a future possi-
bility, common in Homer, is not wholly unknown, though
rare in Attic.
ovt' kcTTLv ovre Trore yevr^rai KpeiTTOv. PlAT. Leg, 942.
It is not, nor is it ever likely to get letter.
§ 133. THE OPTATIVE IN INDEPENDENT
SENTENCES,
The Independent Optative is used : —
A. To denote a Wish (without av).
CO iral yevoLo Trarpo? evyevecTTepof;. SoPH.
Boy, rwayst thou prove more fortunate than thy
father.
In the first person a wish often conveys an exhortcUion.
See Subjunctive in Exhortations.
fjLT) ^(pTjv fi€T a/jiovcrca<i. EUR.
Let me not live without culture.
136 VOICES AND MOODS.
In the third person a command or permission may be
conveyed.
ephoL Ti^ rjv e/cacrro? eLSecr] Te')(yr)v. Ar.
Let each man keep to his trade, whateer he knows.
elBeiT) is assimilated to the mood of principal verb epBoL
Cf. Xen. An. iii. 2. 37, yyolro (al. rir/elo-Qco) : Aesch. P. V.
1047, where two Optatives are co-ordinate with preceding
Imperatives.
B. In Deliberative Questions. The Optative differs
from the Subjunctive in the same questions only in ex-
pressing a less vivid and more remote possibility.
reav, Zev, hvvacnv Tt<; avBpcov
vireppaala Karda'^oi ; SoPH. Ant. 605.
Thy power, Zens, what mortal man
By overstepping might control ?
Cf. Aesch. Ch. 392 ; Ar. Flut. 438 ; Soph. 0. 0.170; Plat.
Bep. 352 C (aKoro-ats).
Note. Several places, especially in the Tragedians, are
quoted where the Optative without av occurs in its Homeric
potential sense (e.g. Od. iii. 231, quoted before). In most of
these places, however, if not all, the reading is doubted.
Jelf (§ 418, I. a) quotes two passages from Plato, Fhaedo,
87 E, eTTtSetKvuot — Slolxolto, where Heindorf would insert av :
and Bep. 362 o, dSeA^os dvSpl irapdr], where to Aeyd/zevov shows
that the phrase is a quotation, probably from the Epic.
§ 134. THE IMPERATIVE.
The Imperative is used in Commands, Entreaties,
Prayers, and Prohibitions. It denotes future time.
In Prohibitions we must use fir] either (1) with 2d Person
Present Imperative (continued act), or (2) 2d Person
Aorist Subjunctive (single act), thus : —
fXT) KkiiTT6, or p,7) K\6yfrrj<;, do not steal ; but neither fir)
K\€7rT7]<; nor KXeyjrov.
THE IMPERATIVE, 137
Ak. Thesm. 877 {fxr] ^jrevaov) is a rare exception in Attic.
Mrj, TTpo? dewv, fiatpeofjueOa, fjuTjB' aL(T'^p(o<; airoXw/jbeda.
Xen.
Let us not, hy the gods, he mad, nor die shamefully.
But iiTj with the 3d pers. Aorist Imperative is admis-
sible both in poetry and in prose.
firjBel^ vfjbwv ravra vofiiaarco. Xen.
Let none of you think so.
Note 1. For the Infinitive used as an Imperative, see
Index.
Note 2. ota-d' o Spaa-ov. The Imperative is sometimes used
in relative clauses depending on an Interrogative,
a A A' 060-^' o Spacrov; tw o-/<eAet 6€V€ ttjv Trkrpav.
Ar. Av. 54.
Do you know what to do 1 Kick the rock with your leg.
oTcrdd vvv a yaot yeviO-Ooj ; Sea/xa rots ^evoicrt TrpocrOes.
Eur. /. T. 1203.
Knowest thou ivhat must he done for me ? put chains on the
strangers.
Logically it would be a Set yevkcrdai;
And as the Future is used in Greek as an equivalent for
■^c Imperative, we find
ota-d' ovv 6 Spdcr€Ls . . . oSrjcrov -qixlv (tltov. ^VR. Cycl. 133.
Dost knoiv what thou must do ? provide us victuals.
The Imperative in Greek is subordinate in the above idioms.
As this is impossible in English, we have to substitute a
periphrasis. Do you know what (you must do = do) ?
CHAPTER VIL
THE TENSES.
§ 135* Grreek tenses may be classified in two ways.
A. With regard to the Order of Time.
B. With regard to the Kind of A ct or State.
A. ORDER OF TIME.
The Time of a Tense must be either
1. Past (Imperfect, Aorist, Pluperfect).
2. Present (Present, Perfect).
3. Future (Future, Future Perfect).
PRIMARY AND HISTORIC TENSES.
Tenses in Present and Future Time are called Primary.
Tenses in Past Time are called Historic.
SEQUENCE OF MOODS.
In Compound Sentences the theoretical rule is that —
A Principal Sentence in Primary Time is followed by
the Subjunctive in the Subordinate Sentence.
A Principal Sentence in Historic Time is followed by
the Optative in the Subordinate Sentence.
This sequence however is purely theoretical; for, as
will be seen in the Compound Sentence, a Subjunctive
constantly takes the place of an Optative in Historic
Sequence.
138
TIME OBSERVED THROUGHOUT MOODS. 139
§ 136. Time how far observed throughout the
Moods.
{a) The only mark of Past Time in Greek is the Augment.
The distinction between Past and Present therefore is strictly
observed only in the Indicative.
Absolute and Relative Time. — The distinctions of Time, how-
ever, are observed in the Optative, Infinitive, and Participle,
when these Moods are used in Indirect Discourse or Oratio
Obliqua, i.e. when they represent indirectly the words or
thoughts of another. This is most clearly seen in the Indirect
Statements and Questions.
€cf)r) ravra TTOieLV — TroiTjcraL — TTOLrjcreiv.
He said that he was doing, did or had done, would do this.
TToceLv =7roit3 in Recta, and therefore is relatively present ;
TTOLTJcraL =: eTToCrja-a „ ,, relatively past /
7roL7](r€Lv = 7roiT^cro) ,, „ relatively future ;
relatively, i.e. to the Principal Verb present, past, and future :
but TToielv, TTOLTJcraL, TTOL-qtreLv are all absolutely past, because
€</)T7, the Principal Verb, is past.
eAe^av otl ire/ixpeLe o-<^as 6 ^acriAev?.
They said that the king had sent them.
In Kecta eVe/x^ev rj[xa<s.
i]p€TO et Kevo5 6 <f>6f3os etrj.
He asked if his fear was groundless.
In Recta kcvos co-t6 ;
'QcdoVTO TOVS TToXcfXLOVS TTpoo'TrXeovTa's.
They discovered that the enemy were advancing.
Recta, 06 TToXefiiOL irpoa-TrXkovcrLv.
(h) The Aorist Participle denotes an action past relatively to
the principal verb.
BotWTOi 01 e^ 'Apurjs dva(rTdvT€<s rrjv Boiwrtai/ wKrja-av.
Thuc.
Boeotians who had been driven out of Arne settled in Boeotia.
See further however under the Aorist Participle, which in
itself does not denote time.
(c) With regard to the Future in the Moods it seems always
express future time, for
(1.) The Future Optative is only used to represent in the
Obliqua a Future Indicative of Direct Discourse.
I40 THE TENSES.
(2.) The Future Infinitive is most commonly used after verbs
of saying and thinking, and therefore like the Optative, repre-
sents a Future Indicative of the Eecta. Whenever the Future
Infinitive is used after other verbs, instead of the usual
Present or Aorist Infinitive, the idea of futurity still seems
to be emphasised, e.g.: —
He delays to do his duty, /zeAAet Trotetv or Trot^o-at rot
Seovra.
fxeXXei TToirja-eiv (with emphatic
reference to the future).
dvapdWeraL is similarly used.
(3.) The Future Participle denotes a future relative to the
principal Verb.
avXXafi/Bdvei J^vpov, cu? (XTroKreviov.
He seizes Cyrus ivith the intention of killing him.
B. THE KIND OF ACT OR STATE.
With regard to the Kind of Act denoted Tenses are
divided into
1. Continued (Present, Imperfect).
2. Finished (Perfect, Pluperfect).
3. Indefinite or Single (Aorist Strong and Weak).
1. A continued Tense mentions an act as still going on,
or in progress, whether in past, present, or future, an act
in which the agent is still engaged, / was writing, I am
writing, I shall he writing (the letter).
2. A finished Tense mentions an act as one which is
perfect, complete, in a finished state, I have written,
I had written, I shall have written {the letter).
3. An indefinite Tense mentions the mere act itself,
a single act, without any such limitation of its con-
tinuance or completion, / wrote, I write, I shall write
{the letter). Hence the Stoic grammarians called such a
Tense an Aorist {i.e. aopiarov or unlimited).
IDEAL DIVISION OF TENSES.
141
The distinction between the Kinds of Act is observed
throughout all the Moods, and is therefore a more univer-
sal and abiding distinction than that of Time.
Note, The kind of act is denoted in Greek by the Tense-
stem, AY-, AYC-, AYCA-, AEAY-.
The Present Tense-stem (Present and Imperfect Tenses)
denotes a continued act.
The Perfect {i.e. reduplicated) Tense-stem (Perfect, Plu-
perfect, and Future Perfect Tenses) denotes a finished act.
The Aorist Tense-stems (Strong and Weak Aorist tenses)
denote an indefinite or single act.
The Future is ambiguous, denoting either a continued or
an indefinite act.
§ 137. Ideal division of Tenses.
An ideal twofold division of Tenses may be thus con-
structed, to be read horizontally and vertically.
k
Continued.
Finished.
Indefinite.
Present
/ am writing
ypd<})(i), strictly
used, scribo
/ have written
ykypa<^a
scripsi
I write
ypdcfiio
scribo
Past
/ was tvriting
€ypacj)ov
scribebam
/ had written
iyeypdcfir) or -€iv
scripseram
/ wrote
eypaxfa
scripsi
Future
I shall be writing
ypd\pisi
scribam
■
/ shall have written
Periphrasis in
Active yeypa-
cfxos €(rofMaL
scripsero
/ shall write
ypd\j/(ii
scribam
142 THE TENSES.
Note. A very rare poetical periphrasis occurs with Aorist
Participle, o-ituTryjo-as eo-o/xat, XvirrjOeLS €(ro/x.at, SoPH. 0. T.
1146, 0. a 816.
This scheme, however, is purely ideal, and does not corre-
spond to the Greek tenses, however well it corresponds with
our analytic English tenses.
In Greek the kind of act, as has been observed already, is
denoted by the Present, the Perfect, and the Aorist Tense-
stems : the Future Tense-stem has to be left out.
The most important distinction is that between a Continued
and an Indefinite act.
§ 138. THE PRESENT AND IMPERFECT
INDICATIVE.
A. The Present Indicative denotes : —
1. An act in which a person is engaged in present
time ; <ypd(pco, I am writing now.
2. An act which is habitual or repeated, or a general
truth, without being limited to the present moment.
f)0)/jL7] afiaOr]^ TroXXa/ct? tlkt€l fi\d^7]v. EuE. F7'ag.
Strength untrained oft hrings forth harm.
Vis consili expers mole ruit sua. Horace. -
Note 1. The Present has also certain idiomatic uses of which
the following are the commonest : —
{a) The Historic present denotes a past event. In Compound
Sentences it reckons as an historic tense. This historic pre-
sent seems sometimes equivalent to an aorist (narrative),
sometimes to an imperfect (descriptive).
a-vXXaixf3dv€L Kvpov ws diroKTevioi/. XeN.
He seizes (seized) Cijrus with the intention of hilling him.
(h) The Present, as it denotes an unfinished act, often
denotes an attempted act.
Tovs AaKeSaLfioviovs dvaipei, rov<s Si $a>/ceas o-wfet, DeM.
He is trying to destroy the Lacedaemonians, and to save the
Phocians.
PRESENT AND IMPERFECT INDICA TIVE. 143
This is especially the case with SiSw/xt, I offer, i.e. try to give,
and ireiOix), I try to persuade. The present participle also has
this meaning.
(c) The Present as a Perfect : —
1. With TraAat or riZri {all this while, this long while, not now
for the first time), like iam, iamdudum, in Latin with the
Present.
efiotye vvv re koI TraAat SoKei. EUR. Frag.
I think so now, and I have long been thinking so.
vocret 7^87) SeKtt 'irrj.
He has been ill these ten years.
Esp. in the poets TraAat may refer to a statement made only a
moment ago (as we say hyperbolically — ever so long ago). Cf.
Soph. Fl. 676.
2. Certain presents have the force of perfects : i7ko>, / am
come, adswm; ot'xo/xai, / am gone {quickly)-, vlkCj, I am victo-
rious ; Kparo), I am victorious ; o^Trw/xat, / am defeated ; aStKw,
I have done urrong, I am unjust ; oAAv/xat, aTroAAv/^at, in Tragedy,
/ am lost, or undone.
3. Verbs of hearing and learning, aKovto {nXvoi, poet.), ttdv-
Odvojxai, ala-Bavofxai, fxavddvo). dpri is often used with these
verbs.
0e/xi(rTOKAea ovk aKoi'ets dvSpa dyadov yeyovoTa ; PlaT.
Have you not heard that Themistocles proved himself a patriot ?
{d) The Present Infinitive and the Present Participle may
represent the Imperfect Indicative in English.
ot crvixTrpecrlSevovres Kal napovres Kara/xapTvpTJcrova-i.
Dem. de F. L. 381. 5.
Those who were his fellow-colleagues in the embassy, and who
were present, will bear witness,
B. The Imperfect is the past of the Present. It
describes a past action as (a) still going on, or (h) as going
on along with other actions, or (c) as frequently recurring.
For {a) and (5) see Aorist.
c. IlcoKpaTT]^ coairep eyLr^v(oaKev, ovtod^ eXeye. Xen.
Socrates used to speak exactly as he used to think.
144 THE TENSES.
Note 2. The Imperfect shares most of the idiomatic uses of
the present.
(a) The Imperfect of an attempted ad, like the present of
the same.
6/<acrTos Tts eireiOev avrov virocrTrjvaL rrjv ap^T^i/. XeN.
Each one was trying to persuade him to undertake the command.
The present participle also often has this sense.
(b) When the present has a perfect force its imperfect is a
pluperfect. rJKov, I had come ; <}x^M^} ^ ^'^^ ^^^^ / ivUiDv, I
had won the victory, I was victorious, etc.
(c) The Imperfect is used for the present when what is seen
now to be the case has been in the past inquired about, or
sought for, or thought of.
ov tout' TjV evSatfxovLa, KaKov drraXkayq ; PlAT.
Is not this happiness (which we were talking about or trying to
discover) deliverance from evils ?
68' rjv apa 6 ^vAAa^wv fxe. SOPH.
This then, 1 see, is he who seized me (this was and is).
To this belongs the famous Aristotelian phrase,To rt tJv efvai.
(d) In the use of the Imperfects eSei, XPI^^ w</)€Aov, ciko? ^v,
like the Latin debebam, oportebat, decebat, denote what ought
to have been done, but what was not done.
ovSev aXXo eSet Aeyctv. Dem.
He need have said nothing else.
Nihil aliud dicere oportebat.
ovK etKos ^v ovTWs eav. SOPH. 0. T. 255.
It would not have been right to leave it alone.
Non decebat praeterire.
On these constructions see Conditional Sentences.
§ 139. THE PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT
INDICATIVE.
A. The Perfect denotes an act which is in a finished
state. The act must have been begun in the past, but
it stands finished in the present. The Perfect therefore
is reckoned as a Primary tense, yeypacpa, I have written,
my luriting is in a finished state ; BeSerai, he is in a state
of imprisonment.
PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT INDICATIVE. 145
Not only in the Subjunctive and Optative, but also in the
Indicative, a periphrasis with et/xt is used for the Perfect. The
abiding nature of the result is then emphasized.
eis o8e iLOVo^^vr\<i ovpavos yeyovws eo-rt tc Kal eV eo-rat.
Plat. Tim. 31.
This one sole-created heaven hath been created^ and shall still
endure.
Cf. e'xo) with Aorist Participle.
The Perfect of many verbs is equivalent to a Present :
rWvrjKev, he is dead; KCKXrjfiai, I am called; yeyova, I am be-
come, i.e. I am; fMefxvrjfjiaL, I remember ; oTSa (crwoiSa), T know,
novi. The Pluperfect is then an Imperfect, iTedvrJKei, he was
dead, etc. The Perfect Imperative of such verbs is a simple
Perfect.
Note. A great number of Perfects in Homer describe present
acts or states : aVwya, pkf^pida, K€K€v6a, fikii-qXa, ixcfxova, epptya,
etc. etc.
B. The Pluperfect is the Perfect carried back to past
time. e<ye<y pd(f)rj, I had written, my writing was in a
finished state in the past.
Per the Future Perfect, see Future.
The Perfect Imperative (3d singular Middle and Passive)
issues a decisive command which is to be executed at once,
and there an end.
fie^pL TOvSe MptcrOo) VfJLOiV 17 /SpaBvr'js. ThUC. i. 71.
At this point let your slowness find a limit (come to an end).
Hactenus progressa (terminata) esto (finem habeat) vestra
tarditas. Poppo.
§ 140. THE AORIST.
1. The Aorist denotes the mere occurrence of an act in
past time. Apart from difference of time the Aorist is
always distinguished from the Imperfect (and in the
Oblique Moods from the Present) by noticing the mere
doing of the act, and not describing the act as in pro-
gress. The Aorist has been likened to a point, the Im-
perfect (and Present) to a line.
K
146 THE TENSES.
Note. As the Aorist notices the mere act or state itself, three
aspects of this are observable.
1. The commencement of the act, the beginning, not the* con-
tinuance.
This has been called the Ingressive or Inceptive Aorist.
c/?ao-iAevo-e, he came to the throne (e/Saa-iXevev, he was king).
€77XovTr](T€v, hc bccamc rich (iTrAovret, he was a rich man),
evocnycre, he fell ill (evocret, he was ill).
2. The act as done and over, not as doing.
AYCmnOC EnomCE denotes the simple fact that
Lysippus was the maker of the statue.
AYCinnOC EnOIEI denotes the labour spent on the
making.
eSeiTTvrjo-av, they supped, i.e. ended supper.
eSeiTTvovv, they were at supper.
vv^ lyevero, night came on, i.e. it was night.
vv^ €yiyv€To, night was coming on, i.e. it was twilight.
3. The act as instantaneous and momentary, not as occupying
a long time.
cyo) Se '^A.^ov, etSov, evLKrjcra.
" Caesar's brag of ' came, and saw, and overcame.' " Shail
2. The Aorist is narrative, the Imperfect is descriptive ;
i.e. the Aorist is used when we merely mention a past act
as having occurred, while the Imperfect is used when we
wish to describe or paint (so to speak) past acts as still
going on.
Oi fxev airrfKOov, KkeavBpo^ Be eOvero, /cat, crvvrjv
"aevo^covTi <^i\iKw<;, kcu ^eviav avpe/SaXovro. Xen.
So they went away. Meanwhile Oleander was en-
gaged in sacrificing, and in friendly intercourse
with Xenop)hon, and they formed a friendship.
Note 1. Other uses of the Aorist : —
The Aorist is also distinguished from the Imperfect by the
mere mention of an act without reference to other acts, while
the Imperfect often describes an act as going on side by side
with another act.
THE AORIST. 147
Ilauo-avias l/c AaKeSat ixovo<s crrpaTr]yo<s vtto twv 'EA.At^i'wv l^e-
TTCfKfidr) fxera €lko(tl vewv dwo HeXoTrowqcrov, ^weTrAeov §€ Kai
'AOrjvaLOL TptaKovTa vaval, Kal ecrrpdrevcrav Is KvTrpoVj Kal
avrrj'i rot ttoAAo, KaTecrrpexJ/avTO.
Fausanias was sent out from Lacedaemon hy the Greeks as
admiral with twenty ships from Peloponnese. The Athenians also
accompanied him with thirty ships, and they proceeded to Cyprus,
and subdued the greater part of it.
Note 2. The Aorist is used (esp. in Tragedy) where we use a
Present. The moment of past time is but an instant before.
Something an instant ago has evoked the act.
cTTT^vecr' epyov Kal Trpovoiav rjv Wov. SoPH. Ai. 586.
/ commend the act, and the forethought thou didst show.
Elect. 668. 677, Eur. Hec. 1275, El. 248, Philoc. 1289, 1314.
^vvrJKa, I understand, and yja-Orjv, I am pleased, are of constant
occurrence.
€(f)pt^' €p(t)TL 7r€pL)(o.prjs 5' avcTTTo/xav. Soph. Ai. 692.
/ thrill with love and flutter overjoyed.
Here the act is instantaneous also.
Note 3. English often uses the Pluperfect where Greek uses
the Aorist ; this is especially the case in Oratio Obliqua : —
ot 'IvSot e'Ae^av ort Tr^fxxpeu (T<jids 6 ^aa-iXev^.
Xen. Cyr. ii. 4. 7.
The Indians said that their king had sent them.
Eecta e7re/xi/'€v, where we should say " has sent " (not sent).
This in Obliqua becomes had.
And with temporal and local sentences —
cTTCtS^ IreAevTv^cre Aa/aetos kol Karea-Trj ' ApTa^ep^-qs.
Xen. An. i. 1. 3.
After D alius had died and Artaxerxes had been established
in the kingdom.
Quum mortuus esset Darius, etc.
erpaTTOVTO €s Udvopfiov odev dvr]yd'Yovro. ThuC. i. 92.
They turned towards Panormus whence they had set sail.
Note 4. The Greek Aorist and English Perfect.
Though we have an Aorist in English corresponding to the
Greek, yet Greek uses the Aorist even more constantly than
English. We use a Perfect sometimes where Greek uses an
148 THE TENSES.
Aorist, Thus — / am shocked if these are the orders which you
have given, Savov Troiov/xat et roiavra Tra/DT^yyetAas. Here an
act rather than a finished state is denoted, and the Greek
Aorist is more correct than the English Perfect. See example
above, Soph. Ai. 586, edov would naturally be rendered into
English, thou hast shown. Again a Gnomic Aorist in Greek
may be rendered by an English Perfect.
Note 5. The Aorist Participle generally expresses time prior
to its principal verb, but not always so, and, when so, not from
its own inherent meaning, but only from its connexion with
a principal verb.
Thus yeAao-as (ot/Awfas) €</)r;, JFith a smile, laugh {sigh) he
said.
(V kiroi-qcraq dva/xvricras fJbc. PlAT. Phaed. 60.
You did well to remind me.
Here the two acts are contemporary and identical.
So ev eTToiYjora^ dffuKOfxevos. HdT. V. 24.
Cf. Curtius, Elucidations, p. 211.
Note 6. The following verbs show the contrast between the
Present and the Aorist in the kind of act denoted. It will
be noticed that several are Ingressive Aorists.
voo-eiv, to be ill. voa-yja-at, to fall ill.
cj^evyetv, to run away. (f^vyelv, to escape.
(fio p e L(r 6 ai, to be in fear. (fyojSrjOrjvat, Sciorai, to take fright. '^
7rpd(T(r€Lv, to be busy about. Trpd^ai, to accomplish.
yeXav, to be laughing. yeXda-at, to burst out laughing.
apx^i-v, to ride. ap^at, to obtain dominion or office.
L(Txv€Lv, to be strong. la-xva-at, to become strong.
(Tiydv, to be silent. cnyrjo-at, to become silent.
exeiv, to have. o"X^''^> ^^ obtain.
<^atv€o-^at, to appear. cfiavrjvai, to become apparent.
TToXefxetv, to be at war. TroXep-rjcraL, to begin war.
bellum gerere. bellum inferre.
/3a(TiX€V€iv, to be king. paa-tXevcraL, to come to the throne.
Note on the Aorist.
The Aorist is often called the momentary tense. It is
doubtful, however, whether momentariness is its essential
meaniuff. We should use the aorist if we translated The
THE FUTURE. 149
Pharaohs built the pyramids, ol /JaorcAets twi/ AlyvyrrrLwv mkoSo-
fxrjcrav ra<s 7rv/)a/>ti8a9, though the pyramids, like Eome, were
not built in a day. We should equally use it in translating
He burst out laughing, lyeAao-e, or He fell ill, evoo-yja-e. And
again we should use it of such an instantaneous shiver of
emotion as is contained in €</)/otJ' epwTL, I thrill with love.
The mere mention of the act (or state) itself, without regard
to its duration, seems to be the one description of the Aorist
which suits it all through. Aorist and indefinite are not very
satisfactory words, but they have been retained as familiar,
for want of a better. Simple and Isolated have been suggested.
§ 141. * THE FUTURE.
The Future denotes an act which will take place here-
after.
Its action is either continued or indefinite (see above).
Note 1. Idiomatic uses of the Future : —
The second person of the Future both affirmatively and
negatively resembles an imperative.
{a) Afiirmatively (either as a statement, or as a question
with ov Interrogative) —
Trpos Ta{;Ta Trpd^eis ocov av deXys. SoPH. 0. C. 956.
Thou wilt do therefore {do therefore) whatever likes thee,
ovx €A^€t', ov TratT^o-er', ovk apq^ere ; Ar. Ly. 459.
The expression is not so abrupt in form as an imperative.
A suggestion is made, or a permission given, which, however,
is an unmistakeable Imperative.
(b) Negatively with ov —
Aey' €t Ti /SovXei, X^'-P'' ^' ^^ i^avcrets ttotc. EuR. Med. 1 320.
Speak if thou wilt, but with the hand thou must touch me never.
Observe (1) that in Euripides ov with the Future is a state-
ment, in Aristophanes a question ; (2) that in both passages ov
with the Future is co-ordinate with an Imperative.
I50 THE TENSES.
Note 2. A 'periphrastic Future is formed by /xeAAw with the
Present or Future (more rarely the Aorist) Infinitive.
fxiXXd) ypd(fi€LV, ypaxj/eiv (rarely ypdxpai).
I am going to write, I mean or intend to write.
/xeAXw v/JLas ayetv els 'Acriav.
/ am going to lead you (am on the point of leading you) into
Asia.
In Asiam vos ducturus sum.
8€T^(rei Tov TOLOVTOV el jueAAei o] TroAtTeta crixt^earOai.
Plat. Eep. 412.
There will he need of such a ruler if the constitution is to he
efieXXov in the same way is used —
efiiXXov or' apa KLvrjaeiv lyw. Ar. Ahth. 1301.
Ahaf I thought I should tickle you.
€VTav6a e/xeXXov KaraXvcreiV. XeN.
There they were intending to rest.
Ibi deversuri erant.
Sometimes /xeAAw, e/xcAAov, means I am doomed, destined.
irOts ov /xeAAw, ri ov fxeXXio ; mean Wliy should I not ?
2. The Future Perfect denotes a finished act or state
in the Future : —
r) irokireia reXecoq KeKOO-firjaerat. Plat.
Oicr state shall have been perfectly constituted.
Note. The Future Perfect, like the Perfect, sometimes de-
notes what will take place instantly.
Compare
Kciv TOVTO viKiofiev irdvB^ rjp.iv TrcTTotrjrai. XeN. An. L 8. 1 2.
If we secure this victmy we have done everything.
with
4>pa.^€ Kttt TreTTpd^erai. Ar. Plut. 1027.
Speak, and it shall he done instanter.
A periphrastic future perfect active is formed with eiyut —
TO, Seovra eaopeOa eyvioKores, k.t.X. DeM. Phil. i. 54.
H^e shall have determined to do our duty.
GNOMIC AND ITERATIVE TENSES. 151
§ 142. Gnomic and Iterative Tenses.
Almost any tense in Greek, as in English, can express a
customary or a repeated act, or a general truth.
1. The Present —
pisijxr^ dfiadrj<s 7roWdKL<s TiKrei pXdfSrjv. EUR. (See above.)
Strength ivithout science often causeth harm.
Vis consili expers mole ruit sua.
2. The Perfect^
TToWol Scot So^av Kal TroXLTiKrjv Svvafiiv KaKO. TreTrovOaanv.
Xen.
Many have come to trouble (and do come to trouble) in conse-
quence of reputation and political power.
(This perfect alternates with presents in the text.)
3. The Aorist called GnomiCf as expressing a yv^yL-q, sentiment or
general truth —
dOviiovvres dv8p€<s ovirio rpoiralov ecTTrjcrav. PlAT.
Half-hearted men never yet set up a trophy.
So in English — "Faint heart never won fair lady."
Becviuv' t' drjjxa TrvevfJiOLTUiv l/coi/xtcre (Trevovra ttovtov.
Soph. Ai. 674.
And the breath of dreadful winds husheth ever the moaning
The present and perfect, the present and aorist, the perfect
and aorist, often alternate in the same paragraph.
The Imperfect and Aorist with dv denote a repeated act.
dvaXafilSdviDV ovv avTcov to. TroL'qfiaTa Sti^pwrtov dv avTov<s
Tt Aeyotev. Plat. Apol. ch. viii.
Taking up their poems then I used to ash them {I would ask
them) what their meaning was.
€t Tti/€S 'iSotev Trrj rov'i (T<^€rkpovs eTriKparovvras dveddpa-rja-av
dv. Thug. vii. 71.
If at any point they saw their own side winning they picked
up their courage (as often as this happened).
For an excellent passage see Soph. Phil. 289-297.
152 THE TENSES.
§ 143- The Tenses in the Moods.
The distinction previously explained between the Present,
the Perfect, and the Aorist, is observed in all the moods, —
the Indicative, Imperative, Subjunctive, Optative, Infinitive,
and Participle. Some instances are given to show the differ-
ence, especially between the Present and the Aorist.
Imperative —
/xT^Sev (f)of3ov, Don't be timid : fxrjSev (jyoPrjOrjSf Don't have
any fear of this.
€L TTYj e^ets avTtAeyetv, dvTtAeye* et Se fxr], Trava-ai TroXXaKts
Aeywv Tov avrov Xoyov. PlAT. Crit.
If you have anything to say in objection^ say on {at length, in
a continued speech), hut if not, give over {at once) repeating
the same argument.
Subjunctive or Optative —
criofxaTi y, ^y, orav 8e tovtov d7raAAayi7, rWvyKev.
Xen. Cyr. viii. 7. 19.
He never believed that the soul, so long as it exists in this
mortal body, lives, but that as soon as it is separated from
it, it dies {y denoting continuance, d-jraXXayy the instant
act of death).
Infinitive —
OV PovXevecrdai eVt w/oa dAAot /BePovXevcrOaL. PlAT. Crit.
It is no longer the moment to be making up one's mind, but to
have it made up.
yaXeTTov to Troietv to Be KeXeva-ai paSiov.
It is difficult to do {to be engaged in doing), but easy to com-
mand {to say ' do this ').
So with the other Moods.
CHAPTEE VIII.
THE THEEE VERBAL NOUNS.
1. The Infinitive (a Substantive).
2. The Participle (an Adjective).
3. The Verbal Adjectives in -to? and -reo^.
§ 144. Note on the Infinitive.
The Infinitive is, in its origin, a Verbal Substantive in the
Dative case. Though subsequently its uses diverged so widely
from this limited signification, yet its origin gives us a clue to
its diff'erent meanings. '
Thus—
w/oa aTTievat would mean time for going away.
Svvaros yev€(r6aL, able for becoming.
fxavddvecv yJKo/xev, we are come for learning.
Trapk^bi ifiavTov T^iiveLv koI KauLv, I offer myself for cutting
and hirning.
davfia ISecrdai, a wonder for the vieioing.
For full information consult Professor Max Midler's
Inaugural Oxford Lecture.
§ 145. THi: INFINITIVE.
The Infinitive is a Verbal Substantive denoting action.
Compare to Troteiv with 17 Trotrjcris.
It has therefore points in common both with (1) the Verb,
(2) with the Noun.
1. Like the Verb
(a) It has tenses and voices — Xveiv, Xva-eiv, Xva-ai, etc.,
Awat, Xva-aadai, XvdrjvaL.
(b) It takes a subject before and a predicate after it.
153
154 THE THREE VERBAL NOUNS.
(c) It governs the same case as its verb.
(d) It is qualified, like a verb, by adverbs, and not like
a substantive by adjectives.
(e) It forms subordinate sentences, the indirect statement,
a temporal sentence (with Trpiv), a final sentence,
a consecutive sentence, with ioa-re and w?, and in
connexion with av it is a substitute for the in-
dicative and optative moods with av. This last
use gives it a sort of right to be called a mood.
2. Like a Substantive
(a) It stands as the subject to a verb.
(b) It is declined with the article as a nominative, accusa-
tive, genitive, or dative.
(c) It is connected with Prepositions.
§ 146. tjhe supplementary^ lnfinitive.
1. The Infinitive supplements the meanings of verbs
and nouns (especially of verbs) which in themselves are
incomplete.
e/xaOov TOVTO Troirjcrai.
They learned to do this.
ov 7re(^VK6 BovXeveLV.
He is not horn to he a slave.
07j/jLiaTOK\7]<; l/cav(OTaTo<; rjv enrelv kclI yvwvaL kcll
irpa^ai. Lys.
Themistocles was eminently able to speak, to decide,
and to act.
Note 1. Sometimes the article is added.
TO /?t^ TToAtTWi/ 8pav e^vv a/xTJxavos. SoPH. Ant. 78.
/ am by nature incapable of acting in defiance of my fellow-
citizens. Cf. Track. 545, 0. C. 442, Aesch. P. F. 865.
^ Also called the Complementary, or the Prolate, Infinitive. The
term Supplementary seems more simple and intelligible.
THE SUPPLEMENTAR V INFINITIVE. 1 55
The article marks the Infinitive more distinctly as an
object. The Infinitive is not always the Supplementary
Infinitive, see Soph. Ant. 265.
Note 2. It is impossible to give a complete list of all such
verbs. They are fairly the same as in English and in Latin,
though this Infinitive is much more extensively used in Greek
than in Latin.
The chief verbs perhaps are those expressing —
(a) Wish and desire (as in Latin), /SovXofiai, deXo), eTriOvfxQ.
(h) Caution, fear, shame, evXa/Sovnai, okvw, okvos ecrrt,
(pojSov/xai, SeSoLKa, ala-yyvoixai.
For Verbs of Fearing see also Index.
(c) Intention, determination, ipr](f>t^ofMai (/ vote), eSofe,
SeSoKTaL, SLavoovfxai, €v vw e'x^*
So statuo, constituo, with infinitive in Latin.
(d) Ability, capability, Jitness, Bwdfiai, oTos re ct/xt, t^^a-n,
Tre^vKa, as in Latin.
(e) Duty, necessity, compulsion, Sei, xp-q, avayKrj ka-n,
6cfi€iXio. So in Latin, except that oportet and
necesse est in certain senses take a subjunctive.
(/) Custom, habit.) chance, €io)6a, v6/xos ia-n, ^vixpaivu, etc.
Many of these in Latin, mos est, consuetudo est,
contingit, accidit, etc., take ut with subjunctive ;
soleo, consuesco, etc., an infinitive.
The adjectives with which this Supplementary Infinitive
goes are of a similar meaning, e.g. Swaros, iKavos, irpoOvfios,
eTTLTT^SeLOS, OL^LOS, dvOi^LOS, CtC.
Sometimes the Greek Infinitive with an adjective corresponds
with the Latin adjective and the supine in u, e.g. xa^^^Trov
Ae^at, difficile dictu.
2. The Epexegetical (i.e. Explanatory) Infinitive is added
to verbs of giving and taking, and to adjectives. This
Infinitive further explains the purpose of the verb, or the
character of the action, or of the adjective.
156 THE THREE VERBAL NOUNS.
avr)p p^aXeTTO? orv^rjj/. PLA.T.
A difficult person to live with.
Trape'^co hfiavrov tq) tar pea re^veiv Kai Kaieiv. Plat.
I offer myself to the physician to cut and hum (me).
Note 1. Even where the construction is already complete
this explanatory Infinitive is sometimes added.
KaKOV OLOfXaL TTOULV OL OVTO<S TTOtCl, OLvSpa (xSlKCOS i'Tn^'ElpilV
airoKTivvvvai. PlAT. A][)ol. xviii.
It is an evil^ I think, to he doing what my opponent is now
doing, trying, that is, unjustly to put a man to death.
T7J^ orrj^ ovK l/ow TLiiyj<s rvx^^v. SoPH. El. 364.
/ am not in love with thy honours — to obtain them.
ilicne with this infinitive and adjectives helps out this ex-
planatory force.
xpv^pov TO v^iup &(rT€ Xovaraa-Oai. XeN. Mem. iii. 13. 3.
The wafer is cold to hathe in.
Ohs. This use should be compared with that of the English
gerundive (or to with the dative of the infinitive), a house to let,
a letter to write, etc. Both in Latin and Greek the passive
infinitive is very unusual, and probably incorrect.
Note 2. The comparative with rj, or wo-tc tJ, and infinitive.
TO voar-qfxa fiet^ov ^ <j)kpeiv. SOPH. 0. T. 1293.
The plague is too great to hear.
Pestis maior quam quae (ut) tolerari possit.
fiec^ov 7] wcTTC (fi€p€Lv 8vva(T9aL KaKOV rrj iroXet crvfj-Patvci.
Xen. Mem. vi. 5. 17.
A calamity befalls the state too great for it to bear.
Note 3. w§, ws ye, with the infinitive limit the application.
aoTrXoL ws €K x^'pos pdx^crOai. Xen. Cyr. vi. 4. 16.
Unarmed so far as fighting hand to hand goes (i.e. if they
come to close quarters).
eS Xeyet 6 avrfp w? ye ovTiocrl dKovcrai. XeN. Cyr. vi. 14. 6.
The man speaks well enough just to listen to in this ivay (i.e.
if that is all you consider).
THE ACCUSATIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE. 157
To this head belong certain idiomatic infinitives.
, . ^ \so to say.
ws enreiv, J /
(OS eVt Trav ciVetv, speaking gen-
erally.
(OS aTrAws etTretv, "j to speok
(OS crweAovTt > briefly , con-
eiTretv, ) cisely.
€s TO (XK/ot/?€s etTTeiv, strictly
speaking.
(OS eUda-aL, to make a guess.
(Tvv OeQ eiVeii/, in God's name.
(Tx^^ov etTreiv, almost, SO to say,
paene dixerim.
Ikcoi/ €?vat (in negative sen-
tences), willingly. €K(ov is
the predicate to etVat.
oXL-yov Setv, all but.
Kara tovto etvat, in this respect.
00-01/ ye fx eiSevat, so /(2?* as /
know.
§ 147. The Subject before and the Predicate after
the Infinitive (commonly called the Accusative
with the Infinitive).
The Infinitive, like other parts of the verb, takes a Subject
before and a Predicate after. The Predicate is, of course, in
the same case as the Subject. The Predicate may often be
the Supplementary Predicate, in which case the Infinitive is,
of course, part of the Predicate. The following examples will
explain this construction.
Indicative.
Subject.
Verb.
Predicate.
omitted.
ilflL
'Adrjvatos
/
am
an Athenian. -
omitted.
iTrrjXdov
aKXrjTOt
they
advanced
unbidden
Kvpos
€y€l/€TO
Trp69vfxos
Cyrus
showed himself
willing
omitted.
yevov
7rp6dviio<s
show thyself
willing
omitted.
eyevovTo
evSaifjioves
they
became
happy
158
THE THREE VERBAL NOUNS.
Infinitive.
Subject.
Verb.
Predicate.
il^ri)
omitted
etvaL
'A6r)vaio<s
lie said
that he
was
an Athenian
(ecfiacrav)
omitted
eireXOetv
aKXlJTOi
they said
that they
advanced
unbidden
(e(f)aarav)
Kvpov
yevka-Bai
Trpodvfxov
they said
that Cyrus
showed himself
willing
(Seo/xai)
<TOV
yevecrdat
irpodvixov
I beg
you
to show thyself
willing
m-)
aVTOLS
yeveardaL
ev^ai 1X0(7 LV
it was permitted
them
to become
happy
1. Predicate in Nominative.
eyfrrjcpLaaade e^eXOelv l3o7]6r](70VT6<;. Dem.
You resolved to march out to the rescue.
2. Genitive.
eheovTo Kvpov «9 TrpoOv/jLorarov yepeaOac.
They were
as possible.
Xen.
Cyrus to show himself as energetic
3. Dative.
evhaip^oaiv vjmv e^eart ylyvecrdac. Dem.
It is permitted you to become happy.
Note 1. Just as in Latin we may use the Accusative for a
Dative, e.g. licet esse beatum, for licet esse beato, so in Greek
an Accusative Predicate sometimes takes the place of a
Genitive or a Dative Predicate.
e^ecTTLV vfJLiv \af36vTa<s oirXa fSorjdGiv.
For Xaf^ovcTLv 077 Aa.
tdeovTO fxov TrpocrTaTrjv yivkadai.
For Tvpoa-rdrov.
THE ACCUSATIVE WITH THE INFINITIVE. 159
The explanation is that the mind has inserted the Accusa-
tive Subject before the Infinitive, licet mihi me esse beatum,
l^ecTTiv v\}lv v/xas XajSovras oVAa ^oyjdetv.
Note 2. The personal passive construction is used in Greek
side by side with the impersonal passive followed by the
Accusative and Infinitive, the former being the commoner.
6 Kvpos rjyykXOr] VLKTJcraL. XeN.
Cyrus was reported to have conquered.
Aeyerat 'AA/ci/JtaSryv UepLKXel SiaXexOrjvai irepl voficov.
Xen.
It is said that Alcibiades conversed with Pericles about the
laws.
This construction should be compared with the Latin
(traditur, fertur, dicitur, existimatur, videtur, creditur, etc.,
etc., with an Infinitive); e.g. existimatur errare, probus esse,
he is thought to be mistaken, to be upright {it is thought that
he, etc.) See Zumpt § 607 and note. But the Greek con-
struction is much freer, and follows many adjectives.
Certain adjectives, SUaLos, agio's, worthy ; eTrtr^JSeios (fit),
i-n-iSo^os {probable), dvayKatos {necessary), may take either a
personal or an impersonal construction with the Infinitive.
Thus we may say either SUaLos cIijll ravTa ttoulv or SUaiov
ecTTiv i/xe ravTa ttoulv, I am justified in SO doing or it is right for
me so to do.
Instances of SUaios occur in Plato's Apology ii. 1, Crito iv.,
Soph. Ant. 400.
Note 3. SoKio is generally personal :
cS Aeyetv jjlol 8ok€lt€, I think you speak well.
Cf. TO IS vrAeto-Tots ^Sokovv, most people thought (they seemed to
most).
cSo£a oLKova-aL, I thought I heard.
BoKb) jxoi Tov ovov cjctyetv, lam determined to lead out the ass.
The impersonal SoKct tlvl is rare : 8ok€l, eSo^e, it is decreed,
is diff'erent. With Sokoj, 8oKd, cf. the use of eotKa, / seem,
varying with eotKe, and the Latin, videor mihi, videtur mihi.
Note 4. The Infinitive is used for the imperative in formal or
solemn language, in poetry more freely.
i6o THE THREE VERBAL NOUNS.
{a) In legal orders or official commands.
OLKoveTe Aco) . . . TTLveiv vtto ry]<s (rdXTnyyos. Ar. Ach. 1000.
Hear ye, good people all I drink to the trumpet's sound.
With aKovtre compare yes !
{h) In prayers.
Oeol TToXirai, fx-q fxe SovAeta? tu;)(€?v. AeSCH,
Gods of my country, let me not meet with slavery (grant
that, etc.).
Examples occur in Soph. Elect. 9, Ant. 1080 (where a king
speaks), Thuc. v. 9, vi. 34.
Note 5. The Infinitive is used in expressions of surprise.
(Cf. Lat. *Mene incepto desistere victam.')
rrjs fiiDptas, to Ata vo/>ti^eiv, oVra rrjXLKOvrovL.
Ar. Nub. 819.
TfTiat folly I to think of a man of his years believing in Zeus !
Note 6. The tenses of the Infinitive correspond to the tenses
of the Indicative throughout in the character of the action (as
continued, finished, or indefinite).
They only express distinctions of time when representing
the Indicative of the Recta in indirect statements or direct
questions.
But the Present Infinitive sometimes represents an Imper-
fect and not a Present Indicative.
Tivas ovv €vxa<s VTroXafi/SdveT €v\<e(T6ai rov ^lXlttttov ot'
€(T7rev8€v ; Dem. de F. L. 381. 10.
Wliat vows do you suppose Philip was offering when he was
making libations ?
This is often the case after t<l>y)v. So in Latin, memini
me dicere means / remember I was saying (also accepimus,
scribit). See Zumpt, § 589, note.
Madvig first pointed out this, § 171. 6, Rem. 1. It is fully
discussed in Goodwin, Moods and Tenses, p. 15.
§ 148. THE INFINITIVE AS A NOUN.
1. The Infinitive, like a Substantive, may stand either
as the Subject or the Predicate of a sentence.
THE INFINITIVE AS A NOUN. i6i
Subject. Predicate. Predicate.
TO BiKijv BiBovat irorepov Traa'^eiv ri earLv rj irotelv ;
To pay a penalty 1 is it ( to suffer or ( to do something ?
Paying a penalty j \ suffering \ doing. Plato.
So in English " to see is to believe" seeiug is believing.
Rarely but sometimes without the article, a-io^ypovdv KaAov,
Soph. AL, discretion is a virtue.
2. The Infinitive with the Article is declined throughout
like a Substantive. Its cases then follow the construc-
tions of the Nominative, Accusative, Genitive, and Dative.
Its oblique cases are connected with Prepositions.
Unlike ordinary Substantives, however, it (1) can govern
the same case as its verb, and (2) can be qualified by an
adverb. It corresponds to the Latin Infinitive and
Gerund.
Nom. TO KoXax; ^rjv, a noble life, honeste vivere.
Ace. TO KoXax; ^rjv, a noble life, honeste vivere (with
preposition), honeste vivendum.
Gen. Tov KoXax; ^rjv, of a noble life, honeste vivendi.
Dat. tS Ka\a)<; ^rjv, for or by a noble life, honeste
vivendo.
So Bia TO KaXa)<; ^rjv, €V (tt/oo*?) tw /caXco? ^rjv, uvtI
(eveKo) TOV KaX(o<i ^rjv.
Note, (a) Infinitive Nominative :
It is used like the Latin quod with Indicative (the fact or
circumstance that).
TO HeXoTrovvr^(TLOV<s avrots fir] /^orjOrjcraL Trapecryjiv vp.iv
Sa/Atwv KoXaa-iv, ThUC. i. 41.
The circumstance that the Feloponnesians did not help them
enabled you to chastise the Samians.
(b) The Dative is often a Dative of means, cause, or circum-
stance, instrument, like the Gerund in -do.
K€KpdTrfK€ ^tXnnros to) TrpoTcpos yevecrOaL. Dem.
Philip has succeeded by being foremost in the field,
L
i62 THE THREE VERBAL NOUNS.
(c) The Genitive is very often Objective.
rjiretyovTO Trpos rov Trorafxov tov ttuIv eTrcOvfiia.
Thuc. vii. 84.
They were hurrying to the river im, their desire to drink {of
drinl
The Genitive of the Infinitive sometimes expresses the aim
or purpose (usually in this sense it takes IveKo). The idiom
is considered either a genitive of value or a genitive of cause.
(See Causal Genitive.)
kruxiady] ^ AraXavTrj rj vrjcros tov /xf; XycrTas KaKovpyetv
rrjv EvBoiav. ThUC. ii. 32 (cf. i. 4).
21ie island of Atalante was fortified in order that the pirates
might not injure Euhoea {with a view to their not, etc.).
The construction is not very common, but thoroughly estab-
lished, in Attic Prose. The only thing in Latin like it is the
genitive with the Gerundive, a construction which frequently
occurs in Livy : haec prodendi imperii Romani, tradendae Hanni-
hali victoriae sunt, xxvii. 9 ; aequandae libertatis esse, xxxviii. 50.
See Zumpt, § 662, note 2.
§ 149. THE PARTICIPLE.
The Participle has three different uses.
A. It is an attributive to a Substantive.
6 Trapcjv '^povo'i, the ]present time.
B. It qualifies the principal Verb of a sentence like a
Supplementary Predicate, or Adverbial Sentence.
ravra eirparre (tt parity oov.
He was doing this while he ivas general.
C. It supplements the meaning of a verb, the meaning
of which would otherwise be incomplete (cf the Supple-
mentary Infinitive).
THE PARTICIPLE AS AN ATTRIBUTIVE. 163
(a.) The Participle agrees with the Subject.
TTavofjuat (j)LXo<TO(pa)v,
I leave off philosophising.
(b.) The Participle agrees with, and is the Predicate
to, the Object.
Travco ae ^Ckoa-o^ovvra,
I make you leave off philosophising.
§ 150. TBE PARTICIPLE AS AN ATTRIBUTIVE.
A. 1. The Participle when joined to a Substantive cor-
responds to an Adjective, or more frequently to a Eelative
sentence.
at AioXov vrjaoL Ka\ov[xevai. Thuc.
The so-called islands of Aeolus (or, the islands of
Aeolus, as they are called).
6 KaTei\7j(j>(o<i KLvSvvo<; ttjv ttoXlv. Dem.
The danger which has overtaken the state.
2. The Participle with the Article, when the Substan-
tive is omitted, becomes itself a Substantive.
ol \eyovT6^, the speakers.
ol BpdaavTe<i, the doers.
6 TV)(u)v, the first-comer.
6 /SovX6fX€vo<s, any one who will (see Article).
ot Trpoa-rjKovTes, relations, propinqui.
Note 1. The Future Participle with the Article signifies, in
a sort of final sense, one who is ready, p-epared or willing, to do
so and so.
Tj X^P^ dyaOrj ^v Kal €i'T](rav ol epyaaofxevoi.
Xen. An. ii. 4. 22.
The soil teas rich and there loere people to till it.
i64 THE THREE VERBAL NOUNS.
Note 2. Many neuter Participles are Substantival.
TO <rvix<p€pov, expediency, utile, utilitas. With an Adjective
in agreement, ra fXLKpa o-v/x^epoi/ra rrjs ttoAcws, Dem. The
small interests of the state.
TO. Seovra, duties or duty, officia.
Thucydides and the poets use a neuter present participle as
a Substantive, where an Infinitive would be more usual.
€v T(j) fXT) //cAeTwvTt, by Want of training ( = €y rep ixrj fxcXerav).
TO ScStd?, fear=TO SeStevat, TO daparovv = to 6apcr€iv=To
Odpa-os. Thug.
TO voa-ovv=:To vo(T€iv=rj vocros. Soph. Phil. 674.
In the poets ot reKovrcs, parents ; 6 tckwv, the father •
rj T6/covo-a, the mother {rj TiKTovaa also. Soph.). 6 cKetVov
T€K(ov, his father, to Trrorjdev cry ^vxVi ^^^ icild fluttering in thy
heart, EuR. Bacch. 1269.
B. The Participle qualifies the Principal Verb like
a Supplementary Predicate or an Adverbial Sentence,
(Conditional, Temporal, Causal, etc.).
These usages of the Participle are very common in
Greek, and are most important to notice. The particles
which bring out the special significance of the Participle
in each case should be carefully noticed. The different
usages are given under the heads of the different sentences
in the Compound Sentence. (See Index)
Note 3. The Participle in a Sentence expresses circumstance
or manner generally.
The particles ovtws, totc, en-a, Kara [koI ilra), CTretTa are
put before the Principal Verb. The sense hovers between
that of time and of circumstance.
To this head belong the phrases (as old as Homer), ti /xa^wv ;
XL TraOiov ; in the obliqua oTt jxaSuiv, Tra^wv.
Tt /u,a^oi/T€s IfxapTvpeiTi vfjL€i<s ; Dem. 45. 38.
fVhat induced you to give evidence ?
Tt Tra^ovcrat dv-qrais ei^acrt yvvat^t ; Ar. Nub. 341.
JVliat has hapj^ened to {the clouds) that they look like mortal
women?
So Ti cxwv ; Ti Pov\6fjL€vo<s ; Plat. Phaed. 236, e.
THE GENITIVE ABSOLUTE. 165
All these phrases are periphrases for whyl wherefore? to
liaOuiv ; learning what, on what inducement ? denotes an internal
motive; ti nadiov ; ailing or experiencing what? denotes an
external cause (on what compulsion 1).
«
Note 4. Under this head comes also the peculiar use of
exoiv in colloquialisms,
TTota vTroSr^/xara (j)\vap€i<s €\(j)v ; PlaT.
JFhat sort of shoes do you keep on chattering about ?
ri \r]p€Ls €X(^y ; lit. talk nonsense in so behaving.
Why do you incessantly trifle ?
ri KVTTTd^ets exwv irepl rrjv Bvpav ; ArISTOPH.
JVhy do you keep on poking about at the door ?
Note 5. The Participle in a Comparative sense with the
Subjective particles ws and cocnrep, as if, as though, as thinking.
SeStacrt tov ddvarov o)s ev etSores otl fi^yicrTov twi' KaKwj/
la-TL. Plat. Apol. xvii.
Men fear death as though they knew for certain that it is
the greatest of evils.
§ 151. THE GENITIVE ABSOLUTE.
The Genitive Absolute {i.e. a Participle agreeing with
a Genitive which is not in the main construction of the
sentence) is equivalent to an Adverbial sentence, either
Conditional, Temporal, Causal, Concessive, or expressing
Circumstances generally.
The same particles which accompany the simple Par-
ticiple {e.g. fjb6Ta^v, m, etc.) go with the Genitive Absolute.
ravra eirpa^drj Kovcovo^ (TTpaT7jryovpTo<;. ISOCR.
These operations were carried out when K. was general.
ovK dv rjXOov Sevpo v/jliov prj K€\€Vovt(x)V.
I sho'uld not have come here if you had not ordered me.
(OS toS' kypvTiov TtovS' eTTta-TaarOai ere xp-q. SoPH. Ai.
On the understanding (as knowing) that this is so, thou must
form thy judgment (i.e. thou must knoiv that it is even so).
i66 THE THREE VERBAL NOUNS.
Note. The Participle alone, without the Genitive being
expressed, occurs (see Genitive Case, Genitive Absolute) —
(a.) Where the Genitive is easily supplied from context —
ol h\ TToXefiLOL, TrpocTLovTiav (sc. Ttuv 'EAAt^vwv men-
tioned just before), rews jxev rjcrvxoi^ov.
Xen. An. V. 4. 16.
The enemy, as they were approaching, for a while were
remaining quiet.
Cf. iv. 8. 5, c/9WT)JcravTOs (sc. avTOv).
(b.) In certain impersonal expressions —
ovTiDs exovTwv. Xen. An. v. 4. 16.
Such being the case, quae quum ita sint.
€(rayy€\0€VTMv on at vrJ€<s irXkova-i. ThUC. i. 116.
On the neivs arriving that the ships ivere sailing.
vovTos TToAA'o (sc. Alos). Xen. Hell. i. 1. 16 (cf. Ar.
Vesp. 774).
Cf. ThUC. i. 74 (Sr)X(i)ehro<s), XeN. Cyr. i. 4. 18 (a-rjfiav-
OevTiov). Compare the Latin Ablative Past Participle Passive
(cognito, edicto, etc.) agreeing with the whole sentence.
The Participle is very rarely omitted.
MS €fJ.ov fi6v7]S TreAas (sc. ovcrrjs). SoPH. 0. C. 83.
Since I alone am at thy side.
§ 152. The Genitive Absolute in Greek and the
Ablative Absolute in Latin.
Great care must be taken not always to use one where we
should use the other. The Greek has a perfect series of
active participles, the Latin has no past participle active
except in the case of Deponents.
Therefore in Latin we may write —
His verbis editis egressi sunt.
So saying they went out.
But in Greek this would be —
TavTa eLTTOvTts l^yecrav,
and not
THE A ecus A TIVE ABSOL UTE. 1 67
which would mean vchen this had been said (by others) they went
out.
Nor, on the other hand, would Latin tolerate such an
apparently slovenly structure as the following : —
Sia^€j8ryKOTOS "qSyj Ile/otKAeovs, rjyyeXdr] avT<^.
After P. had already crossed, neivs was brought him.
In Latin we should write —
Pericli iam transgresso nuntiatum est.
S 153- ^^^ ACCUSATIVE ABSOLUTE,
Instead of the Genitive Absolute the Accusative
Absolute is used with Participles of Impersonal verbs and
certain other expressions.-^
A. Impersonal Verbs : Beov, ef oV, irapov, TrpoarJKov,
fjLeXov, /jb6Ta/jbe\ov, Bokovv, tv^ov, So^av or So^avra (jaifTo).
B. Passive Participles used impersonally : Trpocrrax^ev,
eiprjiJbevoVy yeypufjufievovy BeBoyfjuevov, rrpoarerayfjuevov.
C. Adjectives with ov used impersonally ; ahifvarov ov,
aicT'^pov ov, etc.
The particles w?, w^irep (as though, as thinking that),
etc., may accompany the Accusative Absolute. The
Accusative Absolute is equivalent to an Adverbial Sen-
tence, Causal, Temporal, Circumstantial, and especially
semi-Temporal and semi-Concessive.
ouSet? e^ov eip7)vr]v ayeiv iroXepbov alprjaeTac.
JS'o one will choose war when it is in his power to be
at peace.
QL Be TpLaKovra, «9 e^ov ^Brj avroi^ rvpavvelv aBe(c<;
irpoeiiTov. Xen.
The Thirty thinking it was now m their power to
play the despot with impunity, issued a,n edict, etc.
^ Ohs. — This is doubtless an Internal Accusative, probably of respect.
Compare for instance rhv avrbv rpoirou with So^au T]fxiu ravra.
1 68 THE THREE VERBAL NOUNS.
ov^^L Be eawaa^ev otov re ov kclI Buvarov. Plat.
We did not save you when {though) it was feasible and
possible.
ho^avra v/juv ravra, eikeaOe apBpa<i htcarov. Andok.
On coming to this resolution {decree), you appointed a
hundred men.
(nanrfi eBecTrvovv, oi^irep tovto Trpo^rerayfievov.
Xen.
They luere taking their meal in silence, as though they
had been ordered to do so.
For other examples see Thug. i. 126 (vn-dpxov), viii. 79
(So^ai/). For passive participles see Thuc. i. 125 {SeSoyfievov),
V. 30 {elprjpevov), V. 5Q {yeypapp^kvov).
Sometimes a personal verb is found with the Accusative
Absolute, but then usually with the subjective particles w?,
cos7re/o.
eVtot Twv d8eX<f)0iv d/xcAovcrtv utsTrep ov yiyvofxevovs (J)lXov<s.
Some men neglect their hvthers under the impression that they
do not become friends.
Xen. Mem. ii. 3. 3 (quotation shortened).
Cf. Mem. i. 2. 20. But Xen. Hell. iii. 2. 19 {So^ayra ravra
Koi TTcpavOevra), ThUC. iv. 125 {Kvp(i)$kv ovSev).
§ 154. VERBALS IN -reo^;.
Verbals in -Teo^; imply necessity. They take the same
case as the verb to which they belong. The agent is
generally in the Dative (but see below). The verbal has
two constructions, the Personal and the Impersonal.
§ 155. A. THE PERSONAL CONSTRUCTION.
aaKTjrea eari not, rj aperrj.
You must practise virtue,
Colenda est tibi virtus.
THE IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTION. 169
§ 156. B. THE IMPERSONAL CONSTRUCTION.
Here the verbal is either singular or plural.
' aaKriTeoVi 1 ^ / ^ > f
, / V e(TTL CrOi T7]V ap6TT}V.
acTKrjTea, )
€7ndvtjbr}Teov,l > v ^ > ^ / « > « 1^^.
> /I / i ^^'^^ '^^^^ avupwiTOLf; tt?? aperm* UEM.
eTnuvfjbtjTea, j
Men must covet virtue.
Note. The agent, however, in Attic, is fairly often in the
Accusative, instead of the Dative.
ovSivl TpoTTO) (f)d/jL€v c/covTtt? dStKYfTcov iTvai. PlAT. Crit.
We maintain that in no way must we deliberately commit in-
justice.
And the Dative and Accusative are both found together.
Eur. Phoen. 710, 712.
§ 157. C. THE SUPPLEMENTARY PARTICIPLE.
The Supplementary Participle is used, much like the
Supplementary Infinitive, to complete the meaning of
many verbs and verbal phrases. It agrees either (1) with
the Subject, or (2) with the Object of the verb.
§ 158. THE SUPPLEMENTARY PARTICIPLE LN
AGREEMENT WITH THE SUBJECT
OF THE VERB.
The Participle is used wdth the following classes of
Verbs : —
* Verbs marked thus have peculiar usages which are ex-
plained in the notes.
A. Yerhs of Saying and Perceiving (see Indirect
Statement). These verbs differ from the following
because they can equally take a finite mood with otl or
«9, thus showing the substantival character of the con-
struction which thev introduce.
I70 THE THREE VERBAL NOUNS.
B. Verbs of Mental Emotion.
Xaipo), 1780/xat, ax^oixat, dyavaKTio (I am vexed), xaAcTrw? (fi€pu)
(I am vexed), /Aera/x-eAo/xat, juera/xeAet fioL (/ repent, regret), avk-
XOfiai (I endure), p^Si'w? ^epw (/ easily bear).
ycLLpova-iv aKovovTe<; e^era^ofievtav rwv av6p(07ra)v.
Plat.
They like to hear people cross-questioned.
Xp7]p.dTii)v ovK ato-^vvet eTrt/xeAov/tevos ; PlAT.
Are you not ashamed to be devoting yourself to money-making ?
/D^Stws <^e/0€fcs 1^/xas aTToAetTTWV. PlAT.
You donH mind leaving us behind (you make light of doing so).
C. Verbs of beginning, continuing, and ending an action
(including persevering and growing weary).
*dpxopai, *v7rdpxo>, (jiOdvio, SiaTcAw, Bcdyta, SLaytyvofxaL (7
continue), iravofiaL, direiprjKa, and KdfjLvio (I grow tired).
Tov XoLTTOv fiiov Ka6ei>8ovT€<; ^lareXolr av. Plat.
You would go on sleeping for the rest of your lives.
ov fiT) TravcTcofiao (pc\o(TO(f)cov. PlaT.
Never will I give over the pursuit of ivisdom.
OVK dvk^opai ^wcra. EURIP.
/ will not endAire to live,
D. Verbs of being manifest, being detected {convicted),
and of escaping notice.
*8^Aos €t^tt (Sr^Aw, intrans.), *cf>av€p6s elp^i, *<f)aivop,aL, SeU-
vviu, XavOdvo), dAtcTKo/xat (the active form is alptj).
S^Xo9 el KaTa^povwv. Plat.
It is clear that you despise me.
8eL^(o avTov a^tov ovra. Dem.
/ will prove that he is worthy.
eBec^av kroLpLOL ovTe<;. ThuC.
They showed that they were ready,
(pavepoi, €LaLv aycovL^dpLevoc iravre^. Xen.
It is evident that they all are contending.
NOTE ON SPECIAL VERBS. 171
TIifKeco^ 'yap a^ta
7raTpo<; r A^CXXeco^; ep'ya Bpcov <^av7](TeTai. Euu.
He shall he seen to do great deeds
worthy of Peleus, and his sire Achilles.
<j)ov€a eXavdave P6(tk(ov. Hdt.
He was entertaining a murderer unawares,
eav Se aXco9 eTi tovto Trparrcop, airoBavel. Plat.
^ If you are caught again in this 'pursuit, you shall die
{if you are convicted of folloioing it any longer).
So 8r;Aw, Soph. 0. C. 556, and Ai. 472, Ant. 20 (in nomina-
tive attraction). SeiKw/xi (see third example above) may be
intransitive, EuR. /. A. 436, Thuc. 72. The above verbs,
however, have several other constructions, for which see
below.
§ 159. Note on Special Verbs.
1. apxop^aL takes both the Infinitive and Participle, more
usually the Infinitive. The Participle seems to denote, more
than the Infinitive, that the act is going on.
yjp^avTO oiKoSo/Mcii'.
They began to build (of the intention).
'qp^avTO oiKoBofiovvTCS.
They began the building (the act going on).
See Thuc. i. 107.
2. vTrdp)(^u).
eav T15 17/xas ev Trotwv vTrdpxrj. XeN.
If any one first confers a kindness on us.
Otherwise virdpxoi is used almost like Tvy^dvia.
virdpyei kydpo^ wv. DeM.
He is an enemy {to begin with).
3. (f>ddvo).
{a) €(}>6a(r€ {€<j)6if)) dfjuKOfXiVOS.
He ivas beforehand in arriving.
ovK av <f>ddvoL<s Aeywv (gen. of 2d person).
Make haste, speak — or, quick, quick speak. (Lit. you could
not anticipate {my icish, or your duty) in speaking.)
172 THE THREE VERBAL NOUNS.
The phrase forms an urgent command. Cf. Eur. Or. 936,
Ale. 662, Arist. Fl. 1133.
Cf. Aeye (fiddcras, speaJc
Quin statim loquere !
In the last example cfiSdvo) is in the Participle.
So dv€(p^ds /xe (f)Odcra<g. ArIST.
You opened the door before me (got the start of me).
Cf. Thuc. iv. 8.
4. dvvT(j} (/ achieve) is used like (ftddvto.
avvcrov viroSvcrdiievos. AriST.
Look sharp and put your shoes on.
dvvaas dvoiye.
Look alive and open the door.
5. alaxyvofxaL.
alcr\yvofxai Xeywv.
I am ashamed of saying (while I do say).
ai(r)(yvoixaL Aeyetv.
/ am ashamed to say (and generally, / refrain from saying).
6. dTTOKdjJLVO).
drroKdfivd) tovto TroLiov.
I am weary of doing this.
aTTOKdflVO) TOVTO TTOietv.
I leave off doing this through weariness.
7. S^Aos €t/xt. Several constructions.
(a) The personal construction tvith participle.
SrjXos '^v olofievos. Xen.
It was evident that he thought.
The personal construction with ws and participle.
8rj\6<i icTTiv tos Tt Bpaa-euov KaKov, SOPH. Ai.
It is plain that he is craving to do some ill (hpaa-dta, de-
siderative).
Cf. Soph. Ant. 242 ; ^\oU (verb) ws.
(h) The personal and the imperso7ial construction with oti and
finite mood.
hrjXoL elcriv otl €TnKii(T0VTai. XeN.
It is clear that they will attack us.
NOTE ON SPECIAL VERBS. 173
S^Aoj/ koniv OTt 7rav(rojxai. PlAT.
It is evident that I shall give over,
8. <f>av€p6<s elfJii, and (f>avep6v l(TTi : d/OKw (J suffice), apK€L, it is
sufficient (Soph. Ant. 547) : tKavos et/^t, iKavov ian, are simi-
larly constructed either with the participle (personally) or
with OTt and a finite mood.
9. cf)aLvo[xaL takes the Participle and the Infinitive.
(jiaiveTai dvrjp dyaOos ecvac'
He seems to he {is considered) a brave man.
Videtur esse fortis.
The appearance or opinion may be groundless.
c^aiVcrat dvrjp dyaOos wv.
He shows himself (proves himself, manifestly is) a brave rmin.
Cf. appareo in Latin.
Apparebat certaraen fore. Liv. It was evident there would
be a struggle.
Apparebat utilis. Suet. So ^/erS*)? </>aivcTat (utv omitted).
(rrjfiiLa <f>atv€is { = (f>aLV€L) ycyws. SoPH. El. 24.
You show proofs that you are.
10. XavOdvd).
\iXrj6a ifiavTov eiSw?. XeN.
/ know without myself being aware of it.
Horace (Od. iii. 16. 32) and Propertius (i. 4. 5) imitate
this Greek construction.
e.g. HoR. Fallit sorte beatior=.Xa.v$dvei oXpaarfpa ovaa.
Rarely in Attic Xadiav is used participially with a \erb=r
^secretly, clam.
11. Tvyxavm, and (in poetry) kv/ow.
Itv\ov TrpocrcXOoyv dvSpt. PlAT.
/ chanced to meet a man.
7rpo<s TL tovt' eiTTWv Kvp€i<; ; SoPH. El.
JVhy is it thou speakest thus ?
The notion of chance is often almost lost in both verbs.
They often denote mere coincidence in time, just then. Botk
are used sometimes without a participle.
vvv dypota-L rvyxdvci. SOPII. El.
At this moment he happens to be abroad.
174 THE THREE VERBAL NOUNS.
12. oLxofxat denotes rapidity and completeness.
ot)(€Tai (j)€vy(ov.
Celeriter fugit.
Oi^OlXaL cf)€p<l)V.
Celeriter aufero.
ot\€TaL daviov.
He is dead and gone.
13. SrJAo? €t/zi (above), cliavepos €11X1, kavddvb) are also con-
structed with on and finite mood. For XavOdvo) oVt see
Plat. Crito, xii.
14. The Poets use this Supplementary Participle with
a great many verbs, e.g. verbs implying superiority and
inferiority (vtKw, i^TTw/xat, eXXecirofjLai) : doing right or wrong
(aSiKW, a/Aapravo), eS or KaAws ttoiw).
§ l60. THE SUPPLEMENTARY PARTICIPLE IN
AGREEMENT WITH THE OBJECT
Tlie Participle is the Predicate to the Object.
The Verbs which take this Participle are mostly the
active forms of those in the previous rule, but the cor-
respondence is not complete.
A. Verbs of stopping {making to cease), finding and
detecting, overlooJdng (i.e. allowing to be done).
Travw (/ make to cease, cf. Travo/xat), Tveptopcj and icfiopu), I
overlook {irepuiSov, eTretSor), but not €(3, SetKvvjjLi (I point out),
KaraXafi^dvo), alpC) (see aXia-Kofiai in previous rule), <f)iDpo),
I detect, catch, convict.
ry6X(Ji)VTa<i e'^Opov^ irava-o/jbev. SoPH.
We will check the merriment of our foes.
/JLJ] irepiiBcofiev v^ptaSelaav rrjv AaKeBaLfiova. ISAEUS.
Let us not look on and see Lacedaemon oviraged,
ov ;(ai/o>ya-et?* dXXd ae kXctttovO' alp-qcrtji. ArIST.
You shan't get off scot free. No, Til catch you thieving.
THE SUPPLEMENTARY PARTICIPLE. 175
B. Verbs of perception (see Indirect Statement, § 167).
Note. 1. Observe, however, that Verbs of Perception may be
used with a Supplementary Participle which is not equivalent
to an Indirect Sentence.
Thus opw ere yo^lpovro. may mean either / see you rejoicing,
or / see that you rejoice.
ya-dero Kvpov TreTrrw/cora, he heard that Cyrus had fallen ; but
yja-drjcraL TrwTrore fxov (TVKocfiavTovvTos ; have you ever noticed me
^playing the part of an informer 7 aKovoi o-e r^Kovra^ I hear that
you are come; but a/covw a-ov SiaXeyofievov, I hear you con-
versing.
2. oiiSa, (TvvoiSa^ eTrta-Tafxai :
otSa Tavra ttoiwi/.
/ know that I am doing this.
otSa TaCra ttolclv.
I know how to do this.
So with eTTto-ra/zai, I know for certain (scio) :
inavTM (rvvoiSa ov8ev cTrtcTTa/xeKi).
ifxavTio crvvocSa ovSev €7rL(TTdiJievo<s.
I am conscious that I know nothing for certain.
§ 161. The Tenses of the Participle, and Time
in the Participles.
The Tenses of the Participle correspond with the Tenses of
the Indicative always in the character of the act, and some-
times in time.
1. The Present Participle denotes an act in progress, the
time of which is usually determined by, and therefore con-
temporary with, that of the principal verb. But the time
may be determined by some word in the sentence, such as
vvv^ Tore. Sometimes the context, without such a clew-word,
determines the time.
r-qv vvv BotWTiav KaX,ovfi€vr)V (^Kt^crav. ThUC. i. 12.
liiey occupied what is now called Boeotia.
61 KopcvdiOL [J'^XP'' TOVTOv irpoOvfJiOiS 7rpd(r(rovT€<s dveta-av t^s
<^tAovetKias. ThUC. V. 32.
The Corinthians, who up to that time had been energetically
at work, now abated their vehemence.
176 THE THREE VERBAL NOUNS.
ol (Tvix7rp€G-/3€-vovTes Kal TrdpovT€S KaTafxapTvprja-ova-LV.
Dem. de Fals. Leg. 381. 5.
Those who were then his fellow-envoys, and were present, will
testify against him.
Here rore would have made the time clearer.
2. The Aorist Participle generally refers to an act prior to
that of the principal verb.
ravra ctTrovres aTr^A^ov.
They said this and went away.
But in many cases there is no such priority of tima
€v €TroLr](Ta<s dvajj.vi^(ras />t€.
You did well to remind me.
§ 162. The Future Participle.
1. The Future Participle, as a rule, denotes mere futurity
in time only after verbs of Perception.
oiSa ravra Spdcrwv.
I know that I shall do this.
rjSrj (re ravra Spdcrovra.
I knew that you would do this.
Here the Latin future in rus is the equivalent of the Greek
future participle (me, te haecfaciurum esse).
Oavovfxevr] yap i^rjSrj. SOPH. Ant. 460.
/ knew well that I should (or must) die.
Here the Latin gerund (mihi 7noriendum esse) would be the
better equivalent.
2. But the Future Participle often denotes intention,
(a.) With a verb of motion.
ovK is \6yovs eXqXvO', aAA,a 0-6 KrevMv, EUR. Tro. 905.
/ am not come to parley, hut to kill thee.
Cf. ThUC. i. 18, SovAwo-o/xevo?.
Here the Latin supine in -um after a verb of motion, rather
than the future in -rus would be used. We should translate
rjXde Oeaa-ofjLcvos by spectatum venit, not by spectaturus venit.
V 3. The subjective particle u>s is often added to the Future
Participles (as to other participles). It denotes the presumed
THE FUTURE PARTICIPLE. 177
intention (as though) ; or the motive calculated (as thinking, on
the assumption that).
^vXXafx^dvei J^vpov ws aTro/crcvwi/. XeN.
He seizes Cyrus with the intention of putting him to death.
fXLcrdov alrovcTLV ws ov)(l avToia-iv wt^eAeiav ka-ojxkvqv.
Plat. Rep. 345, e.
They demand pay on the assumption (ground) that no benefit
will accrue to them.
(o</)€Aciav ea-oixev-qv, Accusative Absolute.
4. With the Article the Future Participle denotes not
only intention, but what is likely, able, or calculated to do
anything.
TToXXa 8et Tov ev o-TpaT-qyyjorovTa €;(€tv. XeN. Ap. iii. 1. 6.
He who wishes (means) to be a good general must have many
qualifications.
ovT€ (TtTOS ^ dpexpofxeOa fjLevovr€<ij orre irXota ecrrt to, utt-
d^ovra. XeN. A71. vl 3. 20.
fFe have neither food to eat, if we stay, nor ships to convey us
hence.
Neque frumentum est quo vescamur, si manserimus, neque
navigia quibus vehamur.
The above may be expressed by a periphrasis with /xeAAw.
Thus 6 (rTpaT'qyij(T(i)v = 6 fieXXuyv o-TpaT-qy-qcreLV.
ovS^ 6 K<jiXv(ru>v Traprjv. SoPH. Ant. 260.
Nor was there at hand one who could stay them.
Neque aderat qui prohiberet.
5. The Future Participle may take the place of a direct
sentence.
Tov Kacriyvi]Tov ri <^Q'S,
ri^ovTos Tj fxeXXovTOs; SoPH. El. 317.
What say'st thou of thy h'other,
Will he be here, or ivlll he tarry ?
=7roT€/ooi/ TJ^eL ^ /xeAAet;.
The above examples will show how widely the Greek
Future Participle difters from the Latin future in rus, and how
much more elastic the use of the former is. Mr. Paley first
pointed this out in the Journal of Philology (viii. No. 15), from
which number much of the above is derived.
M
PART 11.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
CHAPTEE I.
§ 163. SUBSTANTIVAL SENTENCES.
1. THE INDIRECT STATEMENT.
2. THE INDIRECT QUESTION.
3. THE INDIRECT PETITION
§ 164. THE INDIRECT STATEMENT.
The Indirect Statement quotes words or thoughts not
at first-hand {i.e. directly), but at second-hand {i.e. indi-
rectly). It therefore follows verbs and phrases of saying
and thinking.
. The Indirect Statement is expressed in three ways.
A. By the Infinitive.
B. By OTL or w? with the Indicative or the Optative,
never with the Subjunctive.
C. By the Participle.
§ 165. A. THE INEINITIVE IN THE INDIRECT
STATEMENT.
1. The Infinitive follows expressions of saying and
thinking. The Subject before the Infinitive and the
178
INFINITIVE IN INDIRECT STA TEMENT. 1 79
Predicate after it are in the Accusative (but see next
rule). The usual negative is ov (see second example).
N.B. 1. </)iy/xt and (^ao-Kw regularly take the Infinitive.
2. Aeyo) (active) generally takes on or ws, Xeyercu (it
is said) takes either the Infinitive, or 6tl, ws with
a finite verb.
3. etTTov takes on and ws. (Observe that efTrov, I said,
introduces a Statement ; eTirov, I bade, a Petition.
I told has the same double sense in English.
TOP BiKaiov avBpa evSatfiopa elvai (prjfii,. Plat.
I assert that the just man is happy.
ovSeva ol/jLat, Bai/xovcov elvat KaKov, EUEIP.
I think that none of the deities is evil.
2. But if the Subject of the Infinitive is the same as the
Subject of the Principal Verb, it is usually not expressed
at all. The Predicate is in the Nominative. This is
called the Infinitive Attraction.
^770-6 (TTpaT7)f^eiv,
He says that he is general,
vofj,i^ei<; etvat <f>poviixo<s.
You fancy that you are prudent.
cj)povLfio<; the Predicate.
o AXe^avBpo'^ ecf^aaKev Alo^ vlo<; elvai.
Alexander used to pretend that he was the son of Zeus.
Am 1/109 the Predicate.
AiKT) elvac (f)7]aL. AesCH.
She saith that she is Justice.
If the Subject needs to be expressed, airo^; is used in
the Nominative (in all genders and numbers).
KXecov ovK e<^ri avTO<; aW eKclvov arparr/yeLV.
Thug.
Cleon declared that it was not himself hut Nikias who
tvas general.
i8o SUBSTANTIVAL SENTENCES.
vojjLi^eTe ovv avroL ^Ivai ^povc/jLOi.
You fancy, then, that it is you who are prudent {that
you yourselves are prudent).
The Subject however, airo^;, must never be expressed
unless it is necessary to distinguish it from a Subject in
the Accusative, or to throw a special emphasis on it.
In nine cases out of ten the presence of a Predicate in
the Nominative is sufficient.
Note 1. Instead of avro? the personal pronouns lyw, o-v
occur (Dem. 52. 12, 9. 74, Lys. 25. 18), and the reflexive cr<^6ts
(Plat. Rep. 518).
Sometimes the accusative is used instead of the nominative
(l/AC, /xe, o-e, efxavTOV, (reavTov, eavrov). This construction, more
emphatically than the Infinitive Attraction, marks the Sub-
ject of the Infinitive as the Object of the main verb.
cf)r)fjA, Setv eK€LVOV<s aTroXecrOaL, ejJL€ Se crw^ecr^at. AnDOK. i. 30.
I hold that they ought to be condemned to death, and I he
acquitted.
For other instances see Plat. Gorg. 474, Xen. Cijr. v. 1. 21
(e/xavTov), HeROD. i. 34 and ii. 2 {koivrov).
Note 2. Verhs of hoping and promising (expecting, under-
taking, swearing). They usually take the Future Infinitive
(like the Latin).
■37 Arrive V juax^^ ea-ecrdo.i.
He was expecting that there would be a battle.
xnrecrxov ravTa ^rjr'qa-eLV.
You promised to search into this.
But with little or no change of meaning they also take a
Present, or an Aorist Infinitive sometimes, the future time
being expressed not by the Infinitive, but the principal verb.
eXTTi^ei Svvaro^ etvai ap^ecv. PlAT.
He hopes to be able to rule.
vTrkcr^eTo fioi fBovXeva-acrOai.. XeN.
He undertook to advise me.
r/rt AND ^9 WITH INDICATIVE AND OPTATIVE. i8i
Also an Aorist Infinitive with aV.
QVK '^Xttl^ov cKTrecreti/ dv IleptKAea. ThUC.
They were not anticipating that Pericles would he banished.
€K7r€(reLv av is an Oblique Apodosis, representing kKirka-oL av in
the Eecta. See Note 3.
The sort of verbs that come under this head are : —
eA,7rt^a>. vTrLcr)(^vov/Mai. 6/xoAoyw, ) j-
e'ATTtSa (lATTiSas) e'x^* ofjLVVfJiL. a-vvTideixai, J "^
SoKiOy ) J- , VTToSexo/Aat (/ etc., etc.
TT/aoo-SoKO), j ^ * undertake).
Note 3. The Infinitive with av. If the Indicative of the Becta
had an av, the Infinitive will retain it in Indirect Discourse,
but not otherwise.
oTfiai yap av ovk dxapi(TT(DS fJ'Ot ex^tv. DeM.
/ think it would not be a thankless task.
In Becta, ovk dv ^x^'"
Note 4. The Tenses of the Infinitive, in Indirect Dis-
course, represent the corresponding Tenses of the Indicative
or Optative in the Becta, and therefore denote the same time.
See § 147, Note 6.
§ l66. B. oTi AND a»9 WITH THE INDICATIVE
AND OPTATIVE.
(1) The Indicative (in Primary or
„ rf .,, J Historic Sequence).
(2) The Optative (in strict Historic
Sequence).
N.B. Never the Subjunctive as in Latin. The Negative
is ov.
To understand this construction it is well to see first
what the Direct Statement is.
avTol jjbdpTvpis ecTfiev, we ourselves are witnesses, is a
Direct Statement.
This, in an Indirect Statement of Primary Sequence,
becomes Xejovaiv W9 avrol fiapTvpe<i eiaiv. Observe that
1 82 SUBSTANTIVAL SENTENCES.
tha person alone is changed, "they say that they them-
selves are witnesses." The tense and 7nood remain
unchanged.
In an Indirect Statement of Historic Sequence it may
be expressed in either of two ways, both being equally
common :
,/ r f (1) avTol aapTvpe<i elev (Optative) ;
' [ (2) avTot fMapTvpe^ eiatv (indicative) ;
i.e. either the Optative is used, and this is the really
Indirect Statement, or no change is made in the mood in
consequence of the Historic Sequence, the Indicative being
used. This retention of the mood and tense of Direct
Discourse is a well-known practice, pervading all Greek
syntax.
Again, a Direct Statement is, KparrjaofMev rcov AOyvaicov,
we shall heat the Athenians.
The Indirect Statement is —
(1) Primary, Xeyovaiv on Kpan^aovai twv AOrivatwv,
They say that they will heat the Athenians.
(2) Historic, eXeyov on { 1. fcparrja-ocev rSyv Adrjvaccov.
They said < they loould heat tlie Athenians,
that \2. Kpari^aovai Tcov 'A67}vaL(ov.
The two constructions, the Optative and the Indicative,
are often found alternating in the same paragraph.
The rules therefore in passing from the Direct to the
Indirect Statement are : —
1. The Person is always changed.
2. The Tense is never changed.
3. The Mood may be changed from the Indicative
to the Optative when the Sequence is Historic,
but constantly the Indicative remains un-
changed in Historic as in Primary Sequence.
on AND cbs WITH INDICATIVE AND OPTATIVE. 183
In case of a difficulty as to tense and mood, the learner
should practise turning back the Indirect to the original
Direct Statement.
Thus in the sentence eroXfjia Xeyeiv w? iravra^s rov^;
e'xjdpov'i €vIk7](T6v, he made hold to say that he had conquered
all his enemies, the original Direct was nravTa'^ rov^
€j(dpov<; evLKrjo-a, I conquered all my enemies. The tense
and mood of the Direct Statement are retained.
Again, rjKe S* dyyeWcov tU co9 'Exdreca Kareikrjirrai,,
there came a messenger announcing that Elateia had been
captured. The messenger said in the Direct, 'Exdreta
KarelXTjiTTaLy Elateia has teen captured. In the Indirect
therefore the original tense and, in this case, the mood
are retained. It might have been KareiXrjfjLfjLevr] etrj,
Xeyec «? ovBev ecmv aSiKcorepov (f)7]/jL7j<^. AeschiN.
He says that there is nothing more unjust than
rumour.
Recta : ovBev ean k.t.X.
XoytcraaOo) tovto on et'^o/jLev TroVe IIvBvav. Dem.
Let him reflect that we once possessed Pydna.
Recta : el'^o/jiev k.t.X.
^av6pa)<; elirev on rj it 6X1^ TereL^co-Tat tjStj. Thuc.
He told them openly that the city had already heen
fortified.
Recta : Tere/^to-rat k.t.X.
aTTeKpcvdfMrjv otl jjlol XvacTeXol coairep e^w e^euv. Plat.
/ answered that it was good for me to he exactly as
I am. Recta : XvaiTeXel k.t.X.
Kvpo^ eXeyev, otl rj 0S09 ecroiTO 7rpo<; ^acriXea fieyav
et9 Ba/SvXcova. Xen.
Gyrus told them that the march would he to Bahylon
against the great King.
Recta : 'iaTaL k.t.X.
1 84 SUBSTANTIVAL SENTENCES.
elirev ore 6 avrjp av dXuiaifjLO<; elr]. Xen.
He said that the man might he captured.
The av of course belonged to the Direct. 6 dvrjp
aXdiacfiO'i av eirf.
The Indicative and the Optative are sometimes found
in the same paragraph.
eXejov on Kvpo<; fiev reOvrjfcev Apialo^ he ev T<p
araO/ii^ eoTj.
They said that Cyrus was dead, and that Ariaeus
tvas in the camp.
It might have been reOvqKm el'q and eVr/.
€<yv(D on ecroLTO irept t?;? tov AXKL^caSov KadoBov
X0709, /cac on ol 'A6r)va2oc evSe^ovrac avTr]v.
Thuc.
He saw that there would he a proposal for the recall
of Alcihiades, and that the Athenians would
approve of it.
For eyvo) on see 3. The Participle in Indirect Discourse, Note 1.
Note 1. on and ws. ws being a subjective particle, i.e. ex-
pressing what is in a person's mind, is used, more than on, of
opinions, of pretexts, sometimes of untrue statements, and
with negative expressions, ov Aeyw ws. ws is used rather than
oTfc after verbs of thinking.
T t(Tara<j)epvr]<5 Sia^aAAet tov Kvpov Trpos tov dSeXcfiOV o)S
€7nf3ovXevoL avT(^. XeN. A71. i. 3.
Tissaphernes accused Cyrus to his hrotheVf alleging that he
was plotting against him.
lAeyov CO? XPV ^H'^'S evAa/?€tcr^at, PlAT. x4pol. 1.
They were telling you that you ought to he on your guard
{against me),
vofxi^ovfTLv eK€L ws *H<^atorT09 xct^'^^ret. ThUC. iii. 88.
The local belief is that Hephaestus is working at his forge.
In Soph. Elect. 43, ort is used of an untrue statement.
^oTi AND «? WITH INDICATIVE AND OPTATIVE. 185
Note 2. Instead of on and ws other particles are used in
poetry, e.g. ovi/eKa (SoPH. El. 1476), oOovveKa (Soph. El. 1308),
oTTws (Soph. ^ti^. 685, PAi/. 169).
ov yap alcrOdvet TraAat
(cjvTas davova-LV ovv€k dvravSjls «ra ; SoPH. El. 1476.
And hast thou not marked long since
that thou hast been accosting the living as the dead ?
KXvets
oOovveK KlyLa-Oos fi€V ov Kara crreyas. SOPH. El. 1308.
Thou hearest
That Aegisthus is not beneath his roof.
oTTOJs also is used.
ava^, l/OW fX€V OV^ OTTiDS Td)(OVS VTTO
Svcnrvovs cKavw. SoPH. Ant. 223.
My liege, I will not say that by reason of speed
I come scant of breath.
Cf. Soph Ant. 685, Phil. 169.
As the Watchman is a clown we might be tempted to
translate, " I won't say as how." We use '• how " just in the
same way.
So ut is often used in Latin poetry :
Quid referam ut volitet crebras intacta per urbes
Alba Palaestino sancta columba Syro :
Ut que, etc.
TiBULL. I. vii. 17, and the ^oets passim.
Note 3. dv with the Optative. If dv is found with the
Optative in the Indirect Statement it is because it was there
in the Eecta. In such cases the Optative with av in the
Indirect is the Apodosis of a Conditional Sentence which in
the Eecta was in the Optative with dV.
eAe^av ws Travr av tOot,
They said that he wotdd see everything.
Direct : Trdvr^ dv I'Sot (sc. ct iXOoi).
eXe^av ws Travr' l8ol.
They said that he saw everything.
Direct : TrdvTa ei8€.
Note 4. If in the Direct the Imperfect or Pluperfect In-
dicative were used, they should be retained in the Indirect
1 86 SUBSTANTIVAL SENTENCES.
(both Primary and Historic). The reason of course is that
there is no Optative Imperfect or Pluperfect.
rJKev (xyyeAos Aeywv on rpirjpeis yJKove TrapaTrXeovcras.
Xen. An. i. 2. 21.
There came a messenger saying that he Jmd heard that triremes
were sailing round.
Direct : r^Kovov, I was hearing.
For further rules see Oratio Obliqua.
Note 5. Verbs and phrases of emotion, ^av/xafw, I wonder ;
ayavaKTW, / am indignant ; Setvov Trotov/xai, do. ; c{>dovio, I
grudge; ala-\vvo}iai, I am ashamed; ala-xpov ko-n (Setvov
ecTTt, it is a shame) ; //.e/x^o/^ai, / blame, etc. , usually are fol-
lowed not by 0T6 but by the conditional et.
ToSe WavpLacra el kv dperrjs Ti9rj<s p^epcL rrjv dScKiav.
Plat. Bep. 348.
I was surprised at your setting injustice in the light of a virtue.
Setvov TTOiovvrat el pbrj €L(rovrai. ThUC.
They think it abominable (if) they are not to know.
These phrases also take oti. Cf. miror si (mirum si) as well
as miror qiix)d.
§167. C. THE PARTICIPLE IN INDIRECT
DISCOURSE.
The Participle is used in Indirect Discourse after Verbs
of Perception {see, perceive, hear, learn, mark, know, remem-
her) and some others. The usual Negative is ou.
opo), I see. otSa, I know (crvvoL^a e/xavrw, I
ala-ddvopLai, I perceive. ' am conscious).
aKovd), I hear. cTrto-ra/xat, I know for certain.
TTvvddvopLai, I learn by in- /xe/xv/i^/xai, / remember.
giiiry. eTnXavddvop,aL, I forget.
jmvddviM, I learn. yiyviaa-KO), I get to know.
ol ' EXKrjve^i ovk fjheaav Kvpov reOpTjKOTa. XeN".
The Greeks did not know that Cyrus was dead.
r]BeQ)<; aKovco ^ot)KpaTov<; BtaXeyopievov. Plat.
/ love to hear Socrates conversing.
THE PARTICIPLE IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 187
€fJLavT^ ^vvi^Seiv ovSev €7n(rra/xevo). PlAT. Apol. viii.
/ was conscious that I knew nothing for certain.
ovT€ fieya ovre (rfxiKpov ^vvotSa ifiavTUt cro^o? wv.
Plat. Jpol vi.
/ am conscious that in no degree, great or small, am I wise.
The rules about the Subject and the Predicate of the
Infinitive equally apply to the Participle.
ecopcov ou fcaTop6ovvT€<;. Thuc.
The^ saw that they were not succeeding.
aKrOavojJLeOa yeXotoi ovTe<^. Plat.
We jperceive that we are ridiculous.
Note 1. The Indicative (and Optative) with on and ws are,
however, often used with Verbs of Knowing, especially yty-
ViOCTKCj), and olSa (t'(T^' OTt).
eyvo) OTt ol ^AOrjvaioL ovSeu ivScoo'ovcnv. ThUC.
He saw that the Athenians would not give in at all.
Note 2. If the Principal Verb itself is a Verb of Perception
the Indirect Sentence will be in the Infinitive to avoid the
clumsiness of two participles close together, if both Participles
refer to the same person.
alcrdofJLCvos ovk av TreiOetv avrovs. ThuC.
Perceiving that he should not convince them.
ala-dofxevos ovk dv TTiiOtov would have been intolerable.
Note 3. dyyeXXo), I report, sometimes takes a Participle.
TTpidTO? f^adiXei Yivpov iTTLJSovXevovTa -^yyetAa. XeN.
I first reported to the king that C. was plotting against him.
ofxoXoyQ, I agree, assent ; i^eXeyxio, iiriScLKwixL, I point out
(see Eule), may almost be regarded as verbs of statement.
These take a Participle.
Note 4. The remarks made about dv with the Infinitive
apply equally to the Participle.
Note 5. The Tenses of the Participle in Indirect Discourse
represent the Corresponding Tenses of Indirect Discourse, and
therefore the time which they denote.
SUBSTANTIVAL SENTENCES.
§ l68. THE INDIRECT QUESTION
The Indirect Question may be regarded as the Indirect
Statement put interrogatively. All the rules given as to
person, tense, and mood for the Indirect Statement apply
equally to the Indirect Question. The Subjunctive must
never be used, as in Latin, in an ordinary Indirect Ques-
tion. (See Deliberative Questions.)
The !N"egative is ov.
For the Interrogative Pronouns and Adverbs see Pro-
nouns. Their Indirect (or Eelative) forms are used in
Indirect Questions, but it is just as common to use the
Direct Forms. Et, like the English if, is the regular
indirect interrogative, meaning ivhether (in a single ques-
tion — Lat. niim).
Direct : tl<; earu ;
Who is he i
Indirect Primary : ovk olSa octtl^ (or r/?) eVr/.
I do not know ivho he is.
Indirect Historic : ovk rjSrj oaTi<; (or rh) \ ' » /
/ did not know who he ivas.
Direct : ravra e7roi.rjaa<; ;
Did you do it ?
Indirect Primary : ipcora avrov ei ravra eTrocTjo-ev.
He asks him if he did it. ■
, V \ 1. eL ravra TTOiricjeiev.
Indirect Historic : ripoariiaev avrov . ^ , ^ . .
'1^ ' 12. €0 ravra eTrocrjaev
He asked him if he had done it
o,rc ireiTovOare ovk olBa. Plat.
What you ham felt I know not.
Eecta : re rreirovOare ;
THE INDIRECT QUESTION. 189
ipcoTcocTLV et Xrjo-raL eicnv. Thuc.
They ask them if they are pirates.
Eecta : Xr^araL eare ;
l(TT6 oto^ rjv Xaip€(j)(t)v. Plat.
You know what sort of a man Chaerephon was.
Eecta : oto<; r^v ;
BiTjpcoTcov av avTOv^ tl \eyoL6v. Plat.
/ losed to ask them what they meant.
Eecta : ti Xeyere ;
ripero, et Tt9 eirj efiov o-ocjxoTepof;, Plat.
He asked if there loas anyhody wiser than I.
Eecta : eaTL ti<; ;
rjiropovv to ttots Xeyet, 6 6eo<;. Plat.
I was at a loss to understand what the god Tneant.
Eecta : rt irore Xeyei ;
e^ovkevovTo rtva KaraXetyfrovcriv. Dem.
They were considering whom they should leave behind.
Eecta : Tiva KaTaXecsfrofiev ;
'^pcoTcov avTov ei avairXevaeLev. Dem.
/ was asking him if he had set sail.
Eecta : aveifkevaa^ ; did you set sail ?
Observe in examples 6 and 7 that the Historic
Sequence is disregarded.
Good examples will be found in Soph. El 32, 679, 974,
1348, Ai. 557, Ant. 239, 1190.
If the Direct uses the Imperfect Indicative, e.g. tis tjv 6
fjLvOo^ ; what was the tale? the Indicative will be retained in
Indirect Historic for reasons explained on p. 182. It would
become gIttov oo-rt? ^v 6 fivdos. eTTrov OQ-Tts €Lr] 6 fxvdo^s would
represent a Direct ri? ea-nv 6 fxvdos ; See a good instance in
Soph. Ant. 239.
I90 SUBSTANTIVAL SENTENCES.
§ 169. DELIBERATIVE OR DUBITATIVE
INDIRECT QUESTIONS.
These questions, when Indirect, are in the Subjunctive
(Primary or Historic Time), or the Optative (Historic
Time).
The Subjunctive is retained in the Indirect because it
was the mood of the Direct.
Direct : rl (j)co ;
What am I to say?
*
Indirect Primary : ovk e^co o,ti (ji) (/>«.
/ know not what 1 am to say.
Non habeo quid dicam.
T J- i- TT- 4. • ' 9 \^' 0,Tt (t/) 6ai7]V,
Indirect Historic : ovk elyov { ^ rf / /( 7 «
^ (2. OyTi {rt) (po).
I knew not what I was to say.
Non habebam quid dicerem.
' V <•/ V </ '- T)t Am
OVK 6^0), OTTG)? aOC 64770) a VOW. irLAT.
/ don't know how I am to tell you my thoughts.
Direct : ttoj? (701 etTra) ;
rjiropet o re y^priaaiTo toS Trpaj/jLari,, Xen.
He was at a loss to know how to deal with the question.
Direct : tc ')(p7]G-(opbai ;
eiTTipovTo el KopLv6loi<; TrapaBolev t-^z/ ttoXiv. Thuc.
They asked whether they were to deliver over the city
to the Corinthians.
Direct : TrapaBco/juev ;
r}'jr6pr)aav ottt) KaOop/JLtacjvTat. Thuc.
They were at a loss where to come to anchoi\
Direct : tttj Kadop/jLto-cofieOa ;
THE INDIRECT PETITION. 191
ra Se eKirtJfxaTa ovk otS' €t tovto) 8(o. XeN. C?/f. viii. 4. 16.
/ donH know whether I am to give the cups to this man.
Ohs. €t with Subjunctive, and see Note.
'iXiyes oTfc OVK av e^ots e^eXOwv o,Tt X/^^o aavrw.
Plat. Crit. iv.
Zim were saying that if you escaped you would not know what
to do with yourself.
cfSovXevovTO €LT€ KaTaKav<T(ii(Tiv etT€ Tt aAAo xpridoivrai.
Thug. ii. 4, 6.
They were deliberating whether they should burn the men to
deaths or do something else to them.
Observe the etre — erre with the Subjunctive again.
§ 170. THE INDIRECT PETITION.
The Indirect Petition (a command, a request, or a
prayer) follows verbs of commanding, requesting, praying,
advising, and the like.
elirovy I hade or ordered dyyeWco, I hid.
(TrpoecTTOv). irapaKaXo), I exhort.
KeXevco, I order. aficw, / request, call upon,
BiaKeXevo/jbat, I order, ex- expect.
port, direct. irapaLvo), I advise.
TrapayydXXot), I order, in- airayopeixo, I forbid.
struct. .
All these take the Infinitive, which is the common
Greek construction for the Indirect Petition. The Nega-
tive is firi.
The difference between the Greek and Latin construc-
tions here should be carefully noted.
elirov Tc5 Havaavia top K7]pvico^ jjltj XeiireaOat,.
Thug.
Tliey ordered Pausanias not to leave the herald.
^ el is interrogative as well as conditional, and so goes with the Sub-
junctive as well as with the Optative. 'Edv {i^v) is not interrogative
where it appears to be so, as in a few phrases with aKdirei {e.g. cKbirei
idy aoi SokQ et/ X^et;'). idv means not whether but i/ perchance (si forte).
192 SUBSTANTIVAL SENTENCES.
eKeXevcre rov^ EWrjva^i et? /jua'^Tjv ra^dTjvat. Xen.
He ordered the Greeks to he drcmvn iip for battle.
heofjuai vfiwv avyyvwixT^v /jlol e^eti/. Plat.
/ beg you to pardon me.
TrapaLPOV/iev croc irebdeaOai tol^ ^ekriocn.
We urge {advise) you to listen to your betters.
a^iw ae dXijOrj Xeyecv. Antiphon.
/ call upon {require) you to tell the truth.
The Subject or Predicate will be in the l^ominative if
necessary, as in the Indirect Statement : —
npofjLTjdea irapaLTeLTaL ^HirifirjOev^ avTo^j velfxai.
Plat.
Epimetheus begs Prometheus that he himself may
distribute.
(" Let me distribute," says Epimetheus.)
For verbs of forbidding see Index.
Note 1. Some of these verbs take ottws (oVws pj) with the
Future Indicative and Optative. ScaKekevofiai, Trapa/caAw, /
exhort ; dyyeAXw, TrapayyeAAw, I tell, order ; aTrayopevu), I for-
bid ; TTpoeiTToVj I proclaimed, ordained; d^tw, I heg, call upon.
SiaKcAewvrat ottws ripdiprideTaL TrdvTa? tovs toiovtovs.
Plat. Rep. viii. 549, e.
They exhort him to take revenge on all such people.
K€iv(j} 8' i/JL-qv dyyeiAar' evTo\r]v ottws
Tov TratSa 8et^€i. SoPH, Ai. 567.
And bear to him 7/iy message that he show the boy.
dTr7jyop€V€S oVws prj tovto ojroKpLVoip'qv.
Plat. Rep. i. 339, A.
You told me not to give this answer.
oTTws p-qhlv ipd after past tense in Rep. i. 337, E.
For the Construction of ottw?, ottws prj, see Final Sentences, etc.
CHAPTER II.
§ 171. THE PAETICLE ^Kv,
"Av (and the Epic kci/, k€, Doric ko) were originally Demon-
strative Adverbs meaning there, then, so, in that case, perchance,
possibly, contingently. They were Adverbs qualifying the Posi-
tive Statement of the Verb. This part of the subject belongs
to Philology rather than Syntax.
''Av in Attic Greek may be regarded as having practi-
cally two distinct uses.
1. It is joined to Verbs, the Indicative (Historic Tenses),
Optative, Infinitive, and Participle. It denotes a Con-
dition on which the fulfilment of the verbal action
depends.
2. It is joined to Pronouns and Particles with the
Subjunctive Mood. Such are 09, oaTi.<i (69 av, oaTi^ av) :
0T€, eirei, eireior}, nrpiv, ew?, etc. [prav, eirav, eireboav, irpcv
av, €ft)9 av) : the Conditional el (edv, rjv) : sometimes the
Einal &)9, oiray^, o^pa (m av, etc.). In this use av (but
not in Einal Sentences) makes the meaning of the Pronoun
and Particle indefinite, who-so-ever, when-so-ever, if ever (in
one very common use of eav), though this meaning cannot
always be expressed. When Historic Sequence requires
a change from the Subjunctive to the Optative av must
be dropped, e.g. 69 av fiovXrjrai but 09 ^ovXolto,
N
194 THE PARTICLE &p.
§ 172. DEFINITE AND INDEFINITE
SENTENCES.
Before dealing with Eelative, Conditional, and Temporal
Sentences it is most important to understand the difference
between a Definite and an Indefinite Sentence.
In the Sentence ravTa a ^ovKovrai, e^ovaiy they have
those things which they want, the antecedent Tavra is
definite (those particular and known things), and the
Eelative Sentence which follows refers to a definite act.
But in the Sentence a av ^ouXcovrac e'^ovcnv, the Ante-
cedent is indefinite and the act is virtually Conditional :
they have whatsoever things they ivant, anything they want,
anything if they want it. This second sentence in Historic
Sequence becomes a PovKolvto el'^^ov. Similarly in the
sentence eTrecBrj Be oXiyap'^ia eyeveTo ol rpiaKovTa /lere-
irifJb'y^avTo /ne, when an oligarchy was estahlished the Thirty
Tyrants sent for me, Socrates is speaking of a definite
time (B.C. 404) and of a definite act. But eireiBdv oXcy-
apy^la yevrjrai, whenever, or as often as, an oligarchy shall
he estahlished, or is estahlished, an indefinite time and act is
spoken of. The sentence is virtually conditional again,
if ever, or if at any time, etc., and might be expressed
thus, idv TTore yevqrai. In Historic Sequence the sen-
tence would be eireiBr] yevoiro.
It will be seen therefore that when the Antecedent is
definite the Indicative is used; where indefinite, the
Subjunctive with dv, or the Optative without dv :
e.g. 0S9 elBev eiryveae, those whom he saw he praised.
ow? dv 'ISy eiraLvel, whomsoever he sees he praises.
01/9 I'Boc eTTTjvec, whomsoever he saw he used to praise.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 195
Note. Further instances of —
1. Definite sentences.
l^vpov /xeraTre/ATrerat aTro Tvjg a/>X'^5j ^5 avTov craTpdTrrjv
iiroirjcre. XeN.
He sends for Cyrus from the province of which he had made
him governor.
6(09 l^ea-Tiv ravTa v/xlv eTrtSet^at OeXo). PlAT.
ffTiile it is permitted I desire to explain this to you.
liroXiopKei Tovs "EAAr^vas f^^XP'' ®^ ^rjpdvas rrjv Snopvxa
eiXe Tr)v vyj(rov. ThuC.
He was blockading the Greeks until he drained the ditch and
took the island.
2. Indefinite sentences.
e^ecTTt OTL av f^ovXrjrat ^lireiv. AnTIPH.
He may say whatever (or anything) he likes.
fJ'^XP'' S' dv eyo) t^kw, al cnrovSal fX€v6vT(DV. XeN.
Until I return let the armistice be observed.
ews TTcp dv kjXTTvkoi ov fir] Trava-cofMac cf>LXo(TO<fiiov. PlAT.
So long as I breathe I will never give up philosophy.
KaTk(Trr](ra Se iTrLfieXetcrOaL et rt Scot tw X^P^ ^avoa-Tparov.
Antiph.
/ appointed Fhanostratus to provide whatever the choi-us
required.
§ 173. CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
A Compound Conditional Clause consists of two
Correlative sentences, one of which contains the Con-
dition, and is called the Protasis ;^ the other contains the
^ Protasis {irpbTaais) means Premiss. Apodosis {d7r65o<rtj) means
Consequence. The Apodosis is the Principal, the Protasis the Sub-
ordinate Sentence. Whether originally a clause with e^ was a Sub-
ordinate Sentence, is a point which need not be discussed in Attic
Syntax. How far the Apodosis, as being the Principal Sentence,
influences the construction of the Protasis, is an interesting question,
which is alluded to under the Oratio Obliqua. Professor Goodwin
{Journal of Philology, viii. 15, p. 33) strongly maintains the assimi-
lating force exerted by the principal verb on the subordinate verb.
196 THE PARTICLE Slv.
Consequence, and is called the Apodosis. Such a clause
reduced to its simplest form may be thus expressed :
If ^ is 5, G is i),
or G is D, if ^ is 5 ;
i.e. the fulfilment or truth of the Consequence depends
on the fulfilment or truth of the Condition. This depen-
dence of the Consequence (the Apodosis) on the Condi-
tion (the Protasis) is the essential point of a conditional
clause.
§ 174. DISTINCTION OF CONDITIONS.
I. The most obvious distinction of Conditions is that of
Time. Some refer to the present, others to the past, others
to the future. This distinction is universally present in all
Conditions.
II. A second distinction concerns the opinion implied as to
the fulfilment or non-fulfilment of the Condition. In two
forms, and two forms only, the expression in itself conveys
information on this point. ^
III. A third distinction is that between Particular and
General Conditions. A Particular Condition refers to a
definite act or set of acts : e.g. " If the windows up-stairs are
^ There is, as Professor Groodwin tells us, no special form implying
that the condition is or was fulfilled. That is to be decided by the
context. This is true, though of course a fact may be clearly implied,
and in some cases narrated. Such is the case chiefly in past General
Suppositions, e.g. et tls avTeiiroL, evdbs iredvriKec, Thuc. viii. 66, which is
the same as saying, ' ' Every one who spoke against them was at once
got rid of." A General Supposition may also be expressed in an
Ordinary Past form. Thus, ef rt dXko i-rrcKipdwou iy^pero airdvTOjv
iierkax'^i^^^ 1 Thuc. iii. 54, which is only a way of saying, "We took
part in every danger as it arose." Indeed a fact is narrated here
under a conditional form, though not by virtue of the form itself,
which need only denote a connexion between Condition and Conse-
qnence. With regard to General Suppositions in present time, they
may refer to facts, but usually are generalisations from observed facts
or habits.
DIVISION OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. i()7
open, the rain is coming in;" "If you receive a telegram
send it on to me;" " If he had a five-pound note he would
lend it me." A General Condition refers to any act which
may occur or have occurred any number of times : ** If ever
a candidate is convicted of bribery he loses his seat;" "If
(ever) he were left to himself he used to waste his time;"
" If (ever) he had a shilling in his pocket ^_
first beggar he met." y^^^>^''^-^
§ 175. DIVISION OF COIVD/7]^^^^^^^^
SENTENCES, ^^ "
Conditional Sentences accordingly may be divided into : —
I. Ordinary Conditions ; II. General or Frequentative Condi-
tions. Ordinary Conditions again may be subdivided into
A., those with regard to which no opinion is expressed
whether the Condition is fulfilled or unfulfilled, probable or
improbable, true or false ; B. , those in which the form of
expression implies that the Condition is unfulfilled. There is
no form to express an opinion that the Condition is fulfilled.
The context alone could suggest this. In General Conditions
again no opinion is expressed concerning the fulfilment or
non-fulfilment of the Condition. Thus in Ordinary Conditions
of the second class alone is any such opinion expressed.
§ 176. ORDINARY CONDITIONS.
For Real Examples see further on.
A. All that is stated is that a Consequence did, does,
or will follow from a Condition. The expression in itself
does not tell us whether the condition was, is, or will be
fulfilled. That is beside the question : the stress is
wholly on the if. The sole difference between the three
forms (1, 2, 3) is one of time.
198 THE PARTICLE &v.
1. Present.^
Any Primary Tense of the Indicative.
et ravTa Trotet? aSt/cet?.^
If you do this (strictly you are doing wrong,
if you are doing this)
2. Past.
Any Historic Tense of the Indicative.
ev ravra i > / U ,
1^ €7roL7]aa^ rjoiKT^aa^.
J. ( were doing this you were doing wrong.
\ did this you did wrong (aorist, a
single act).
3. Future.
To express a Condition in future time there are three
forms, differing, but differing only, in distinctness of ex-
pression.
(a) The ordinary future form.
eav vnv) ravra < '/ > aoiKinaeL^,
y 7roL7}ar)^ J
If you do this (strictly you will do wrong.
if you shall do this)
^ There are endless varieties of present and past conditions, and the
two are constantly combined. Present and future may be combined,
e^ ravra ireTroirjKas dSt/cas, TjdiKrjKas.
If you have done this you are doing wrong, you have done
wrong (the Apodosis might be an
Imperative).
el ravra doKc? aoi irK^wfxev.
If you think so let us set sail,
ei ravra TroieTs dXy/jaeis.
If you are doing this you will he sorry.
€l ravra iirolec^ or eiroirja-as dSt/ceZs or dSiKifiaeis.
If you were doing, or did this you are doing, will do, vrrong.
And so on.
* It is hoped that no difficulty will arise from the selection of the
verb dStKcD in these special examples. 'A5t/ctD, of course, means, / am
an &81KOS, a vrrong doer, and also / do vrrong, or injure.
GENERAL OR FREQUENTATIVE CONDITIONS. 199
{h) The less vivid future form.
€t Tavra
7roLOirj<;
[^ 7rot7]<7eta9
1/ you should do this
(c) The most vivid future form.
€L ravra 7roLr}a6L<^
If you shall do this
55. / y
aOLKoi7]<; av.
aBiK7](T6La<; av,
you would do wrong.
aBLK7}cr6L<;.
you will do wrong.
B. Besides a difference of Time, the form of expression
implies that the condition is unfulfilled either in Present
or in Past Time. This is implied by the presence of av
in the Apodosis, and not by any peculiarity of the
Protasis.
1. Present (but see note).
€L Tama 67rocev<i
If you did this (strictly if
you were now doing this)
2. Past.
€L ravra €7roL7jaa<;
If you had done this
>5./ y
rjOLKei^ av.
you would he doing
wrong.
>5./ y
T)otKrjcra^ av.
you would have done
wrong.
Note. — The Imperfect, however, very often refers to a
descriptive, habitual, or continued past.
€1 TaiJTa €7rpa(T(T€S Idavixd^ofxcv av ere.
If you had been acting thus we should have been admiring you.
The Pluperfect denotes a state or condition in the past.
e.g. el eXeXvfirjv, if I had been set free (in a state of liberty).
iraXai av aTroXuiX-q, I should long ago have been a dead
man, •
200
THE PARTICLE &u.
§ 177. Ordinary Conditions in Greek and Latin.
1. Present.
2. Past.
A.
Protasis.
€t Tavra, ttoicis
Si haec facis
ct Tavra TreiroL'qKas,
Si haec fecisti.
i r. ( €7rOt€lS
ei Tavra < , /
( €7roLr)(ras
Sihaec (^r^!^
\ fecisti
3. Future, (a) €^v (^v) ravra | '"'"'J'^ X
Si haecfeceris (int. perf.)
/7.\ » -^ f TOtOtMS
(0) €t Tavra < , '
^ ' ( 7roLrj(T€La<s
Si haec facias
(c) el ravra ttoitJctcis
/Si Aaec fades
B.
1. Present (or el ravra kiroUis
Continued Past).
Si haec faceres
2. Past. ct raGra eiroirjCTa^
Si haec fecisses
Apodosis.
a8tK€ts.
iniuste facis^
-qSiKt^a-as.
iniuste faciebas.
iniuste fecisti.
d8tK^0"CtS.
iniuste fades.
dStKOLrjs av.
aSiKT^creta? av.
iniuste facias,
d8LKrjcr€L<s.
iniuste fades.
?)8iK€ts av.
iniuste faceres.
'q8iK7](ras av.
iniuste fecisses.
11.
§ 178. GENERAL OR FREQUENTATLVE
CONDITIONS.
These are best taught by real examples. Observe the
Apod OSes, distinguishing these uses of the Subjunctive
^ The normal Latin equivalents of the Latin of Cicero, Caesar,
and Sallust are here given. The variety of Latin forms is far greater
than the Greek, and varies more according to the period of the writer.
The above are given only as a guide in comparing the two languages,
not as an attempt at a full division of the Latin Conditional Sentences.
NEGATIVES IN CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 201
and Optative (in the Protasis) from their uses in Ordinary-
Conditions. In the Apodosis any frequentative tense
denoting respectively present and past time may be
employed.
1. Peesent (a generalisation true now or for any future
occasion).
avrip TTOvripo^ ZvaTV')(el, Kav evTV^^fj. MenAND.
A bad man is in evil state,
Even if he e'er is fortunate.
2, Past.
€L Tt9 avTeiTTOL 6vOv<; eTeOvrjKec. Thuc.
If ever any one sjooJce against them he was promptly
put to death.
eT€6v7]K€L is, of course, a virtual Imperfect.
§ 179. THE NEGATIVES IN CONDITIONAL
SENTENCES.
The Negative of a Protasis is yLr\, of an Apodosis ov.
€v 1X7) Tavra Trotet? ov/c /caX&)9 ep^^e*.
If you are not doing this it is not well.
For exceptions see the chapter on the Negatives.
Relative Conditional Sentences.
Real Examples are given further on.
As has been explained, a Eelative Sentence with an In-
definite Antecedent is equivalent to a Conditional Sentence.
Any form of the Protasis with et or lav may be expressed
by a Relative Sentence. Both 6s and 00-7 ts are used, but
oo-Tts, as being the indefinite form, is preferred, especially in
affirmative sentences. In negative sentences firj is sufficient
to show that the Relative is indefinite.
202
THE PARTICLE ^v.
A.
Protasis.
1. Present. a (a nva) e'x^'
2. Past.
a (a Ttva) < v ^
Apodosis.
SiSwo-i.
eStSov
eSwKe.
8ax7ct.
6t5otr;,
Soil) av.
8axr€t.
eStSoi'
ai/.
cSwKev
av.
= €1 Tt et^f.
3. Future, {a) « (a rtva) av lx>/
= €av Tt 6X27.
(6) a (a Ttva) c'xot
= €1 Tt 'kyoi.
(c) a (a Ttva) €^€i
= ct Tt e^et.
1. Present a (a Ttva) eTx^v
(or Impf. Past).
2. Past. a (a Ttva) eo-xev
§ l8o. Participles in the Protasis.
Any form of a Protasis may be expressed by a Participle.
For real examples see further.
A.
Protasis. Apodosis.
1. Present. TauTa Trotcuv aSiKcis.
= €t TavTa TTOiets
2. Past. TavTa Trotwv -^StKCts.
= €t TttVTa eTTOlftS
3. FUTURK (il) TavTtt Trotwv aSi/c^o-cts.
r=€av TttVTa TTOLTJS
(b) ravTa Trotwi/ aSiKotiys a v.
= €t Tavra iroioL'qs
B.
1. Present (or TavTa Trotwv
Imperf. Past)
2. Past
= €t TttVTtt €7rOl€lS
TavTa TTOtrJcras
= ct TarTtt eTTOti^cras
POSITION OF ^v. 203
Note, The present participle alone is given (except in B.
2). Of course the aorist participle, denoting a single as
opposed to a continued act, may be used in any of the forms,
while the present participle denotes an imperfect act (i.e. an
act in progress).
§ 181. Position of o.v,
av of an Apodosis can never begin a sentence. Its natural
position is after its verb, but, as it possesses a power of
emphasising the word it follows, it often comes before the
verb and after some word which is to be emphasised. Almost
any word may be so emphasised, especially an interrogative or
a negative.
ovK av \ypi\ii y elireiv on ov irpoa-^l^ov tov vovv. PlAT.
/ could not say that I was not attentive.
;r(us av rts, a ye fxr^ kTvia-Tano^ ravra (ro4>o<s cir) ; XeN.
How could a man be wise in matters of which he knew nothing
certainly ?
TToXXrj av Tis evSaifMOVia €ir] Trepl tovs veov?.
Plat. Jpol. xii.
Great would be the good fortune in the case of the young,
cip ovv av fJL€ OL€(T$€ TocTaSc €T7) Siayevecrdai.
Plat. Apol. xxi.
Think you then that I should have lived all these years ?
av belongs to Siayevea-daL.
€7rL€LKrj av fxoi SoKii) irpos tovtov Xeyeiv. PlAT. Apol. XXIU.
/ think I should be adopting a conciliatory tone towards him.
av belongs to Aeyetv and emphasises kiriciKy\.
As in the last two examples av when separated from its
verb often comes near otoixat^ SokC), <f>r]fj,L, otBa, so much so as
to look as if it belonged to them. But we must be careful
to connect the av with its proper verb, ovk oTSa av el, or ovk
av oi8a et for ovk otSa el — av should be especially noticed, e.g.
OVK ol8' av d Treto-at/xt (EuR. Med.), I know not whether I should
persuade him, where av belongs to TretVai/xi.
§ 182. Repetition of dv.
"Av is often used more than once in the same sentence. For
this repetition there may be two reasons.
204 THE PARTICLE &v.
1. In a long paragraph, which is complicated by interrupt-
ing clauses, av occurs at the beginning. It thus strikes the
keynote of the whole so to speak, and gives warning that the
whole coming statement is conditional. It occurs again later
on near the verb.
2. It may be repeated, more than once, even in a short
sentence, if any special word is to be emphasised.
Examples.
I. In long paragraphs —
v//.€is 5' t(ra>s Tax' ^^ 6,yd6^^voi^ wcrirep oi vixTxa^ovTCS
eyetpoyaevot, Kpovaavres OiV /xe, TretOofxevoi 'Avvtw, p^Stws
av d7roKT€LvaiT€. PlAT. Apol xviii.
But you very possibly in annoyance, just like people when they
are being roused from a nap, might listen to Anytus, and,
with a tap, put me to death, and think nothing more of it
N.B. — TOLxa, perhaps, often attaches an av to itself.
In Plat. Apol. xxxii., a good instance. The sentence begins
with cyo) yap av oT/xai — then seven lines later on oi/xat av
recurs, followed by av evpetv, (all the av's belonging to evpetv).
II. For emphasis —
OVK av aTToSoLrjv ov^' av ojSoXov ovSei/t. ArIST. Nub. 118.
I'll not give — no not a copper to any man.
ri StJt' av ws ck r(^v^^ av oi^eXotp-i ere ; SoPH. Ai. 536.
How then, knowing what has happened, could I assist thee ?
ovt' av K^Xeva-aip! ovV av, et OkXoL<i en
irpdva-etv, ipov y av rjSeios Spcotjs pera. SOPH. Ant. 69,
/ would not urge thee, no ! nor shouldst thou now
Desire to help me, would I have thy help.
Good instances occur in SoPH. Ant. 4QQ, 680, 884 j Aesch.
Persae, 431.
§ 183. "Av with Future Indicative.
"Av with the Future Indicative, Infinitive, and Participle.
Many critics have maintained that this construction does
not occur in Attic Greek. Many instances have been
removed by revision of texts. Mr. Eiddell (Apology, p. 67,
and Digest, p. 139) regards the construction as abundantly
established, and cites seven instances from Plato, e.g. Rep.
ELLIPSE OF THE APODOSIS, ETC. 205
615 D, ovx riKei, ovS' av rj^et Sevpo. Other cases are ApoL
xvii., Leg. 719 E, Symp. 222 A, etc. Also Xen. An. ii.
6. 13, av KoXdarcarOe. In Phaedr. 227 B, OVK av oiei fi€
TroLrjo-ea-dai. In Crito. XV., ovk ocei av <^av€to-^at, av with
the future infinitive occurs, av occurs with the future parti-
ciple in Plat. Apol. xvii. (end of chapter), ovk av 7rot>}aovTos.
Madvig denies, Kriiger defends, the existence of this last
construction.
§ 184. Ellipse of the Apodosis, and Ellipse of
the Verb.
"Av of an Apodosis is sometimes found without its verb.
The verb however (an Indicative or an Optative) may be
easily supplied from the context.
ot 8' otKcrat peyKovcTLV' dXX' ovk av irpo rov. Ar. Nub. 5.
The domestics are snoring, hut they wouldn't (have been doing
so) once, ovk av (sc. cppeyKOv).
Where two verbs are connected or opposed, it is enough to
use av once only, with the first, unless some lengthy com-
plication of clause renders it necessary for the sake of clear-
ness to repeat it, or unless some word is to be emphasised.
ovSels av ^v crot os efxov KarenapTvprjcrev (sc. av).
Antiph. Her. X5.
You would have found no one who would have given evidence
me.
rl €7rotryo-ev av ; -^ 8^Aov on w/xocrcv (sc. av) ; DeM. 31. 9.
Wliat would he have done 1 Is it not clear that he woidd have
taken an oath f
§ 185. Ellipse of the Protasis.
Sometimes the Protasis, as in all languages, is wholly
omitted. It can be easily supplied from the context.
ovBev yap dv k^Xaf^-qv (sc. €t irifxrja-dfxrjv, from what has
preceded). Pl. Apol. xxviii.
I should have received no harm {had I done so and so).
Trav ydp dv KarcLpydcro). SOPH. LJl. 1022.
So hadst thou compassed all (sc. et roiaSe ^a-Oa), supplied
from a preceding wish.
2o6 THE PARTICLE av.
§ l86. Et and av both in the Protasis.
In several instances d and ai/ are both found in the Pro-
tasis (nearly always an Optative). One of the best-known
instances is from Plat. Protag. 329 B., koI lyw, direp aAAw t$
dvOpiOTTiiiV 7r€iOoifi7}v av, Kal crol Treidofiac, for myself, if I would
trust any other man, I trust you. Here it is considered that av
belongs to the verb TreiOoLfxyjv, which does double duty, both as
a Protasis with d, and also as an Apodosis with av to another
unexpressed Protasis, thus : el 7r€i6'otju,r^v, if I would trust (i.e.
TretOotixrjv av, I would trust, el ttlo-tlv Solt], if he should give me his
word). This is an established Attic idiom, e.g. Dem. Phil. i.
18, ovTOL TTai/TcAws, ovS' el ixrj Trotr^cracT' av tovto, evKaracfipovrj-
rov ecTTi, it is not lightly to he despised, even if you should not do so
(do so — if the occasion should arise). Isoc. Archid. 120, el he
ixr)8els av vjxtov d^Lioarete (rjv aTroa-repov/Jievos TrarpiSos, Trpocr'qKei
K.T.X., if none of you should care to live — if deprived of his country,
it behoves you, etc. In this last example the Second Protasis is
given in the participle diroa-Tepovixevos, as it is also in Dem.
Meid. 582, €6 ovrot -y^prniara e^ovTe<i fxr) Trpoolvr dv, if these men
woidd not spend money — if they had it.
Other instances occur (perhaps) in Aesch. Ag. 930, and
Sept. 513. See also EuR. Hel. 825, Dem. Meid. 1206, de
Pais. Leg. § 190 (with Shilleto's note), Antiphon, 6. 29, Xen.
Cyr. iii. 3. 35 (Oav/xd^oifx^ dv — el dv (u^eA.'^crete).
An essential point to notice is that in all these instances
(except Xen. Cyr. iii. 3. 35) the Apodosis is in the Indicative,
generally in the Present, sometimes the Future. The Opta-
tive with €t and dv, therefore, does not denote a remote future
supposition except so far as it refers to the unexpressed
Protasis. Hence in their notes to Aesch. Ag. 930 (reading el
TTpda-a-oLfi dv) both Mr. Paley and Mr. Sidgwick consider et
Trpdcra-oLp.' dv a variant not for el irpdo-a-OLfii, but for €1 Trpd^o),
translating not, if I should prosper, but, if I have a chance of
prospering.
Jelf (§ 860) and Professor Goodwin (Moods and Tenses, 107)
compare the Homeric et Kev with the Optative. But in all
the Homeric instances an Apodosis with the Optative and Kev
is joined, e.g. II. 273, el rovno ne Xd/Sot/xev dpoi/JieO' kAcos
eo-OXov, if, in the case given, we should take them, we should win
goodly renown.
In Dem. Timoth. 1201. 19, et dv occurs with a Past Indicative :
Ae IN APODOSIS. 207
€t roivvv rovjo l(T\vpov rjv av tovtio reKfx'qpLov^ Ka/xot y^vkadu)
T€Kfj,rjpLov. Observe the Apodosis in the Imperative : if this v:ould
have been strong evidence for him (i.e. if he had been able to adduce
it), let it be evidence for me too. Here, as Professor Goodwin ex-
plains (p. 101), the Protasis means : if it is true that this would
have been, so that reference is really to the present, and only to
the past so far as the unexpressed Protasis requires. Dem. de
Cor. 260. 2, is another instance if d eTrex^tprjcr' av is read ; only
the Apodosis which follows is rts ovk av aTrcKTeive.
Note. There is no difficulty in connecting an Apodosis with
more than one Protasis referring to different times, e.g. Dem.
de Cor. 274. 28, iTrev^opiai Traon tovtols, d dXrjSy] tt/dos vfia?
€L7roLjxt Kal etTTov, I pray to all these, if I should speak, and did
speak the truth before you.
§ 187. Ae in Apodosis.
Se sometimes introduces an Apodosis as if it were co-
ordinate with, or followed, the Protasis. This is instructive
as showing that the logical importance of the subordinate
sentence (Protasis) may assert itself over the grammatical
importance of the Principal Sentence (the Apodosis). Such
cases, however, are very rare in Attic.
el ovv lyo) ytyvwo-KO) firjre ra ocrta jxrJTC to, SiKaia, vfieis 6e
SiSd^are fie. Xen. Hell iv. 1. 33.
If therefore I know neither what is wholly nor what is just, do
you then teach me.
Cf. Soph. 0. T. 1267 ; Seiva S' ^v.
§ 188. idv seemingly Interrogative.
ct is interrogative as well as conditional, but edv is only
conditional, and must not be used in Indirect Questions.
Where it appears to be interrogative, as in two places cited
by Liddell and Scott, it comes after o-KOTret or o-Ke^at, and
clearly means, "if by chance," e.g. Xen. Mem. iv. 4. 12.
a-Kkxpai, kdv roSe crot fiaXXov dpea-Ky, consider if perchance you
like this better (si forte tibi placuerit).
2o8 THE PARTICLE &v.
§ l89» oil/ with Participle seemingly in Protasis.
A Participle with dv must always be in Apodosis. But
sometimes examination and explanation are necessary.
Though I have much to say, yet I hold my tongue.
€xwv is a concessive participle, and is itself an apodosis,
the sentence being equal to e'xot/xt av (ei /BoyXoi/jL-qv), o-iyoy 8k
(or eyco osTrep ttoXA,' av e;(ot/Afc). dv emphasises 7roA,Aa.
orvdets t' av ovk av d\.yvvaL<s irXiov. SOPH. 0. T. 446.
If thou speed hence thou wouldst not vex me more.
Here a-vdik is itself the Protasis followed by av, which
really belongs to dXyvvais.
^iXnnros IToTiSatav IXwv Kai Svvrjdels av avTos ^X^''^} ^^
ijSovXi^Orj, 'OXvvOlols TrapeSwKcv. DeM. 23. 107.
P. after taking Potidaea, and though he might, if he had
wished, have kept it himself, yet handed it over to the
Olynthians.
Svvqdels av is the Apodosis (rjSwT^drj dv — €1 kpovXridri), the
participle having a concessive force.
§ 190. Conditional Particles and their
combinations.
1. €t Sc fvq, if not, sin minus, sin aliter, has become so
stereotyped a phrase, that it is used where eav Se /xi} would
be more correct.
lav (f)aivr]TaL StKauov, Trctpwjae^a. €t 8e firj ecj/xev.
Plat. Crito ix.
If it appears right, let us make the attempt ; but if not, let us
abandon it.
2. eav, €1, meaning " if haply " (" in case," " in the event of,"
" in hope that," " thinking that "). It contains sometimes a
virtual oratio obliqua (i.e. the thought of the subject). Cf. si
forte in Latin.
aKova-ov Kal i/nov, eav crot ravra Sokyj. PlAT. Rep. 358.
Hear me too, in case you may agree.
Trpos TYjV TToXiv, €1 €7ri/3oy]9oi€V, kxiiipovv. ThuC. vi. 100.
They were marching on the city, on the cJiance of the citizens
advancing against them (thinking that they might, etc.).
EXAMPLES OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. 209
3. (So-TTc/) av 61 : also written ojo-jrepavei. The phrase
is compressed from aKnrep dv (Apodosis) — el (Protasis), e.g.
bxrirep av ct ctVot (Plat. Apol. ix.), just as if he were to say,
(Sxnrc/) dv ttololto el ctTroi.
4. Trws yap dv ; (sc. eir)), with a Protasis (ei with Optative)
omitted. How would it be, if it were so ? How is it possible ?
How so 9
5. Kav €i : vvv fiOL SoK€i Kav da-cjSeLav el KaraytyvtucrKOt ris
MeiStov TO. irpo(rr]Kovra ttoulv. DeM. 21. 51 = Kat dv troielv —
el Karaytyv ioa-KOL. But Kav el comes to be used for the simple
Kttt ei, even if.
6. Kav^Kal edv.
§ 191* Examples of Conditional Sentences.
(A.) Ordinary Present Conditions. (B.) Ordinary Past
Conditions. (C.) Present and Past in combination.
Observe that the condition may be general as well as
particular.
(A.) €t Tt xj/evhopLai e^eorrtv k^eXey^ai fxe. AnTIPH. de Cher. 14.
If I am making any false statements, you may confute me.
el OeoL Tt Spiocriv alaxpov, ovk elalv BeoL
EURIP. Bell. Frag. 294.
If the gods do aught immoral they are nx) gods.
el ovv roiovTOV 6 ddvaros ecTTi, KepSos lycoye Xeyo).
Plat. A^ol. xxxiii.
If therefore death is such a state as this, I for my part count
it gain.
(B.) el aTroa-TrjvaL 'A6rjvaL0)v ovk rjOeXT^Gafiev, ovk rjSiKoviJLev.
Thug, iii 55.
If we refused to desert the Athenians, we were doing no wrong.
OVK because ovk €^eAa)=nolo.
2IO THE PARTICLE &p.
€t fX€V 'Ao-kAt^ttios Oeov T^v, ovK "^v ai(rxpoK€p8r]<s, et 8'
al(rxpoK€p8r)s, ovk ^j/ ^eov. PlAT. i?ej?. iii. 408 C.
If Asclepius ivas the son of a god, he was not covetous ; if he
was covetous, he was not the son of a god.
€1 Tt aXXo kykvero kiriKtv^vvov, TravTCOv irapa Bvvafiiv
fieTia-xofJiev. ThUC. iii. 54.
If any other danger arose, we took our share in all beyond
our strength.
(C) <f>pd^€Te o^v OL\\rjXoL<s el TrwTroTc rt yJKOvcre tl<s.
Plat. Apol. iii.
Explain then one to another, if at any time any one heard
€L irov T6 eirpa^a toiovto? <j>avovjxai. PlAT. Apol. xxi.
If ever I engaged in any business, I shall be found to be such
as I have described myself.
el 8e 8vo e^ Ivos dywvos yeyevrjaOov ovk eyto dtrios.
Antiph. de caed. Herod. 84.
If two trials have been made out of one (or instead of one), it
is not my fault
§ 192. Ordinary Future Conditions.
Protasis edv (rjv, dv) with the Subjunctive.
-qv dvaireia-Oi tovtovi, (rioOrja-Ofxat. ArIST. Nub. 77.
If I (shall) persuade this person here, I shall escape.
edv ifiol TreiS-qcrde, <f>€L(re(r6e p.ov. PLAT. Apol. xviii.
If you are {will be) persuaded by me, you will spare me.
edv epie dTroKTetvrjTe, ovk epe pei^aa jSXdrpere yj vpds avrovs.
Plat. Apol.
If you put me to death, you will inflict no greater injury on
me than on yourselves.
KOI iraiS', edvirep Sevp* epov TrpoorOev poXy,
TraprjyopeLTe. AesCH. Fers. 529.
And for my son, if he return before me.
Comfort ye him.
ORDINA R Y FUTURE CONDITIONS. 2 1 1
6t8(ocr' tKwi/
KT€iv€iv eavTov, y]V TctSe xj/evcrdy Xeyoiv.
Soph. PJiil. 1342.
Freely he offers himself
To the death if, speaking thus, he lie.
8i8io(TL, he offers, practically means, he says tliat he will, is
ready, and thus implies a future.
Trapol Tov ayadov deov, av Oebs kSkX-Q, avriKa treov. PlAT.
/ must go at once, to the good God, if God will.
10. KOVK dv ye Ae^at/*' Itt' dyadotat crois KaKa.
AV. rjv fxyj ye (fi€vyo)v iK<f>vyrjS Trpbs aWepa.
Eur. Fhoen. 1215.
Yea, and I would not speak of ill close on thy happiness.
Yea, but thou shall, unless thou escape in thy flight to the
firnfiaraent.
Cf. Eur. Orest. 1593.
N.B. — A physical impossibility is here spoken of. Observe
that it follows an Apodosis with Optative and dv: rfv with
the Subjunctive realises vividly the impossibility of the
situation.
T6 ovv, dv etTTOXTtv 01 vofxoL K.T.X. PlAT. Crit. xii.
PFhat then, if the laws should say to us, etc.
A physical impossibility again is brought home as a vivid
argumentum ad hominem.
§ 193. Less Vivid Future Conditions.
In English we render el with the Optative in a variety of
ways : el 7rot>io-at/zi, if I should do, if I were to do, should I do,
were I to do, if I did, supposing I were to do, etc.
ov TToXXri dv dXoyla ein] el (fiojSoiTO tov ddvarov 6 toiovtos.
Plat. Fhaed. 68.
Would it not be the height of inconsistency if such a man were to
fear death ?
e'i iwt CTTt TovTois d4>L0LTe, etTTOLfx dv vfiLV. Plat. Apol. xvii.
If you should dismiss me on these conditions, I ivoidd reply to
you, etc.
212 THE PARTICLE Hv.
oLKO<s 8' av avT09, €t cfidoyyrjv \dfSoL,
cra<^€o-TaT' av Xe^eiev. AeSCH. Ag. 37
Nay, the very house, if gifted with a voice, would tell the tale
most
A physical impossibility represented as supposable ; of. CiC.
Cat. 1, haec si tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat 1
eyo) ovv Seiva dv eirjv clpyaa-fievos ct AtVoi/jti rrjv tol^lv.
Plat. Apol
I should then be in position of one who has committed dreadful
sin, were I to desert my post.
The perfect denotes the state.
§ 194. Most Vivid Future Conditions.
1. Et with the Future Indicative sometimes refers plainly
to the future, and is used much as edv with the Subjunctive,
only the latter is more common and less positively and
vividly future. ^
aTTOKTei/eis yap, €t /xr] yrjs e^O) ^aAcis. EUR. Phoen. 1621.
Thou wilt slay me, if thou wilt thrust me from the land.
el fxrj Kade^eis yAwcraav, eo-rac crot KaKa.
EuRiP. Aeg. Fr. 5.
If thou wilt not curb thy tongue there will be ills for thee.
•iqv kOkXtafxev dTToOvrjCKeiv — et Se cfiofSrjcroiJLeda klvSvvovs.
IsocR. Archid. p. 138, A. § 107.
If we are ready to die — but if ive shall fear dangers.
Observe the co-ordination of the two forms.
ct Tovro TTOcqcroiJLev, paStoiS ra CTrtTT^Seta e^ofxev.
If we do this we shall easily find supplies.
2. But et with Future Indicative in Protasis is found with
a present (or virtual present) in the Apodosis.
et TTOtrja-eis then = et /xeXXeLS TroLrjcretv, if you are going to do,
if you mean to do, if you are for doing, and this et with the
Future is used of a condition now imminent, and even existing,
e.g. if youWe for fighting, Pm your man, et /xaxet o8e eycu crot.
^ Mr. Monro {Homeric Syntax, p. 239) considers that el with the
Future (in Homer) generally expresses suppositions of an obvious or
familiar kind.
MIXED EXAMPLES, 213
atpc ttA^kt/oov, €t ixa\€.L. ArIST. Av. 761.
Up with your spur if you mean fighting.
Cf. Arist. Ach, 316.
^ vvv eyo) /x€v ovk av-qp^ avTY) 8* di/T^p,
€L ravT dvarl rfjSe KeiVcTat Kparrj. SoPH. Ant. 484.
Xo, you now ! I am no man, but she is the man, if with impunity
these my commands are to count as naught in her eyes.
Si iacebit imperium nostrum, cf. 461.
The periphrasis with /acAAw and Infinitive (Present or
Future) is commoner in prose. There is a Hfe about the expres-
sion which recommends this et with the Future to poetry.
§ 195. Mixed examples illustrating the connection
between and interchangeability of the Sub-
junctive, Optative, and Future Indicative in
Conditional Sentences.
TTWS odv au opdm 8iKd(raiT€ irepl avrwi/ ; el tovtov<s eacrcTe
Tov vo/XL^ofxevov opKOv SLOfMocrafXiVovs KaTqyoprjcraL, k.t.A.
irws Se €a(reT€ ; eav vvvl dTroifrjKJiicnrja-de fjLov.
Antiph. de Caede Herod. 90.
How then would you rightly judge on these points ? if you
shall allow my prosecutors to take the prescribed oath and
accuse me. And how will you allow this 1 if you acquit me
on this present trial.
N.B. — et with the Future Indicative, and idv with Subjunc-
tive, have a modal force, " by permitting."
Plat, de Rep. 359 c (of the ring of Gyges), etr; 8' dv
Tj k^ovQ-ia r^v Xkym TOidSe fidXio-Ta el avTots yevotro
ol'av TTOTC ^aort SvvajJiLV t^ Tvyov tov AvSov irpoyovt^
yevecrOai.
They would enjoy this liberty which I am speaking of most
completely, if they should possess such a power as we are
told the ancestor of Gyges the Lydian once possessed.
Compared with
PlA.T. Hep. 612 B, Troiryreov eTvaL avry rot diKaca, edv t' e)(y
TOV Tvyov Sa/CTvAtov, edv re fx-q.
{we concluded, evpofxev) that the soul must do what is righteous,
whether it possesses the ring of Gyges or no.
214 THE PARTICLE <%.
«
ovSels rjiXMV twv i/o/xwv l/x7ro8wv eo-rtv, eav re Tts fSovXr^rai
vfxwv €ts aTToiKiav levat, el fxrj dpecrKoifxcv rjfxeLS re Kat i^
TToAt?, eav re fieTOiKelv aAAotre Trot eA^wv, tevat eKCtcre
OTTOt ai/ /3ov Ararat, 6^(0 vra to, at^rov. PlAT. Cn^. xiii.
None of ow^ laws ^prevents any of you, if he wishes to go to a
colony, supposing we and the state should not give him
satisfaction, or if he wishes to go and reside anywhere else,
{none prevejits him) from going wherever he wishes with all
his belongings.
The Optative here, Professor Goodwin says, simply marks
a less prominent clause. But, it is to be noticed, idv with the
Subjunctive here, which is thus joined with el and the Optative,
is a general supposition.
§ 196. The Optative and Indicative with av
without a Protasis.
The Optative with dv is freely used without a Protasis in
a variety of modified statements. In some cases it is easy to
supply a Protasis ; in others no Protasis appears to have been
thought of (This is Madvig's Optativus Potentialis or DuUta-
tivus, § 136.)
1. As a modified statement in present or future time, very often
drawing an inference from ivhat has preceded.
w/aa av i^/ztv a-va-Kevd^ecr 6 at etiq. Xen. Cyr. iii. 1. 41.
It is time for us then to be packing up.
Of. AntiPH. Tetral. B.B. 6, eXeyxOeirj.
tovt' dv etrj o eyw (f>r][XL ere alvLTTea-dai. PlAT. Apol. XV.
Herein then would consist what I hold to be your riddling.
Of Antiph. de Chor. 15, oTos r' dv et-q.
Often /SovXoifjLfjv dv, I could wish, I wish, velim.
ovK dv fJLedeLfxrjV rov Opovov, fxr] vovOerei. ArIST. Ran. 830.
I'll not resign the throne, don't counsel me.
Cf. Arist. Ach. 1055.
2. A modified command or prayer, sometimes put as a ques-
tion.
(TV ixev KO/xi^oi<s dv aeavrov y Oekeis. SoPH. Ant. 444.
Thou may'st betake thee where thou likest, i.e. get thee gone.
UNFULFILLED CONDITIONS. 215
a/0 ovv WeX'qa-aLs av ;
Should you feel disposed ? Would you mind ? Please do so
and so.
3. A wish, expressed interrogatively. An interrogation equiva-
lent to a wish.
TTw? 0,1/ oXoifxrjv ; EURIP.
How could I perish ? i.e. would I might perish !
Arist. Ach. 991.
Similarly, but not so fi^eely, the Imperfect Indicative is
used. The time is past.
€f3ovX6ixrjv av.
I could have wished, vellem.
■^v S' av ovros riov Ittttlkiov ns. PlAT. Apol. iv.
This man accordingly would he one of those who
horses.
{jiv av is Apodosis of an unfulfilled condition.)
§ 197. Unfulfilled Conditions.^
1. Et with the Imperfect Indicative. The time of the
Imperfect Indicative is either present or a past of description,
habit, or iteration.
KOL T08', €iTr€p €(Td€VOV,
e8p<ov av. Soph. El. 604.
Had I the strength,
I ^d do the deed.
The time is present (/ should now have been doing).
^ We have in English several ways of expressing an unfulfilled con-
dition in present time, some of which resemble the Greek. Thus we
may render, d ravra eiroleis rjdiKeis dp, if you were doing this (or, if you
had been doing this), you would be doing wrong (or, would have now been
doing wrong). These are not, however, the forms always used in every-
day speech. U. g. A tramp, meeting me on the road, asks me for a copper.
I put my hand in my pocket, but, finding nothing there, I shake my
head and say, "Very sorry, if I had anything, 1 would give it" {et rt
elxov ididovv &p). A Shakspereanj unfulfilled condition, referring to
present time, may be given. Constance says to Arthur : "If thou
that bid'st me be content, loert grim," etc., "/ would not care, I then
would be content, for then I should not love thee, " etc. ' * But thou art
fair."
2i6 THE PARTICLE Si/.
€1 ^€i/os k-Tvy^avov wv, ^uvcytyvtikrKCTe St^ttov av />iot.
Plat. ^^o?. i.
If I happened to he a foreigner {which I am not), you would
surely pardon me.
The time is present.
^ €t iir] tot' arovovv vvv av ovk evcfypaivofJLrjv. PhILEM. 159.
If I had not been toiling then, I should not be rejoicing now.
The force of the Imperfect Indicative (referring to both
kinds of time) is well shown in the above example.
eyo) o^v eKaXXvvofJLrjv kol rjf3pvv6fA'qv av, el -qir LCTTdixrjv ravr a.
dXy ov yap iTTLa-Tajxai. PlAT. Apol. iv.
/ anyhow should plume and pride myself if I possessed this
knowledge. But — you see, I dorUt possess it (or, I should
have been pluming, etc.)
The time is present, or it may refer to a habit in the past.
SrjXov ovv 6tl ovk av irpokXeyev el {xrj eiricTTevev dXr)$evcr€iv^
Xen. Mem. i. 1. 5.
It is plain accordingly that Socrates would not have publicly
made these statements had he not felt confident that he
should speak the truth.
The Imperfect here expresses customary or habitual acts in
the past.
Similarly in Latin the Imperfect is used, and not the
Pluperfect. The poets are fond of it as a descriptive past.
Several instances, not much noticed, occur in Horace. Ille
non inclusus equo Minervae, etc. ; falleret aulam, etc. ; sed,
etc. ; ureret flammis ; He would not have been deceiving, but
burning. Thou hadst not seen Achilles deceiving, but burning.
Non ego hoc ferrem calidus iuventa consule Planco. I had
not brooked this in the heat of youth when Flancus was consul.
Sometimes av with the Aorist Indicative in Apodosis is
joined to el with the Imperfect Indicative, not to denote a
past unfulfilled condition, but a single act, e.g. Plat. Euthyph.
12 D, el fxev ovv (tv fxe 'qpioras Tt, eirrov du, if you were asking
me any question I should instantly say. Here elirov dv really
refers to the present, and denotes the instantaneousness of the
single act in a way which the Imperfect could not express.
OMISSION OF ^v. 217
2. Et with the Aorist or Pluperfect Indicative. The time
is past, denoting a single act (Aorist), or a state (Pluperfect).
6.T:kBa.vov o.v el jMr] "q twv rpiaKovra dp)(r] KarekvOrj.
Plat. Ajpol. xx.
I should have been put to death if the government of the
Thirty had not been overthrown.
€t fx-q dv€/3rj "Avvtos kolv w^Ae ^(lAias 8pa)(fj,d<s.
Plat. Apot. xxv.
If Anytus had not come into court he would even have
incurred a fine 0/ 1000 drachmae.
el fXY) vfieis rjXSeTe iTTopevofxeda dv iirl ^acnXka.
Xen. An. ii. 1. 4.
If you had not come (past) we should now be marching
against the King (or have been now marching).
Protasis a single act in Past ; Apodosis a continued act in the
Present.
€t Tore ifSor^O'qcraixev or/c dv "qviJ^Xu vvv 6 ^lXlttttos.
Dem. 30. 6.
If we had then given help Philip would not be annoying
us now.
Here vvv is added to mark the present.
ovK dv Trap€fX€Lva €t eXeXv/x-qv. AnTIPH. Herod. 13.
I should not have stayed if I had not been set free on bail.
€t, o (T€ rjpMTiov, a7r€/c/3tVa), iKavws dv 'qSr) i/x€p,a9rJK€iv.
Plat. Euthyph. 14 c.
If yau had answered my question, I should already have
finished my learning.
The pluperfect denotes a past state.
§ 198. The omission of av in Apodosis with
Indicative.
1. Sometimes a past tense of the Indicative is found in
Apodosis without dv. Such a construction is necessarily
rhetorical. A statement which would have been true if
certain conditions had happened is spoken of as actually true.
The instances are rare, and many are disputed, but some
occur both in poetry and prose.
2i8 THE PARTICLE &v.
TTvpyovs TTeorovras ya-fxev ^^XXrjvcov Sopl
(fio^ov Trapk(T\€V ov (xecrios oSe ktvttos. EuR. Hec. 1111.
(for Trapka-\€v av).
Had we not known
That Phrygians towers had fallen 'neath the spear
Of Hellas, no slight fear this din had caused. '
Cf. Nee veni nisi fata locum sedemque dedisset.
Verg. Aen. xi. 112.
The Imperfect by itself almost bears this meaning without
requiring an av. Indeed the intrinsic meaning of the Im-
perfect {e.g. in the following example, " I was not by way of
sending,") is closely allied to a conditioned statement.
e.g. KatTOL ov SrJTTOV ye Kar' ifiavrov fjLTjvvTrjv €7r€jx7rov etSw?.
Antiph. de Caed. Herod. 24.
And yet I surely was not sending an informer against myself
with my eyes open (/ should not have been sending).
See especially a paragraph too long for quotation in Andokides
' " L 58. 59. Cf. also EuR. Bacch. 1312.
The construction is commoner in Latin (cf. Liv. xxxiv. 29,
Difficilior facta erat oppugnatio ni T. Quinctius supervenisset.
Tag. Ann. iii. 14, Effigies Pisonis traxerant ac divellebant ni
iussu principis repositae forent. HoR. Od. II. xvii., Me
truncus illapsus cerebro sustulerat nisi Faunus ictum dextra
levasset. Verg. Georg. ii. 132, Et, si non alium late iactaret
odorem, laurus erat.
2. This omission of av is almost the rule with the Im-
perfect of verbs denoting necessity, duty, possibility, propriety,
etc. : XP^^ 0^ ^XPV^^ ^^^S ^iv^i ivrjv, eiKos '^v, TrpocrrJKev, ^v or
virrjpx^u (it was possible), KaXbv rjv, alcrxpov rjv, KaXws ei^^ev,
(xxpeXov, efxeXXe^, i/SovXoixrjv. Also with verbals in -reos, e.g.
TTpoaipereov rjv (satius erat). All these phrases denote an un-
fulfilled condition (present or continued past).
This construction is parallel with the Latin — debebam, de-
cebat, oportebat, poteram, gerundive with eram, par, satis,
aequum erat, etc. See Madvig, L. G. § 348 e., and Obs. 1.
KaXov '^v TOtaSe, el Kal '^fxapTavo/xev, ei^at rfj rjixerepa opyrj.
Thug. i. 38.
It would have been well for them, even if we had been
wronging them, to give way to our anger.
I
OMISSION OF Siv. 219
i/SovXofirjv fxkv ovk kpi^etv ivddSe. ArIST. Ban. 866.
/ could have wished I was not wrangling here.
t(rov rjv fxoi {x-q iXdetv (as apodosis to el fxr^Sev Siecfiepe).
Antiph. Eerod. 13.
It would have been all the same to me not to have come.
For M(f)eXov, kpovX6}xy]v, see Wishes.
3. Observe similar constructions of eSec and ^XP^^ iXPl^')-
XP'^v (eSet) (re ravTa ttolclv.
You ought to be doing, or, to have been doing (but you are
not, or were not, doing the act). Compare kiroUis av.
Xpyjv (eSet) ere ravTa Troirja-aL.
You ought to have done (but you did not do) the act.
Compare kirol-qcras dv.
Oportebat and oportuit facere.
For xPl^i '^it^ Present Infinitive and Aorist Infinitive, see
Plat. Apol. xxii., Arist. Ach. 562. eSei, Dem. 112. 6. But
Xpri o-e Tfoidv (Trot^crai), you ought to do this (of what can still
be done), oportet te facere.
OVK gSgl ere ravra Trotetv.
You ought not to be doing (what you are doing).
XP'^v, eSet, etc. , however may take an dv.
ei jxlv rjina-TdfieOa o-a^w?, ovSev dv eSec &v /xeXXio Aeyetv.
Xen. Anab. v. 1. 10.
If we had all known for certain, there would be no need foo'
me to say what I am going to say.
So in Latin possem may be used and not poteram, oporteret
and not oportebat.
4. KLvSvvevo), fxeXXo).
Tj ttoXls €KLv8vv€V(re Trdcra Siacfidap-qvai, el dvefios eTreyei/ero.
Thug. iii. 74.
The city was in danger of being entirely destroyed if a wind
had not arisen (we might say, but a wind arose), a
periphrasis for buc^Odpy] dv.
In eo erat ut consumeretur urbs nisi, etc.
fieXXb) in the Imperfect is a periphrasis for an Aorist
with dv.
ov arva-TpareveLv efxeXXov. DeM. de Fals. Leg. 391. 11.
They would not have joined forces {ovk dv crvvea-Tpdreva-av).
Vires non collaturi erant.
220 THE PARTICLE &v.
§ 199. 'Eaz/ (r\v) with the Subjunctive, and Et
with the Optative in General or Fre-
quentative Suppositions.^
Many of the four forms already given may express general
as well as particular suppositions, but to express a supposition
which refers not to a particular act, but to customary acts, fre-
quently repeated acts, general truths or maxims, there are two
common forms which are given below. They are parallel with
Indefinite Relative Sentences, and Frequentative Temporal
Sentences (see Index). 'Eav and et here mean " if ever " (eav
;roTc, et Trore). 'Eai/ and ei, however, in themselves, with the
Subjunctive or Optative, are not Frequentative, but the Tense
of the Apodosis (the Principal Sentence) makes the whole
compound clause so. It is the Apodosis which distinguishes
these uses of eav with the Subjunctive, and et with the Optative
from their ordinary uses.
1 The Latin equivalents to Greek General Suppositions should be
noticed.
Present,
Si quis eorum decreto non stetit, sacrificiis interdicunt.
Caesar, B. G. vi. 12.
If yet any one does not abide hy they exclude him from the
their decree^ sacrifices.
Sin autem etiam libidinum intern- duplex malum est.
perantia accessit, Cic. Off. i. 123.
But if ever in addition there he the mischief is doubled,
want of control over the desires,
(The Present Indicative is also used in Latin. )
Past.
Si a persequendo hostes deterrere disiectos a tergo circumvenie-
nequiverant, bant. Sallust, lug. 50.
If ever they could not deter the they kept inclosing them in the
enemy from pursuit, rear.
Si quod erat grande vas, laeti adferebant. Cic. Verr.
If they came across any large they used to bring it to him in
vessel, triumph.
Observe the tenses of the Protasis : the Perfect Indicative in Present
Time, the Pluperfect in Past. These are the commonest forms accord-
ing to the Latin strictness in representing one action as prior to another.
'Edv {fjv) WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE, ETC. 221
I. Keferring generally to present or future time.
Protasis. Apodosis.
'Eai/ (ijv, av) with Subjunctive. Present Indicative or any
present Iterative Tense
(gnomic Aorist).
Parallel with
kdv TTore ^
!'"''. VandSubj.
orav, etc. /
II. Keferring to past time.
€t with Optative.
Parallel with
ctTTOTc ^ Imperfect Indicative, or
OS, oo-Tts >-with Opt. any past Iterative Tense
0T6, etc. ) (Aor. or Imperf. with av).
Examples of I.
riv eyyvs eX^i] BdvaTOS o^Sets povXerai
OvrjorKeiv. EUR. Alc. 671.
If (when) death draws nigh none wish to die.
/xey' lo-Tt K€p8os rjv SiSda-Kecrdai diXys. MeNAND.
Tis great gain if thou carest to be taught.
arras Xoyos, dv dTrrj rd Trpay/xara, ixdraiov Tt (^auverai koi
K€v6v. Dem. dl ii. 21. 20.
All talk, if deeds are wanting, seems idle and empty.
riv 8' dpa (T^aXda-LV, ^TrXrjpoio-av rrjv y^pdav. ThUC. i. 70.
If ever by chance they fail, they always make good the loss.
eirXripaxrav, Gnomic Aorist,
Of. Plat. Apol. ix. ; dv TLva oTw/xat. Ibid. xxi. ; idv Tis
jSovXrjTai.
Examples of II.
€? Si Tis /cat avretVot evOvs kredvriKiL. ThUC. viii. 66.
If {as often as, whenever) any one did speak against them,
he was promptly put to death.
dXX' €i Tt jX-q ^kpOifX€V, 0>TpVV€V <f)€peLV. EUR. Alc. 755.
But if ever we did not fetch him a thing, he would order
(i.e. kept m'dering) us to fetch it.
222 THE PARTICLE aV.
et Ttves iSoiei/ tti; tovs or<f>€T€povs kTriKparovvras dveOdpcnrja-av
dv. Thug. vii. 71.
If any of them saw their own side winning in any part of the
battle, they would pluck up courage.
dveddpa-rja-av dv, iterative. For the iterative (or indefinite)
use of dv with the Imperfect and Aorist Indicative, see § 142.
This use must be carefully distinguished from that of dv in
unfulfilled conditions. The iterative use of dv may have
arisen from its being used without definite application, e.g.
lAef € dv, he came — in any given case, whereas in an unfulfilled
condition the dv may have been of special application, e'Ae^e
dv, he came — in that case, i.e. he would have come.
Obs. — That here in connection with a past Apodosis, the
Optative really refers to past time. It is only when thus
used, and in the rare instances in oratio obliqua where the
Optative represents a Past Indicative of the recta, that the
Optative denotes past time.
§ 200, Mixed Examples.
For Examination and Reference.
Not seldom the Protasis and Apodosis do not strictly
correspond. No one rule can be laid down for explaining
all the irregularities. Sometimes the mind really shifts its
ground in the passage between Protasis and Apodosis, making
the conclusion depend upon a condition which the expressed
Protasis only suggests. But mostly the irregularity is one of
expression only. This is chiefly the case with the Optative
with dv in an Apodosis, connected with a Protasis in the
Indicative or Subjunctive. The Optative with dv may, as we
have seen, express a modified Indicative drawing an inference,
or an Imperative, or a Future. Sometimes again there are
two Protases actually expressed (Ex. 9). Sometimes Preposi-
tion and Case, or a Particle supplies the. place of the Protasis
(Ex. 11 and 12).
1. €t pXv yap TovTO Xeyova-Lv, dfxoXoyoi-qv dv eywye ov Kara
rovTOvs eTvat pyJTtop. PlAT. Apol. i.
If this is what they mean, I mu^t admit that I am an orator
of a far higher order than they.
MIXED EXAMPLES. 223
The Protasis, d Xk-yovaiv^ refers to the present; the Apo-
dosis is partly a remote supposition, and partly an inference.
2. TOVTo ye /xot SoKet koXov efi/ai, €6 rts ords r €L7) TraiSeveLV
dv6pioTrov<s. Plat. Apol. iv.
This does appear to me to he a grand thing — supposing one
were able to teach men.
Here, So/cet, a verb of thinking, almost makes the Apodosis
like an Optative with a v.
3. Koi €ya) Tov Eviyrov l/xaKaptcra, €4 tus aXr]B(a<s €)(0l ttjv
rexvrjv. PlAT. Apol. iv.
Lucky Evenus, thought I, if really and truly he were to possess
the art.
et exoi is the Protasis to an Apodosis implied in ifxaKapta-a.
4. el Tovs dvaLTiovs SicjKOifxev . . . Seivovs dXLTrjptovs e^ofAeVy
. . . (.voypi T€ Tou ({>6vov Tois €7riTifiL0LS eo-fiev.
Antiph. r, A. 4.
If we should indict the innocent, we shall find dread avengers,
and we are liable to the penalties for murder.
A series of pictures more and more vividly presented,
passing from the Optative to the Future Indicative.
5. TTWS av €Lrj SeivoTcpa firj^avrjixara ct vfxiv KaTelpyacTTai d
povXea-de; Antiph. de Caed. Herod. 16.
How could there be more terrible practices, if you have
(a present ordinary condition) achieved your object ?
6. €t TOLvvv iieydXinv dyaOiav atrta vfids elpyda-avro, €K€lvol,
fiepo? cyo) ovK dv iXd-)(^L(rTOV SiKatios ravTrjs Trj<s atrtas
cxoi/Ai. Andok. de Bed. suo. 12.
If then those men accomplished what secured your great
advantages (an ordinary past Protasis), / might justly
claim not the least share of the merit (a future Apodosis,
also marking an inference).
7. €t ovv TLvl vjxiov yvwfiT] TOLavry] Trapeicm^Kei Trporepov Trepl
ifiov, crKOTreurde e^ avTwi/ twv yeyevrjixevtDV.
Andok. de Myst. 54.
If, therefm'e, any of you previously used to entertain such an
opinion of me (an ordinary past condition in the Imper-
fect), examine the case by the actual facts {ie. now in the
immediate future).
224 THE PARTICLE &v.
8. €1 ■^v SvoLV TO €T€pov cXecrOaL, rj KaXtas aTroXk(rdai ^ atcrxpws
(Ttadrivai, €)(ol dv tls eiTretv KaKiav cfvat rot yevofxeva.
Andok. de My St. 57.
If it had been possible to choose one of two alternatives, either
an honourable death or a dishonourable escape, then ymi
might stigmatize my conduct as cowardice (a past unful-
filled condition, a future Apodosis with an inference).
9. cyo) ovv Beiva av etrjv ci/ayacr/Aevo?, ei, ot€ jx€v fte ot ap)(ovr€?
€Tarrov . . . totc fiev ov ckcivol IraTTov cfxevov . . . tov §€
Oeov TOLTTovTos . . . AiVoi/it Trjv Ta^iv. Plat. Apol. xvii.
/ accordingly should be in a position of one who is guilty of
fearful sin if, when your rulers were assigning me a post,
etc., — if then, I say, I was remaining at the post which
they assigned me, but if, when now God is assigning me a
post, I were to desert that post.
Here there is one Apodosis, av €tr]v elpyacrixevos, and two
Protases, el efxevov, el AiTTot/At. The two Protases make up the
combined conditions which produce the Apodosis.
Cf. also ch. XV.
10. €6 yap o^TOL opOias eTrea-rrjcrav, v^eis av ov xpcwv ap^oire.
Thuc. iii. 40.
If they were right in revolting, then your rule is unlawful
{it would follow that you are ruling).
11. Sta ye vfias avTovs irdXai av aTroXc^Xeire. Dem. de Cor. 242,
So far as you yourselves were concerned, you would have been
ruined long ago.
8id ye vjxds avTovs=el v/j.ei<s avTOi fiovoi ■^crav, if you had been
left to yourselves, had it depended on you alone.
12. ovTio yap ovKeri tov Xoittov irda-xoifiev dv KaKws.
Dem. Phil. 1. 44.
For in that we should never again get into trouble.
ovT(jo = el TavTa yevoiTO.
§ 201. Examples of the Conditional Participle in
a Protasis.
6Xovp.ai fxri fxaOiov. ArIST. Nub. 792.
/ shall be ruined if I don't learn.
Z=€aV IMT] fiddo).
CONDITIONAL RELATIVE SENTENCES. 225
Se6 yap Ivos ov fJirj rv)(ibv
a7roA(oA.a. Arist. Jch. 466.
Owe thing I need whichf if I fail to getj
Tm a lost man.
ov fir) Tvxiov=€av firj tvx<^ • . • a^oA.a>Aa being a vivid future.
TO oLTrodavelv av Tts €K(f)vyoL oirXa dcfyeis. Pl. Apol. xxix.
A man might escape death if he were to fling away his arms.
d^eis = ct d<f>€Lr].
fiiTayvovs yap ( = €t fieTayvoirj) €tl dv 6p9o)S /SovXevcratTO.
Antiph. de Caede Herod. 91.
For if he should repent he yet might come to a right decision,
ov yap dv kf^X-qdi] aT/)e/xt{"o>v Ka\ firj Starp€;(a>v ( = €t •^Tpefii^e
Kal fiT) 8t€T/3€X€). Antiph. 2 Tctral. B. B. 5.
He would Tiot have been struck if he had been standing stilly
and not running across.
§ 202. Examples of Conditional Relative Sentences.
a fxr) olSa, ovSe oLOfxai ctSevat. PlAT. Apol. vi.
What I do not know I do not fancy that I know,
= ei Ttva fir) olSa.
Twv Se dXXiov ^evitiv octtis TrwiroTC Y)OkXr)<Te KaTaa-Trjcrat
kyyvr)rd<s, ovSets TrioiroTe k^kdr). AnTIPH. Herod. 17.
Of all the other foreigners who ever at any time chose to furnish
securities J n^ne ever was thrown into prison.
oo-Tis iq6eXr)(r€=€L tls 'q6€Xr)a-€, an ordinary past Condition. '
a yap ns P'T) irpo(Te^6Kr)(T€.Vy ov^e (fivXa^acrOat kyyoipel.
Antiph. de Caed. Herod. 19.
JFhat one does not expect, it is not even possible to guard
An instructive instance ; 7rpo(TeS6Kr)o-€v is a Gnomic Aorist, and
so this is a General Supposition in Present time. The Aorist,
however, may here simply imply priority of time.
L(rr)v ye Bvvafitv l^et oo-tls re dv Trj x^tpt aTTOKTUvr) dStKiDS
/cat oo-TLs TYJ \//rj(f>o}. Antiph. de Caed. Herod. 92.
The effect is the same whether a man takes life with his hand,
or with his vote.
A General Supposition again in Present time.
P
226 THE PARTICLE &p.
§ 203. Relative Conditional Sentences expressing
General Suppositions.
{See also the last two examples in the previous section. )
I. Present Time.
(Tviiixa\dv rovTOLS iOeXovcnv a7ravT€5, ovs av opioa-L Trape-
(TK€Va(TfX€VOVS. DEM. FMl. 1. 42. 1.
All men are ready to be in alliance with those whom ever they
see prepared.
*=€ai/ Tivas=OTav, oirorav Tivd^*
II. Past Time.
ot §€, KaiOfievov aAAov, €7ri/3aAovTes ov <^€potei/, aTrrjea-av.
THUC.'ii. 52.
Continually, while one body was burning, they kept throwing
on {the funeral pile) any one they were bearing, and then
going away.
§ 204. Examples of Infinitive in Apodosis v/ith dv.
el Tlyca ct^kti irpocryevoLTO, evopa^ov a-jraorav av e)^€Lv
HekoTTovvrjcrov. Thuc. V. 32.
They thought that, if they could get in addition Tegea, they
would possess the whole Peloponnese.
av €)(€LV = (e)(Oi€V av.
But in the recta they would say : lav rjplv Trpoa-yhrjTai . . .
e^op€V.
ovSets ai/TeiTTC Sia to p^ ava(T\k(Tdai av rrjv €KKXr)(riav.
Xen. An. i. 4. 20.
No one contradicted, because tlie assembly would not have
permitted it.
el avTCiTTC — ovK av rjV€(r\^eTO i^ eKKkrjcria.
aXA,' el Trerravrat, Kct/ar' av evrvx^v SokQ. SoPH. Ai. 263.
Nay, if he hath ceased, methinks all may be well.
evTvxotpev av an Optative of inference.
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON 'Eai; AND n. 227
§ 205. Examples of Participle in Apodosis with av.
dvTia-Taa-LMTiov. Xen. A71. i. 10.
He asked for mercenaries aiid pay^ representing that thus he
would get the better of his opponents.
ovTit) Tre/otyevotTo av, but as it is in Historical {Virtual) obliqua
the original recta would be kav Se^w/xat ^kvovs — ovTm irept,-
yevqcrofiaL.
opiov TO Trapa.rei\i(rixa, el eTTLKpar-qa-eLi rts, pjiStws av XrjtfiOiv.
Thuc. vii. 42.
Seeing that the cross-wall, if any one carried the heights,
would easily he captured.
=/j^Sta)s av X-qc^ddt], In the Participle after opCiv, a verb of
Perception, which takes a Participle.
(5 Trdvra ToA/iwv, KaTro Travros av (fieptav
koyov SiKaiov firjxdvrjixa ttoiklXov. SoPH. 0. C. 761.
Bold wretch, who out of every cause wouldst bring
Shifty device of righteous argument.
f})€po)v = OS (ficpoLS av (et Kaipov Xdf3ois).
§ 206. Supplementary Note on idv with the Sub-
junctive, and el with the Optative.
'Eav with the Subjunctive is the ordinary form for stating
a supposition in future time. By the term ordinary it is not
meant that this form occurs oftener than et with the Optative,
but that if, for instance, we had to say, ^^If it is fine to-morrow,
we will go for a walk," we should naturally translate this by
edv with the Subjunctive. That is to say, eav ravra yev-qTat
means if this shall happen. Modem English renders it difficult
for us to grasp this very simple explanation, because we
equally render et ravra ylyverai and kdv ravra ykvf\Tai by if
this happens. Et ravra ytyverat should correctly be translated
if this is (now) happening, and kav ravra yevrjrai, if this shall
happen. So in the instance first given we ought strictly to
say " If it shall be fine to-morrow." In older English it would
have been "^/ it be fine to-morrow," which is an exact
parallel to kdv with the Subjunctive. The difficulty is
aggravated by not bearing in mind that the Apodosis is the
228 SUPPLEMENTAR V NO TE
Principal Sentence, and, as such, sets the time of the whole
Compound Conditional Sentence. 'Eav with the Subjunctive
(in ordinary particular conditions) is regularly accompanied
by an Apodosis in the Future Indicative, e.g. ravra Trotijo-w
cav Tt 8%, / will do this if it is necessary; kdv n Sey thus
refers to the future.
Et with the Optative also refers to the future. Ei ravra
yevotTo means if this should happen, as opposed to eotv ravra
yevYjrai, if this shall haj)]pen. AH scholars now seem agreed
that the difference between kdv with Subjunctive and €t
with Optative is the same as that between if I shall and
if I should in English.
In opposition to long-received explanations Professor
Goodwin has shown in a series of papers (see especially
Journal of Philology, Vol. v. No. 10, and Vol. viii. No. 15)
that kdv with Subjunctive and et with Optative are inter-
changeable expressions, alternating sometimes in the same
paragraph, and when referring to the same condition. There
can thus be no fundamental distinction between them, nor, we
must add, between them and d with the Future Indicative.
All these are variant expressions for a future condition.
The most generally received theory hitherto of kdv with
Subjunctive has been that of Buttmann, according to which it
denotes " an uncertain but possible case with the prospect of
speedy decision." Professor Goodwin pertinently asks how
we should turn into Greek the proverb, " If the sky falls, we
shall catch larks." Of course by kdv with the Subjunctive.
But what is the " prospect of speedy decision " here 1 Furthej
he asks whether Demosthenes {Phil.A. p. 43, § 11) implies
any nearer prospect of decision about Philip's death when he
first refers to it in the words av oSros rt TrdOy, than in the
very next sentence, when he says ct rt TrdOoi. Again, kdv with
Subjunctive has been stated (by Dr. Donaldson and others) to
denote " uncertainty with some small amount of probability."
This theory, however, is destroyed by such conditions as the
following, all with kdv and Subjunctive. In Plat. Crito, 50,
of the laws speaking to Sokrates. In Euthyd. 299, of a man
swallowing a cartload of hellebore. In Rep. 612, of the soul
wearing the ring of Gyges. In EuR. Phoen. 1216, and Orest.
1593, of a human being flying on wings to the aether.
How then do these three Future Conditions differ 1 'Edv with
the Subjunctive gives a vivid and distinct representation of
ON 'Eav AND El 229
a supposition in the future. Et with the Future Indicative is
more vivid still; a condition is brought home as of imminent
and immediate interest. Et with the Optative, on the other
hand, conjures up a future supposition less graphic, vivid, and
life-like, a supposition less distinctly conceived, more faintly-
sketched, a supposition of less immediate concern, one which
moves the mind with a more languid interest. We may com-
pare the three forms to three sketches or pictures differing in
greater or less distinctness of outline. Or we may say that et
with the Future Indicative moves the mind with the immedi-
ate interest of the next hour or minute, eav and the Subjunc-
tive with the natural and lively interest of the morrow, ct and
the Optative with the fainter and remoter interest of next
week. But the whole effect in each case is rhetorical, the
expression itself does not imply that the fact denoted in the
condition is to be decided, or that it is likely or unlikely ; it is
all a question of realising a conception more or less vividly,
or, as Mr. Monro in his Homeric Syntax puts it, the difference
depends on the tone assumed by the speaker.
When, therefore, is kav with the Subjunctive chosen rather
than et with the Optative ? Professor Goodwin shows that
there may be several reasons for choosing the more vivid ex-
pression. The following instances are most instructive.
1. The speaker may have an actual case present to his mind.
In Bep. vi. 494, Sokrates is thinking of Alkibiades ; in Bep.
vii. 517, of himself. In both cases edv with the Subjunctive
is the form employed.
2. The speaker may he dreading thefidfilment of his supposition.
Dem. Aphob. i. 67 (p. 834), an adverse vote is referred to in
these terms, iav aTro<^vyrj fxe ovtos, 6 firj yevoiro.
3. The speaker may be treating an improbable and ridi-
culous supposition with scorn. Plat. Bep. x. 610 A, of
bodily depravity causing mental depravity (iav firj kfnrotf] —
rovTo ye ovSets Trore Sct^ei) : PlAT. Gorg. 470 C, of Polus con-
victing Sokrates of talking nonsense (eav /^e ^Xey^ys).
There may be other reasons besides the above. Sometimes
idv with the Subjunctive seeiiis to single out a supposition for
special emphasis : sometimes an unfamiliar conception has been
introduced by ct with the Optative, which, when we have
become familiarised with it, is expressed by eav with the Sub-
junctive. Or again, and this is a point worth further atten-
SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE
tion perhaps, different writers, from temperament or style,
have a habit of using one expression rather than another.
Thus Aeschylus very rarely uses eav with the Subjunctive
in an ordinary future supposition. He oftener uses et with
the Future Indicative ; thrice he uses d with the Subjunctive.
But his partiality for the Optative is remarkable. Thucy-
DIDES again often uses d with the Future Indicative.
In all the above cases (1) the time is future, (2) the picture
is designedly conceived and drawn in a lively graphic manner.
(3) In many cases such as the above €ai/ with the Subjunctive
alternates with ei and the Optative. Thus in the example
from Dem. Aphoh. the same condition is alluded to later on
(ii. § 18, p. 841) by the words d ifyjcj^Lcraia-de, then three lines
further on by eav ocjyXwfxcv, and yet again (§ 21, p. 842) by el
yv(xxT€a-d€. Similarly in Plat. JRep. 517 A, where Sokrates is
referring to himself, the Optative is used.
The inferences from the above premises are inevitable.
(1) edv with the Subjunctive, and el with the Optative,
both refer to future time.
(2) They are interchangeable, differing only in greater
or less clearness of conception and vividness of
expression.
(3) As expressions they can in themselves imply no
opinion of the writer that the fact denoted by the
condition is more or less likely to occur, the one
and only thing stated being the dependence of the
consequence upon the condition.
The interchangeability of the Subjunctive and Optative is
one of the regular and most characteristic features of Greek
Syntax. We find it constantly in Indirect Statements and
Questions, and throughout the Oratio Ohliqua^ in Temporal,
Final Sentences, in Sentences with ottws. In all these
cases we do not hesitate to accept the explanation that one
expression is more or less direct and vivid than the other, and
that the two varieties are interchangeable. Conditional
Sentences do not stand apart by themselves: they follow
the principles which rule Greek Syntax.
Two points may be added :
1. If it is asked whether the writer may not hold an
opinion that the fact denoted is more or less probable, we
may reply that of course he may, and that holding such an
opinion he may choose one form of expression rather than
ON 'Efii/ AND n.
231
another. But this covers only some instances and not all.
Probability cannot be made the basis of a division, since the
fact denoted varies from what is in itself natural and probable
to what is physically impossible.
(2) The notion of future time is sometimes very indistinctly
marked by etwith the Optative, the faintness of the con-
ception being the chief effect intended in such cases. Still d
ravra ovrios €Lrj cannot (as sometimes in Homer) be past, if
this had been so ; it cannot be translated, if it were now so ; it
can only be rendered, if this were to he so, tvere so, should be so.
The Apodosis also must always be examined in connexion
with the Protasis.
CHAPTEE III.
§ 207. TEMPOEAL SENTENCES.
Temporal Sentences are constantly expressed in Greek
by Participles in agreement with the Subject, by the
Genitive Absolute, and by the Accusative Absolute.
When the time of the Temporal Sentence is definite the
Indicative is used; when indefinite the Subjunctive and
Optative.^ This is the one clew to the use of the moods
in Temporal Sentences.
See § 172, Definite and Indefinite Sentences.
VTime is indefinite in three ways : —
. n 1. Indefinite Futurity , i.e. when the action will
occur in the indefinite future.
^ 2. Indefinite Frequency, i.e. when the action may
recur an indefinite number of times.
3. Indefinite Duration, i.e. when the action may
continue for an indefinite period.
All Temporal Sentences in the Subjunctive and Opta-
''tive will fall under one of the above three heads, the first,
^ This principle of Indefinite Time may be most usefully applied to
the Latin Subjunctive as opposed to the Indicative, e.g. —
Donee labantes consilio 'patrea ^rmaret (Hor.)- Indefinite Futurity.
Opperire quoad scire possis quod tibi agendum sit. Indefinite
Futurity.
Dum Priami Paridisque busto insultet armentum. Indefinite Duration.
It is usual to explain many such sentences in Latin (and in Greek)
by saying that they express a purpose. So they do, but this is not con-
tained in the Temporal Particle and its Sentence, but in the nature of
the principal verb combined with the indefiniteness of time in view. So
probably with Temporal Sentences which are described as Conditional
(dum).
Indefinite Frequency is so differently treated by Latin writers that
it is not touched on here.
232
t^-^ i 0« a. ^
WHEN'' IN DEFINITE TIME {PAST). 233
Indefinite Futurity, being the commonest, and the third.
Indefinite Duration, being the rarest. More than one
kind of Indefiniteness may be denoted by the same
expression.
The Subjunctive is used in Primary, the Optative in
Historic sequence, though, as in other Sentences, the Sub-
junctive occurs in Historic sequence, and sometimes is
co-ordinate with the Optative.
A Temporal Particle with the Subjunctive takes av
{irpiv av, €0)9 avy eireihav, orav, etc. etc.).
Thus eft)9 av yevrjTaL.
A Temporal Particle with the Optative drops the av
(irpLVi eo)9, eirecSrj, ore, etc. etc.).
€0)9 yevocTO,
For the omission ofav in Subjunctive clauses see § 221.
For the retention of av with the Optative see § 222.
§ 208. " WHEN'' IN DEFINITE TIME {FAST).
I. cTre/, eireihri {r]VLKa less common), when, after, with
Indicative Aorist (an action prior to principal sentence),
Indicative Imperfect (contemporary with principal
sentence).
Latin : cum with Pluperfect and Imperfect Subjunc-
tive, postquam with Indicative.
€7reiBrj 3e oktyapx^o. eyevero, ol rpiaKovra fAereirefju-
yjravTo /jue. Plat.
When an oligarchy had been established, the Thirty
sent for me.
Cum vero paucorum dominatio constituta esset,
Triginta illi me arcessiverunt.
234 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
eirel ycrdevei Aapelo^, e^ovkero ol tco iralBe a/jbcftorepCD
irapelvaL. Xen. An,
WJien Darius was ill, he vjished hoth his sons to
a'p'pear hefore him.
Darius, cum moreretur, filios ambo ad se venire
volebat.
For rivLKa see Plat. Apol. xxxi., Soph. El. 32, 423, Ai. 272.
Note, ore, " when," cannot introduce a clause in Attic Greek
like €7r€t, €7r€i8/}. Being a relative it must be connected with
some sort of antecedent, though, like all relative sentences,
the clause in which it stands may come first, rore is its strict
antecedent.
T^v 7roT€ XP^vos, 0T€ $€01 fxkv rjcTav, Ovrjra Se yevr] ovk 'rjcrav.
Plat. Frot.
There was a time once when the gods were in existence, but
when the races of mortal creatures were not.
ore fie ol ap)^ovTes eraTTOv, rore ov e/ceivot erarTov ejxevov.
Plat. Apol.
When the rulers were assigning me a post, then I remained at
the post which they assigned me.
§ 209. ''AS SOON as;' ''directly;' in de-
finite TIME.
Eirel, eireihr] take rdxi'a'ra when they mean directly,
immediately, as soon as, no sooner — than.
0)9 (Latin ut) has the same meaning even without
rd'x^icrTa, but more markedly with rdxtcTTa.
[Latin : ubi, ichi primum ; ut, ut primum ; simul, siw.ul
ac (atque) ; postquam ; with the perfect indicative.]
ft)9 rd'^i-ara em V7r6(t>acvev, eOvovro. Xen.
As soon as day began to dawn, they set about taking
* the auspices.
" WHENEVER^ ETC., IN INDEFINITE TIME. 235
01 rpLaKovra rjpedrjo-av eirei rdxio-ra ra recyrj
Kae7)pe0v Xen.
The Thirty were appointed directly the walls were
rased.
In poetry oVws has this sense. Cf. Aesch. Pers. 200, Soph.
El. 736, 749, ottws 6p^ (present indicative) ut vidit. For ws
(often with evOvs, evOeoys) see Aesch. Fers. 363, Arist. Ban.
504.
§ 210. " whenever;' ^^AS often as," IN IN-
DEFINITE TIME.
The same particles, eVe/, IituIt], 7]vUa, ore, and also
oTToVe, denoting Indefinite Futurity, or Indefinite Fre-
quency, take the Subjunctive and Optative.
[Latin : usually a Temporal Conjunction with Future
Perfect Indicative. But for Frequentative Sentences see
the caution given § 207, footnote.]
A. With Subjunctive in Primary sequence, eireihav,
orav, oirorav {rjViK av, eirriv and eirdv rarer).
N.B. — cus av is said never to be Temporal, but see Soph.
Phil. 1330, Ai. 1117, with Jebb's note oii the latter passage.
eireihav he BiaTrpa^cofiai,, a heopLai, rj^co. Xen. An.
When I have (shall have) accomplished my ohject I
will return. (Indefinite Futurity.)
Cum vero confecero quod in animo est, redibo.
ovKovv, orav hrj fjur] aOevoj, TreiravaopLai. SoPH. Ant. 9 1 .
So, when my power shall fail, I will give o'er.
(Indefinite Futurity.)
avTTj rj (fxovrit orav jevrjTaL,ael airoTpeireL fie. Plat.
This inward voice, whenever it comes, ever checks me.
(Indefinite Frequency.)
fiaivo/jLeda irdvTe^, oiroTav op<yt^o)/jLe6a. PHILEMON.
We are madmen all, ivhenever we are angry.
(Indefinite Frequency.)
236 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
Note. For orav (Indefinite Futurity) SoPH. El 386, 1038,
(Indefinite Frequency) Plat. Ajpol. xvi., xxiii., Soph. El. 267,
293, Aesch. Pers. 602. oirorav (Indefinite Futurity) SoPH.
Phil. 146. All these particles may often be rendered, as soon
as, when once, but the time is still indefinite in the Future.
oTTOTttv (Indefinite Frequency) Xen. Cyr. iii. 3. 26, al. ottov
ay) : €7ret8dv (Frequency) Plat. Apol. xxxii.
For evre av, poetical. Soph. El. 627.
With the Subjunctive expressing Indefinite Frequency com-
pare edv (rjv) with Subjunctive in General Suppositions.
B. With Optative in Historic Sequence, eVe/, eireihri,
oTToje {oT6 very rarely).
01 ovoi, eirec ti<: Blcokol, 7rpoBpa/jLOVT6<; av ela-rrjKeaap.
Xen.
The asses, ivhenever any one chased them, would gallop
ahead and then halt. (Indefinite Frequency.)
OTTOT ev TTpacro-OL 7roXt9
e^aipe, \v7rpa)<; 8' e<f>€pev, ei, ri. BvaTv^pl.
Eur. Supp. 897.
Wheneer the state fared well,
He would rejoice, and mourn if aught it suffered.
oTTore is =€t 7roT€, as much conditional as temporal. See
Plat. Apol xxxii., oTrore evrvxot/xt IlaAa/A^Sei. In ThUC. i.
99 a good instance.
Note. €7r€6, eTretSTJ, ottotc with the Optative appear always
to denote Frequency rather^ than Futurity, except when they
represent an cttjji/, eTretSav, birorav, ordv turned from Primary
to Historic sequence.
Compare et with Optative in General Suppositions.
§ 21 1. '' SINCE " IN DEFINITE TIME.
e^ ov (ex quo with Indicative), since, ever since, in
Definite Time with Indicative.
" WHILST'' IN INDEFINITE TIME. 237
€| ov ra ^eviKa o-TpaTeverai, tov^ (j)LXov<i vlkS,,
Dem.
Ever since mercenaries have been serving, he has been
conquering his friends,
k^ ovT€ Aesch. Pers. 761, for ws (like ut in Latin) Thuc. iv.
90 (Poppo), €^ (5v, a</)' ov are also used.
For ut in Latin cf. Ov. Trist. v. \0.\,ut sumus in Pmto, etc.
This may be expressed participially in the Dative, see § 118,
note.
§ 212. " WHILST" IN DEFINLTE TLME.
iliCt)?, €aT€y ev ft), ev oaw, oaov '^povov, rfVLKa (^rarely
fjiexpi), whilst, denoting Definite Duration with Indicative.
[Latin : dum, donee, quamdiu, quoad with Indicative.]
€0)9 €Tt VeO^ eiflt, TT^Z/ '\jrV)(7]V ryVfJLVa^Q).
While I am still young, I train my mind.
paBi(o<i TO, eiTLTTiheLa k^o^ev, oaop '^^povov ev jrj
TToXe/jLta earo/xeda.
We shall easily find supplies so long as (during all
the time that) we are in the enemies' country.
dvTjp eKeivdj rjvi/c rjv ev rrj voao),
avrh fiev ^Sero. * SoPH. Ai 271.
Yon chief, so long as he was set i' the plague,
Himself was happy.
Donee morbo versabatur.
eo-re with past tense, Xen. An. iii. 1. 19.
ecus e^eo-Tiv (dum licet), Plat. Apol xxxi. cws eX-n-is ^v (past
tense) dum spes erat, Thuc. viii. 40. fiex/ot, Thuc. iii. 10. 2.
§ 213. " WHILST'' IN INDEFINITE TIME.
The same particles denoting Indefinite Duration take
A, Subjunctive in Primary sequence with av.
238 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
ecodTrep av e/juirveayj ou fir] iravacofiaL <f>c\oao(l>(ov.
Plat.
Just so long as I breathe, I never will give up
philosophy.
Bum spirabo hand desinam philosophari.
Cf. Aesch. ^^. 1435.
B. Optative in Historic Sequence, without av.
cftTJa-o/xev jxrjSeTTOT^ av fiet^ov yevka-dai, cws i(TOV etr) avTo
€avT$. Plat. Theaet. 155 A.
JFe shall admit that it never would become either greater or
less, so long as it should remain equal to itself.
[Latin : dum, donee, quamdiu, quoad, with Future In-
dicative, or, when purpose is connoted, Subjunctive.]
§ 214. " UN-TIL " IN DEFINITE TIME.
ecL>9, eo-re, fiey^pi, axP'' Q^^XP'- ^^» ^XP^ ^^)' '^^^^^^> denot-
ing Definite Time with Indicative.
6VT6 poetical, /■lexpi'^, a^i^ before a vowel in later writers.
[Latin : donee, quoad, with past Indicative.]
ravTa eiroiovv, yLte%/ot aKOTo<; e'yivero. Xen.
This they were doing until darkness came on.
quoad or donee nox oppressit.
Cf. Thuc. i. 109, iv. 4, pui'x^pt ov and fiexpt.
Traiovat rov ^coTrjpcBrfv, ecrre rjvd'yKaaav iropeveaOai.
Xen.
They beat Soterides till they compelled him to move on.
quoad progredi coegerunt.
Cf. Soph. Ant. 415.
exwpovv 8ia twv ^lk€\o!)v^ ews a^LKOvro h KaTavrjv.
Thuc. vi. 62. 3.
They marched through the country of the Sicels, till they came
to Catane.
" UNTIL'' IN INDEFINITE TIME. 239
Tratovcrt, KpeoK07rov(Tt 8v(TTirivu)v IJ'^^y),
ews aTravTwv e^aTrk(^6eipav piov. AeSCH. Pers. 466.
They hack, hew mincemeal the poor wretches^ limbs,
Till they had crushed outright the lives of all,
kTn(T\o)v av, Iws ot TrAetcrTot twv eitu^orwv yvc^fxrjv aTre^^-
vavTO, K.T.X., rifTvyiav av yjyov. Dem. Phil. i. 1.
/ should have waited until r)iost of the regular speakers had
expressed their views, and have been keeping quiet.
In this example the Indicative denotes Indefinite
Futurity thrown back into the past, and consequently
now Indefinite only to the original thought of the chief
subject. This is parallel with a Final Sentence in the
Indicative (see Index).
§ 215. " UNTIL'' IN INDEFINITE TIME.
The same Particles, denoting Indefinite Futurity, take
A. Subjunctive in Primary Sequence.
pi'^XP^ ^ ^^ ^y^ ^/^ft), at aTTOvBal fievcvrcov. Xen,
Until I return, let the armistice continue.
67r/o-;j^e9 ear av Kal ra Xonra 7rpo<ifiad'p^. AescH.
Pause till thou further learn what yet remains.
dvdyKrj ravra del irapk^etv, etos av x^P^^ XdfSy.
Xen. Cyr. iv. 5. 37.
It is necessary to furnish continually the same things untU he
(shall) take the country.
€vt' dv Aesch. Pers. 366. •
B, Optative in Historic Sequence.
7repc€/jL€V0fjL€v eKaaTorey eo)? avoL'^decr] to BeafJLCorrjpiov.
Plat.
We used to wait about on each occasion, until the
prison was (should be) opened,
irepiefxevofiev is Frequentative, but ews dvouxOeir) expresses
Indefinite Futurity, and expresses indirectly the thought of
the chief subject.
240 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
(TTTOvha^ e7roL7}(TavTO eo)? aTrayyeXdecrj to, Xe^devTa.
Xen.
They made an armistice (to last) till the terms were
(should he) announced.
Here again the thought of the chief subject is clearly seen.
Their original words would be o-ttovSoIs TroiovfieOa ew? av
oLTrayyeXdrj. The moods in the two last examples are thus
due to Oratio Obliqua.
^ote. It may be generally laid down that €o>?, etc., with the
Subjunctive and Optative after Affirmative Sentences corre-
spond to Trpiv with the same moods after Negative Sentences.
€u>s, etc., do occur, but very exceptionally, after Negative
Sentences.
ovK ava/Aevo/xey, ews av rj Tjfxerepa X^P^ KaKwrat.
Xen. Cyr. iii. 3. 18.
/Fe do not remain until our country is being ravaged.
When -n-piv is used with any finite mood the action of its
verb will not begin until the action of Trpiv with its verb has
occurred. The difference here consists in the meaning of the
verb dvafX€V(o, to continue.
§ 2l6. TlfjE CON/UNCTION UpCv,
TIplv with the Indicative, Subjunctive and Optative is
used after Negative Sentences where eo)?, eVre, fjudxph etc.,
are used after Affirmative Sentences. '
Uplv ri is used like Trpiv. irporepov, irpoa-eev, irdpo^,
another irplv (used as an adverb), frequently are used in
the Principal Sentence as forerunners of irplv.
TIplv differs from other Temporal Particles only in
being joined to an Infinitive as well as to other moods.
The following table will show the ordinary Attic usage.
Exceptions are given subsequently.
A. After Affirmative Prin- \ irpiv with the Infinitive,
cipal Sentences. f
Upiv WITH THE INFINITIVE. . 241
B, After Negative Principal
(\. When the Time is De-
finite, irplv with the
Indicative.
When the Time is Inde-
Sentences. ^ finite (Indefinite Fu-
turity), TTpiv with the
Subjunctive and Op-
tative.
The order in time of the Principal and Subordinate
Sentences in irplv clauses should be noticed. (1) When
irpiv is used with the Infinitive, the action of the Prin-
cipal Sentence takes place before that of the Subordinate
Sentence (the irpiv clause). (2) When irpiv is used with
a Finite Mood (Indicative, Subjunctive, Optative) the
action of the Principal Sentence had to wait (in the past),
or has to wait (in the future) for the decisive occurrence
of the irpiv clause.
§ 217. n/3tV WITH THE INFINITIVE.
A. The Principal action takes place before the Sub-
ordinate action with irpiv. Upiv with Infinitive always
means hefore. The Infinitive in itself denotes the mere
verbal notion rather than a distinct fact, like the English
gerundive in ~ing (before coming, going, speaking). But
the fact is often implied. Cf. coare with Infinitive.
irpiv fjuev ireivrjv ea-Oiei^i, irpiv Be Scyjrrjv 7rivec<;.
You eat before being hungry, you drink before being
thirsty.
eTre/JLyfre irplv ev Te'yea avro^ elvai. Xen.
He sent before he was himself in Tegea.
Observe the Nominative attraction.
Q
242 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
trplv y ivkcrO at r^ias rjv rifxiov ri ^vx^. PlAT. Fhaed. 77.
Before we were created our soul was in existence.
^fJLiiS M.e(T(rrjvr]v eiXofxev irpiv Ile/ocras Xaf^eiv rrjv fBacnX^iav.
Isoc. Archid. 26.
We conquered Messene before the Persians took the kingdom.
kv T^i irpiv yevkcrdai '^fias XP^^^- PlAT. Phaed. 88.
In the days before we were born.
§ 2l8. Upiv WITH THE INDICATIVE IN
DEFINITE TIME {FAST).
Tlplv with Aorist Indicative. (The Historic present
occurs in Thuc. i. 132, irplv <yl^v6Tat>.)
nplv may equally be rendered before, until.
OL AaKehaipbovLoi ov irporepov eiravaavro irplv Mea-
arjvLOV^ e^e^aXov eic T779 '^lopa^. ISAEUS 12.
The Lacedaemonians did not leave off until {before)
they had expelled the Messenians (and then they
did leave off).
ov irpoa-dev l^cveyKeii/ iroXp/iqcrav irpos rjfias iroXefiov irplv
Tovs (TTpaTrjyovs r)p.wv crvveXa^ov. Xen. An. in. 2. 29.
They did not dare to make war on us until (before) they seized
our generals.
See Aesch. P. K 481.
In IsocR. Panegyr. 19, irpiv eScBa^av where tt/jiV SiSd^eiav
would be expected.
§ 219. Uptv WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE AND
OPTATIVE IN INDEFINITE TIME.
Tlplv av with Subjunctive in Primary Sequence, after
Negative Sentences, denotes Indefinite Futurity.
ov yjprt] fie aireXOelv irpiv av h(o BIktjv.
Xen. An.Y.7.b.
I must not depart before I suffer punishment.
Uplv WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 243
Cf. also Aesch. p. F. 165, Eur. Heracl 179.
ovK airoKpivovfiai irpoTepov irplv av irvdcofiaL. Plat.
/ will not answer hefore (until) I hear.
irplv alone with Optative may be described as irplv
av with Subjunctive converted into Historic Sequence by'
Oratio Obliqua, actual or virtual.
aTrrjyopeve fiTjSeva ^aWeiv, irpiv Kvpo<} efJLTrXrjcrOf.tT)
6r)pa)v. Xen. Cyr. i. 4. 14.
He forbade every one to shoot until Cyrus had had
{should have had) his fill of the chase.
The recta would be ixrjSeU paXXhio vplv av ifiirX-qady,
eTreix^tpovv eKaa-TOV ireiOeiv fit) irporepov twv eavrov firjSevos
€7ripeXeL<r6aL, irplv eavTOV €7rLfiiXr]9€iYj.
Plat. Apol. xxvi.
/ used to try to persuade each one not to care for any of the
things belonging to himself before caring for himself.
Tlpiv is also used after another Optative (see Oratio
Obliqua, Assimilation of O^ttatives).
oXoio /jL7]7r(o irplv fiaOocp/ eu Kau irdXiv
yvcofiTjv /jueTol(rec<;. SoPH. Phil. 961.
Perish not ere I learn if yet again
Thoic wilt repent thy purpose.
§ 220. lipiv with the Infinitive after Negative
Sentences, and with the other Moods after
Affirmative Sentences.
As stated above, the general Attic rule is that irpiv with
Infinitive follows Affirmative Sentences. But the rule is not
without exceptions. In Homer irpiv with Infinitive regularly
follows either Affirmative or Negative sentences. In the
Attic poets it very rarely follows a Negative. In Attic prose,
however, several instances occur of irpiv with Infinitive after
a Negative.
244 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
Instances in the Attic poets occur in Aesch. Ag. 1067,
Soph. A%. 1418, Eur. H. F. 605, and Arist. Av. 964.
In Thug, some cases occur (i. 68, i. 39) in both of which
the ov belongs rather to the Infinitive than to the principal
verb ; in V. 10 the Negative belongs to the principal verb
clearly. In all these three cases the abstract verbal notion
rather than the fact is stated, e.g. v. 10, Tvplv tovs /Sorjdovs
iJKeiv, before the arrival of his allies. But in vii. 50 rrpiv with
the Infinitive is found after a Negative where we should
certainly look for an Optative, occurring as it does in the
reported words of Nikias.
ovS' av SiafSovXevcraa-OaL en ec^ry, Trplv k.t.A., rpls ivvea
rip.kpa<s fxelvat, 6Tr(a<s av TrpoTcpov KLvqdeirj.
He declared that he would not even consider the making of a
move until he had waited thrice nine
Recta, ovB' av SiafSovXevcraifxrjV irplv fxetvai (for irplv fxeivai/xi
or wplv av /i€iVw).
Cf. also Antiph. Herod. 25, Andok. Myst. 43.
Hpiv, with a Finite Mood (Indicative, Subjunctive, Opta-
tive), is found when the Principal Sentence is affirmative in
form, but virtually negative.
a<j>piov v€o<s T "^v^ Trplv toI Trpdyixar' kyyvdev
a-KoirCiv €S€t8ov, k. t. A. EUR. /. A. 489.
where a<^/)(ov=ovK i^i^piav.
Similarly in Thug. i. 118. 2, ovre Uiakvov, aXX rja-vxaCov
irplv Srj rj SvvafxLs tmv 'A6r)vaL(j)v ripero, where, besides the true
negative otutc IkwAvov, tjo-vx^^ov means, they did not bestir them-
selves. See also Thug. iii. 29, XavOdvovcri irplv : viii. 105,
iipyov irplv. But in Thug. vii. 71. 4, irplv with the Indica-
tive occurs after a principal sentence truly affirmative:
irapairXrja-La €7racr;(ov, irplv ye Srj ol ^vpaKoonot erpetpav tovs
'Adrjvalovsj they were in the same state of excitement, until at last
the Syracusans routed the Athenians {eare Srj might have been
expected). With the Subjunctive and Optative irplv is very
rarely found even after quasi-negative sentences : —
rls av SIkyjv Kplvetev ^ yvolt) Xoyov,
irplv av irap dficfiOLV fivOov eKfxdOrj cra</)ws ; EUR. Herac. 179.
Tts av, however, is almost a real negative.
"Kv OMITTED WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 245
alcrxpov rjyoviiai TrpoTcpov Travcrao-^at Trplv av vfxels, otl av
l3ovXr](rO€, xJ/rjcfiLcrricrde. LyS. 22. 4.
Here alaxpov is a virtually negative word, as its use before
fjt,rj ov with an Infinitive shows. (See Negatives.)
Uplv rj, irporepov rj, TrpocrOev 7], va-Tcpov ^, are used like irpiv
with an Infinitive.
Tov M.rj8ov avTol La-p.ev irporepov hXOovra rj to. Trap' v/iiov
TrpoairavTrja-aL. ThuC. i. 601 (and vi. 58).
For va-Tcpov 7] oirj(raL see vi. 4.
§221, ''Av omitted with the Subjunctive, in Tem-
poral and other Subordinate Sentences.
In all sentences with the Subjunctive (Indefinite Relative,
Conditional, Temporal), av is sometimes not used even in
Attic prose and poetry. It seems quite a mistake to say
that av is omitted. It is much more rational to treat this
construction (like that of the Optative without av), as a
survival of the older usage, so constantly found in Homer,
when the mood might or might not at pleasure be modified
by the adverb av. Instances of all the constructions are here
given, but it must be remembered that they are all excep-
tional constructions in Attic, except, perhaps, in the case of
the Temporal Particles.
iTidefinife Relative : —
y€povTa 8' opdovv <f>Xavpov os veos Trecry. SOPH. 0. C. 595.
iTTLXiopiov 6v yifxlv ov ix€V f3paxets apKtaa-i fxrj ttoXXols
Xprja-^ai XoyoLs. ThUC. iv. 17.
Cf. Soph. El, 771, 225, 1059; Ji. 496; Ant. 323.
Conditional: — (el with Subjunctive common in Homer,
Pindar, several in Herodotus).
Svo-TaXatva rap' €yw
€t <Tov (TTeprjO^. Soph. 0. C. 1441.
Cf. 509, Antig. 710, 0. T. 198 (Chorus).
Once in Thuc. vi. 21, el ^vo-rwo-tv at TToAcis, according to
the best MSS. See Kriiger and Poppo.
246 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
Tem/poral : —
TTpiv firj TTporepov diroKTiVVVvaL Setv irplv dvdyKrjv riva 6
deos G7ri7r€fxx//r). Plat. Phaedo, vi.
fxr) a-rkva^e irpiv p-dOys.
Soph. Phil 917, Antig. 619 (Chorus).
juevpt Ta9 (TTTOvSas la-ireia-dai P'^XP'- ov €Trav€ XOhxtlv.
Thuc. iv. 16 (also iv. 41 and i. 137), Soph. Ai. 571.
€0)5 €(os TO Ytttociv Kttt TO XvTTeicrdai pLd9r)<s.
Soph. iJ/. 555 (PhU. 764).
eVet €7r€t 8' dp.dpTrj, k.t.A. SopH. ^7i^. 1025.
With these Temporal Particles dv is commonly used in prose,
but it is fairly often omitted. They seem in themselves
sufficient to mark the indefiniteness of future time without
the addition of dv.
§ 222. "Aj/ retained with the Optative.
In a few places dv is found with a Eelative and Optative,
and with a Temporal particle and the Optative, almost as if
the writer in changing from the Subjunctive had forgotten to
drop the dv. kkoyt^opuqv el ravra Trp69vp,6<5 (tol (rvXkd/3oipLij
w? otK€ios T€ (Toi caroLpTjv, KOI €^€(tolt6 p.01 8iaAey€(r^at o-ot oTTocrov
dv xpovov povXoip-qv^ Xen. Cyr. vii. 5. 49. Here either
oTTocrov dv jSovXaypai or ottoo-qv povXoLp-qv would have been
expected. Of. Xen. Ap. i. 2. 6, Trap &v dv Xd^oLev. So
ovSeis oo-Tts ovx "^yeLTO Slktjv p.e Xi^xpecrdaL irapd Ttov eiTLTpoTriov,
eVeiSotv rdxi'O'Ta dvtjp eivai SoKtpLacrdeirjv, DeM. Onet. i. 865. 24.
Cf. Soph. Tr. 687, ews dv dpp,6aaLp,t.
§ 223. The Subjunctive instead of the Optative,
or co-ordinate with the Optative in Historic
Sequence.
ef^ovXevaav 8€(Tp,ois avTovs (fivXd(r<Teiv p-^xpf' ov ri ^vpi(iCd(Ti.
Thug. iv. 41.
Theij decided to keep them in prison till some arrangement
was come to.
Observe that dv is omitted with the Subjunctive, for />texP* ^^
Tt ^vp.paUv. Cf. i. 91, TTpXv dv Subjunctive after Historic time.
THE PARTICIPLE AS A TEMPORAL SENTENCE. 247
TraprjyyeiXav CTretSr) Setirvqa-eiav Travras dvaTravea-dai, Kal
eVecr^at •j^vik' dv Tts Trapayy eXXrj. XeN. -4 71. iii, 5. 18.
They issued orders for all to rest as soon as they had dined,
and then to follow whenever any one issued orders.
This principle of the return to the Primary Sequence is so
common in Greek that it requires no further explanation here.
§ 224. The Participle as a Substitute for a
Temporal Sentence.
The Participle is a regular substitute for a sentence ex-
pressed by €7r€t, eireiSiq, '^viKa with Imperfect and Aorist
Indicative, but is used still more freely, for it is joined to
Present and Future Time, whereas these Particles go with a
past Principal Verb.
1. The Present Participle denotes an action contem-
porary with that of the Principal Verb.
afia and fiera^v with the Participle bring out more
clearly the contemporary time.
dTrrjVTTjaa ^iXLTrirq) airiovri.
I met Philip as he was going away.
afia irpoicov eireaKoirelro, XeN.
Ashe was going forward he was considering.
TO Tov Oeov o-rjfietov iroXKa'Xpv Brj fie eVecr^e Xeyovra
IJLera^v, Plat. Apol. xxxi.
The sign of the god very often has checked me in the
midst of my talk— (while I have been speaking-
while the words were on my lips),
kirka-xe is here a gnomic aorist.
2. The Aorist Participle denotes an action prior^ to
that of the Principal Verb.
The Perfect Participle would express a completed state
before the action of the Pri ncipal Verb.
1 Never forgetting that the Aorist Participle does not always denote
an action prior to that of the principal Verb. See Participles. Where
the Aorist Participle denotes a contemporary action it expresses Cir-
cumstance, not Time.
248 TEMPORAL SENTENCES.
T0T6, T0T6 rjBi], eiTa, eiret^Ta, TrjviKavra, ovtox; often
accompany the Principal Verb, evdv^i with the Participle
is like ra'^LCTTa with a Conjunction.
Tvpavv6vaa<; errj rpia 'iTrvr/a? e'^copei, €9 Scyecov,
Thuc.
After ruling three years {when he had ruled),
Hippias retired to Sigeicm, or he ruled and then
retired.
cKeXevae ovv hia^avTa rov 'EWtjo-ttovtov eireiTa
airaKkdrTecrOaL Xen. An. vii. 1.
He induced him to accompany him over the Helles-
pont, and then withdraw {after he had accompanied
him, to withdraw),
ev6v<i j6v6fjL€Poi (primo ortu), immediately after lirth.
evdv<; airo^e^rjKoref;, directly they landed, no sooner
had they landed . . . than, etc.
CHAPTER IV.
§ 225. CONCESSIVE SENTENCES.
The chief Concessive Particle in Greek is Kal, with or
without the enclitic irep.
Concessive Sentences are most commonly expressed by
the Participle, especially with Kaiirep (more rarely Kai
alone). The Negative is ov, "Ofim (tamen) often
accompanies the Principal Verb.
Tov KXecovof}, Kanrep /iiavio)Br]<i ovaa, r) UTroV^ecrt?
dTrejSrj, Thuc.
Cleon's promise, insane though it was, was fulfilled.
Cf. Soph. Ai. 122.
ireidov yvvai^l, Kauirep ov (nepywv ofi(o<;. Aesch.
Listen to women though thou like them not.
The oyLto)? belongs to ireidov, though it often is drawn to
the Participle.
ofT09 oierai re eiBevac ovtc etSo)?. Plat. Apol. vi.
This man thinks he knows something though he knows
nothing.
Kayo) (T LKvovfMai, Kal yvvrj Trep oSo-' o/xoys. EUR. Orest. 680.
/ too entreat thee, woman though I be.
Here Kat and irep are separated, and o/xios is dislocated from
its Verb.
Note 1. ovSe, ovSe Trep, fJ-rjSe, p.rj8€ Trep are also found with
Concessive Particles in Negative Concessive Sentences.
ovK dv TrpoSoLYjV, ov8e Trep Trpd(Ta-(ov KaK<as. lEiUR.Phoen. 1624.
I'd not betray, not even though in woe.
yvvaiKl TreiOov, prjSe rdXrjdrj kXviov. EuR. Hipp. Fr. 443.
Hearken to a woman, even if thou hearest not the truth.
249
250 CONCESSIVE SENTENCES.
ovS' €1, ou8' eai/, /aiJ8' €i, /;i7i8' kdv are used in Negative Con-
cessive sentences {ne — quidem).
/XY] 6opvPrj(TY)T€, firjS' lav 86^(o n vixlv fieya Aeyetv.
Plat. Aj^ol v.
Do not interrupt, even if you shall think that I am speaking
presumptuously.
ov8' ci, Apol. xvii. 29.
lyo) /xev ow ov/c av ttot', ovS' eT ^oi to. era
fxeXXoi Tts oto-eiv 8(3/)' e<^' owrt vvv ;(Xi8as,
TovToi^ vTreiKaOoLfjLi. Soph. El. 360.
Ne^er then would I, not e'en if one were like
To bring me those thy gifts, wherein thou now
Art glorying, submit to these.
Note 2. KoX Tavra, and that too, is also used with a participle,
and also, but very seldom, Kairoi. For koI Tavra, Plat. Rep.
404 B, Xen. Cyr. ii. 2. 16. For Kairoi, Plat. Prot. 339 c.
kyoi ov8\v Tovroiv Troirjcro), Kal ravra KLvBvvevayv.
Plat. Apol. xxiii.
/ will do none of these things, and that too though I am run-
ning a risk.
Note 3. The Relative occasionally is used in a concessive
sense.
For oo-Tts, Soph. Ai. 434, otov irdrr^p : and Arist. Ach. 57,
ocTTi? riSeXf. : os e^e/3»7v, Antiph. Caed. Herod. 25.
Note 4. etTrep, edvirep, bear a sort of concessive force, or
perhaps rather a particularising force, that is to say, cf. if
really, EuR. Her. Fur. 1345, Lys. 12. 48; edvTrep, Plat. ^^o?.
xii. (a General Supposition).
§ 226. Note on el /cat, icat €t, etc.
Kat added to the Conditional particles el, edv, y]v gives the
Conditional Sentence a concessive meaning. Kat is thus
added to any form of Conditional Sentence, which will there-
fore follow the rules of Conditional Sentences. A distinction
is generally made between el Kat and Kat el. Et Kat is said
(by Hermann and Kiihner) to concede a fact, although, Kal el
a supposition, even if (a supposition). It is impossible to sup-
port this theory. As Kat with el and edv occur with every
form of conditional sentence (Indicative, Subjunctive, Opta-
tive) with ordinary and general suppositions, Kat cannot give
NOTE ON el Kai, Ka\ fJ, ETC. 251
the €t or lav the power of turning any and every form of
supposition into statement of a fact. Hermann's dictum at
the most could hold good only of ct Kal and i<ai el with the
Indicative. And it is equally true here as with ordinary
conditions (without Kai) that if a fact is stated it is only by
virtue of the context. Madvig more cautiously states that
€1 Kai sometimes inclines more to the affirmation of the con-
dition, and that it is often only distinguished from /cat ct by
being less emphatic. This is the most we can say, the latter
part of his remark being very true. Kat in these phrases is
expletive, i.e. it emphasises the word it precedes (as in wplv
Kal yevko-Bai rjfias, Plat. Fhaed. 77. 6, before we came info being
at all). It is further clear that Kat €t with the Indicative
often leans to the affirmation of the condition as strongly as
€t K-at. Kat et, being more emphatic, may often mean that
even in spite of, under extreme circumstances, the Apodosis holds
good.
€t Kat, with Indie, Plat. La. 182, Soph. El. 547, 0. T. 302.
Ka t €t, „ Plat. Apol. xxix. , Aesch. Fers. 297, Aesch.
Cho. 290 (leans to the fact) ; Soph. Ai.
Mi (do.); Soph. Ant. 234 (fut. indie.) ;
Plat. Apol. xix. (Kat ct /zcAAct).
d Kai, „ in unfulfilled conditions, ISOCR. de permut.
(33), from Madvig.
Kat ct, „ Plat. Polit 276 (Apodosis cSct) ; Dem. 21.
199.
eav Kat, with Subj., Dem. 16. 24.
Kat lav, „ Menand. Fr. 19 (a General Supposition);
Plat. Symp. 185, Soph. El. 25 (a General
Supposition).
Kat ct, with Optat., Xen. Hell. vii. 1. 8.
ct Kat is used concessively with an ellipse of its verb in
Plat. Apol. xviii.
ct Kat ycAotoTC/oov elirelv.
Though the expression be ridiculous.
ct Kat, in Soph. Ant. 90, is not concessive at all; Kai
emphasises the ct.
d Kal Svvrja-ci y' * (a A. A.' dfxrjxO'Viav ipj-s).
Ay, if thou wilt be able.
CHAPTEE Y.
' §227. FINAL SENTENCES, otto)? WITH THE
rUTUEE INDICATIVE, AND VEEBS OF
FEAEING WITH fxi], etc.
Introductory Note.
Three more or less closely connected constructions are here
brought into juxtaposition. They are —
A. Final Sentences.
B. Modal Sentences with oVws and the Future
Indicative.
C. Verbs of Fearing with firj, firj ov.
These three constructions sometimes run into one another,
at other times they widely diverge. Verbs of Fearing wijbh
ixrj deprecate a result. Negative, Modal, and Final Sentences
consider or adopt means to avert a result. The connecting
links, therefore, are /Mrj and oinus. The resemblance is strongest
in three such types as the following : A. ravTa Trotw ottws fj^rj
aTToddvo), I do this that I may not die. B. eTnfieXovfjLaL ottws firj
aTTodavovfxaL, I take care that {strive how) I shall not die.
0. (jioPovixai fxr) diroddvo), I fear that I shall die.'^ The resem-
blance is even stronger when the construction of B. is iTrifxeXov-
fxac OTTWs fJi-y] aTroddi^a), and of 0. (fiof3oviJLaL ottcus />t^ diroBavovixaL
or d-Koddviii. On the other hand the divergence is greatest
between A. raura Trotw oTTtos iiy] drroddvoi (a true Final Sentence),
and C. (fio/Sovixac ws dTrop-qcrecs, I fear that you will be at a loss,
^ The term Object Sentence is often applied to the second and third
forms of these Sentences. If by an Object Sentence is meant one which
stands as an Object to the Principal Sentence, then the term appears
too comprehensive to be of practical value. It would include Indirect
Statements, Indirect Questions, Indirect Commands, the Infinitive
after such verbs as /Soi^Xo/uai {e.g. ^oTjKoiiai iXdetv), besides Sentences with
dirojs, etc. More would be lost than gained by grouping together con-
structions so different as olSa a/xapTivv, ^o^Xofiat iXdeiv, and CKoireL diroos
ravra yev^aerat.. Further, if we use the term Object Sentence, why
not also Subject Sentence ? Syntax must be content sometimes to
sacrifice logical system to expediency.
252
FINAL SENTENCES. 253
where ws aTropiJo-ets is practically a Substantival Sentence of
Indirect Statement, or cfiolSovfxat. aTrodavelv {to aTro^aveti/), which
is the same as (^o^ov fiai Bdvarov.
It is not easy to give the right name to sentences of class
B. They correspond with the Latin construction curo^ enitor,
efficio, with ut and the Subjunctive, which Dr. Kennedy assigns
to the Indirect Petition. By an extension of the usage of
oTTws, verbs of commanding and of requesting (which introduce
a true Indirect Petition) may take ottws with a Future Indica-
tive, just as impero smd postulo, etc., take ut (or ne).
"Ottws is a Eelative Modal Adverb meaning as, how, ws — oVw?,
(Epic) or ovT(jD<s — oTTws (Attic) thus — as or how, <Ss or ovtoj? being
the Antecedents to otto)?. It is also used in Questions, Kard-
Xe^ov oTTws y]VTr)(Ta<s (Od. iii. 97), tell me how thou didst meet with.
But one of the most characteristic usages of oVws is in Modal
Deliberative Questions with the Subjunctive or Optative, after
such verbs as <^/)afo/xat, fxepfirjpi^o), e.g. <f>pd(€(rdaL OTTTTWS K€
fj.vY](TTrjpas KTeLVYjs {Od. i. 295) take counsel how thou shall slay
the wooers. The connection between this and a Final Sentence
is obvious, e.g. TrepLcjipa^cofxeda TrdvTcs vocttov, ottws eXdycTL (Od.
i. 77), let us all take good counsel touching his return how {so that)
he shall reach home. The Future Indicative is used much in
the same way as the Subjunctive, e.g. 4>pd(€v oVws aAe^^o-et?
KaKov yjfjLap (II. ix. 251), take counsel how thou wUt avert the evil
day.
§ 228. FINAL SENTENCES.
Final Sentences denote an end, purpose, or intention to
achieve or avert a result. They are expressed in a variety
of ways, chiefly by (1) Final Particles with the Subjunc-
tive and Optative ; (2) by the Future Participle ; (3) by
Eelative Sentences ; (4) in certain cases by the Infinitive.
§ 229. FINAL PARTICLES WITH SUBJUNCTIVE
AND OPTATIVE.
The Final Particles are tva, «9, and oirm (p(j)pa is Epic
and Lyric only). In Negative Sentences iva firj, ©9 fJ'V*
oirm m* and sometimes /atJ only. In Primary Sequence
the Subjunctive is used, in Historic Sequence the Opta-
254 FINAL SENTENCES, ETC.
tive, but the strict Sequence is often disregarded, and the
Subjunctive used instead of the Optative.
Tov KaKOv Set KoXd^etv Iv aixetvcov ff, Plat.
It is necessary to punish the criminal in order that he
may he reformed.
iKerevae tov? BiKaara^; fiera iroWcov BaKpucov iva
eXerjdeLT}. FLAT.
He entreated the jury with many tears in order that
he might he pitied.
irapaicdXeh larpoix; otto)? firj airodavrj^. Xen.
Yoit call in physicians in order that you may not die.
Ibva ol aXKoi jvytacn t(ov hiKatodv, ra vfiirep avjwv
dv7)\L(TKeT6. Dem.
In order that the rest might ohtain their rights, yoio
used to spend your own resources.
For ©9 see Eur. Tro. 714. For firi only Xen. Cyr. i.
4. 25 (XeyeraL elTretv ore airievai ^ovXolto, jutj o irarrip
TL axOoLTo). Mri truly final is however rare.
Note 1. The Subjunctive and Optative are sometimes found
alternating in Historic Sequence.
TO OLTToWllVai dvOpMTTOVS ^VfXlxd)(^OV? TTOAA-OVS SctVOV i(fiaLV€TO
€LvaLj jx-q TLva SiafSoXrjv crxoi^v Kal ol o-TparLwraL SvcrvoL
wo-t. Xen. Hell. ii. 1. 2.
'To put to death a number of allies was considered a dangerous
course, lest they should incur odium and the troops be
Trapavicrxov <f)pvKTOv<s ttoWovs, ottws d(ra(^rj ra crrjfxela tois
TToAe/xtots y, Kal p,rj jSorjOoLCv irplv (r<^a>v ol dvSpes 5ta-
(fivyoLciv. Thuc. iii. 22.
They were hoisting many beacons, in order that the enemies'
signals might be unintelligible to them, and that they might
not bring aid before their own men escaped (should escape).
Dr. Arnold in his well-known note on this passage explains
that the Subjunctive expresses the immediate, and the Optative
the remote, consequence (1 purpose), the second (Optative) being
a consequence upon the first (Subjunctive). Such an explana-
l^TNAL PARTICLES WITH SUBJUNCTIVE, ETC. 255
tion, however, clearly cannot apply, as Dr. Arnold thought, to
all cases, e.g. to passages where the Optative precedes the Sub-
junctive (see Xen. Hell. ii. 1. 2, above, and Thuc. vi. 96).
This interchange of moods, of the graphic Subjunctive and the
remoter Optative, is allowable in every variety of Greek sub-
ordinate construction.
For other instances cf. Hdt. i. 185 ; viii. 76 ; ix. 51 ; Thuc.
vii. 17.4; vii. 70. 1.
Note 2. av is sometimes joined to ws and ottws with the
Subjunctive {6(fipa kc Epic). It adds little, if any, meaning
Possibly av may refer to an implied condition, like our English
so {in order that so).
av is not found with the Subjunctive in Negative Final
Sentences.
"Iva av, when it occurs, is not final but indefinitely local
{wheresoever).
TTttT/ols yap ecTTi ttcio-' iV' av Trpdrrrj ns eS.
Arist. Pint. 1151.
The fatherland is any land where'er a man is prospering.
Examples of ws av with Subjunctive.
ws av fidSys, dvTaKOva-ov. Xen. An. ii. 5.
Listen in return, that you may know.
X^P^'' ^' €v6a7r€p KarcKTaves
irarkpa tov dp-ov, u)S av kv ra^TW ddvy^. SOPH. El. 1496.
On to the spot ev^n where thou slew'st my father.
That so on that same spot thou may'st be slain.
Cf. Aesch. P. V. 10; Soph. Phil. 825; Plat. Rep. 567 A,
Symp. 189 A,
Note 3. When dv is found with ws or ottws and the Optative
in a Final Sentence, ws and ottws are Modal, and the Optative
with av is an Apodosis.
d)S p.\v av eiTTOLTC SiKaCovs Xoyovs dp,€Lvov ^iXiTTTTOv irap-
€(TK€va(r6€, ois Be KwAtxratr' dv avTov dpyoys ^x^Te.
Dem. Phil. ii. 66.
As to the means by which you might express just sentiments
you are better prepared than Philip, but as to means of
checking him you are doing nothing.
PovXiva-op-eda ottws dv dpiara dymvL^oipLiOa. XeN. Cyr. ii. 1. 4.
Cf. Cyr. i. 2. 5. Plat. Symp. 187, d.
256 FINAL SENTENCES, ETC.
In XeN. Hell. iv. 8. 16, ottws av, TrX-qptnO^VTO^ vavTLKOv k.t.X.,
TTposSeoivTo, we must either explain that oVws av TrposSeoivro
is the Apodosis {in order that they might loant), and 7rX'qpo)$evTo<s
the Protasis, = et -n-X-qpiJidd-q {if the fleet ivere manned): or we
must consider that Xenophon is using an Epic construction (ws
oTTws av or Kev in Final Sentences with the Optative, e.g.
Od. ii. 53, xvii. 362).
The Optative with /xt) av occurs in Soph. Trach. 631,
Thuc. ii. 93.
Note 4. In a few places oVws with a Future Indicative is
strictly final rather than modal. And as the verb of striving,
or taking precaution, does not precede in these passages, they
are noticed here under Final Sentences. The Future Indica-
tive may be regarded as a vivid form of the Subjunctive.
ov^l 8l €V dXXo rpk^ovrai ■)} oVws iia^ovvrai.
Xen. Cyr. ii. 1. 21.
And they are maintained for no other single purpose except
for fighting (lit. how they shall fight).
€<f)Y) XPV^^'' oiva/3L/Sd^€LV Ittl rbv rpoxov tov<s aTroypa^evras,
OTTws fxrj Trporepov vv^ ccrrat Trplv Trvdka-Oai rovs dvSpas
diravTas. Andok. de Myst. 43.
He said that those who had been informed against ought to he
put upon the wheel {to the torture), in order to discover all
the perpetrators before night-fall.
Cf. Soph. El. 955 ; Arist. Ecc. 495.
It is doubtful whether the Future Optative, as the Obliqua
of the above, ever occurs. The MSS. appear to favour other
constructions where it has hitherto been read. In Plat.
Bep. 393 E, fxr) ovK kirapK^a-oi occurs as a virtual, rather than
literal, obliqua of /x^ ov xpaiV/xiy : cf. U. i. 25. See GoODWiN,
Moods and Tenses, p. 40.
Note 5. In a few places the Optative is found in a Primary
Sequence. The Optative carries back the purpose to its
original conception in the past ; the action, though still con-
tinuing in the present, was begun in the past.
TOVTOV 8' O^CO
iVa ixY] TaXaLTTwpoiTo. Arist. Itan. 23.
I'm carrying him,
that he mayn't be inconvenienced.
i.e. I took him on my back {and am carrying him) that he might
not be, etc.
FINAL PARTICLES WITH SUBJUNCTIVE, ETC. 257
TovTOv (.\^i rov rpoirov o vofios, tVa ixrjSk TrctcrdrjvaL firjS' i^a-
iraTrjOrjvat ykvotr^ kirl tw Sij/xw, DeM. 22. 11 (AnDROT. 596, 17),
i.e. the original intention of the law when first made was, etc.
Cf. Xen. Cijr. iv. 2. 45 (tVa, et ttotc ^koi, SvvatfieOa, in Primary
sequence).
In the same way Cicero uses the Imperfect Subjunctive to
recall the original intention : — Homines sunt hac lege generati
qui tuerentur ilium globum . . . quae terra dicitur, Cic.
Eep. vi. 15. Sic mihi perspicere videor ita natos esse nos ut
inter omnes esset societas quaedam, CiC. Lael. 5. Cf. de Off. i.
§ 152, ii. § 1.
Cf. Eur. El. 58, and Hec. 1138 (Subjunctive followed by
Optative in Primary sequence).
§ 230. Final Sentences with Past Tenses of
the Indicative.
A Final Sentence with tVa (less commonly ws and oVws)
and a Past Tense of the Indicative expresses a purpose unful-
filled either in the Present (Imperfect Indicative), or in the
Past (Aorist Indicative). The Principal Sentence is either an
unfulfilled Wish, or an unfulfilled Apodosis.
et yap wc^eAov olol re dvat to, fiiyia-Ta KaKa epya^ecr^at, tVa
OLOL re ^crav kol dyada to, /xeyto-ra. PlAT. Crito, iii.
JFould they had been able to do the greatest evil, in order tliat
they might be able (or might have now betn able) to do also
the greatest good (which they are not able to do).
KoX fi^v aAov y ^v OLKOva-aL. tl Bri ; tV i^Koixras dv^poiv 01
(TocfiWTaTOL dcri. Plat. Euthyd. 304 E.
JVell, I assure you it would huve been worth hearing, JFhy
so ? In order that you might have heard the ablest men.
a^iov riv of course = a Jioj/ av ^v, similarly we should say,
// icas worth hearing.
(OS w^eA-ov irdpoiOev iKXiTTilv /3tov, k.t.X.
oTTws 6avo)v iKcixTo Ty To^' 'qiJ'€p(}. Soph. El. 1134.
JFould God that I had first forsaken life, etc.
That death Imd laid thee low on that far day.
Other well-known examples are Aesch. P. V. 152 (after a
wish) : ib. 766 (after a question equivalent to a wish) : SoPH.
0. T. 1387, 1391; Dem. Aph. ii. 837. 11 ; iii. 849. 24^
R
258 FINAL SENTENCES, ETC.
§ 231. FINAL SENTENCES WITH THE FUTURE
PARTICIPLE.
A Final Sentence is often expressed by a Future
Participle : co? is often added, denoting the thought, or the
.presumed intention in the mind of the Subject of the
principal verb.
irpea^ei'; e? AaKehaljiova eirefi'^av ravra re €povvTa<;
Kol Avaavhpov aorrjaovTa^. XeN".
The^ sent envoys to Lacedaemon to say this, and to
ask for Lysander.
irapearKevd^ovTO 0)9 '7Tpo<;^a\ovvT€<; tm rei'^co-fiaTi,
Thuc.
They were making preparations for an attack on the
fort {with the intention of attacking).
Note. Such a Participle is especially common after a verb
of motion.
•i\^r] Sipa oLTruvai, kjiol p\v aTroOavovixkvia, vfjLtv 8k jSnocrope-
vots. Plat. Apol xxxii.
It is high time to be going, for me that I may die, for you
that you may live.
§ 232. RELATIVE FINAL SENTENCES.
A Pinal Sentence is expressed by octtl^ (less frequently
09) with the Future Indicative. In . Historic Sequence
the Future Optative would strictly be used, but the
Future Indicative (the vivid construction) is generally
retained. The negative is /atJ.
nrpeo-^etav ire/jLTrere rjTi<; ravr epel Kai Trapearat
Toh TTpdyfiaa-tv. Dem.
Send a deputation to hear this message, and to he
present at the operations.
Legatos mittite qui haec nuntient rebusque se immis-
ecant.
FINAL SENTENCES WITH THE INFINITIVE. 259
e^o^e Tft) t>T]^(jd TpiaKovra avBpa^ ekiaGab ol vo/mov<;
^vyypayjrovai. Xen.
The assemUy resolved to appoint thirty men who were
to compile laws.
Cf. Xen. Cyr. viii. 6. 3 ; An. ii. 3. 6. (ot a^ovacv). In
Thuc. vii. 25, the Subjunctive occurs, oWep (jipdacjo-i (in
Hisk>ric sequence).
§ 233. Final Sentences with the Infinitive.
A Final Sentence is expressed by the Infinitive, chiefly after
verbs of cJwosing, appointing, or assigning.
3€V0(f>U)V TO TJfJLlCrV TOV (TTpaTCVlXaTOS /CareXtTTC (f)vXdTT€LV TO
CTT/aaTOTreSov. XeN.
Xenophon left half his force behind to guard the camp.
ot apxovTCS ov<5 etXea-Oe apy€iv fxov. PlAT. Apol. XviL
The rulers whom you chose to rule me.
Cf. Thuc. vi. 50, TrXcva-al re, K.T.X.
Note 1. As the Infinitive is, in its origin, a Verbal Dative,
we have a natural explanation of this use of it : <f)vXdTT€Lv,for
the guarding. We may, of course, say that the Infinitive is
explanatory (epexegetical).
Note 2. For tov with the Infinitive in a Final Sense, see
Index.
§ 234. ''0770)9, onm fJLT], MODAL WLTH THE
FUTURE INDICATIVE, ETC.
Ottoo^, o7rco<; firj are used with the Future Indicative
(usually the 2d person) after Verbs of taking means to an
end (considering, striving, and contriving). In Primary
Sequence the Future Indicative is used; in Historic
Sequence the Future Optative may be used, but the
Future Indicative (the vivid construction) is much com-
moner.
26o FINAL SENTENCES, ETC.
Such Verbs are :
PovXivo) fxkXu (fioi) TTpda-a-o)
opio fxiXerio /XT^xavw/^at
a-KOTTta (a-KOWOVfiai) evXapovfiac irapacrKevd^u)
cf>povTtlo) TrpoOvfxovfxaL cnrovSa^d)
eTTLaeXov/xaL cf>vXdor(r(j) tJvovp.aL (I manage by bribery).
Dem. de Cor. 236. 12.
And periphrases such as Trpovoiav e%a), firj'^avT) ecm, etc.
Cf. Latin euro, (curam, operam, negotium) do,^ studeo, id ago,
enitor, efficio, impetro with id (ne) and Subjunctive.
(ftpoVTi^e OTTO)? fJLrjSev avd^iov aavrov irpa^ei^;, ISOC.
Bee that thou do nothing unworthy of thyself.
Vide ne quid te indignum agas.
e7n/J>eX7]Teov otto)? co? aptaTij act earat rj ^jrv^xr}'
Plat.
You must strive that your sold may he as good as
possible.
Enitendum est ut tibi quam optimus sit animus tuus.
eirejieXecTo OTro)? /jLrjre aaLToc pLTjTe airoroL ecroivTO.
Xen.
He was taking precautions that they should he neither
vjithoutfood nor drink.
eiTpaaaov otto)? rt? ^orjdeia rj^et. ThuC.
They were arranging for the arrival of reinforcements.
Note 1. The 1st and 3d person are very rare. In Dem.
Chers. 99. 14 (ottojs edeXTja-ovo-L) ; in Ar. EccL (oVcds KaOeSov-
p^eda).
Note 2. Instead of the Future Indicative the Subjunctive
and Optative (Present and Aorist) less often occur, though
not uncommonly.
6pa OTTWS p,r) irapa So^av 6pLoXoyrj<s. PlAT. Crit.
See that you are not surprised into making an admission.
ip.ep.eX-qKiL avTols ottws 6 ImraypeTrjs etSetr^ ovs Scoc 7r€/i7rciv.
Xen. Hell. iii. 3. 9.
They had taken care that the Cavalry- Commissioner should
know who should be sent.
'Ottcos, ottcos fXT), WITH FUTURE INDICATIVE. 261
In Lys. 12. 44 an Aorist Optative is followed by a Future
Indicative (iTrePovXevea-Oe oVws /xTJre \pr)(fii(raLcr9€, ttoAAwv re
€v8€€LS ecrecrOe).
Note 3. Variants, of rare occurrence for ottws with the
Future Indicative are oirrj (Thug. i. 65, yei/^o-erat) ; oto) rpoVw
(Thug. iv. 128,^v/x^?io-eTat); i^ 6tov rpoTTov (Dem. Megal 207).
ws is found instead of oVws with a Subjunctive or Optative
(Xen. Oec. XX. 8, Aesch. P. V. 203), but seldom with a Future
Indicative (Xen. Cyr. iii. 2. 13).
iVb^e 4. av is sometimes found with ottws and the Subjunc-
tive, cf. Plat. Gorg. 481 A (fx-qxe^v-qreov OTTWS av Stacfivyr)), but
never with otto)? and the Future Indicative. The Optative
(Present or Aorist) with av in this construction is an Apodosis.
Cf. Xen. Oec. ii. 9 (eTri/xeAeib-^at OTTWs av yevoiro).
Note 5. Mtj is found, instead of oVws /t*^, with the Subjunc-
tive (rarely with the Future Indicative) after o-kottw, 6pQ>,
evXaPovfxaij ^vAacro-o/>tat, just as after Verbs of Fearing.
Conversely ottws fj^rj, instead of the simple fxrj, is used after
Verbs of Fearing. Cf. the next section, page 265. Cf. Soph.
Phil, (opa 117] Trapfjg), 0. C. IISO ; Plat. Symp. 213 D. In Xen.
Cyr. iv. 1. 18 (Spa fir] 8e^o-et), evXa/Seia-OaL fj,rj, PlAT. Prot. 321 A;
evXa/SeiO-dat to jx-q, PlAT. Rep. 539 A ; cfivXaxroreadat pL-j is fairly
common.
Note 6. cTTt/xeAov/xat is found with an Infinitive in Thug. vi.
54. 6, Xen. Comm. iv. 7. 1, Appian, Civ. v. 73. So euro occurs
with the Infinitive in Cic. de Fin. iii. 19. 62 (natura . . . diligi
procreatos non curaret). Poppo, Thug. vi. 54. So also <fivXdcr-
(Top^aL p.r) TTotetv, to pirj TrouLv, I guard against doing, Dem. 773.
1,313.6.
Note 7. a-KOTTio is followed by el interrogative (Soph. ^71^. 41).
See similar construction with Verbs of Fearing, Note, p. 266.
Note 8. In one or two places Set precedes oVws with the
Fut. Indicative, e.g. SoPH. Ai. 556, Set o-e oVw? Sei^ei^ : Phil. 55,
o-c Set oTTws eKKXexpeis. Jebb (note to SoPH. Ai. 556) quotes
Cratinus {apud Athenaeum), Set a ottws dXeKTpvovos /xr^Sei'
StotVet? Tovs Tpoirovs. There seems to be a confusion between
two constructions ; Set with the Infinitive, and some verb like
opa, o-KOTret with oVws and the Future Indicative. In Arist.
Eg. 926 we have o-Treww o-e ottws av eyypa(j>y<s, which however
may be regarded simply as an instance of Antiptosis, i.e. a-e,
the Subject to iyypafjyfjs, is made the Object to (nreva-b), which
is a Verb just like o-TrovSafo) or Trpda-a-o).
262 FINAL SENTENCES, ETC.
§ 235. ELLIPTICAL USE OFoTrm, ottco^s (xtj, WITH
THE FUTURE INDICATIVE.
''Otto)?, oTTft)? /AT] are used with the Future Indicative
in exhortations and prohibitions, when no principal
sentence has preceded. All three persons are found,
though the second is commonest.
a\V 0770)9 oLvr)p eaec. EuR. Cycl. 595.
Come, he a man !
oTTft)? he TOVTO fjbrj StSafet? fjLTjBevl. Ar. Nuh.
Mind you don't tell this to anybody.
<})€p€ 87) oTTtos fi€fjLvqcr6{M€6a TavTa. Plat. Gorg. 495 D.
JFell, then, let us be sure to remember this.
OTTWS rarra firjSils dvOpiowoiv Treva-irai. LyS. i. 21.
See that not a soul hears of this.
Observe that this construction is generally introduced by a
word, dXXd, ovv, Se, sometimes by aye wv (Ar. Nub. 490).
Note. The Subjunctive occasionally is found :
6no)s ye ixrj i^aTrajT^crrj i^/xas. PLAT. Prot. 313 C.
Mind he does not deceive us.
§ 236. "Ottoj?, ottcos fJLT] WITH VERBS OF COM-
MANDING AND FORBIDDING.
For this Construction, see Indirect Petition. It is, of
course, the same as otto)? after Verbs of taking means to
an end, although an extension of it. There is a natural
connexion between, " Take care to do so," and " I bid you
do so." But for the sake of convenience the rule and
examples are given elsewhere.
§ 237. VERBS OF FEARING WITH fJit], AND
Verbs and phrases denoting fear are followed by /jlt^
and fjurj ov with the Subjunctive (in Primary Sequence),
VERBS OF FEARING WITH /xt; AND fx^ ol. 263
and the Optative (in Historic Sequence). The Subjunc-
tive may, by the graphic construction, of course be sub-
stituted for the Optative.
BeBocKa fiTj ravra yevrjTac.
I fear this will happen.
Vereor ne haec fiant.
BeBoiKa firj ov ravra fyevrjTai.
I fear this will not happen.
Vereor ut (ne non) haec fiant.
eBeBoLKeiv fjur) {/jltj ov) ravra 'yevocro or jevrjraL.
Verebar ne (ut) haec fierent.
Observe that firj does not negative the verb ; it expresses
a surmise that the result will occur. Ov on the other
hand is privative and negatives the verb.
oeooLKa fjLTj ov^ oatov rj.
I fear it will not he righteous (i.e. icwighteous).
For fiYj, fjLTj ov and the Subjunctive, etc., without a
principal verb see the Chapter on Negatives.
Verbs of fearing are : —
(f)o^ovfJLaL, Beo^ earl irecj^pcKa (mostly poet.)
BeBocKa, Beivov earv rpeco (mostly poet.)
BeBoiKa jjLT] e7riXad(i}jj,€da rrj<; oiKaBe oBov. Xen.
I fear we shall forget the way home.
ovKeri eirerlOevro BeBoLKore<i fir) wrror/JbTjOecija'av. Xen.
They ivere no longer attacking from fear of Icing
cut off.
BeBifiev fi7] ov ^e^aioL rjre. Thuc.
We fear you are not trustworthy.
264 FINAL SENTENCES, ETC.
e(l)oPeLTO TO (TTpcLTev/jLa fJLT] eiTi TTjv avrov %w/3ai/
aTpareurjraL Xen.
He was afraid that the army luould march against
his own country,
ovh\v heivbv firj ev efMol orrrj. PlaT. Apol. xv.
There is no fear (likelihood) of the rule hreaJdng doiV7i
in my case.
Ohs. In Xen. Mem. i. 2. 7, we have eOavfxa^e el ns (f)o/3oiTo
jXYj 6 yev6fX€V0S KaXbs KayaOos fJ^r) \dpLV e^ot, instead of [iri ov
Xa/)tv 6^01, an abnormal construction not found elsewhere.
Note 1. As these Verbs of Fearing denote doubt and appre-
hension as much as downright fear, their construction is
followed by many Verbs which in other senses take other con-
structions, but which when denoting apprehension, anxiety,
suspicion lest or whether, are followed by fxr^ and fxrj ov.
Such verbs are verbs of caution in the sense of anxiety
((fipovTi^u), evvoM, 6p(o, (TKOTTCo, €vXafBovp.ai, (PvXdcrcro) (-o/xat) j
oKvo), I hesitate or scruple (from fear, or pity, o?' shame) ;
VTroTTTevw, / suspect, arrtCTTW (aTrtorrtav e'x^S irapk^ei) in the sense
of suspecting rather than disbelieving, klvSwos ko-Tt.
VTroTTTCvopev pr) ov kolvoI aTrof^yjre. ThUC. iii. 53.
We suspect that you will not prove impartial.
OKvoj p-q poL 6 Avo-ia<s TttTreivos ^avij. PlAT. Pol. 368.
(fypovTL^o) prj KpoLTLO-rov y pot or tyav. XeN, Mem. iv. 2. 39.
/ am thinking that it may be best for me to say nothing.
Cf. Plat. Phaed. 70 a {dina-Tiav irapkyci prj ovSapov) ; PlAT.
Theaet. 183 E {alaxwopevos prj, a very rare construction with
this verb) ; Soph. Tr. 1129 (evAa/Jeto-^at pr] <^av^s) ; Thuc. iv.
11 ((jivXdacrea-Oai prj ^WTplxJ/ioa-Lv).
Consult the Index for other meanings and constructions of
these verbs.
Note 2. Instead of the Subjunctive after Verbs of Fearing
the tenses of the Indicative are used.
(1) The Future Indicative as a graphic substitute for the
Subjunctive.
cfiofSovpai prj riras rjSovas 'qSovals evprju-opev kvavria<i.
Plat. Phileb. 13 a.
I app-ehend that we shall find some pleasures opposite to
pleasures.
VERBS OF FEARING WITH fit] AND fi^ oi. 265
Cf. Plat. Bep. 451 a ((fio/Sepov re koI a-cfiaXepou fxr] Kcioro/xai).
In Aesch. Pers. 112, the Subjunctive and Future Indicative
are co-ordinate, fxrj TrvdrjTai Kal ccro-erat, Trecrrj (Se). See Choeph.
257. So Eur. H. F. 1054, Ar. Ecc. 493.
(2) oTTw? ii-q with the Future Indicative, Subjunctive, or
Optative, as after verbs of taking means to an end in the pre-
vious section.
arap rov 8atfj.ovo<s
SeSoLX OTTO)? fxr] rev^o/xai KaKoSat/xouos. Ar. Eq. 112.
But Im afraid
This genius tvill turn out my evil genius — (Frere).
SeSotx' OTTWS IJi-q dvdyKTj ykv-qrai. DeM. Phil. iii. 130. 14.
I fear that a necessity may arise.
(3) (OS with the Future Indicative, ws does not (like oVws)
appear to have a modal force, but to introduce an Indirect
Statement, as if SiSoLKa or cf>o/3ovfxaL meant I fear thinking that.
dvSpos fxr] cfio/3ov (0? aTropr^creLS d^tov. XeN. Cyr. V. 2. 12.
Do not fear that you ivill be at a loss for a worthy man.
Cf. Soph. El. 1309, Xen. Cyr. vi. 2. 30, Dem. Phil.
iv. 1. 141.
In Eur. Heracl. 248 (ottws, as ottws is occasionally used in
Indirect Discourse).
When ort follows a Verb of Fearing it seems to introduce
an ordinary causal (or rather explanatory) sentence.
oTfc 06 TToAA-wi/ dpxovcTi /JLT) (f>o/3r)6rJT€. Xen. Hell. iii. 5. 10.
Do not be afraid because they rule many.
Though we might translate, do not be afraid thinking that.
Note 3. The Infinitive, Future, Present or Aorist is also used.
ov (^o^ovpSa iXacrcriocrecrOaL. ThUC. V. 105.
fFe are not afraid that we shall be beaten.
The Future Infinitive is here = the more usual p-rj with
Subjunctive.
<{>o^ovp.aL SuXiyxciv (re /xr) V7ro\df3rj<i. PlAT. Goi'g. 457 E.
/ am afraid to refute you lest you should suppose.
The latter construction (with the Present or Aorist) is
common enough, and is the ordinary objective construction
common to verbs of fearing with many of the verbs mentioned
266 FINAL SENTENCES, ETC.
in Note 1, e.g. (f)o/3ovfmi aSiKciv, I fear to do wrong ; ala-xvvo^iai
aStKcti/, / am ashamed to do wrong ; Ktv^vvevia dStKeii/, / run a
risk of doing wrong ; cf)v\d(Tcr(i> ix-qSiva dSt/cetv, / take care that no
mie does wrong. Cf. Latin, culpari metuit fides; penna metuente
solvi etc., in Horace.
Note 4. Observe the following distinctions : —
1. <})0/30VfiaL d8LK€LV.
I fear to do wrong (and so refrain).
2. cfioftovfxaL fxrj olSlko).
I fear I shall do wrong.
3. (jiO^ovfxaL dSiK-ja-eiv.
I fear I shall do wrong (very rare for 2).
4. (po^ovfJLaL TO aSiKclv.
I fear wrong-doing (generally, by myself, or by another.)
Note 5. Verbs of Fearing are also followed by el interroga-
tive.
ov SeSoiKa el ^tXnnros CV' Dem. Fals. Leg. 434. 6.
I have no fear whether Philip is alive (i.e. / have no fear as
to that question).
Cf. Eur. Herac. 791, Xen. Hell. xi. 1. 4 (oVot).
Note 6. dv is not used with the Subjunctive after Verbs of
Fearing. When the Optative is found with dv it is an
Apodosis.
§ 238. Verbs of Fearing, etc., with the Indicative.
When the result has actually occurred, or is occurring, thq
verb with firj is in the Indicative.
Thus : SeSoLKa jXY] dfxapTdvrjs (or dfidprys).
I fear you will make a mistake.
But SeSoLKa fXYj d/xapTdv€LS.
I fear you (actually) are making a mistake.
SiSoLKa fXY) '^fxdpTrjKas.
I fear you have made a mistake.
So SeSoLKa firj rjfidpTaves (you were making a mistake); fxri
yjfiapTf-s, that you made a mistake.
VERBS OF FEARING, ETC., WITH INDICATIVE, 267
1. The Present Indicative : —
(fiopetade /xrj Sva-KoXiorepoi/ ri StaKeifJiaL. PlAT. Phaed. XXXY.
You are afraid that I am in a somewhat more fretful state of
mind.
kiria-^es, ws av irpov^epevvqa-o) arTifSov,
KUfioL fxev ^Xdrjj k.t.A. Eur. Phoen. 92.
Yet stay, that first I may explore the path,
Lest any citizen now is visible
Upon the road, and one shall come to me.
Cf. I<m, 1523, Soph. El. 580. Similarly 6pw/>t€v /at) NiKtas
oterat, PlAT. Lach. 179 B. ela-ofiecrda fxyj KaXvTTTei, SOPH.
Antig. 1253. SLcrrd^ofxev fxri rvyxo^v^i, Plat. Soph. 235 A.
CTKe^w/xc^a [xr] Xavddvei, PlAT. Ly. 216 C.
2. The Imperfect Indicative : —
opa jxr] TTttifwi/ lAeyer. Plat. Theaei 145 B.
Have a care that he was not speaking in jest.
3. The Perfect Indicative : —
<f>o/3ovfiaL firj a.fx<f>OT€p(ji)v dfxa 'qfxapTT^Kafxev, ThUC. iii. 53.
I fear that we have missed both objects at once.
Cf. Plat. Lys. 218 d, Dem. 19. 26 {Fals. Leg. 372. 1).
4. The Aorist Indicative does not appear to occur in Attic.
See HoM. Od. v. 300.
5. The Future Indicative may be regarded as a graphic
substitute for the Subjunctive (supra).^
§ 239, Note on Dawes's Canon.
Dawes laid down the rule that after qttw? /^itJ and ov fjirj, the
First Aorist Passive, and the Second Aorist Active, Middle,
and Passive may be used, but not the First Aorist Active or
Middle. Instead of the First Aorist Active and Middle, he
said that the Future Indicative must be used. Subsequent
^ So at least in Attic. But if the original force of the Subjunctive
was imperative (denoting will) rather than future (a point on which it
is impossible to speak dogmatically), the Subjunctive in the oldest
Greek would mean shall rather than ivill, and would be more direct and
vivid than the Future. See Monro's Homeric Syntax, pp. 231 and 238,
268 FINAL SENTENCES, ETC.
critics extended Dawes's Canon to oVcos (without fxr]), and set
about changing a First Aorist Active and Middle, wherever
they were found in a text, to a Future Indicative. The sole
ground for this arbitrary rule of Dawes is the resemblance in
form between the First Aorist Active and Middle and the
Future Indicative, e.g. KATOKNHCHIC {KaroKvria-riq, Soph.
El. 956) and KATOKNHCEIC {KaroKv^crei^) ; SYAAE^HTAI
{^vXXk^y^Tat) and ^H/YAAE^ETAI (^vAXeJerat). Naturally
this resemblance of form might incline a Greek writer to avoid
confusion by using a second Aorist (if it existed) rather than
a First Aorist. Dawes made no objection to a First Aorist
Subjunctive Passive, because it bears no resemblance in form
to a Future Indicative. But Dawes's Canon rests on no solid
foundation of grammar, and breaks down completely on
examination. Instances of the First Aorist Subjunctive
Active and Middle in which all the MSS. agree are ottw? /xt)
€ml3or]0rj(Tio(TL (ThUC. iv. 66) ; OTTCO? firj /SovXeva-qa-de (ThUC. i.
73); oTTMs fir) ipyda-'qa-de, Lys. 138. Secondly, in some cases
the First Aorist Active does not resemble in form the Future
Indicative, and therefore cannot possibly be changed. E.g.
Soph. Phil. 381, ov [xrj IkttAcvo-j^s : the Future is iKTrAei^crov/xat,
and the second person would be eK-rrXeva-et not eKTrXevareis. So
Plat. Bep. x. 609, aTroXka-y, the Future is airoXQi : Soph. EL
1122, KXavG-o), First Aorist Active, where the Future would
be KXavcroviiai. And, lastly, the change made would in some
cases spoil the metre.
CHAPTEE VI.
§240. CONSECUTIVE AND LIMITATIVE
SENTENCES.
A Consecutive Sentence may be expressed either by
A. wcrre with the Indicative, or B. wo-re with the In-
finitive.
A. wcTTe (JoaT€ ov) with the Indicative states the con-
sequence as an independent fact actually occurring.
e^w Brj 6t9 ToaovTOv afiaOta^i ^fcco coare KaKov eKwv
iroLw. Plat.
/ it seems have reached such a pitch of ignorance that
I deliberately do wrong.
et9 TovTo rfkOov (o<Tr ov/c e^rjpKeaev avroi^ rj Kara
^Yjv ap'^7]. ISOC.
To sicch a pitch they came that their empire hy land
did not satisfy them.
B. wo-re (wo-re /lctJ) wdth the Infinitive expresses
merely the consequence which would naturally result
from the Principal Verb without affirming or denying
its occurrence.
yva)/jir}(; yap ov/c aireipo^ coad' dfjLaprdveLV. SoPH.
He is not void of wit that he should err,
ra TrapaBecyfiara tcov djjLaprrjfiaTwv Ixava toc<;
(T(0(j)pocrL ci)(7T€ /JL7]K€TL dfiapTaveiv. ANDOK.
Examples of errors are sufficient for sensible people
that they should no longer err, i.e. sufficient to keep
them from erring.
270 CONSECUTIVE AND LIMITATIVE SENTENCES.
§ 241. oidT^ with Indicative and Infinitive.
A. W0-T6 with the Indicative is parallel with oVt and the
Indicative, that is to say, it introduces the Indicative as
a statement almost, sometimes quite, independent of the
Principal Sentence.
Thus : TOdovTOv orv l/xov cro<f)(uTepo^ el, (oVre crv [x\v eyj/WKas —
lyw Se ayvod. Pl. Ajpol. xiii.
So much wiser are you than I, that (and so) you have
discovered, while I am ignorant, etc.
This introductory force of tio-re is best shown by its
familiar usage at the beginning of a sentence where it is a
synonym for ovv, tolvw, and may be rendered and so, conse-
quently, therefore.
CIS T'^v vcTTcpaiav ovx rjK€V TL(Tcra<f)€pvr]<s' wcrO' 01 "EWrjves
€<fip6vri^ov. Xen. An. ii. 3. 25.
On the morrow Tissaphernes did not appear. Consequently
the Greeks began to consider, etc.
So with an Imperative.
6v7]Tos S' ^Op€(TTr]s' wcrrc fxrj Xiav (rreve. SoPH. El. 1172.
Orestes was but mortal. Therefore grieve not too sore.
Occasionally this introductory force of cmttc is seen even
with an Infinitive.
io(TT^ €fx€ kixavrov aveptorav (after a colon or full stop).
Plat. Apol. viii.
And so I was questioning myself.
As ioa-re, like on, is merely introductory; it can be followed
by any construction which an independent sentence can take,
e.g. Imperative (supra): oio-re fxr) dTroKa/xr)^, Plat. Crit. 4:5.
toa-re av with Optative, loa-re av 6t8ao-KotT€, Xen. Cyr. iii. 3. 35.
okrrc av iroXfJirjcrev, Lys. 7. 28.
B. wo"Te with Infinitive.
wo-T€ with the Infinitive is epexegetical, i.e. explanatory of
the Principal Verb. It is doubly so, for ^a-re is an explanatory
particle, and the Infinitive is in its own nature explanatory.
Indeed ioa-re with the Infinitive, as will be seen below, often
takes the place of the simple Infinitive. The consecutive use
of wcrre with the Infinitive is only one among several of these
explanatory usages. The result contemplated, i.e. the purpose,
<SoTe WITH INDICATIVE AND INFINITIVE. 271
may be denoted ; the condition or limitation ; the command or
advice. The character of the explanation or definition will
depend upon the nature of the Principal Verb or Sentence.
1. A Purpose, or Contemplated Result.
Trav TTOLOvcriv wo-tc fxrj StK-qv SiSovaL.
Plat. Gorg. 479 c.
They do anything to avoid punishment.
Cf. Plat. Phaed. 114, wo-re fieraa-x^'^v.
2. Limitation or Condition (cf. €<^' w, €<f> $ re).
^vixixa\Lav €7roLy(ravTO eirl tol<s Sc, io(rT€ fxr] orrpaTCveiv
€7rl Il€Xo7rovvrj(TLov<s. Thug. iii. 14.
They made an alliance on these conditions, that they were
not to serve against the Peloponnesians.
3. A Petition or Command.
TreiBovcTLv ^crre "Apyei iTriX^i prjo-ac. ThUC. iii. 103.
TJiey try to induce them to attack Argos.
The Infinitive alone would be more usual here.
Cf. Thug. viii. 45, wo-tc aTroKTctmi. Soph. 0. C. 969, mttc
)dav€.lv, ordaining, requiring, to the effect, that he should die.
4. The definitive foixe (denoting the character, degi-ee, or
fextent) is well shown in the following : —
TreLcrofxaL yap ov
ro(TOVTOV ovSkv wcrre fXYj ov KaAws Oavelv.
Soph. Ant. 97.
/ shall suffer naught
So great as not to die a noble death (i.e. nothing which
will prevent my dying, etc.). .
For firj ov see chapter on the Negatives.
5. wo-re is freely used with the Infinitive, where the Infini-
tive alone might be used.
Travv [xoL ifxeXrja-ev wctc elSevai. Xen. Cyr. vi. 3. 19.
/ tvas greatly concerned to know.
TTorepa iralSes eicrt <f)povi[M(OT€poi wcrre fiaOetv 7) av8p€<s ;
Xen. Cyr. iv. 3. 11.
Are hoys more sensible at learning than men ?
272 CONSECUTIVE AND LIMITATIVE SENTENCES.
Too great to hear.
Maius quam quod tolerari possit.
ij/vxpov v8(jdp io(TT€ Xova-aa-Bai. Xen. An. iii. 13. 3.
The water is cold /or bathing.
lirixO'VO-^f' TToXXal etVtv wo-tc Sta^evyetv Odvarov.
Plat. Apol xxix.
There are many shifts for escaping death.
lias is more rarely so used, cf. Xen. Cijr. iv. 5. 15, w? iyKparels'
€LVai.
Note 1. Can io(tt€ with the Infinitive state a facf? The Infini-
tive, of course, denoting as it does the abstract verbal notion,
cannot, like the Indicative, definitely state a fact. toa-Te, with
the Infinitive, is parallel with irpiv and the Infinitive, Sid with
the Infinitive, or any similar substantival use of the Infinitive.
The fact, though not stated, is not excluded. More than this,
the expression may evidently be a variant for ioa-re with the
Indicative, open for a writer to use. This occurs when there
is no demonstrative in the Principal Sentence requiring defini-
tion. In this way irplv aTrievat avTov, before his departure, may
practically mean, before he departed; Sta to fxrjSha Trapetvai,
because of the presence of no one, may mean, because no one teas
present.
KAeapxos r/Xavvcv ctti tovs Mevwvos, wcrre iKecvovs €K-
TreTrXyJxOai. XeN. An. i. 5. 13.
Clearchus was marching against Menon's men, so that they-
were in a state of amazement.
dficfil 81
kvkXovvto Ttaa-av vr\a-ov, ioctt' dfjLrjxav€iV'
OTTOL rpdiroivro. AeSCH. Pers. 460.
They round about
Encircled the whole isle, so that the foe
Knew not which way to turn them.
Cf. Eur. Hec. 730.
Note 2. loa-Tc with dv and the Infinitive. oxrTe with the
Infinitive may be an (oblique) Apodosis, and therefore dv will
go with the Infinitive.
iyio €7rt Tovo-Sc cAw &a-T€ dv dvayKacrdrjvai, K.r.X.
Xen. Cyr. i. 4. 20.
For wa-T€ ov with the Infinitive, see Negatives.
RELATIVE CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES. 273
Note 3. (is is sometimes used for uio-re, generally with the
Infinitive.
6 TTorafxhs TO(rovTO<s to /SdOos, ws /xiySe rot Sopara VTrepexii-v
Tov /3d6ovs. Xen. Jfri. iii. 5. 7.
TAe rit;er is of so great a depth, that even the sj^ears could not
reach the bottom.
(Lit. rise above the depth). Cf. Xen. Cyr. L 5. 11. More rarely,
if ever in Attic, with an Indicative.
§ 242. Consecutive Sentences in Greek
and Latin.
The nearest approach in Latin to the distinction between
the Infinitive and Indicative is to be found in the use of the
Imperfect Subjunctive and Perfect (Aorist) Subjunctive, e.g.
cecidit ut cms frangeret [oio-re KaTayvvvat), and ut cms fregerit
(wo-T€ Karea^c). But the Latin distinction, even supposing it
is always observed, a distinction expressed by two tenses of
the Subjunctive, is a very difi'erent thing from that expressed
by two moods, the Infinitive and the Indicative.
§ 243. RELATIVE CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES.
Consecutive Sentences are also expressed by Eelative
Pronouns, olos, oa-os with Infinitive.
For TOLovTo<s o)(TT€ 2iiQ used TotovTo? otos or 0*05 aloHC.
„ TOcrovTov w(rT€ „ ToaovTov ocrov or ocrov.
The Negative is firj.
TOLovTOf; €Lfu 0109 fiTjBevc aW(p ireiOeaOat, tj Xoyo).
Plat.
I am of such a character as to yield to nothing hut reason.
Is (or eiusmodi) sum ut nuUi alii rei nisi ration!
paream.
ovK ^v (opa oTa dpSeiv to TreStov. XeN. An. ii 3. 13.
It was n^t the season for irrigating the plain.
vefJLOixevoL to, lavrwv iKaaTOt, ocrov diro^y^v. ThUC. i. 2.
Each tribe cultivating just enough of its land to obtain a svh-
sistence from it.
Cf. ThUC. iii. 49, too-oOtov oo-ov av«yva>K€vat.
S
274 CONSECUTIVE AND LIMITATIVE SENTENCES.
Toiavra elirovres ola koX tovs ndpovras axOea-Oat.
Plat. Gorg, 457.
Saijing such things that even the company was annoyed.
"OaTL^ (more rarely 09), with tlie Indicative, is Con-
secutive (parallel to ware with Indicative). ISTegative ov.
t/? ouTft)9 €v-q07]<; earlv v/jlwv barc^; aypoel ravra ;
Dem.
Who of you is so simple that he is ignorant of this ?
Quis vostrum tarn stultus est ut (qui) haec ignoret?
ovSeU av yh'OLTO ovrws dBafidvTLVOs os dv fxeivciev.
Plat. Bep. ii. 360 b.
No one would prove so steeled against temptation as to remain
firm,
dv fxdveuv is, of course, an Apodosis. For os see Soph. Phil.
409, 444, Ai 471.
§ 244. LIMITATIVE OR RESTRICTIVE
SENTENCES.^
(0(TT6 {ware /jlt]), e</)' o), €(p core (jjlt]).
On condition that, on the understanding that.
ware (wcrre ^rj) with Infinitive.
e(^' w, ec/)' wre with Infinitive (Negative /xtJ), or Future
Indicative (Negative ov or ^r\).
e^rjv avTOL<; rcov aXkoyv ap'^eiv EWr}V(ov war avTov<^
viraKoveuv rS ^aatXel, Dem. 6. 11.
It was in their power to rule the rest of the Greeks if
they themselves would ohey the King.
1 With &ffT€ Limitative compare the use of ut in Latin :
Bonis viris ita fides habetur ut nulla sit iis fraudis suspitio.
Cic. Off. ii. 33.
Good men are trusted only when there is no suspicion of dishotiesty
against them.
LIMITATIVE OR RESTRICTIVE SENTENCES. 275
acjiLe/juev ae eiri tovto) e^ core /jLrjKerc (fx-Xoaocpelv.
Plat.
We acquit you, on the understanding that you no
longer pursue philosophy (ita ut philosophari
desinas).
awe^r^crav e<f> (OTe e^tacrcv e/c TIe\o'irovvr]<TOV viro-
cnrov^OL (koI ^7]heiT0T€ eiTL^TjaovTat avrrj^).
Thtjc.
They surrendered on the condition that they should
leave the Peloponnese under truce (and never again
set foot on it).
Observe that the Future Indicative is used in Historic
Sequence.
Note. The Nominative Attraction is observed : —
irws av ovTOs kdkXot ra dWorpia diro(rT€p€iv €(fj' w KaKoSo^os
elvac. Xen. Ag. 4. 1.
CHAPTEE VIL
§245. CAUSAL SENTENCES.
Causal sentences are expressed in a variety of ways.
A. By Causal Particles and a Finite Mood.
B. By Eelative Sentences.
C. By Participles.
D. "In various miscellaneous ways.
A. Causal Particles.
The common Causal Particles are also the Temporal
Particles, eVe/, eireihri, «? (cf. Latin cum). The negative
is oVf and the Indicative is the Mood.
Tidr^ixi ae o/jLoXoyovvra eTreL^rj ovk airoKpLvei. Pl. Ap.
I assume that you consent, since you do not answer.
eiret ovk eBvvavTo Xafji^dvecv to '^utpLov airievai tjBt]
eireyelpovv. Xen. Anah. v. 2. 5.
As they were not able to take the place they were new
trying to go away.
For eVet^T] with Imperfect, Thuc. i. 102. For lirel, see
Xen. An. v. 2. 5. For «9, Soph. Phil. 46, 914.
Note 1. When, however, the sentence is explanatory of what
has preceded, on,. Uon, ScoTrep are used. These particles
cannot introduce a Causal Sentence Hke eirei, etc. (cf. ot€
Temporal).
TpLyjprjs Be crecraypevT] dvOpioTTiov 8id rt, dXXo (^ofiepov ecrrt
7] oTt ra^v 7rA.€t; Sid Se re aAAo dXvTroL dXXrjXois 01
c/x7rA€0VT€S '^ Blotl kv rd^€L KaOrjvrai ; XeN. Oec. viii. 8.
For what other reason is a trireme full of men dangerous,
except because it sails fast ? And for what other reason do
those who are on board occasion no alarm to one another,
except because they sit still in their ranks ?
276
CAUSAL SENTENCES. 277
Note 2. A Causal Sentence in Historic Sequence is found
in the Optative when it expresses the indirect words or
thoughts (virtual oratio ohliqua).
rbv UepiKXea eKct/ct^oi/, ort (rTpaTrjyb<s &v ovk kirk^ayoi..
Thuc. ii. 21.
They were abusing Pericles^ because, though general, he did not
lead them out into the field.
ort OVK €7r€^rjy€v would have been the simple explanation of
the historian.
In Periclem invehebantur quod, cum praetor esset, non
educeret.
Cf. Liv. ii. 7. Matronae annum ut parentem Brutum
luxerunt, quod tarn acer ultor violatae pudicitiae fuisset.
(OS occurs similarly in Xen. Symp. iv. 6, oTada iiraLvecravTa
avTov Tov 'Ayafiefjivova, to? /Saa-LXevs eirj dyaOos, because (as he
said) he was. Both oVt and a>s may, however, be regarded as
introducing an Oblique Statement, the verb of saying being
implied in eKaKi^ov and kiraivka-avTa. But in Xen. Mem. i. 4.
19, we have eVetVep riyyia-aivTo, which must be causal or ex-
planatory. And in Xen. Hell. vii. 1. 34, we have etx^ Aeyetv
(OS Stot rovTO TToXefx^creLav, on ovk kdeXrj&aiev, where we have a
real blending of on causal and on of the Oblique Statement.
Note 3. ore (just like cum in Latin) besides being Temporal,
is also Causal.
ore TOLvvv tovO^ out(os c^^ct, Trpocn^Kei 7rpodvix(x)<s edeXiLV
(XKoveLV. Dem. 01. i. 9. 3.
Since then this is so, it behoves you to be heartily willing io
listen. Quae* cum ita sint, etc.
Observe that this Causal ore, unlike the Temporal on, can
begin a sentence.
OT* ovv TOiov^e ^p-qcrpxiv elcr-qKOva-afiev.
Soph. El. 38, Phil. 427, Ant. 170, Ai, 1231.
Cum vero huiusmodi oraculum accepissemus.
Observe that on cannot be elided.
oTTon is similarly used. Thuc. ii. 60, Pl. Leg. 895 B.
€VT€ causal is poetical (Soph. Ai 715) : o-n-ov, causal only in"
Ionic.
odovv€Ka (oTov 'iv€Ka) in a causal sense occurs in SoPH. Ai.
123, 153.
278 CAUSAL SENTENCES.
B. Causal sentences are also expressed by relatives
09, 09 76, o(7Tt9, 6VTt9 76, with the Indicative.
Latin qui or quijope qui with Subjunctive.
7ra)9 <f>ep€i<; yap o<; ye avTO<; oyel ; Ar.
Why how d'ye hear, when yoiire being carried yourself?
davfjiaaTov iroiei^ 09 r}iuv ovBev BiBcof;. Xen.
Tou are acting strangely in giving us nothing.
= on ovhev BlBco<;.
Mirum facis qui nobis nihil des.
TTWS OV KaKKTTOS OCTTIS TTC/Dt TtAcIOVOS TTOtCt TOVS KaKOVpyOV<i ',
Must you not he scoundrel since you are making much of
evildoers 'i Dem. 24. 107.
05 ye, Soph. El. 911. oo-ns, Soph. Ant. 696.
Note. Other relatives (pronouns and adverbs) are similarly
used.
r^v fxrjTcpa ifiaKapi^ov, ol(dv tckvwv CKvp-qcrc. HdT. i. 31.
They were counting the mother Imppy in having been blest
with such children.
= 6tL TOiOVTiOV €KVp)]Cr€V.
ivhaipuxiv fJLOL i(fiaLV€TO, ws dSews ereXevra. PlAT. Phaed. ii.
/ deemed him hajpjpy, so fearlessly did he meet death.
— oTi ovTws dSews, not an uncommon use of m,
C. Participles are frequently used in a Causal Sense. The
Negative is ov. are (are Srj), ofov, oia Sij often accompany the
Participles in this use (also worre in Herodotus).
6 Kvpos, are Trats wv, i^Scto Ty (ttoXyj. XeN. Cyr. i. 3. 3.
Cyrus, boy-like, was charmed with the dress.
ovS' dv €VL vTreLKddoijXL ScLcras Bavarov. PlAT. Apol. XX.
There is not a mxin to whom I would yield through fear of
death.
Xkyiji §€ TOvS' €V€Ka, l3ovX6ix€vos So^ai (rot OTrep ifiot.
Plat. Fhaed. 102 d.
/ speak for the following reason, because I want you to think
just as I do.
See also Genitive and Accusative Absolute.
CAUSAL SENTENCES. 279
D. Causal Sentences are also often expressed by tw and
the Infinitive. .
ov TrXeove^ias <ev€Ka ravr' eirpa^ev dWa rw SiKaLorepa d^iovv
0i7^atov§ r/ -q/xas. DeM. ii. 13.
It was not for sake of greed that he did this, but because the
Thebans mcde a juster demand than we.
Causal Sentences are also very often and very simply
expressed by a Preposition and its case, sometimes by a
Preposition with the Infinitive, e.g.
Sto. TO ^tAou? avTovs elvat.
Because they are friends.
Cf. especially Bid and Kara.
CHAPTER VIII.
§ 246. EXPEESSIONS OF A WISH.
I. A Wish that refers to the Future, and which there-
fore may be fulfilled, is expressed —
A, By the Simple Optative.
B. By the Optative - with et^e, el yap (el and w?, ttw?
ap ; in poetry).
The Negative is always firj.
CO Trac, yevoio irarpo'^ evrv^earepo^;,
ra S' oXh! 6fjLo2o<i, koI yevoC av ov kc{ko<;, Soph.
Boy, may si thou prove more fortunate tham> thy father.
Like in all else, so shouldst thou prove not vile.
Observe that yevouo alone expresses a wish, yevoi av is
an Apodosis.
fiTj ^(prjv fiCT a/jLOV(rLa<;. EUK.
May I not live without culture !
€L yap yevoipr^v, tckvov, olvtI (rov V€Kp6s. EUR. Hipp. 1410.
Would to God, my child, I were dead in thy stead.
eW vplv dfiffioiv vovs ycvoiro cnocfipovelv. SoPH. Ai. 1264.
Would that to you twain judgment were granted for discretion.
€L fjioi yeroiTO <f>06yyo<s h ppdxio(rt. EUR. Hec. 836.
Oh, that a voice were given me in these arms.
(09 6 raSe irop(ov oAotro. SoPH. El. 126.
Ah, that he who contrived this might perish.
Cf. EuR. Hipp, 407.
TTWS dv dvT kp.OV Tp€<f>OlT€ TrjvSi TYJV VOCTOV ;
Soph. Fhil. 794.
Would that in my stead ye might hug this plague.
prj TTWS eyw Too-avras 8tKas <f>vyoLpL. PlAT. Apol. iii.
May not I be indicted on charges so serious /
EXPRESSIONS OF A WISH. 281
11. A Wish which refers to the Past, and which there-
fore can no longer be fulfilled, is expressed —
/^Imperfect Indicative (of pre-
I sent time, continued or ha-
A, With elOe, e\ 'yap (/iTf)^ bitual actions).
I Aorist Indicative (of single
V. acts).
B, co^eXov (Aorist), sometimes w^eXXor (Imperfect),
from o(j)€c\(o, I owe, with the Infinitive (Present or Aorist).
etOe, el yap {jjurj) may accompany ax^eXov, sometimes «?
in poetry.
elO el^e?, w reKova-a, /SeXrtou? ^peva<;.
Eur. El. 1061.
Would that tliou hadst, mother , letter judgment (but
thou hast not).
€i6e oroi, 0) TIepLfc\6L<^y rore (rvveyevo/jLrjv.
Xen. Mem. i. 2. 46.
/ wish I had been with you then, Pericles.
«<? c^(f)6\ov irapoidev eKXLirelv ^tov. SoPH. El. 1131.
Ah, would that I had first forsaken life.
€l9' (o(/)€A€<» TotaSe Trjv yv(^firjv Trar/aos
dvrjO-KovTOs dvai. SOPH. El. 1021.
Would thou hadst been thus minded on the da/y thy father
died.
rrjv ^Kdpov. Soph. Phil. 969.
Would that I ne'er had left
My Scyros I
a)S irplv StSd^aL y' wt^eAe? fiecros SLappayrjvai.
Arist. Ban. 955.
Pity, ere you taught 'em, that you didn't burst asunder in
the midst.
282 EXPRESSIONS OF A WISH,
Note 1. A wish may be made to depend on a condition which
is expressed by ovrm. Instead of the sentence which logically
should follow " so may I . . . ^5," an Indicative or an Impera-
tive is substituted.
ovT(}i VLK-qcraLixi T* eyo) Kal vo/it^oi/ZTyv (T0(f>6<ij
(US vfxas 'qyovfxai ilvat Oearas Se^tovs. Ar. Nub. 520.
So may I win and be considered wise, as I hold you to be a
clever audience.
OVTIOS OVaiJX-qV TWV T€KV(Ji)V, /XtCTO) TOV avSp' €K€LVOV.
Ar. Th. 469.
So may I be blest in my children . . . I do hate that fellow.
ovTO)<s ovaicrde tovtcov, fxr] TrepuSrjre fxe. DeM. Aph. ii. 842. 9.
So may you enjoy this . . . do not neglect me.
Instead of saying — on this condition, namely, that you do not
neglect me.
This is exactly like the well-known Latin idiom : —
Sic te diva potens Cypri
Ventorumque regat pater
Navis ...
Finibus Atticis
Reddas incolumem precor. HoR. Od. 1. iii. 1.
Sic venias hodierne . . . tibi dem turis honores.
TiBULL. 1. vii. 33.
Note 2. Explanation of expressions of a wish.
(1) Optatives and Indicatives with d, d yap, etOe are clearly
Protases with suppressed Apodoses.
€L yap ravra yevoiro (sc. KaAws dv drj).
el yap ravra iycvero (sc. KaAws dv yv).
Latin is parallel —
O si haec ita fiant, fierent, facta essent.
With a»5 compare ut, utinam in Wishes.
(2) dxfieXov (/ ought, or had ought), on the other hand, is an
Apodosis with a suppressed Protasis; used like vpw, e^ci
without an dv.
EXPRESSIONS OF A WISH. 283
Latin again supplies a parallel —
(Eum) si ulla in te pietas esset, colere debehas.
Cic. Phil. ii. 38.
Tunc ego debueram capienda ad Pergama mitti :
Tunc poteram magni, si non superare, morari
Hectoris arma meis. Ov. Met. xii. 445.
CHAPTER IX.
§ 247. EELATIVE SENTENCES.
Relative sentences are introduced by either (1) Relative
Pronouns, or (2) Particles of Relative origin, «<?, ore, el,
o(l)pa, etc.
The chief distinction between Relative Sentences is
that of Definite and Indefinite, a distinction explained in
§172. It applies to many Relative Particles as well as
Pronouns, e.g.
A. Definite —
care onrodev rJXto? dvccr'^eL, koI oirot Bverai. Xen.
You knew where (lit. whence) the sun rises, and where
(lit. whither) it sets.
CO yata 8ef at OavaaLfJuov fi , bircof; €^co. SoPH.
Earth ! receive me, as I am, in death.
Accipe me, ut sum.
B. Indefinite —
oiroL av crTpaT7]yov eKTre/JbyjrrjTe, ol e')(6poi Kara-
jeXcocri. Dem.
Whei'esoever you send out a general, your enemies
ridicule yov..
e^ean ^PW^^'' ottco^ av /SovXaivrac. Xen.
You may make tvhatever use (of it) you please.
284
RELATIVE SENTENCES. 285
Definite Relative sentences present no difficulty. In-
definite Eelative sentences freely form Subordinate sen-
tences of every kind, — Conditional, Temporal, Modal,
Consecutive, etc., and will be found under these several
heads. Some Relative Particles denote Place (otto*, 'Iva,
etc.), but a special chapter on Local Sentences is un-
necessary.
Other uses of the Relative will be seen by reference to
the Index. Especial attention should be paid to the
syntax of the Negatives with Relatives ; see chapter on
the Negatives, Part III.
PART III.
PREPOSITIONS, NEGATIVES, ORATIO
OBLIQUA, AND FIGURES.
CHAPTER I.
§248. PREPOSITIONS.
Prepositions in Attic are particles which have a double
use. Either (1) they are joined in Composition with
Verbs; or (2) they serve as links between the oblique
case of Nouns or Pronouns and other words, especially
Verbs, in the sentence. As such links they denote Place,
Time, and various figurative relations, Agency, Cause,
Means, etc., more distinctly than could be done by the
oblique cases alone. Prepositions also help to form com-
pound adjectives and substantives. Philology and Epic
Poetry, however, enable us to trace the origin and usage
of Prepositions further back than their Attic uses, and to
account for those uses.
§ 249. Introductory Note to Prepositions.
1. Prepositions appear to have been originally case-
forms. Thus vTTo (Ep. vTzal) was Locative, meaning on the
ufider side ; vircp (Sanskrit upari), on the upper side ; Sid (Ep.
and Poet. Stat), in the space between; dvri is Locative, avrd
Accusative (cf. dvr-rjv, coram) ; irept Locative ; 7r/)o? {Trport)
Locative ; Trapa. (Trapai) Locative ; irpo is Ablative. As cases
INTRODUCTORY NOTE TO PREPOSITIONS. 287
they must all have been capable of taking a Genitive.^
Thus vTral x^ovos, OKI the under side of the earth; Trap ttoSos
{irapaL), Pindar, P. 10. 97, on the near side of the foot ; avTi
ifielo, II. xxi. 481, on the opposite side of me. This is con-
firmed by the fact that all the quasi-prepositions, which are
cases of nouns, are joined to a Genitive, e.g. 6vpa(€, Eur.
Bacch. 331. This stage, however, is previous to all written
literature, and belongs to Philology rather than Syntax.
2. They were used as Adverbs ^ independently of Verb or
Noun. Instances still occur frequently in Homer, e.g. /xeAavcs
8' dva /Sorpves r]crav, hlack clusters were throughout, II. xviii. 512 :
irepl irpo yap eyx^*" ^^^^, around in front he was raging with his
spear, II. xi. 180 : a/z<^t Se ol Ppd^'e revx^^? ^^ either side for
him (or near him) dashed his arms : -n-epl Krjpi (j6tAe€o-Ke, exceeding
much at heart he loved him. The Adverb qualifies the Verb,
but stands apart from it.
3. A transitional period, that of the Homeric poems, suc-
ceeds. Originally the Noun went straight with the Verb;
the relation between the two might be more particularly
defined by an Adverb. Thus dyayeiv Sofxov, to lead home ;
ayayetv So/xov, to lead from home (Genitive of separation or
Ablative) : w/xots /8aA' atyiSa, on his shoulders (Locative) he cast
his shield. Compare these with ekrjyov Oeiov 86fxov, Od. iv. 43 ;
Ik 8' dyaye KXtarirj's, II. i. 346 : rjy^v h /cXicrtryv, II. i. 89 : d/x^i
Se x^t'^at a>ixoL<s dtara-ovrai. In the first two of these last four
examples the Adverbs et's and €k further define the direction of
the Verb, and form Compound Verbs which " govern " respec-
tively theAccusative and Genitive. But in the last two the
Adverb serves as a link between Noun and Verb, and becomes
a Preposition.
4. Prepositions thus come to furnish new analytic cases,
the old cases with their blunted and confused suffixes being
1 This is Curtius' view {Elucidations, Ch. xvii. ) It must apply to
Prepositions only when they do not denote separation (in which case
they would be joined to an Ablative). Such a connection between
Prepositions and the Genitive is said not to exist in Sanskrit, and on
this ground Delbruck (Syntaktische Forschungen, iv. ch. ix. p. 134)
only partially accepts Curtius' theory.
2 No distinction is here intended in speaking of Prepositions as case-
fonns and as Adverbs. All oblique cases are, of course, adverbial,
except the true Genitive, which is adjectival or attributive.
PREPOSITIONS.
insufficient to express all the new relations between Noun
and Verb which were suggested by the expansion of Greek
thought and knowledge. When a Preposition links a case to
any other word but a Verb, to an Adjective or Noun, a verbal
meaning is readily understood. In determining the force of
a Preposition we must carefully consider three points : the
meaning (1.) of the Preposition, (2.) of the Case, (3.) of the
Verb (or verbal word). In the stereotyped phrases with
Prepositions which have practically become Adverbs or Adjec-
tives, it will be easy enough to supply the verbal notion which
the phrase requires to complete it logically.
5. A few instances may elucidate the foregoing remarks.
a. The noun linked by a preposition to its case has a
verbal meaning.
StaAAayai zr/aos Ttva, reconciliation with any one, IsocR. 60 B,
compared with hLaX\a\9qvaL irpos rtva, to be reconciled with
any one.
To^oTrjs d(f>' iTTTTOv, compare with ro^cmiv d<f)' iTnrov.
h. The Preposition with its Case is a fuller expansion of
the Simple Case.
Thus we may say, xprja-Tov irpos dvSpos co-n, or XPW^^^
dvSpos i(TTL, it is the part of a good man.
Lysias writes fivr^a-drjvat tivo<s : Thucydides, p.vr](r6rjvaL irepi
Tivos : Demosthenes, ixvy](x6r\vaL v-n-ep nvos.
So we may say, dprjcnTaL Trpos v/j^ds, or vfxLv, v^ dX-rjOeia, the
truth shall he told you; fxax^a-Oai tw Ai/zw Kal t^ BtxpcL, Xen.,
to fight with hunger and thirst; fidx^a-BaL irpos €7rL$v/j.ias, Plat.,
to fight against desires.
Similarly, 17 Trap' l/xov €vvoLa = r) evvoia fiov, my goodwill
(Subjective Gen.); to Trap' ifxov d8tKr]ixa = To dScKrjpid fiov, the
wrong done by me (Objective).
6. Improper or Spurious Prepositions are those which can
be joined with Cases, e.g. dvev, hcKa with Genitive, cus with
Accusative, but which are not compounded with Verbs.
7. Tmesis is a late Grammarians' term to denote the
separation between Preposition and Verb. The term is
unnecessary, for, as we have seen, in early Greek it is not the
separation, but the combination, which has to be accounted
for. Tmesis in Attic is but a survival of the earlier usage :
it is practically confined to poetry and a few colloquialisms,'
PREPOSITIONS AND THE THREE CASES. 289
e.g. 81' a/D* oAwAa/xei/, EuR. I.T. 1371, ttTTo' o-' 0A.W. It is seldom
found except when a particle intervenes. Aesch. Sept. c.
Theh. 672 forms an exception.
8. DissyHabic Prepositions are oxytone. They become
Paroxytone (i.e. Barytone) in certain cases: (1.) When they
stand immediately after their Verb or Case, e.g. oAeo-a^ a7ro
TTarras kraLpovs, fJ-o-xV'^ irkpi. This is called Anastrophe.
'A/x<^i, dvTi, dvd, 8id are not liable to Anastrophe. Mono-
syllabic Prepositions take the acute accent by Anastrophe,
but only when they come at the end of a line. (2.) When
they are equivalent to a Compound Verb, generally a Sub-
stantive Verb, dva = dvd(rT')]di />i€Ta = /xerecrTt, similarly evi,
eVi, Trdpa, irkpi, and perhaps vivo. (3.) d-rro and irkpi when used
as Adverbs.
Oxytone Prepositions with elision lose their accent, e.g.
Trap' rjfxcpaVj eir avrw.
S 250. The Prepositions and the Three Cases.
The Accusative is the case of the Direct Object of the
Verb. This, however, implies direction to, or on, and thus
Prepositions with the Accusative denote motion to,^ extension
along or over.
The Genitive is the Case of Connexion and Separation.
Prepositions with the Genitive denote connexion with, or sepa-
ration from : in the former sense the true Genitive is used,
in the latter the old Ablative use has been handed on to the
Genitive.
The Dative is connected with Prepositions chiefly in its
locative sense. Prepositions with the Dative denote nearness
to, or rest at, hy, ivith, or near.
§ 251. Collected usages of Prepositions.
1. The Agent is expressed by the following Prepositions: — ■'
vTTo with Gen. (the regular expression to
denote the Agent ; the others which
follow are special.)
^ But it must be remembered that the notion of motion must origin-
ally have come from the combined signification of Verb, Preposition,
and Case.
T
290 PREPOSITIONS.
Trpoq (in poetry and Ionic prose) with Gen.
irapd (the agent as the source) with Gen.
oLTTo (in some special prose uses) with Gen.
Slol (the intermediate agent) with Gen.
2. Means by —
Blci with Gen. (the regular expression to
denote the Means; the others are special).
ttTTO.
U with Gen.
€v with Dat.
^vv with Dat.
3. The usages of certain Prepositions are closely parallel :—
UTTO
€K
dvTL
TT/OO
^VV
/ACTa
dvd
— Kara
VTvkp
— irepi (in certain senses).
dfijii
— ire pi
kiri
— 7r/)os (in certain senses).
L The usages of
'asted : —
certain Prepositions are sharply con-
>
€K CV
vjrkp
VTTO
dvd
— Kara, etc.
5. Synonymous phrases are formed by different Preposi-
tions with Cases, e.g. : —
KaG* "qfiepav, fxed^ rjficpav, Trdp^ rjfiepav.
ol dfi<^l nXaTwva, ot rrepl IIAaTWva.
6. Verbs of rest are used with Prepositions expressing
motion. This is known as the Construdio Fraegnans. See
aTTO, €^, €tS, €»/.
7. Prepositions are used, (1) in their literal sense denoting
place, or time, (2) in a figurative sense denoting various moral
relations.
The Attic use of Prepositions is marked off from the Epic
chiefly in two ways : (1) by the disuse of the adverbial senses,
(2) by the development of figurative meanings.
PREPOSITIONS WITH ACCUSATIVE ONLY. 291
§ 252. PREPOSITIONS AND THE CASES,
I. Prepositions with one Case.
a. Accusative : avd, eU (e?), &>? (dficpl practically in
prose).
h. Genitive : avrl, airo, ef (e/c), irpd {dvev, evexa,
eKari, %wpi9, d^piy /^expO-
e. Dative : ev, aw {a/jua, ofiov).
II. Prepositions with two Cases.
Accusative and Genitive : 8ta, Kara, virep, fierd.
III. Prepositions with all three Cases.
afKpi, 677 L, irapa, irepi, 7rpo<;, viro.
I.— PREPOSITIONS WITH ONE CASE ONLY.
(a.) WITH ACCUSATIVE ONLY.
§ 253. 'A^a.
^Avd, up to, through, opposed to Kara (compare the two
throughout), Eng. on, Gothic ana. Germ. an. 'Avd related
to evl {ev) as on and in.
Lat. an-helo, I breathe up, Curt. Etymol. i. 381.
Up along :
TO. ifKola dva rov iroraiMov ov hvvavTai irXeeLV.
Herod.
The boats cannot sail up the stream (cf. Kard).
Throughout or Among :
dolBLfio^ dvd TTjV *EX\dBa eyevero. Herod.
He became famous in song throughout all Greece.
oLKeiv dva rot opr), Xen. An. iii. 5. 16, to live in the hills.
292 PREPOSITIONS.
Distrihutively :
eiropevOrjaav dva irevre irapacrawyya^ ri}? rip^epa^.
Xen.
Tliey marched at the rate of five parasangs a day.
So ava 'iKarov, in bodies of a hundred, in centuries. Cf.
S. Luke ix. 14, S. Matth. xx. 10.
Phrases :
ava Kpdro^ ((ftevyeiv), with all one's might (cf. Kara Kpdro^ :
dva \6yov (^vo/xem ScvSpa), Plat. Phaed. lix. trees
growing) in proportion ; dva a-rofxa e^^etv, to have in one\s
mouth, at the tip of the tongue.
N.B. dva has the sense oi dvaa-r-qdi, up! arise/ sursuni f
Cf. Soph. Ai. dW dva (^ €8pdv(jiv, come, up from thy seat/
Note, dva is also used in Homer, in Lyric poetry (Pindar),
and in Choruses of the Tragedians with the Dative {e.g.
Eur. /. A. 754).
In Composition :
(1.) Up, dvapX^TTO), I look up. (2.) Reverse action, hack,
dvavevo), / throw the head hack. (3.) Again, dvajSkcwoi^
I recover sight.
§ 254. Eis or e's.
EU or 69, into, to, opposed to ef, out of. Original form
perhaps ei^?, from evi-(;. In Pindar ev means in and into.
Cf. Latin in and inter with Accusative.
(1) Of Place :—
Motion to, into, for :
SiKeXol ef 'iraXta^ Bte^rjaav 69 St/ceXlav. Thuc.
The Sicels crossed over out of Italy into Sicily (pv for
Sicily).
With verbs of rest :
Kara/cAeietv h tyjv vrja-ov. ThUC. i. 109.
To shut up in the island. (Constructio praegnans.)
PREPOSITIONS WITH ACCUSATIVE ONLY. 293
{To speak) he fore :
Xkyeiv €6S TO TrXrjBo's.
To speak before the people.
Cf. etcrtevat, crrr^vai Is.
Looking towards:
TO Is TiaXXrivqv Tilxo^. ThUC. i. 56.
The wall facing Pallene.
Phrases :
€ts aKovTLov^ €ts So/)aTos TrXrjyrjv (d^iKvctcr^at).
To get within javelin's throw, spear thrust.
Opposed to 1^.
(2) Of Time:—
Up to, until :
eU Tr)v eco, till dawn ; e<; efxi, up to my time.
At such a time, hy such a date :
et's ka-Trepav, els rpLTTjv (with or without -qfiepav), iS t^v
va-repaiav {-i^Keiv), to come at even, on the third day (or
in three days), on the morrow.
Phrases :
Is Katpov, in season ; €ts avpiov, on the morrow ; ct's tTr^ira,
henceforward ; et's a7ra£ (or eiVaTra^), once for all, etc.
(3) With Numbers : —
Denoting limit, up to, amounting to :
vav<; e? Ttt9 T6TpaKocrca<;, Thuc.
Ships to the number of four hundred.
€9 Bpa'^fjLJjv BiaBovvai. Thuc.
To pay each man itp to (i.e. as much as) a drachma.
Phrases :
€is tVa, €ts 5vo, €is T€(r(rapas.
One, two, four deep.
els SvvaixLv, to the extent of one's ability ; els vTrep^oXi^v, in
excess.
194
PREPOSITIONS.
one.
(4) Of Eelation to : —
dfiaprdve^v eU tlpu, to do wrong to any
Purpose :
cs ToSe rJKOfiev, for this purpose we are come.
€is KttAAos (rjv, Xen., to live for show.
(5) Special Phrases : —
€S av8pa<s ("EXXrjva'i, etc.) reXdv, to come to maWs estate
{to he enrolled among, belong to Greeks). Cf. iyypdffxo.
Is TL (tovto) TfA-evTciv, to cnd in a certain way.
h Trav/ d(f>LK€a-6aL, to come to everything, i.e. to try every
means,
ek 'AttoAAwvo?, Atovvcrov, to Apollo's, Dionysus' temple, ad
Apollinis, ad Bacchi. So C6s StSao-KaAov, ei? kpavrov
{(fiOLTav), sc. oTkov or some such word.
KB. €ts is not used in Attic of motion to individual per-
sons ; TT/Dos or d)s must be employed.
In Composition :
Into. Examples unnecessary.
§ 255. 'n?.
«<?, to, with Persons only, not with things,
with 7r/)09, eU, eV/, and alone.
&)9 Ayiv eiTpea^evdavTo. Thuc.
They sent an embassy to Agis.
(b.) WITH GENITIVE ONLY.
§ 256. 'KvtL
dvTL (original sense, over against, opposite to), instead of,
in exchange for ; dvrd. Epic adv. and prep, over against,
face to face ; avrrjv, Ep. adv. over against. Cf. ev-avrc-o^
dvTL-Kpv. In Homer dvri is still an adverb rather than a
preposition. Lat. ante (orig. anted), cf. Germ, ant-wort.
PREPOSITIONS WITH GENITIVE ONLY. 295
(1) Of Place, opposite to :
This sense is Epic.
(2) Instead of:
KaKCL TTparrec avr a'yaOcov. Plat.
He does evil instead of good.
So [xd^ov, ttXgov, dvTL, instead of Comparative and Simple
Genitive, Soph. Ant. 182, Tr. 577.
(3) In return for :
Bel TOL fiev avTL apyvpcov aWa^aaOac. Plat.
We must exchange some things for money.
dvO' S)v, wherefore (also because, cf. Soph, Antig. 1068).
Rarely like Trpos, for the sake of (lit. over against, in the
presence of), with verbs of entreaty, see Soph. 0. C. 1326.
In Composition :
Many meanings, (1) Against, i.e. opposite or in opposition,
dvTt/?atVa>, I plant the foot against, also / resist. (2)
Reciprocity, substitution, or equality, dvTi/SorjOC), I help in
turn ; av^i^Traro?, proconsul ; dyrirvn-os, struck, or striking
back, corresponding ; dvrt^eos, godlike.
§ 257. 'Atto'.
^Airo, away, off, from. Sansk. apa, away, Lat. ab, Germ. ,
ab, Eng. off, of 'Airo (Sansk. apa) connected with eirl
(Sansk. api, further, after).
(1) Of Place : —
Away from :
aTTO T^9 avTcov opfJbwvTai. Thuc.
They advance frorn their own country.
With verbs of rest {from the observer's point of view) :
c/^oacrev dxro Trerpas (rTaOeis. EUR.
Shouted from the rock, standing {on it). '
Hence many phrases : ot aTro rtui/ irvpymv, the men on the
towers ; diro veiov, d<^' iTTTrtov p.dx€cr6aL, to fight on board ship,
on horseback.
296 PREPOSITIONS.
Phrases :
ttTTo (TKOTTOV, Katpov, Wide of the TTiark (cf. airh yvw/x?;?,
Soph. Tr. 389); ajro rpoTrov (Plat.), unsmtably,
opposed to TT/OOS rpOTTOV, KaTOL TpOTTOV.
aTTo 8€vSp(i)v KaraSetu (Xen.), to tie to trees.
(2) Of Time :—
After, since :
airo Twv (TCTCDV BiaTTOvelorOai. Xex.
To work after meals.
Phrases :
TO ttTTo rovSe, henceforth ; d<f)' ov, ex quo, since ; d:rd
TraAatov, apyaiov, of old ; a.4> k(nrkpa<i (ThUC. vii. 29),
at even.
(3) Origin : —
oi fiev aire Bewv yeyovore^, ol 8' ef avrcov rwv Oewv.
Isoc.
Some descended (remotely) from gods, others begotten
(directly) ly the gods themselves.
Material :
Kpaa-is (XTTo T€ Trjs rj8ov7]<5 (TvyKiKpafxevr) ofxov Acat oltto ttJ?
^"^V^: . Plat. Phaed. ii.
A combination consisting partly of pleasure and partly of
pain.
Means :
^y\v ttTTo TroXe/xov (yeoipytas). ThuC. and XeN.
To live by war (husbandry).
UepiKXri^s aTTo Sta/coortwv veojv KaT€7roX€fx-q<rev Tr]v ^dfxov.
r, .-, Is. 15. 11.
Pericles with 200 67^*^5 reduced Samos.
Cf. ThUC. i. 91, aTTO Trapacr K€vrj<s.
Cause, in consequence of or for :
aTTO Tivos Oavfid^ea-Oai, kiraivilcrdaL, SLa/SdWecrdac.
To be admired, praised, slandered in consequence of any thing .
air avTiov tujv ipyuyv o-KOTrciTC. ThUC. i. 17.
Judge from facts themselves.
PREPOSITIONS WITH GENITIVE ONE V. 297
Agent, less direct than vtto :
iirpd^diq avr' ai'rwy ov^\v. ThUC. i. 17.
Nothing was achieved by them.
See Poppo's note.
diro with a case is often a periphrasis for a case alone, e.g.
6 ttTTo Ttuv 8opo(f)6piDv (fio^os^ fcav of the body guard, Xen. Hier.
X. 3 ; rwv drro rwv Brj/xov ris, one of the people, ThUC. iv. 130.
Thucydides's partiality for a free use of diro is remarkable.
(4) Phrases : —
01 ttTTo Hxdayopov, nAarovo?, the school of Pythagoras,
Plato.
ol aTTo TTJs 'AKaSYjfiecag, Sroa?, the Academics, Stoics {the
Academy, the Porch).
ol dirb (TKTjvrjs, actors.
UTTO (TTrovSrj'?, earnestly ; drro rod tcrov (r-J^s icrrjs)^ dir tcrrjs,
equally; drrb tov 7rpo(f>avov'S, openly ; utto yXitxjcrrjq
elirelv, to state by word of mouth (Thuc. vii. 10), to
repeat by heart (Xen. Symp. iii. 5), from hearsay (Aesch.
Ag. 813); o/ufxariDv drro (EuR. 3Ied. 216), with one's
own eyes; diro tov avro/JbaTov (ravTO/xarcn;), spontaneously,
sponte, casu quodam ; diro o-qp^^iov, at a given signal.
In Composition :
(1) Separation, hence completion, and ceasing, dTroXovio, I
wash off; dTrepyd^ofxat, I finish off, i.e. / complete;
dTToXrjyd), I leave off, desist. ^2) Restoration, d7ro5t8w/u,i,
/ give back.
Separation also becomes practically privative, e.g.
d7rayop€v(i), I forbid ; d;rox/»i/xaTos, without money.
S258. 'E/c,'Ef.
*Efc, *E^, out of; opposed to eU, into, ck and dird run
parallel throughout. Lat. ex, e (ec).
(1) Of Place :—
Onto/:
€K ^7rapTr)<; (j)6vy€i.
He is banished from (out of) Sparta.
298 PREPOSITIONS.
Denoting change ; (cf. avrl).
TToXw eK TToXeo)? aWarreiv. Plat.
To change city after city.
With verbs of rest :
€K SevSpiov airay^jicrOaL, ThUC. iii. 81.
To hang themselves on trees.
Phrases :
Hence many phrases (observe that the first three or
four are instances of Constructio Praegnans) : tovs ck t7^s
vav/jLax'^a-s (ovk dveXofxevovs), Plat. Apol. XX., those in the seor
fight ; 01 Ik vTJcrwv KaKovpyoc, Thuc. 1. 8, the evil-doers in (of) the
islands ; ol €k tcov Trvpycov, those on the towers, Thuc. iii. 22 ;
TO e^'IaOfiov Te^xo^ (opposed to to k Uakkrivrjv), ThUC. i. 64,
the wall on the side of the Isthmus ; €k Se^tas, on the right ; e^
dpi(TT€pa^, on the left ; U vofxoDv, in accordance with the laws ;
opdos 6^ opdojv 8l4>p(j}v, Soph. El. 742, erect in chariot erect ;
Ik t?]s xpvx^j'i (If dvjjiov, HoM.) with all one' s heart ; Ik a-avTTJs
(Aeyets), self -prompted, Soph. El. 344, cf. diro ; ck ttoXXov, at
a long distance, Xen. ; €k t6^ov pv/xaros, Xen., at how-shot;
Ik x«/>os H-^XV^ TToleLa-dai, Xen., to fight hand to hand.
(2) Of Time :—
Since, after :
ef ov {xp(^^(^^)> since, ex quo ; ck tov dplcrrov, after
breakfast. (So diro.)
€K TovTov, after this (ck tovto^v gen. in consequence of this).
€K TOV XoiTTov (tQv AotTTwv) for thc futurc, Xen. and Plat.
After, denoting change :
€fc BaKpvcov jeXav. Xen.
To laugh after tears (weeping).
TV</)AoS €K SiSopKOTOS Kttt TTTW^OS dvrl TrXoVCTLOV.
Soph. 0. T. 454.
Blind after seeing, and poor instead of (being) rich.
Ever since :
€K vkov, Ik TracSos, from youth, from childhood.
PREPOSITIONS WITH GENITIVE ONlS^. C^^qTHR ^^
fUKIVE ESI
(3) Origin : — Vv^^ ^^'
ayaOol fcal ef dyaOcov. ^^^i:^ ^^ ^ *v< ^^
Plat. (Cf. Soph. 471^466.)
Good, and horn of good parents.
Material :
TO ay KL(TTpov €^ aSa/xai/TOS. PlAT. Eep. 616.
TAe Aoo^ is of adamant.
Agent (Herodot. and poetry, rare in Attic) :
€K rwvS' apxofxai. SoPH. El. 264.
By them am I ruled.
Cf. Soph. Ant. 957. 973, Thug. iii. 69, Xen. Eell. iii. 96.
Cause, Consequence, or Means :
€K TToAe/xov elpyjvrj /3e/3atouTat. ThuC. i. 120.
Peace is secured by means of war. (Cf. Sid.)
Dependence upon :
Trapprjorta i^ dk-rjOelas yjprrjTat. DeM. 1397. 1.
Plain speaking depends on truth (comes of).
Cf. d7rdyx€(T6aL €k, above.
Mixed Phrases :
ot €^ 'AKaSrjixelas, €k toG Ile/DtTraTOV (cf. avro).
The Academics, the Peripatetics.
So N Test, ol iK TTto-Tcws, the adherents of the Faith.
6 i^ vfxcov tt66o<s, Soph. Tr. 631, your desire (like a gen.),
so v/jLvos (^ 'Eptvvoiv, the song of the Erinyes. Aesch.
Eum. 344.
Adverbial Phrases :
Ik /3ias, by force ; e/c Tov (jiavepov (7rpo<f>avov<s), openly (cf.
ex improviso, ex consulto, etc., Latin) ; U tov*€Ik6to<s,
Thug. iv. 17, in all likelihood; a»s €k twv irapovriov,
Thug. iv. 1 7, so far as present circumstances alloiv ; cf
Iduiv (tov lorov) equally ; kK tov avro/xdrov, by chancCj or
accident, Xen. (less common than drro).
300 PREPOSITIONS.
Periphrasis for a case :
at e^ 'A^ryi'wi/ irapOhoi, the maids of Athens.
In Composition :
(1) Separation, removal, completion (cf. aTro), Upaivm, I go
out ; eKTTfpdw, I sack utterly, mif and out.
§259. Ilp6,
Upo, he/ore, in front of. Cf. tt/jo?. Lat. prod, pro.
(1) Of Place :—
Before, in front of :
Mivwa Tj vrj(jo<; Kelrai irpo Meyapcov. ThUC. '
The island of Minoa lies off {in front of) Megara.
Hence in defence of, for the sake of. (Cf. virep) :
rjOeXe davelv irpo kccvov. EuR. Alc. IS.
She willed to die for him.
Phrase.
TT/oo 680V, forwards, onwards,
(2) Of Time :—
ol irpo r)fi(ov yeyovore^i. ISOC.
Those who were horn before us (pur forefathers).
6 TTpo Tou xpovos, the former time, aforetime.
(3) Of Eelation :—
In preference to, cf. avrl, irepl :
Trpo rwv /SeXTcarcov ra ^pa'^vrepa alpeiaOaL. Plat.
To choose more unimportant things in preference to
the highest things.
irpo TToXAov TTOULcrdai {ripiacrdat).
T'o esteem highly, (lit. in preference to much).
In Composition :
(1) Forth, forward, in front, of place and so oi pre-eminence,
of substitution or defence, irpo/SdWu), I put forward ;
irpodvpov, front door ; TrpoeSpos, president ; 7rp6p.axos,
champion. (2) Before, of time, TrpoauTOdvofiaL, I learn
beforehand.
PREPOSITIONS WITH GENITIVE ONLY. 301
§ 260. "Aj/ev.
"^ Avev, vjithoiit, opposed to avv.
(1) Without the help of, or order of: tl jSpoToh av(.v Atos tcA-
eiTat; Aesch. Ag. 1487, what comes to pass among jnen without
the will of Zeus ? (iniussu lovis, love nolente). Cf. Thuc. viii. 52.
In Plat. Gorg. 518 d, without reference to. (2) Except, besides
(like x^P^"^) '• T^^vra avev xp^^'ov, Plat. Crit. 112 c, all things
except gold, omnia praeter aurum.
In Soph. 0. C. 502 avev comes after its case.
§ 261. ''Ej/e/ca, eveKev.
' Eu6Ka, eveKev (Ion. elvtKa, elveKEv), Poet. ovveKu.
Generally after its case, sometimes separated from its case
(Ar. Ecc. 105-6). Lat. gratia, causa.
(1) For the sake of: KoXaK^veiv cVe/ca fiia-dov, Xen. Hell. v. 1.
17, to flatter for the sake of (in order to get) a reward. (2) So far
as concerns: e/xov ye eVcKa, so far as I am concerned ; €V€Ka rwr
6(^0a\fx(oy, Plat., so far as depends on the eyes.
Note. Sometimes pleonastically with other Prepositions :
ttTTo fSorj^ €veKa, ThUC. vii. 92 ; dfX({>l aov €V€Ka, SoPH. Phil.
534 ; TLvos 8r] X^P'-^ eVcKa ; PlAT. Leg. 701 D.
§ 262. "EAcart.
^'EKan (Ep. with the help of).
(1) Because of, on account of : dpeTrjs cKan., SoPH. Phil. 670,
on account of (i.e. as a reward for) valour. (2) So far as concerns
(like €V€Ka) : ttX/jOovs cKan, Aesch. Pers. 337, 50 far as num-
bers went.
§ 263. Xcoyotg.
X(opL<;, tvithout.
(!) JFithout help of: ttovov tol x^pf-^ ovSev cvrvx^i, SoPH.
El. 945 ; without toil nothing prospers. (2) Far from : x^P*-*^
dvOputiroiv (ttl/3ov, Soph. Phil. iST, far from track of men. (3)
IFithout considering, besides : x^P^^ So^rjs, apart from reputation
Plat. Apol. xxiv. (4) Different from, Plat. Lack 195 a.
Note, x^p'^'* is ^^^^ ^s®^ Adverbially.
302 PREPOSITIONS.
§ 264. Besides the Prepositions, a greater number of
old Cases, which have become Adverbial, are used like
Prepositions with a Genitive.
I. /x€x/)t and o^x^pi, as far as.
(1) Of Place : /xexpt t^s ttoAcws, Thuc, as far as the city.
(2) Of Time : /acx/oi too-ovtov, tovtov, so far, up to this time.
(3) t^'^XP'' "^^^ SuKacov (SvvaTov), SO far as is light (possible).
II. x^P^- (1) For the sake of : tov xa/oiv;='''ov eveKa ; for
the sake of what, or wherefore? (2) Because of: x^P''^ X'^'^^5=
xXtSas cKart, because of pride, Soph. 0. T. 888. (3) So far as
concerns: SaKpviov x^P''^) if tears could avail, Soph. Fr. 501.
Note. €/xr)v x^P''^f ^V^ X^P'^^^fi'^ '^y ^^^^) ^^y ^^^^y ^0^ X^P''^
ifiov, (TOV, mea, tua causa, gratia.
7r/)os x^P*-^ is also redundantly used, with reference to, for the
sake of, Soph. Ant. 30, 908.
III. Several old Accusatives adverbially used, meaning like,
after the fashion of: ScKrjv (lit. usage) ; rpoTvov {way) ; Se/xas
(Epic only, /orw or body). Cf. Lat. instar.
IV. aAts, aS-qv, enough; St'xa, apart; Xddpa, Kpv4>a., secretly.
V. Many old local cases.
eyy vs, near (also takes Dative) ; ua-w, ivros, within ; e^w,
€kt6<s, without; fxeTa^v, between; Trpoo-w, rn-oppu), airoOev, far
from; Trpocrdev, cfxTrpocrdev, in front of; oTTLaOev, koltottlv, be-
hind ; diJL(f>oT€pio6ev, eKaTepiodev, evOev /cat ivdev, on both sides
of ; TTcpa, Tvkpav, beyond, across ; avrtVc/Da?, KaTavTiirepas, dvTLKpv,
KaravTiKpv, opposite.
(c.) WITH DATIVE ONLY.
§ 265. 'E^.
Ev (poet, eiv, evl, elvi), in, within, opposed to et9, into,
and ej, out of. Lat. in, Eng. in, Germ. in. Cf. avii '
[The old Adverbial usage of tv still continues in the phrase
kv 8c, and among, and therein, and besides. Several instances
occur in Sophocles.]
PREPOSITIONS WITH DATIVE ONLY. 303
(1) Of Place (see Dative of Place) : —
At, near, hy, on :
A6coTVxl^T]<; riyelro rcov ev Mv/cdXr) ^EWrjvcov. Thuc.
Leoty chides commanded the Greeks at Mycale.
Tpaire^ov^ oiKelraL ev tw Ev^elvo) ttovtco. Xen.
Trajpezus is built on the Euxine sea.
A mong :
vo/AOt €V TracTLv evSoKtfxoi TOts "EAAr^criv. PlAT.
Laws famous among all the Greeks.
Elliptically (supply olkco, or some such word), mostly
with proper names in Attic. Gi. eh.
€v At'Sov, in Hades.
€v'ApLcf>povo<;, Plat. Prot. 320 a, in the house ofAriphron;
€v AioviVov, in the temple 0/ Dionysus, Dem. 21. 8.
€v TratSoTpt/Sov, ev KidaptcrTov, at (the school) of the gym-
nastic master, the cithara-player.
Also an Epic use (the complete construction sometimes
occurs, e.g. elv AlSdo SopoLcri, Od. iv. 834).
With Verbs of Motion (Constructio Praegnans). Cf.
eU, converse construction.
01 €V T^ 'Hpaiw KaTaTr€<f>€vy6T€s. XeN. Hell. iv. 5. 5.
Those who had fled to (and were in) the chapel of Hera.
(2) Of Time (see Dative of Time) :—
Within a space of, during :
ev Tah (TTTovSalf;, during the armistice, Xen.
ev TovTa>, meanwhile / ev a>, ev oaa>, whilst.
(3) Of Eelation : —
Occupation, Condition :
ol ev T0t9 TTpdyfiaac, ol ev reXet. Thuc.
Those who are engaged in public affairs, those who are
in office, i.e. ministers of state, the authorities, the
government.
304 PREPOSITIONS.
kv ^ikofjo^i^, iv Aoyots, kv rfj rexvn eivai.
To be engaged in philosophy, in oratory, in an art.
eivai kv (ji6/3(a, kv ala-xvvrj, 'kv cncDTrrj, kv kXirlSi,.
To be in a state of fear, shame, silence, hope.
Phrases :
kv opyfj ex^tv or Trouta-Oai, riva, to feel angry towards any one;
kv alri^ '^X^^^j lo blame ; kv rjSovy eivai ap^ovres, ThUC.
1. 99, to give satisfaction as rulers; kv /caAw dvai
( = KaAco9 €X€iv), Eur. Heracl. 971, to be well ; kv SUrj
SiKatios, in justice ; kv Trapaa-Kevf) eivai, to be in a state
of preparation, Thuc. ii. 80 ; kv oVAots elvac, to be
under arms (so kv robots, equipped with arrows; kv
<f)opTLOL<s rpkx'^iv, to run ivith burdens on the back, Xen.).
Dependent on :
ev ral^ yvvat^cv eariv rj aoyrrjpca. Akist.
The safety {of Greece) depends on the ladies.
So, very often, ev j 6/jlol, ev croLye, etc., peius me,
quantum in me est, so far as lies, depends on me, thee.
kv T^ Bc(^ TO TeAo9 ^v, ovK kv kp.OL. DeM. 292. 21.
The issue rested with God, not with me.
Cf. Soph. 0. C. 1443, 0. T. 314.
With respect to or at :
ykXiOT h a-oL ycAw. SoPH. Ant. 551.
/ laugh a laugh at thee.
A rare use, but found with Compounds, lyyeAw, kw-
PptCio.
histrument, Means, Manner (a special use, originally
denoting Place) :
kv o(^^aA/xots (o/x/xao-tv) opav, Hom. and Attic.
To see with the eye (in oculis).
Sophocles is fond of this kv. Cf. Phil. 60, 102, 1293,
Antig. 691. Cf. also EuR. Bacch. 277, Thuc. i. 77 (ro-
ftois), vii. 11 (cTTio-ToAais).
In Composition :
(1) In, at, near, kfx(3dXXoi, I throw in ; eyycAw, / laugh
at. (2) Of inherent qualities, eficfiODvos, endowed uith
voice, cf. Ivvo/ios.
PREPOSITIONS WITH DATIVE ONLY. 305
§ 266. tvv,
Xvv i^vvy old Attic form), with, together with, opposed
to avev. Lat. cum. Compare throughout with /iero.
Together with :
67rai86U€To aw tc3 aSeXc^w. Xen.
He luas being educated ivith his brother.
Conformity with (opp. to irapd), with the help of:
aw Tft> vofjicp 'y^Tj^ov riOevai. Xen.
To vote in accordance with the law {nrapa rbv vofiov,
contrary to law).
Phrases :
orvv dew, with God's blessing, or help, please God (deo
favente). {a-vv de(^ etVcti/, Plat., Arist.)
01 (Tvv TIV6, ones friends, party, followers. Xen.
crvv TivL {xayiaBaL [eTvai, yLyvecrOai), to fight on one's side
(/x€Ta Ttvos more usual). Xen.
Accompanying circumstances :
crvv vavart TrposTrXctv, Xen. ffell. u. 2. 7, to sail tvith sMps
(commoner in Epic than Attic).
Expletive use. Cf. Dative :
(TVV T$ o-cp aya^w, to your advantage, cum tuo commode,
Xen. Cyr. iii. 1. 15. Cp. Soph. Ant. 172.
avv TYJ jSta, with violence (cf. Trpos /?iav,j8tai<os).
(TVV T<J) xP^^Vf ^^ length, Xen. Cyr. viii. 6.
Old Adverbial use :
{XYj ^vv xaKCus TTOi€LV avTOVS. ThUC. iii. 13.
Not jointly (i.e. together with the Athenians) to injure them.
Cf. Soph. Ai 960, Aesch. Ag. 586 {= furthermore),
Soph. Ant. 85 (moreover), El. 299.
In Composition :
(1.) Together with, crvv ay opevo), I speak with another. (2.)
Completely J (TVfnrXrjpio, I fill completely, cf. compleo.
With numerals, a distributive force is given, e.g.
avvTpeis, three taken together, i.e. three apiece.
U
^o6 PREPOSITIONS.
§ 267. Note on avv and //-era.
o-vV, together with, denotes mere addition.
licTd, together with, in the midst of, in the company of, denotes
participation with, community of action.
Thus (in Homer) :
lAera Sfiioiav irive Kal 7](rdie. Od. X. 140.
He was drinking and eating in the company of the slaves.
rjXvOe (Tvv 8lo) MevcActw. //. iii. 206.
He came with god-like Menelaus (i.e. both came).
Cf. Soph. Antig. 115, 116.
So orvXXafjilSdvo), I take or get together (rot;? o-TpaTnoras, the
fi€TaXafx/3dvii), I take together mth others, i.e. I share.
crvvk\(x>, I hold together, comprise, contain.
fi€T€X(^, I have ivith others, partake, share.
eireadaL /Acra tlvmv, to follow in the midst of others.
iirea-dai avv ruri, to follow with (as well as) others.
In Attic, it is to be observed, that o-vv with the Dative is
used in Poetry where /xcra with the Genitive is used in Prose.
Xenophon, however, apparently following poetical, i.e. earlier
or Homeric, usage, is the one Attic prose writer who uses a-vv
with the Dative.
§ 268. One or two old Adverbial Cases, afia and ofiov,
are joined like Prepositions to the Dative.
I. dfia, mostly Temporal : afxa cw, a/xa ew. yiyvo/JLivrj^ at
dawn, daybreak ; but also of accompaniment, ot a/xa Qoavn,
Hdt. vi. 138, those who ivere with Thoas. Cf. Thuc. vii. 57.
II. oiiov, together with ; vSc^p ofjiov r^ tttoX^, Thuc. vii. 84,
water together with the mud ; OeoU 6fxov = (rvv deots, SoPH. Ai.
767, with the help of the gods.
III. €yyv9 (see Genitive), near. 1. When used of Place is
chiefly Epic, and takes a Genitive, but, in Eur. Herac. 37, a
Dative. 2. Of Time or Numbers, eyyi;? evLavrov, Xen. Hell.
iii. 1. 28, near a year. In Thuc. vi. 5, eVeo-t ey-yvs eLKoan, near
twenty years; ey-yvs is Adverbial, as post may be in Latin,
viginti post annis.
IV. €</)€^t55: to. TovTois ^ff>€^rjs, Plat., what follows.
PREPOSITIONS WITH TWO CASES. 307
W.— PREPOSITIONS WITH TWO CASES.
WITH ACCUSATIVE AND GENITIVE.
§ 269. Aia.
Aia (old and poetical form hiat), hetiveen, apart, through.
Cf. hvo, 8i?, St%a.
A. With Genitive.
1. Of Place :
Through {right through, and out of) :
67ropevOr](Tav Bta XaXv^cov. Xen.
They marched through the country of the Chalyhes.
A II through,^ along :
Oopv/Sov Tjicovae Bta rcov rd^ecov toWo?. Xen.
He heard a din passing all along the ranks.
Distrihutively, intervals of space :
hia SeKa eTraX^ecov Trvpyoc r]aav. Thuc.
At every ten battlements ivere towers.
So Sta TvoXXov, Sici TrXeicTTov, St cAao-Q-ovos, at a great dis-
tance, greatest distance, short distance.
Cf. Eur. Andr. 1251 (aAXov Be' akXov).
2. Of Time :
Throughout, cf irapd with Accusative :
ravra Bo okov rev aiwvo^ fjLO)(^0ovac. Thuc.
2'hus throughout their ivhole life they labour.
So 8ia VVKT09, 8l ry/^lpa?, etc., Sia Travro?, 5ta tcAovs^
continually ; BC oXiyov, for a little while.
Of intervals after :
eoiK6 hid TToXXov ')(povov a ecopaKevai. AriST.
It seems that it is a long lohile since he has seen you.
Cf Soph. Phil. 285 {^povo^ Bid ')(^p6vov, of succession in
time) .
3o8 PREPOSITIONS.
Distributively :
Slol ttc/xtttou €TovSy OT SiOL TTcvTc €Ti0Vj evBTy fifth year,
quinto quoque anno ; Sl €tovs, 8i' eviavTov, every year,
year by year.
3. Causal :
The notion is that of a coming between or intervening.
The intermediate agent, through the medium of, hy the
agency of :
eXeye Bl ep/JLTjvecof;. Xen.
He was speaking hy means of an interpreter.
St' kavTov TTOLeiv Tt, to do a thing by oneself, all alone, i.e.
without the intervention of another.
Cf. ttTTO, e^.
Means or instrument. Cf. the Dative (which denotes
more direct means) :
•Yj Slol Ttuv oyLfioLTiov <TKk\pLs. Plat. Phaed. 83.
Examination by means of the eyesight.
Sta x€t/oos e'xeiv, XafSelv ri, to hold, to take in the hand.
Adveebial Phrases :
A great number of Adverbial phrases are formed with 8ia
and the Genitive. In these Sta appears to be used sometimes
in its local, sometimes in its causal sense.
Stot fjidxy]s Ikvai, epx^crdai (tlvl), to go to, engage in battle
with; 8t' e'x^pas yiyvecrOaL (tlvl), to be hostile to ; Sta
^tXtas tevat {tlvl), to be friendly ivith ; Slo. Aoywv levat
(rtvt), to converse with ; 8i' aWias e'x^ti', ayetv (rtj/a), to
Iwld guilty ; 8l' opyrjs, cfivXaKrjs, olktov e'xetj/ (rtra, rt),
to be angry with, keep in prison, feel ]oity for.
Slot a-rojxaros c'x^^^j fj-viqfirjs, (TT€pv(av, to have on one's lips,
in one's memory, in the breast.
8t' opyrjs, angrily ; 8ta o-ttovS^s, hastily ; Sta /Bpax^m',
shortly; Sta paKpQv, at length (e.g. rovs X6yov<i
TToteto-^at, to speak) ; Sta rdxovs, quickly, shortly.
PREPOSITIONS WITH TWO CASES. 309
B. With Accusative — generally denotes close con-
tiguity.
1. Of Place and Time :
Throughout, during :
Epic and poetical only. Cf. Aesch. Stipp. 15, Soph. 0. T.
867.
2. Causal :
Of the Antecedent, not the Final Cause. Of the person
or thing whose intervention helps towards a result.
Owing to, because of, on account of, with the help of (see
note).
ol A6r]valoi hi aperrjv, aW ov Bia tv^tjv eviKijaav.
ISAE.
The Athenians conquered through valour, not through
chance.
8ia TOv<s ev fxa)(^Ofx^vovs at /xa^^at KplvovTai.
Xen. Cyr. v. 2. 35.
Battles are decided by {mving to the conduct of) those who
fight well.
Cf. Soph. 0. C. 1129 {Sida-e).
Through the fault of :
Sta Tovs dSifcws TToAtrevo/xevov? Iv ry oAtya/o^t^ rj h-qfxo-
Kparia ytyvcrai. Lys. 25. 27.
Owing to the unjust administration of rulers in an oligarchy,
democracy springs up.
el fir) Bed, had it not been for, but for :
€1 fir) Slol Toi/ UpvravLV €V€Tr€(T€U av. PlAT. Gorg. 516 E.
Had it not been for the President he would have been thrown
into prison. Cf. Thuc. ii. 1 8.
Phrases :
Si evSeiav, because of owing to poverty (Xen. An. viii. 6) ;
St' ayvoLav, Sta Kavpa, 8ta \€ipQ>va, because of ignorance,
heat, winter ; Sta to ^vppayovs €.1vai, because they were
PREPOSITIONS.
allies. Similarly the common expressions 5ta rt, why ?
wherefore ? Slo. ravra, on this account^ because of this ;
8l 6, Si' a, on which account.
Note. For the sake of this, denoting a final cause or purpose,
would be TOVTOV eVcKa, not Sea ravra.
For the sake of, in order to :
A very rare use of Sid with the Accusative. It occuk^
seemingly four times in Thucydides, iv. 40, St' dxOrj-
Sova, in order to vex ; ii. 40, Sia T-qv a-^ikrepav So^av,
for their own glory ; iv. 102, Sta to Trepiex^tv avT-qv, in
order to enclose the city; v. 103, Sid tov Ov/xaTos t-^v
eW/oa^iv, in order to exact the sacrifice.
Note. It is difficult sometimes to distinguish between the
causal uses of Std with Genitive and Sid with Accusative. It
is extremely difficult to account for the causal use of 8td with
Accusative. Consult Eiddell's Digest of Platonic Idioms for
instances of Sta with Accusative in Plato and the Orators,
meaning udth the help of.
In Composition :
(1) Through, and so throughly or thoroughly, Sta/JatVto, /
go through ; Sta</)€7jya>, / escape thoroughly. (2) Apart,
Siaa-KeSdvvvfXL, I scatter asunder.
§ 270. Kara.
Kara, down, opposed to dvd. Old form Karal, cf. Karai-
ySari;?.
A. With Genitive.
Note. PrjvaL Kara Trer/or^s originally may have meant " to go
downwards with regard to the rock," i.e. either down from, or
doum upon.
h Of Place :
Down from :
aXofievoL Kara TQ79 irirpaf;. Xen.
Leaping down from the rock.
PREPOSITIONS WITH TWO CASES. 311
Down upon or over :
(pepe TToi ra'x^eco^ Kara %et/309 vScop. Arist.
Gome boy, quickly, pour water on my hand.
Cf. Lucian's late use, Kara K6pp7]<5 Trard^ac, to hox on the head,
for the earlier Itti K6pprj<s.
Cf. Plat. Bep. 398 a. In Soph. El. 1433 (Kar' avTcdvpiMv,
towards the vestibule).
Down into, and under :
rj ArXavTi'S vrj(TO<s Kara tt^s 9aXa.rrr]S ^vcra rj<f>avLcr6r).
Plat. Tim. 25.
The isle of Atlantis sank under the sea and disappeared.
2. Figuratively :
Against :
ol Kad' rjficov \6<yoi, Dem. 15. 25, arguments against
us. Cf. Soph. Phil. 65.
Cf. KaTrjyopco, KarajiyvcocrKco nvo*;, 'yjrevBofiaL Kara
Tiz/09.
Concerning, with respect to :
TOVTO €Lpr]TaL KaraTraa-iov tcov TToXireLiov. Ar. Pol. V. 7. 11.
This has been asserted of all governments.
So CTKOTreiv, Aeyeiv, Cl'^eiv, Kara rcvos, often in PlATO (see
RiDDELL, Digest, 163).
Phrases :
Kar' aKpas, utterly (Ep. Kar' aKprjs, a culmine) ; Kara
T€KV(ji)v opvvvaL, Dem., to swear by one's children; KaB'
oXov (later KadoXov, see Lexicon), on the whole.
B. With the Accusative, Kara denotes close
proximity.
1. Of Place :
Motion down upon or after :
ol ^AOrjvaloL Kara 7roBa<; eifkeov twv AaKeBaifiovLWv,
Xen.
The Athenians were sailing in the wake of the Lacedae-
monians.
Kara poov, down stream (cf. ava fjoov).
312 PREPOSITIONS.
After, in search of :
e<TK€^acr[ievoL Ka& dpTrayrjv. Xen.
Scattered in qioest of plunder.
Over againsty opposite :
ol AdrjvaloL Kara AaKeBat/jLOVtov<; eyevovro. Xen.
The Athenians were posted opposite the Lacedae-
monians.
Extension throughout :
7) €v\a^€ia aKOTOV €')(ei Ka& *EXXdSa. EUR.
Discretion is under a cloud throughout Hellas.
Kara y^Jv Kal Kara ddXacrarav, hy land and sea.
In, connected with, belonging to :
Kar' dyopdv, in the market ; al Kara to aw/xa (t^v ^vxqv)
€7n6vfiLai, bodily (mental) desires; ra Kara ttjv ttoXlv,
public affairs, politics; rd Kara tov TroX^pov, military
matters.
Hence Tigueatively :
Of fitness, according to :
KaTa vovv X€y€L<;. Plat.
Yo7i speak to my liking.
Of. Aesch. Ag., Kar' dvSpa cr(x><f>pova, like a discreet mail
{with a man's discretion) ; Ar. Av. 1001, Kara ttv lyia,
like an oven; Kara cfiva-iVj agreeably to nature (opposed
to irapd <f>vcrLv) ; Kara rov aKpi/Sr] Xoyov, in strict state-
ment ; FLAT. Ap. i., ov Kara rovrovs p'^riop, an orator
of a different stamp from these men ; Kara ^vpfxaxitiVy by
virtue of an alliance.
Especially with Comparatives :
elBev veKplv /xel^co ^ kut dvOpcoTrov. Plat.
He saw a corpse of superhuman size.
Cf. ThUC. vii. 75, /x€if(u ri Kara SdKpva TreTrov^ora?.
PREPOSITIONS WITH TWO CASES. 313
3. Of Time :
ContemporarTj with :
OefiKTTOKXrjs 6 tQv Kdd^ kavTuv airdvTCJV ei/So^OTaro?.
Dem. 20. 73.
Themistocles, the most illustrious man of all his con-
temporaries.
01 Kara HAaTcova, Plafo and his age; Kar' apx-qv,
originally ; Kar* elp-jvrjv, in time of peace.
4. DiSTRIBUTIVELY :
0/ Place, Time, Money, etc., a common use :
KaroLKovvTat ol MrjSoi Kara K(o/jLa<;. Herod.
The Medes live in separate villages.
KaO^ 'iva, one by one ; Kara fiCav Kat Kara Svo Xa/^elv, DeM.
20. 77, to take (ships) one and two at a time; Kar'
avSpa, man by man.
Kad' rjfxepav (in dies), day by day ; Kara p^rjva, Kar
iviavTov.
Kara rots ttcvtc kuI eiKoo-t p,va<s TrevTaKoata's 8paxfia<i
€lscf)€p€iv. Dem. 815. 11.
To contribute 500 drachmas on every 25 minae.
5. Miscellaneous Phrases, many adverbial :
KaO' lavTov, Ka6' avrovs, left to themselves, i.e. alone or
singly ; Kara pLovas, alone ; Kara p.iKp6v, Kar' oXiyov,
. little by little ; Kara 8vvap.tv, to the best of one's
ability; to Kar epe, SO far as concerns me ; Kara ravrd,
in the same way ; Kar AtcrxvXov, as Aeschylus has it ;
Kara x^/oav, in statu quo, ^^ as you were.''
Kara rd^ps, quickly ; Kara Kpdros (per vim), by force ;
Kara (nrovSijv, hastily ; Kad' 'r](rv\Lav, quietly.
Kara rovro, on this ground ; Kara rl ; on what ground,
wherefore ? Kara rrjv dcrdcvcLav, on the ground of, by
reason of, weakness.
In Composition :
(1) Down, Kara 13a LVio, I go down. (2) Of isolation or
abandonment, KaraXeiTro), I leave behind or abandon. (3)
Against, Karrjyopio, I accuse ; Kar ay ly vuktko), I condemn.
(4) All over, i.e. completely, KaraKOTrru), I chop up in
pieces.
314 PREPOSITIONS.
S 271. 'TTTep.
'TTrep (poet, viretp), above, over, beyond. Sansk. upari
(above), Latin super, English over, German uber. 'Trrep
for virepi is a Comparative of viro.
A. With the Genitive.
1. Of Place :
Over, above :
6 6eo<; eOrjKe rov tjXlov virep 7179. Plat.
God placed the sun above the earth.
Motion over ; •
eKKV^tarav virep rwv ^i(f)a)v. XeN.
To turn a somersault over the swords.
In the interior of a country :
Tjp^aTo ef AidioTrLa^; r?}? virep Aiyvirrov. Thuc.
It began in Aethiopia which is beyond Aegypt, i.e.
higher up, further inland.
2. Figuratively:
To protect, in defence of, cf. irpo :
vvv virep Trdvrcov dycov. Aesch.
JS^ow is the contest ifi defence of our all.
Joined with Trpo, EuR. Ale. QdO.
In the i7iterest of :
ot virkp Tov P^Xtlcttov Aeyovres. DeM. 9. 63.
Those ivho speak in the cause of what is best.
On account of:
Kkavfiara PpaSxJTrjros hrep. SoPH. Jnt. 932.
Tears as a punishment for slowness.
Instead of:
airoKplvecrOai virkp rti/os, Plat. Rep. 590, to answer for
one. Cf. Thuc. i. Ul, virep lavrpil
PREPOSITIONS WITH TWO CASES. 315
With a view to :
vTrep Tov fXT] TrparrcLV to TrposraTTOfxevov, ISOC. 152 D, in
order not to do what was bidden. Cf. Riddell, Digest,
p. 167.
B. With Accusative. Chief signification figurative,
beyond, i.e. in excess of.
1. Of Place :
Beyond :
Ta>v ovpecov rwv virep Me/jLcfuv ttoXlv Kecfjuevoov to
fiera^v. Hdt.
The space between the hills which lie beyo7id the city
of Memphis.
2. Figuratively :
In excess of :
ovfc €(ttIv VTrep avdpwirov tovto. Plat.
This is not beyond the power of man.
virep lATTiSa, past, beyond hope; vnep rjp^as, beyond oxir
power ; virlp SvvapLv, beyond one's ability.
More than :
fTrecrov virkp recrcrepaKOVTa avSpas. HeROD. V. 64.
2'here fell over more than 40 men.
3. Of Time:
Before :
6 TT/oos TOV AlyLvrjTiov VTTip ra M.rj8iKa Tr6Xep.ov.
Thuc. i. 41.
The war with the Aeginetans before the Persian wars.
As an adverb :
Very rarely ; cf. EuR. Med. 627, St. Paul ad Cor. 11. xi.
23, virep kytii.
V In Composition :
(1) Across or beyond, hence of excess or transgression ^
VTrep /3a LV(D, I go beyond, I transgress, omit, surpass. (2)
For, in defence of, virepaXyio, I grieve for (also exceedingly)
as by (1); vireppaxto, I fight for.
316 PREPOSITIONS.
§ 272. Mera.
Merd, With, among, between, after. Compare with avu,
Cf. fjLera-^u, between, /jLera^e, afterwards. Sansk. mithas
(alternately), mithu [together), German mit. CuRTius
{Etym. i. p. 258) denies the direct relationship between
fieWi and yaecro?. In Attic, fierd is chiefly used with the
Genitive. Compare with aiv.
A. With Genitive.
With, among :
7] 'ylrv'^T] ael /juera twv decop Biayec. Plat.
The soul lives for ever with the gods (in their society).
fiera ^vfifxaxiov KLvSvvevetv, Thuc. viii. 23, to run risk in
common with allies.
On the side of:
ovK €iKos TO T^s TV^yjs o'UcrOai det /xe^' r/xtuv ea-eadai.
Thuc. iv. 18.
It is not reasonable to suppose that the influence of fortune
will ever be on your side. Cf. Plat. Apol. xxii., /xera
TOV VOflOV.
Joined to :
Icrxos T€ Kol KocAAo? jUCTot vyieitt?. PlAT. Bep. 591 B.
Strength and beauty joined to health.
Modal, cf. avvy and Dative alone :
LK€T€V(T€ TOVS SlKaCTTttS fX€Ta. TToXXitiV 8aKpV(i}V.
Plat. Apol. xxiii.
He besought the judges with many tears.
Phrases :
/Acra TLvo^ elvai, to be on one's side ; ot /xera rtvos, oneh
companions ; fier' dXrj deias, truly.
B. With Accusative (rare in Attic).
Next in order to :
fierd deov^ i^vxv Oeiorarov. Plat. Leg. 726.
Next to the gods the soul is most divine.
PREPOSITIONS WITH TWO CASES. 317
Other usages of /tcra with the Accusative, going ammig,
going in quest or search of, according to, are chiefly Epic. For
them the Lexicon should be consulted.
Note 1. With the Accusative /Acra denotes either (1) motion
to the midst of, or (2) extension over the midst of The idiomatic
phrases with ficrd and Accusative will fall under one of these
two heads. Thus (1) fxera ravra, next to, after this (lit. going
into the midst of, and so succeeding, or coming next to); (2) fxW
■qfikpav, interdiu, in the daytime (during, extending over the day) ;
IJL€Ta x€ipa<5 '^x^'-^} ^^ have in hand.
Note. 2. In Homer and in poetry /^ttra is also used with the
Dative to denote presence among, one among others, without
the close connexion denoted by the Genitive.
/xera Se T/DtraTotcrtv avao-crev, II. i. 252, he was ruler among
{in the presence of) the third generation.
Cf. Eur. Erechth. 26.
As an adverb :
Among, amid, next, afterwards, often in Homer.
In Herod, also afterwards, fxera 5e, w7rA«re k.t.A., i. 128.
In Composition :
(1) Together with, fxerexay, I have together with or share.
(2) Going to, among, or extending over, or in the midst of :
fxeraixfJi'i-ov, the space between armies ; fieOtrjixi, I let loose
(among). (3) Of succession, alternation, change, fX€Ta86p-
TTLoq, after dinner; /-lerayt-yi/coo-KO), / change my mind;
fierdvoLa, repentance.
N.B. Coming among implies following some, and so suc-
cession and alternation. Thus if a bead is put among
or between others in a necklace, it comes after, and
alternates with, other beads.
m.—FI^EFOSITIONS WITH ALL THREE CASES.
§ 273. 'A/.(^t.
^AfjL(j)i, on loth sides (about, around). Cf. afMcfxo, afMcpo-
T6/)o?. Sansk. abhi, Lat. amb, (am-, an-), amb-o, amb-io.
'ApL<j)L related in form to d/jL(f)c<; as e/c to ef. Compare
throughout with irepL.
31 8 PREPOSITIONS.
Note. In Attic Prose a/x<^i is practically used with tlie
Accusative only.
A. With Accusative.
About tlu time of, cf. irepi:
7)^7) r]v dfi(j)l dyopav ir\7)6ov<rav. Xen.
It was now already about full market time {forenoon),
dficfil TrevTiJKovTa Irr;, about 50 years.
(Employed) about ;
d(TKov<n TOL d/jLcJH TOP iToXejJLOv. Xen.
They practise the arts of war.
d/i^t Tt {e.g. iTTTTOvs, apfxara^ SeiTrvov, etc.) ^X^tv, etvaiy
SiaTpt/iciv, etc., to engage in, set about, be concerned with
anything.
Phrases :
ot dfjL<f>l HpuiTayopav (HXdroyva), the school of ProtagOTOS
{of Plato). The phrase (especially in later writers)
is a periphrasis for Pythagoras himself.
So ol d[x(f>l Sep^ea, the army of Xerxes, Herod., but ot
a/A<^t Meya/)€as /cat ^Atao-iovs (HdT. ix. 69) the
Megarians and Phliasians.
Less common uses ;
(Epic and poetical) rJA^^? dfKJn AwSwvr/v, Aesch. P. V.,
830, thou earnest nigh {about) Dodona, cf.- 419 ; ficpifjiva 8'
dp.4>\ tvoXlv, Aesch. Sept. c. Theb. 843 {care about the
city).
B. With Genitive (the uses are very rare and wholly
Epic, Ionic, and Poetic).
Concerning, cf. Trepl :
dfjLcfil o-rjs Aeyw TraiSo's, EuR. Hec. 580 (/ tell thee of thy
child). Cf. Soph. Phil. 554. Aesch. Ag. 67, dp4>l
yvi'atKos {in the cause of).
Round about :
HdT. viii. 131 {afx^l TToAios oIk€ov(ti).
PREPOSITIONS WITH ALL THREE CASES. 319
C. With Dative (wholly Epic, Ionic, and Poetic).
Among :
(^aificfn kXolSols e^o/x€va, EuR. Phoen. 1518 (seated among
branches).
Concerning :
d/x^' ijjLol cTTevets, SoPH. El. 1180 (thou sighest for, about
me).
Phrases, cf. Trept :
dfi<fil Tap/Set ((fi6p(^), prae pavore, for fear. In poetry.
As an adverb, on either side. Homeric use.
§ 274. 'Etti.
'EttI, on the surface of, upon, by, to. Cf. eVe/, then.
Sansk. ajpi, further, after, Lat. ob. See airo.
A. With Genitive.
1. Of Place:
Upon, with verbs of rest :
7ra<? b T 67rl yrj<i koI vtto 7779 '■^pvao^. Plat.
All the gold on earth and under the earth.
So ec/)^ liTTTov, very often.
With verbs of motio7i :
eTrefjuylrav auTOv<; eirl Tptripov<i. Xen.
They sent them away on board a trireme.
And in Constructio Praegnans, dva^rjvai eirl irvpycou,
Xen., to climb up, and be on towers.
Towards (a common use) :
ol ^vfifia^oi av6')(^odprj(Tav eir olkou. Thuc.
The allies returned homewards.
Cf. i. 60, eirl OpaKrj^.
320 PREPOSITIONS.
In, b(/, near, at :
€7ri v-qo-ov, in the island ; y?* cttJ Jev7;s (SoPH. O.C.),ina
foreign land ; h dyopa cttI riou rpaire^iov, PlAT. Ap. 1,
in the market at (by) the tables of the banks ; kirl St-
Kao-T-qpLov, IsAE., in court.
Ttt cVt QpaKTjs, Thuc. (see Poppo and Kriiger) {the parts
in) the neighbourhood or the district of Thrace or Thrace-
wards. So €7rt T^? AaKwi/tK^S, V. 34. eVt ttJ? avTWv
juei/etv, ^0 remain in their oivn country, Thuc. iv. 118.
In presence of, coram. Cf. irapa.
k^eXkyyj^arOai kirl Travnav. DeM. 781. 4.
To be convicted in presence of all.
2. Of Time (very common) :
IttI Kvpov fiaaiXevovTo^, in the reign of Cyrus ; eVt
G€jjbi(TT0K\60V(; apy^ovTC^, in the archonship of
Themistocles ; eirl rcov irarepcov, in the time of our
fathers ; eir ejjiov, in my time ; w? eirl klvBvi'ov,
as in time of danger (Thuc. vi. 34).
3. Figuratively:
Set over, engaged in :
€/l€V€V eiTL Tt}? CUpX^^' ^EN.
He was continuing in command.
Phrases :
So fiiveiv kivL Ttvos, to abide by a thing ; kirX rcov irpayixd-
T(i)v (rov TToXefxov) elvac, to be engaged in business,
in war; Itti yi/w/^i^s yiyv^crdai, to come to an opinion,
Dem. 42. 4.
6 €7rt Ttov oTrXtTwv (ottAcov), i-rrl r(Zv iTnreiov, the commander
of the infantry, cavalry ; 6 kirl t'^s 6iotK>ja-ea)s, the con-
troller of the treasury, paymaster-general.
Resting, dependent upon, e^' eavrov, etc. :
e<^' kavTov, of or by oneself, independently or separately,
spontaneously, is a common phrase ; i^' kavrov irXelv,
Thuc, to sail by oneself or alone; i(}>' eavrov otKdv,
PREPOSITIONS WITH ALL THREE CASES. 321
Xen., to live apart, separately ; i<f> vfxioi' avTiov pdX-
Xea-Oat, Hdt., to consider by yourselves ; t^' Icovtwi/ Std-
Xkyovrat, Hdt., they speak a language or dialect oj their
own, a distinct dialect ; i-rr' dyKvpem', at anchor, Hdt.
i. 188.
In the case of :
With Aeyw, ala-ddvofiai, ctkotto) (/ examine or consider),
KpLvo), I decide or judge.
d iirl Twv dXX.o)V opdre, rarr' e^' v/xojv avrwi/ dyvnetrc.
Is. viii. 114.
WTiat you see in {the case of) others, that you are ignorant
of in your oivn case.
So ctt' e/xov Aeyeii/, Plat. Rep. 475, to speak in my own
case, to take myself as an instance ; iTrl 7rdvT0)v 6/xotws,
in all cases alike.
Called after :
KeKXTJcrdac, ovofJiacrOrjvai kiri tlvo^ (HdT.), to be namsd
after a person; 17 ilpi^vr] rj iirl 'AvraXKiSov, Dem., the
peace of Antalcidas.
iiTL ovoixaros elvac, to bear a name, Dem. 1000. 21.
Military phrases ;
€Ta\6ri(Tav irrl Terrdp^v. XeN. An. i. 2. 15.
They were drawn up four deep.
Generally of the depth, sometimes of the length, of a line.
€7rl TrevTT^KovTa dcnrtSajv (TVV€(TTpa{Mfx€voi.
Xen. Hell. vi. 4. 12.
Massed in column fifty shields deep.
TO fX€T(i}Trov €7rl TptaKoa-'niiV, TO Se fSddos e<^' eKUTOv.
Xen. Cyr. ii. 4. 2.
The length of the line was four hundred, its depth one hundred.
i<fi' €v6<s, in single file; evr' oA,6ywi/ Tda-a-ea-OaL, to be drawn
up in a long line (or a shallow column) (Xen. and
Thug.).
irXciv €7ri K€p<i)<s (cf. Accus.), to sail in column (towards the
wing), {Kara /xtav eVt Kepws, Thuc. ii. 19, in single file).
X
322 PREPOSITIONS.
Miscellaneous 'phrases :
CTTt TOV €V(i)VVfXOV, €776 TiaU TtAcI'/OWJ/, 071 the left, OU thc
flanks.
€7rt TTuvroiv, Dem., on all occasions; 6<^* Ikcco-tov, Plat.,
on each occasion.
€Trl reXevTTJ?, at last; ctti axo^^-rj";, at leisure, leisurely;
ctt' L(Tr]S, equally (SoPH. Ul. 1061) ; e-nrl Trpocfidcrio'S,
Hdt., as a pretext ; eVi opKov, on oath (Hdt. ix. 11) ;
cTTt irposTToXov fitois, dependent on one handmaid. Soph.
0. a 746.
B. With the Dative.
[The uses should be compared with those of the Genitive.
They often run closely parallel. 'Etti with Dative, meaning
upon, is commoner in Prose than with the Genitive; the poets
use both cases indifferently. 'Etti with the Dative implies
closer connection than Itti with Genitive.]
1. Of Place :
'' Over, on :
01 0paK€<; aX(OTreKiha<; eirt ral^ K€<j}a\at<; (j)opovcru
Xen.
The Thracians wear fox-shin caps {fitted to) on their
heads. Cf. EuR. Bacch. 757.
N.B. e<^' iW<f) must not be used for €(/>' tWov.
Tovs OTrXiras ctti vavorXv oAtyats ev6v<i TrefXTrovcnv.
Thug. ii. 80 (cf. iv. 10).
They at once despatch the hoplites in {on hoard) a few ships.
Against :
at V7J€<s i<ji rjfiLv Teraxarat. ThUC. iii. 13 (cf. iv. 70).
The ships are drawn up against us.
Cf. Soph. Ai. 51, ctt' opfxaa-i fSdXXetv (Constr. Praegn.).
-' In, at, near, hy :
oLKeovT€<; 67rl Xrpvfiovi, Hdt., living on the shores
of, or near, the Strymon.
PREPOSITIONS WITH ALI THREE CASES. 323
ot Twv dptcTTWV IIe/3(ra)v 7ra?8e? €7rt rats fSacnXcios dvpais
TraLSevovTai. XeN. ^?l. i. 9. 3.
The so7is of the noblest Persians are brought up at (close by)
the king's gate (at the " Sublime Porte ").
Cf. Soph. Tr. 1100, Phil 353.
Next after :
ra €7rc Tourot?, the next step.
Cf. HoM. Od. vii. 216, ov yap n arvyepr) enru yaarepL
KvvTepov aXko, naught more blatant next to (than) the belly.
ot Itti TracTLv, the rear; oXiyoi twv eirt TtaxTiv vtto twv
xpiXdv airkOavov, few of the rear were slain by the light-
armed, Xen. Hell. i. 1. 34.
2. Of Time (rarely) :
Generally of succession, after, or following :
€KTrj eiri SeKarrj or rrj eKry eirl ScKa.
Dem. 279. 18, 288. 29.
On the 1 Qth of the month (sixth after the tenth).
Near, about (very rare in Attic) :
^v ^A.tos €7rt Sva-fxais. Xen. An. vii. 3. 34.
It was near sunset (the sun was at his setting).
3. Figuratively :
Set over and actively engaged in :
rovs €7rt roL<s Trpdyfxacnv ovras aiTtcoi/rat. DeM.
They accuse those who are engaged in public affairs.
So ot iirl rats p.'qxavalq, €7rt rots KafxrjXoLs, XeN., those in
guard of the engines, the cctmels, etc.
Generally at, in, of circumstances :
iirl Tw TrapovTi, Thuc. ii. 36, on the present occasion (to
speak) ; errt tw SetVi/o), Xen., at supper.
With : (by no means an infrequent use).
Cf. Eur. Bacch., iir' evda-fjiaa-L, withjoyous shouts (cf. 1368).
Cf. also Soph. Ant. 556, ctt' app-qrok Xoyots, with woi'ds
unspoken, i-n-^ i^etpyacrixevots, when a deed is done and
over, Aesch. Ag. 1379, Soph. Ai. 377, Eur. Bacch.
1039.
PREPOSITIONS.
324
In reference to, in case of, connected with :
v6aov TiSkva, k^i tlvi, Plat., to make a law for, in the
case of, a person (for or against him) ; so vo/xos K^trai
€7rt TLVl, DEM.
T^ iTvl T$ o-ti/xart Kc[AXo9, Plat., leauty of person.
Upon, i.e. accumulated on, added to :
^T^fjLara eirl -K'n^aaiv nriiTTOVTa. SoPH. Ant. 595.
Woes falling on woes.
So eirl TouTot?, thereupon, on this, very frequently
in Attic.
Hence probably phrases connected with meals : tji t(?
o-iTi^ TTLveiv v8(op, Xen., ^0 drink water with ones food.
Dependent upon, in power of with elfii, and ylyvoiJ,aL :
el eirl rot? 7ro\efiloi<; eyevovro t/ av e'TraOov ;
Xen. An. v. 8. 17.
If they had fallen into the hands of the enemy, what
wcndd have been their fate ?
TO €7r' ifioL,To €7ri (TOL, SO far tts lu my, thy, power.
Cf. Ace. TO cTTt (Tcfias etvau
(Be named) after, on the ground of :
iwl rfi ixOpq. o-rao-is KUXrjrac, Plat. Bep. 470, see Stall-
baum and references there, sedition is so called from,
hatred.
Causal, with words of emotion, at, for, because of:
eiri TiVi fiaXtara dydXkr) ; XeN.
In what do you most take delight ?
So with x^^pwj ^ rejoice ; aefivvvofiai, I pride myself;
Sva-x^patvoi, I am vexed, etc., and corresponding adjec-
tives, and substantives such as cVatvos, cfaXorifXia, etc.
So (r)fj.Lov(rOaL IttI Ttvt, Dem., to he fined for a thing.
PREPOSITIONS WITH ALL THREE CASES, 325
Condition :
eirt TOVTO) vTre^LdrafMai Trj<; ap')(fj<;. HeroD.
On this condition I resign my command.
So very often eVt Tovr(:^, eVt Tovroi'i, k(j) <^ (re), Itt' ov^kvi,
IttI Tots elprjuevoLs, on the conditions expressed.
Motive :
-xlrevSerai, re Kai ein ry e/jurj Bta/Sdky Xeyec.
Plat. Apol. v.
He is lying, and is speaking with a view to prejudice
you against me.
€7ri KaKovpyi(^ Tiiuc. i. 37, for knavish purposes ; ovk iirl
v^pL^€crdaL dW iirl tw rjycpovcs etVat, ThUC. i. 38, not
in order to be insulted, but in m'der to be rulers ; lirl t^
K€p8€i, Xen. for gain ; kirl o-o^ta, to get wisdom, Plat.
N.B. In Plat. Prot. 358 b, with Gen., kirX toO aAvTrws
^r^v, with a view to living a painless life ; Liddell and
Scott.
The reward or price :
^vyyevea-6aL ^Op-qpia eirl 7r6cr(p (sc. /xtcr^o>) av ns Be^aLTO ;
Plat. Apol. xxxii.
For what price would any of you be willing to meet Homer?
So €7rt Spaxpfj 8av€L^€iv, Dem. 816. 12.
To lend money at twelve per cent. See Diet, of Antiq.
eVt dv8pa7r68oi<s Bavei^CLV. DeM. 822. 8.
To lend money on the security of slaves (i.e. to hold a mort-
gage on the slaves).
.' Phrases :
Aeyetv eVt rtvt, to speak in any ons's praise {perhaps over
the body of). Aesch. Ag. 1400.
C. With Accusative (1) Direction to, or (2) Extension
over.
Direction :
Upon :
Bel ava^TjvaL evrt rev iTrirov. Xen.
He must mount {on) his horse.
3-6 PREPOSITIONS.
To:
7rpOTpe7r€T€ TOVS V€(aT€pOVS Itt' dp€TT}V. IS. 3. 57.
Urge the younger to {the pursuit of) virtue.
As far as :
V ^PXl V '08pva-(ov €7ri OdXacrcrav Kad-qKct, ThUC. ii 97.
The kingdom of the Odrysae stretches as far as the sea.
(See Phrases.)
Against :
ovK eLKOf} ap')(r)V eirt ap'^rjv arparevoraL. Thuc.
It is not likely that empire will advance against
empire.
For, for purpose of :
eifKeov ov^ «9 eirl vavfia'^iav. Thuc.
They were sailing not as though for the purpose
of a sea-fight.
To fetch:
TrefXTTOvcrLV gttI ArjjxocrOevrjv kol Itti tols eiKocn vav<s.
Thuc. iii. 105.
They send for Demosthenes and for the twenty ships.
So KaXelv eirl SeiTTvoi/, to summon to supper.
Extension :
Over, in space or time :
TO ofip.a Bvvarai, eiri iroWa ardhia e^c/c'veccrOaL, Xen.
The eye {sight) can reach over many stades.
eOvero eirl rpei^ r]fjL€pa<;. Xen.
He was sacrificing for the space of three days.
Phrases : (1) Direction.
cTTi Trdv kXOcLv, to come to an extremity, try every means ;
cTTi TO /A€t^ov KO(rfji€Lv, to cxaggcratc (he extravagant in
embellishing), Thuc. i. 21. (Cf. viii. 74.)
To produce (of a purpose) :
i-rrl rd ycAoiorepa, PlAT., to raise a laugh. So Itti rd
al(T\iova (KaAAtcu, to /SeXriov, to a/Aetvov), changing
to, resulting in, something worse (better, etc.).
PREPOSITIONS WITH ALL THREE CASES. 327
TO eiTL :
TO €7rt Tiva, tovtt' e/x€, rovTrt trc, TV'fl^p'., as regards me, thee ;
TO €7rt o-</)as eo/at, Thuc. iv. 28, SO far as regards them.
Military Phrases :
67rt 86pv avacrTpk\pai, to face to the spear (tJie right) ; kir
ao-TTiSa ava(TTpkypai, to face to the shield {the left) ; kiri
TToSa avaxw/Detv, to retire on the foot {with the face to the
enemy) ; evrt Kc/oas ttAciv, to sail towards or on the wing
{in column). Cf. Gen.
cTTt Se^ta, €7r' dpLo-repd, to the right, to the left; ctti rdSe,
on this side; ctt' a/x<^oT€/)a, both ways; kir' cKelva
{kireKelva), on the yonder side, beyond, ultra ; Itti to. erepa,
€7rl ddrepa, on the other side.
Phrases : (2) Extension.
Up to, as far as to :
cTTt SirjKoa-La aTToStSovat, to yield two hundred fold, Hdt. i.
193 ; €^' ocrov Set, SO far as is necessary ; iirl a-puKpov, Itti
f3pa)(v, €7r' oXiyov, iirl ttXgov, etc., to a slight, to a greater
extent, a little way, etc.
iirl TToXv {iimrokv), over a large extent or space ; iirl
TrXda-Tov dv6p(o7ro)v {extending to or over) the greater
part of mankindj Thug. i. 1. Cf. eirl ttAcicttov 6/xiAov,
ii. 34.
cTTt TO TToXv, for thc most part, Aristot.
Time :
errl ttoXvv \p6vov, for a long time ; kizl xpovov Tivd, kir\
Tpk, Act. Ap. X. 16. See Liddell and Scott, rpts and
e<s rpcs.
In Composition :
(1) Upon, over, cTrtKct^ai, I lie upon; eimrXko), I sail over ;
cTToixo/Aat, / go over, survey. (2) TOy i.e. for, iTrivevw,
I nod assent to. (3) To, i.e. against, kiria-TpaTivto, I
march against. (4) In addition, cTnSiSojfXL, I give in
addition; kTrlrpiTos, with a third added to one, i.e. l;g^.
(5) Causally, over, at, kinxaipii), I rejoice at. (6) Of
time, after, kinytyvoiiaL, I am born after, succeed. (7)
From the joint notion of advancing and addition such
words as kinyafiLa, right of intermarriage ; cf. kTrivofxia,
eTrepyaata.
328 PREPOSITIONS.
§ 275* Hapd.
TJapd {irapal, 'irdp), hy the side of, to the side of (the
primitive notion being that of going through or crossing).
Sansk. para, away and towards, Lat. per, Eng. frorifi (Goth.
fra, fram). Tlapd and irepi are related forms from the
root PAE, to fare or go through.
A. With Genitive/ coming or proceeding from (but
originally aside, at the side, or sideways from).
Coming from :
e^ekOelv irapa tlvo^, to come from a person's house,
or country, or court.
yiyvicrdai irapd tlvos, Pl. Symp. 179 B, to be hom of or
sprung from.
exeiv TTapd tlvos (DeM.), to receive from ; p^avddvuv irapd
(Eur.), to learn from.
The Agent with passive verbs :
TTapd TLVOS StSoa-Oai, XeyecrdaL, crvp/3ovXjevecrdaL, to be given,
said, advised by any one.
Periphrastically for the Genitive, etc. :
ai irapd rdv 8i^p(j)v Siopeai. DeM. 20. 15.'
The gifts of democracies.
So 97 irapd TLVOS cvvoLa, to irap kpov dSLKrjpa (the wrong
done by me), Xen.
Phrases :
ot irapd Tivos, one's friends, dependants, messengers, etc.,
IHUC. and Xen. ; to, irapd TLVOS, one^s commands,
purposes, opinions ; irap' kavTov StSoVat, to give of one's
resources, or spontaneously; Tra/o' c/xou, Pl. Prot. 322 D,
by my advice.
1 The Genitive with Trapd appears to represent the Ablative ; thus
wapaxc^peiv rov ^TJfiaTos would first have meant to move sideways from
the tribune.
PREPOSITIONS WITH ALL THREE CASES. 329
B. With Dative, by the side of, near, by, with. (Of
persons, seldom of places, irapd aoi, at your side)
Among, with :
irap vjMv 6Tpd(j)rjv, Aeschin., T was brought up among
you.
KaraXveLv irapd rcvi, Dem., to lodge with any one,
chez quelqu'un.
Belonging to :
TO fiev ^pva-iov Trapa TOVT(p, ot Se klv8vvoi Trap vpiv.
Aeschin. iii. 240.
This man gets the gold, you the dangers.
In presence of:
(.Is KpicTiv KadicndvaL tlvol irapd Ttvt. ThUC, DeM.
To bring any one to trial before another.
In the judgment of:
Trapa tol<s (jipovovanv ev^oKipeiv. Is. 9. 74.
To be in good repute with sensible people.
So Trap l/xoi, me iudice. Trapd a-avT<^, PlAT.
Phrases :
ot Trap' kpoi {ri}uv)^ my OWn people; TO. Trap* epot, my
affairs.
1. Motion to (with per-
sons, Trapd cre, to your
side), with verbs of
motion.
C. With the Accusative :
2. Motion or extension
alongside, with verbs of
rest.
3. Parallelism and com-
parison, side by side,
^ figuratively.
330 PREPOSITIONS.
I. Of Place :
1. Motion to :
eTre/juyfrav Trap* *A6rjvacov<; irpea^ec^. ThuC
They sent envoys to the Athenians,
ela-uvat, c^oirav irapd Ttva, to enter, go to any one's house.
Cf. Genitive and Dative.
2. Extension along or beside :
rj irapa Oakaaaav MaKeSovia. Thuc.
The seaboard of Macedonia. Cf. Xex. A71. iii. 5. 1,
Soph. £'/. 183.
3. Parallelism and Comparison :
Side hy side (with verbs of examining) :
Trap' a\Xr]\a earai ^avepwrara. Dem.
Set side hy side they will he most conspiciions.
Trap' ofxfxa, before one's eyes, EuR. Siipp. 484.
Compared with (often implying superiority) :
fieydXr) poTrrj rj rvxrj irapd irdvra rd rdv dvdpiOTnov
irpdyfiara. DeM. 2. 22.
Fortune is a mighty makeweight compared zvith all human
influences. Cf. Xen. AiM. i. 4. 14 (so used especially
with comparatives).
Beyond and contrary to, opposed to Kara :
Many phrases: Trapd SvvafiLv, beyond one's' strength.
Tvapd TO SiKatov, ras cnrovSds, tovs v6p.ovs, (fivcnv, yva>fJiy]v,
86 ^av (Aoyov), contrary to, or in violation of , justice, the
treaty, the laws, nature, opinion, expectation (praeter
opinionem, spem).
Note. Several peculiar and much debated constructions
occur with irapd and the Accusative.
Causal :
Owing to, in consequence of, cf. hud with Accusative.
(iKa(TTO<s ov Trapd rrjv eavrov dfieXeLav o'Urai ^Xaxpecv rrjv
ttoXlv, Thuc. i. 141, each man imagines that he ivill not
in consequence of his own neglect injure the state. Cf .
Dem. Phil. i. 41, Trapd rrjV kavTOv piojJLTjv.
PREPOSITIONS WITH ALL THREE CASES. 331
Besides, in addition to :
ovK ecTTi irapa ravr aAAa, ArIST. Nub. 698, there's
nothing else besides this; irapa ravTa Travra erepov ti,
Pl. Phaed. xix,, besides all this something quite different ;
TrXrjyrj irapa irXrjyrjv, Ar. Ran. 643, blow foT blow (im-
plying alternation).
11. Of Time :
During :
Tov BoXlov avhpa (f)evye irap oKov tov ^lov.
Menand.
Avoid a cunning man thy whole life long.
So Trapa Trdvra tov yjpovov, irapa irorov, AeSCHIN., inter
potandum. Cf. Lat. per totam vitam.
At the moment of :
irapa tolovtov Kaipov, DeM., at SUch a moment ; Trap' avTO,
TaStKij/zara, Dem. 21. 26, at the very m^oment of the
wrong-doing, flagrante delicto. Cf. ctt' avTo<\>u)pio, in
the very aci^
Note 1. Trap' rj/x€pav is generally taken to mean on each alternate
day. See Soph. Ai. 475. Lobeck and Jebb consider that it
rather means day by day, as each day comes. The phrase occurs
in Dem. viii. 70. In Soph. 0. C. 1455, irap' ^p.ap avOts appears
to mean on the following day. irapa fxrjva rpirov, Aristot., every
third month.
Note 2. irapa (motion to), in certain phrases denoting the limit
reached, is used of excess or defect, and so describes the differ-
ence of two things.
irapa to(tovtov rj MvTLXtjvr) r\\6e klv^vvov. ThUC. iii. 49.
Mitylene came within such a distance of danger.
Cf. Thug. vii. 2, vi. 37 (irapa roa-ovrov yiyvwa-KU), SO much
within the mark is my opinion) ; iv. 106, irapa vvKra iyivero
Xafiietv, came within a night of taking, i.e. one night only stood in
the way of taking.
To this construction belong a great many phrases, e.g. irapa
jXiKpov, TToAv, oXiyov, f^pa^v kXdelv, yevecrOai, diro<f)€vy€Lv, vlkolv,
to come vnthin a little, to have a narrow etc. escape, to loin a narrow
332 PREPOSITIONS.
or a hollow victory. Similarly Tra/a' ovUv, ficKpov, oXiyoy Troieto-^at,
ay€iv^ dea-dai, etvai, to hold of no, little, account, be of little account.
In Composition :
(1) Alongside, Trapia-rrjfiL, I set alongside; Trapaf^dWofiai,
I expose or stake ; TrapdXX-qXos, beside one another. Hence
(2) of alternation, irapaXXda-crw, I make alternate. (3)
Aside, beside the mark, amiss, Trapa/Saivo), I transgress.
§276. TIepL
Uepl, round about, beyond, over, very (cf. adverbial use).
Cf. TTepi-^, round about; Trepiaao^, excessive; — irep, how-
ever much. Sansk. pari, round about, Lat. per{magnus).
See irapa.
Compare throughout with a/xc^t.
A. With Genitive.
In prose the meanings are figurative : the local use is Epic
and poetical (cf. Eur. Tro. 818).
The Object for or about which :
aycovc^ecrOe 7ravT6<; irepL aperrj';. Xen.
Strive all of you after excellence.
So 6 dyiov (o KLvSvvos, etc.) Trepl ^u^^s (irepl twv /zeywrTwv)
eo-Tt, the struggle is for life (for the highest objects).
With verbs of caring, thinking, fearing, etc. :
fiiXei fJLOL, ^ovXivoixaL, cfioPovfiac irepc tlvos, I care etc. for
a thing.
Also of saying and hearing :
dyykXXu), Acyw, aKovo), pkp.vrip.ai irepi Ttvo?.
The use of these verbs with Trept should be compared
with the use of the simple Genitive in Epic and in Poetry.
Phrases :
€p.7r€Lp(iis €X€tv TTepc Ttvos, Aeschin., to be experienced in a
thing. (Cf. Xen. An. vi. 2. 1. Genitive without Trepi)
PREPOSITIONS WITH ALL THREE CASES. Z2>Z
Periphrastically :
at irepi '^HpuKXeovs Trpd^ets, Plat., the deeds of Heracles.
TTOLetcrOaLj r^yeicrOai tl rrepl iroXXov (a-pLLKpov, ovSevo?,
TravTos), to esteem a thing highly, etc. Tre/at here contains
the old meaning beyond, cf. ireptyLyvofxaL, I get beyond,
i.e. / surpass, excel.
B. With Dative.
Comparatively rare in Prose : in a local sense the Dative
denotes a closer connexion than the Genitive, cf. eVt ■y\^ith
Genitive and Dative.
Close round, around and upon ; the literal meaning leads
on to the figurative :
eZSe irepl rr} ')(eipL rov veKpov '^pvaovv BaKrvXtov.
Plat.
He saw round the finger of the corpse a golden ring.
A good example in Xen. An. vii. 4. 4, -jrepl rot? o-repvots, etc.
KCLTai 8e veKpos Trepl veKpo). SoPH. Ant. 1244.
He lieth dead, clasping close the dead.
Transfixed hy a weapon :
Common in Homer (so a/^c^i, Od. xii. 395).
TrcTTTwra rwSe 7re/)t veoppdvTi^ ^t(f)€L. SOPH. Ai. 828.
Fallen upon this new-reeking sword.
The Object about which, very rare in Prose (cf. Gen.) :
Tr€p\ rrj StKcAtci eo-rat 6 dy(ov. ThUC. vi. 34.
The struggle will be for Sicily.
See Poppo.
Trepl T$ X^P*V eSeto-ai/. ThUC. i. 67.
They feared for (about) the place.
Cf. Plat. Prot. 314 a, Trepi rots (^lArarots: Phaed. 114 D,
Trept T^ (Tio/MaTL.
The cause (poetical). Cf. ayLt(/)/ ;
Trepl 4>6l3o}, Trepl TapfieL, irepl x^pp-art. (In Poetry.)
For fear, for terror, for joy.
334 PREPOSITIONS.
C. With Accusative.
[Motion round about, Epic]
1. Op Place, the literal meaning sometimes running into
the Figurative :
Rest round about, near, at, by, in :
01 ecfyrfffoc KOLjJbwvraL irepL ra ap'^eta, XeN".
The Ephebi sleep by (in the neighbourhood of) the
town-hall.
Koi T^<j K€c{)aXrj<s /careaye ttc/oc XWov Trecrwif.
Ar. Ach. 1180.
And he fell on a stone and has cracked his crown.
Cf. DeM. 21. 4, irepl avrd Karappelv.
Fall in ruins (lit. about themselves).
So ThUC. vii. 23, Trcpl dkXrjXas rapayOeurai.
Cf. the Dative, irepi ^i<f>€i, etc.
rj irepl Aco-^oi/ vavpaxioL. XeN. Hell ii. 3. 22.
The sea-fight off Lesbos.
2. Time:
About or near, vnth numbers :
TjSrf r]v Trepl irXriOovaav dyopdv. Xen.
It was now near full-market hour.
So irepl Tovrovs rov<s \p6vovs. ThUC.
About this period, or time.
irept l/SSop-JKovra, Thuc. i. 54, about seventy.
3. Figuratively :
Be busied abo^it, engaged in. Cf. a/x<^/ .•
With etVat, yiyvea-dai, SiaTpLJSeLV, cnrovSd^eLV.
ovTL avTi^ Trepl ravra 6 E^/av/xeSwv aTravT^. ThUC. vii. 31.
ff^hile lie was engaged in this Eurymedon m.et him.
See Phrases below.
Towards, i.e. with reference to :
Trepl Tov deov acre/Jo vo-t v. AntIPH.
They are impious with regard to {in their dealings with, or
duty towards) the god.
PREPOSITIONS WITH ALL THREE CASES. 335
With YerU :
So evcre^etv ^
aaapTOLVCLV ( ,
JL - >xept Tivtt, or ri.
(TlO(ppOV€LV I ^ '
(nrov8a.^€LV )
With Adjectives :
ayatfo<Sf >7rcpi n . > m trie matter of .
dyaOos Trepl ttjv ttoXlv.
' Good as regards the state, i.e. a patriotic citizen.
With Substantives, Periphrasis for Genitive or Adjective :
ol vofioi ot irepl tov<s ydfxovs, PlAT. Crito, 50 D, the laws
which relate to marriage, marriage laws ; ol tr^pl Ava-iav
Xoyoi, Plat. Phaedr. 279 A, the speeches of Lysias ; y
irepl ^iXnnrov rvpavvk, Xen. Hell. V. 4. 2, Philip's
despotism ; rot ir^pX ras vavs, Thuc. i. 3, naval affairs ;
rd Trepl Kvpov, Hdt. i. 95, the deeds or history of Cyrus.
Phrases :
ot TTepi TLva, a person's retinue or suite ; ol Trcpl 'H/oa/cAcirov,
Plat., the school of Heracleitus ; ol rrepl 'Apx^av rroAe/x-
apxot, Xen., Archias and his fellow-polemarchs.
'Ot Trepl fxov(TiK'qv, <f>tko(ro<pLav, ttjv TroLfja-LVj tov<s Xoyovs
OVT€S.
Those engaged in music, philosophy, poetry, oratory ; musi-
cians, philosophers, poets, orators.
6 nepl rbv tWov. XeN.
The groom.
Trepi, after its case (Anastrophe), is found in Thuc. and
Plat. Once in Plato, Leg. 809 e, it is put far from its case,
something like a German separable particle. (See Liddell and
Scott.)
In Composition :
Around, beyond, exceedingly, Trept/^aAAw, I put around;
TrepiTTLTrro), I fall around, embrace, fall foul of, into ; irepi-
yiyvoixai, I get beyond, excel, survive, escape; irepLxapi^s,
exceedingly glad.
336 PREPOSITIONS.
§ 277. Iip6<;.
npo^ (Ep. and Dor. tt/jot/, ttot/), toivards, to, in front
of, before, opposite, beside. Sansk. prati, towards, Eng.
forth-with. Upo-TL is formed from irpo.
Cf. 7rp6cr-$€v, in front.
A. With Genitive/ generally of direction towards, or
with reference to, without implied motion.
Towards :
In presence or in sight of :
o n BtKatov ean kol 7rpo<; Oewv icai 7rpo<; avOpwircdv.
Xen.
Whatever is right in the sight of gods and men.
TO 7rpo<; ^LKVwvo<^ rel^o^ e^erelx^aav. Xen.
They completed the wall which faced Sicyon.
A very common usage in prose and poetry (the verb, such
as flvai or Kda-dat, is readily understood).
So in entreaties :
irpo^ vvv ae Trarpo^, 7rp6<q re firjrpof;, m reKvov.
LKeTr)<; iKvovfiai. SoPH.
Now by thy father, by thy mother, boy.
Suppliant I supplicate thee.
Note. A very common use. Observe (1) that o-e is often
inserted thus, tt/oos ere Trar/aos, cf. per te decs ore; (2) the
verb is often omitted, -n-pos Atos, -n-phs 6e(av, p.r] tt/jos yevetov,
1X7) TTpos (re yovviov.
On the side of :
AXKL^LaBrjf; Xeyerao Trpo^ irarpo^ ^AXK/jLacoiBcov
elvai. I) EM.
Alcibiades is said to have been descended from the
Alcmaeonidae on the father's side.
1 Observe that the Genitive with irpSs is a genuine Genitive and not
a representative of the lost Ablative,— connection, not separation, being
denoted.
PREPOSITIONS WITH ALL THREE CASES. 337
Cf. Soph. A%. 1305, tovs Trpos aifxaroSi blood relations, Cf.
Soph. EL 1125 and 1075 (ra irpos reKviov).
Belonging to (periphrastically for Genitive alone) :
ov TTpo^ tarpov cro(f)Ov
6p7)veiv €7ra)Ba^ Trpo? to/jlcovtl Trrj/jLaTt, SoPH.
'Tis not a wise physician's part
To mumble spells o'er sore that needs the knife.
So 7r/>os yvvatKos, like a woman, etc.
And with qualities, tt/oos SiKr^s, in accordance with justice.
Soph. 0. T. 1014; ov tt/sos t^s v/xerepa? So^t^s, Thug. iii.
59, it does not accord with your reputation.
In favour of :
TT/^o? Ta)v e-^ovTcov ^oiPe tov vofiov Tidrj^;, EUE.
Thou makest this law in favour of the rich, Phoebus.
On the part of, at the hand of:
eiraivov rev^erai, Trpa yovv e/xov, SoPH.
He shall meet with praise at least from me.
The agent with Verbs and Adjectives (very common in Ionic
and in poetry) :
Kvpos ofMoXoyeLTaL tt/oos irdvTwv Kparia-Tos yevkordai.
Xen. An. i. ix. 20.
Cyrus is admitted by all to have been most excellent.
Cf. Aesch. p. V. 650, Soph. An. 919 (^prjfios irpbs <^iAwv).
Cf. El 562 (with a Substantive).
In poetry also, rarely, of things. Soph. El. 1236.
B. With Dative.
I{ear or beside, in rest :
ol TTOTa/jLol TTpo^ TttU iTTjyal^ ov fjueyaXoi eiaiv, Xen.
Rivers near their sources are not big.
Soph. 0. T. 1169, tt/oos tw Secvw, on the brink of Jwrror.
In presence of:
In Demosthenes : Trpos rots KpiraU, in the presence of the
juryman: Trpos rols decrixoderals, etc. (Aeyeti^).
Y
338
PREPOSITIONS.
Engaged in :
^ " ^'^ - Flat. Phaed. XX.XY. Si G.
Socrates was absorbed in the conversation held.
Cf. totus erat in sermone. HoR. Sat. i. 9. 2.
Note. A frequent prose usage : etvai, yiyvea-Oai, haTpipeiv,
TY)V yv^jx-qv l^aiv irpos tlvl.
In addition to :
TTOO? T0t9 irapoixnv aWa irpo'fKapeLV oeKei^.
Aesch.
In addition to thy jpresent woes thou wouldst add
other woes.
TTpb^ Tot9 aXkoi^j in addition to the rest.
So constantly ttjoo? Tovroi^^, praeterea, in addition
to, besides this, seldom 77^09 tqvto).
C. With Accusative.
1. Direction towards, or to, implying motion.
2. Relation or connection with (a very free and
post-Epic usage).
Towards, to, literally and figuratively :
€(j)vyov 7rpo9 Tr)v <yr]v, Xen.
They fled to the shore.
7] (pikoTL/jila irapo^vvei irpo^ ra Ka\a. Xen.
Ambition spurs to noble aims.
With verbs of speaJdng :
eiprio-eTai irpo^ vfia^ iraaa r) aXrjdeia. Dem.
The whole truth shall be told you (spoken out he/ore
. you).
Very commonly, ctVetv, Xeyetv, (fypd^cLV, aTTOKpivea-OaL irpos
TLva. Soph. El. 640, tt^os </)ws (to proclaim), publicly, in
broad daylight, in luce.
A-eyeii/ tt/oos rtva, to speak in reply, advorsus aliquem.
Aeyetv Kara twos, to speak against (in accusation of), in
aliquem.
PREPOSITIONS WITH ALL THREE CASES. 339
With verhs of considering :
XoyLaaade Trpo? v/iia<; avrov^ rl (TV/ub/Sria-eTai. Dem.
Consider with yourselves what will hafjpen.
So €vdvfX€L(r6ai, dvafJLvrjcrOyjvaL Trept tlvo<5. Cf. SoPH. El. 285.
avTYj TT/oos avTrjv, alone by myself.
Of dealings with ;
a-'jTovBa<; (avvdrjKas;) iroiovfiai, Trpo^ riva, I make a
truce, treaty with.
So ^v/z/xa^^ta, cfaXta, eySpa, airia-riay TroXefxos Trpos nva,
TTpos Tovs StKoo-ras, in the presence of the jury.
irpos Tovs MyySoi'S kykvovTO ayadoi. ThUC. i. 86.
They proved themselves brave men against the Medes.
Cf. Xen. Cyr. ii. 3. 13.
TT/oos K€vrpa firj XaKTi^e. Prov. — Kick not against ihejprichs.
Generally y with reference to :
ov^lv avTW TT/Oos T'qv ttoXlv icTTi. Dem. 528. 16.
He has nothing to do with the city.
d(T<f>aXu}s '^x^iv TTpos ri. Xen., to feel safe or comfortable
about.
Miscellaneous Phrases:
With a pwyose :
■^pr) 7rpo9 TO nrapov aec ^ovXeveaOac, ISOC.
We should ever deliberate with an eye to the present.
So iTOLfios, XPV^''H'^'^) ^'^cii'os Trpos Tt, ready, etc., for a purpose.
According to :
irpos aXXov ^rjv, Dem., to live according to the standard
of another.
TTobs TTjv Svvaixiv, according to one^s ability (pro viribus.)
Trpos ras r^xas (EuR. Hipp. 701), suited to one^s fortunes.
In consequence of, on hearing :
'X^aXeTralveiv tt/jo? tl. Thuc. To he annoyed on hearing.
a6vfico<; eyjELv irpo^ Tt. Xen. To be despondent,
irpofi Tavrrjv ttjv <f>r)pLriv, Hdt. Ad banc famam.
340 PREPOSITIONS.
'irpo<i ravra :
7r/)09 t/; wherefore? Trpo? ravra, there/ore.
Sometimes introducing a defiance or challenge, so then,
e.g. Soph. 0. T. 455.
Compared with :
TroXXrj av eirj aTTtcrTta tyJs Svvdfxeois irpos to kAcos avrwi/.
Thuc. i. 10.
There would he a strong disbelief in their power as compared
with their reputation.
Cf. Hdt. iii. 34 : also iii. 94 (implying superiority), and
iii. 94 (to fiecrov -rrpos, the mean between).
7r€VT€ TTpos T/)ta, Akistot. Five to three.
Exchange :
rjSovas 7r/3os rj8ova<s kol AvTra? 7rpo<s Xv7ra<s Kal <f)6^ov rrpos
(fio/Sov KaraXXaTTea-dai. PlAT. Phaed. xiii. 69 A.
To exchange pleasures with pleasures, pains with pains, and
fear vnth fear.
Cf. HoM. II. vi. 235.
2. Of Time (a rare use), towards, near, about :
TT/oos ka-irkpav, drawing towards evening : Trpos rjci, towards
daybreak. Plat, and Xen.
Phrases :
Ta TTpos rov TToXefxov, res militares, military affairs.
rd TT/oos Tovs ^eovs (SoPH. Phil. 1441) ; duty to the gods.
ir/)os rj8ovr)v Aeyeiv, to speak with a view to gratify or
please ; so, tt/jos x^-P''^ hrjixr^yopdv, to make a popular
speech, talk clap-trap or " bunkum f' irpbs '^xOpav TTotetcr-
6ai Xoyov, Dem. {calculated to inspire dislike) ; a-jravra
TTpos '>)8ovr)v Cr)T€Lv, to make pleasure one's sole aim
(omnia ad voluptatem referre).
Adverbial phrases :
TT/50S IStav (TTpos TO jSiaLov, Aesch. Jg. 130), violently, by
force; Trpos dvdjKrjv, of necessity (cf. iutt' dvdyKi]s, Bl'
dvdyK-qv, k^ dvdyK-qs, crvv dvdyKrj).
rrpos pkpos proportionately, Dem. Tvpos cvo-e^emv, piously.
Soph, tt^os opy-qv, angrily, Soph, and Dem. Tvpos
Kaipov, seasonably, Soph.
PREPOSITIONS WITH ALL THREE CASES. 341
Trpo<s x'^P'-^ Ttvo?, alicuius gratia, for the sake of a person.
irpos l(rxvo<s x^piv^ EuR. Med. 538 {laws not made) in
support of violence ; cf. SoPH. Ant. 30, tt/oos x^P'^ /3opa?,
for the sake of food. In such phrases, tt/oos X"P*^ is
almost like eVeKa.
TTpoq avAoi/, Eur. Al. 346, ^0 the accompaniment of the
pipe.
As an Adverb : in addition, besides :
dXoyia Kal dfji,aOta ye tt/oos. Plat. Meno, 90 E, Absurdity
and unreasonableness to boot. Cf. EuR. Or. 622.
In Composition :
(1) Towards, irpo^epxoiift^, I approach. (2) Near, beside, be-
sides, 7rp6sK€LfiaLj I lie near; TrposTidrjfjLi,, I apply, I add.
§278. 'TttoV
'Ttto (Epic viral) i under, = Sansk. upa (thither, to, with).
Lat. suh.
A. With Genitive.
1. Of Place.
Under :
ra VTTO 7?7? Bc/caarripta. PlaT.
The courts of justice under the earth.
From under :
V€0(T(rov Tov^^ viro irrepoiv (nraxraq. EUR, And. 441.
Drawing from under the wings this chick.
An Epic but rare Attic use.
1 virb like the Latin sub seems originally to have meant upwards,
from below towards a place above. Compare uTrrtos with supinus, facing
upwards, v\pL, aloft, surgo {i.e. sub-s-rigo), succedo. Hence vird means
goi7ig to meet {viravTid^u)), supporting, and so agency or cattse. More
generally vir6 comes to denote under the power or influence of, and even
accompanying circumstance, sometimes almost like eiri with a Dative,
e.g. Aesch. Sept. c. Theh. 821, virb <()bv(^. With the Genitive i'7r6 denot-
ing separation from, the Genitive must represent the Ablative ; on the
other hand when inrb means under, the true Genitive, denoting sphere
within which anything occurs, whether of place or time, etc., is em-
ployed.
342 PREPOSITIONS.
2. Figuratively ; under the influence of.
Of Persons : — the Agent, like Lat. a, ah :
With Passive Verbs :
ol Uepaai eviKriOrjaav vtto twv E\Xt]Vcov.
The Persians tvere defeated hy the Greeks.
Of Things : — the cause :
Trdvra vtto 8eou9 ^vvia-raTai. ThuC.
They all hold together through fear.
A very common use, vtto voaov, vcj) rj^ovrjf;, vir opyr]<;,
hy, in consequence of, from, for, disease, ^pleasure,
anger.
VTTO K-qpvKo<s evx^s €7roiovvTo. Thug. vi. 32.
At the direction of a herald they were offering prayers,
praeeunte praecone.
Hence of accompanying circumstances :
Frequently of music.
larpareveTO vtto crvpcyyiDV. HdT. i. 17.
He used to march to war to the sound of the pipe.
Cf. Soph. El. 711. Eur. Bacch. 156.
So TTiVeiv VTTO a-dXiriyyos, Ar. Ach. 1001, to drink to the
trumpets sound. vtt' €v<^ripov fSorjs ^Ovcrai, SoPH.
El. 630, to sacrifice with auspicious cry. vtto (fiavov
TTOpevea-dai, to march hy torchlight, vtto Tropirrjs, in
procession. Hdt. ii. 45.
Note. VTTO has this sense with the Dative in early and late
Greek, e.g. Hesiod and Lucian (see Liddell and Scott) ; also
rarely in Attic with the Accusative, Plat. Leg. 670 A, vtt'
op^-qcTiv KoX (^riv : Xen. Sym. 6. 3, vko avAov.
Phrases :
tx^' kavTov (ttoulv tl), to do anything spontaneously, of 07ie-
self, sua sponte. ■y^' lu/xwv avrwi/ Kal prj vtto to)v
TToXepLMv. Thug. iv. 64, of your own free-icill, and not
compelled hy the enemy, vtto here denotes the Agent.
PREPOSITIONS WITH ALL THREE CASES. 343
B. With Dative.
virq means under, in a local sense, less frequently
in Prose tlian in Poetry.
Under :
evK\67](; Oavel
yvvrj T apKTTrj rwv vcj)' rfkicp (jbaKpo). EuR. Al, 150.
Glorious thou wilt die,
The nohlest woman far heneath the sun.
Cf. Xen. An. i. 2. 8, viro ry aKpoiroXet elvai.
Covered hy :
ri e'xets viro tw i/xarto) ; PlAT. Phaedr. 228 D.
What have you concealed under your cloak ?
Cf. AeSCH. Ag. 1030, viro o-koto).
Under power of persons or things:
r)v €Ti VTTO vofjLot<; KUL TTaTpc. Plat. Rep. 574 E.
He was still in subjection to laws and to a father.
v(f> iavTM TroLetaOaL, to bring under one's power ; cf.
Hdt. vii. 157 ; Thuc. vii. 64 (and see Accusative).
Classed under :
TO, VTTO rals ye(i)fX€Tpiais Aeyets. PlAT. Bep. 511 A.
You are speaking of what comes under the head of geometri-
cal pursuits (various branches of geometry).
More rarely with Accusative, see Lexicon.
0. With Accusative.
Motion under :
avey^wpTjaav viro to Tel')(o<;, Xen.
They retired under the walls.
viro hiKacTTripLov, into (under control of) a law court.
Hdt. vi. 104.
Extension or position under :
TO IleAacrytKov to vtto rr^v aKpoTvoXiv i^tpK-qOr].
Thuc. ii. 17.
The Pelasgicum which lies (extends) under the acropolis was
croivded.
Toi VTTO TTjv apKTov. Hdt. V. 10, tJic uorthem districts.
344 PREPOSITIONS.
Subjection to :
et/to9 avTov<; iravra nreipaa-aaOai vtto cr(f>a<; iroLelaOai,,
Thuc.
It is likely they will try to hriTig all under their power.
ol VTTO Tcva, Xen., those who are in subjection to
any one,
Cf. Dative.
Of Time, near, about :
VTTO Tov aeia-fiov, ThuC.
At the time of the earthquake,
VTTO vvKTay towards night, at nightfall, sub noctem.
VTTO rrjv KardXva-iv tov 7ro\€fiov, just at the end of the war.
Xen. Mem. ii. 8. 1.
Phrases :
vtt' avyas opav rt, to hold up to the light (cf. Eur, Rec.
1154).
VTTO ri^ Plat, and Aristoph., to a certain degree^ ali-
quatenus.
In Composition :
(1) Up to, viravrid^io, I go up to meet, I face; and so of
accompaniment, V7ra.8<j), I accompany in song. (2) Under,
viretfiL, I am under. (3) Secretly, slightly, gradually,
vTTocfiatvo}, I show or shine a little ; v7ro/3dXXo), I suggest,
suborn, substitute ; virepvOpoSj reddish.
CHAPTER 11.
THE NEGATIVES.
Introductory Note.
§ 279* Ov negat, Mrj ivfitiatur.
Ov contradicts or denies.'^ The following are typical instances
of its use : raOra ovk kykv^ro^ these things did not fake place ;
Tavra ovk av yhoiTo, these things would not fake place ; ov <^y}ixi,
I do not assert, i.e. / deny. The statement may take an in-
terrogative form, ov Tavra kykv€To ; did not these things fake place ?
where an affirmative answer is expected, the person addressed
being challenged or dared to say ovk kykv^ro.
MtJ on the other hand deprecates or repudiates. The following
instances taken from Homer are typical : firj c/xe Aa/Sot x^^^^^^j
may not anger seize me ! fjirj o-e Kix^to), let me not meet thee ! ^ jj-rj
TTov (fida-de ; what ! say ye ? {be it not that ye say !) a state-
ment put deprecatingly or repudiated : Surely no ! you don't
say, etc. =do you say ?
Hence firf naturally expresses a, prohibition,- /xtj />t' ipeOi^e,
provoke me not / It also naturally expresses /ecir, apprehension,
surmise : fx-q /le a-rip-q Safxda-rj, I fear (or perchance) the frost shall
overpower me. The surmise may be expressed independently,
as above, or it may be attached to a verb, and so pass into a
Subordinate Sentence : SetSw /xr) yei'to/zat, / fear that I may
become. Again the surmise, or result deprecated may prove
true : SetSw /xt) vqixeprea €L7rev, I fear she spake the truth.^
^ Ov denies, [i-q declines, Curtius. 0^ denies, ix-f] rejects: ov is the
negative of fact and statement, ix-f] of the will and thought, Goodwin in
Liddell and Scott. Ov denies a predication, fi-f] forbids or deprecates
(further on, disclaims), Monro, Homeric Grammar.
2 M77 is identical with the Sanskrit md. In Sanskrit md is used with
the Conjunctive, Optative of wishing, and Imperative like ixi} in Greek,
Curtius Etym. i. p. 415. For instances see Delbriick and Windisch,
Syntaktische Forschungen, Der Oehrauch des Conjunctiva und Optatws
im Sanskrit und Griechischen, p. 112 and following. Max Miiller,
Oxford Inaugural Lecture, Note C, gives an instance (from Wilson)
of the prohibitive md with what may be equally well called an Infini-
tive or Dative : md kdpaldya, lit. not for unsteadiness, i. e. do not act
unsteadily. This seems to trace back ixrj as far as we can go.
345
346 THE NEGATIVES.
In all the above instances ov contradicts downright a state-
ment of fact, whereas [x-l] deals with conceptions or thoughts.
A line is thus drawn between the two negatives— a line, on
the whole, clearly marked throughout Attic Greek, although
subsequently blurred. ^ M>i is thus used with Wishes^ Prohibi-
tions, Conditions, SiXidi Purposes. A negative consequence con-
ceived {(l)cn€ with the Infinitive) requires /x>j, a negative con-
sequence achieved as a fact {ioare with the Indicative)
requires ov.
M^ is used generally with abstract conceptions as opposed to
known and definite facts. Thus ol ov ina-TevovTes means those
particular (known) persons who do not believe ; ol fxrj iria-Tevovre^,
all or any persons who do not believe (if any do not believe) ; cTreiS?)
ovK rjXBov, when, or since (as a matter of fact), tliey did not
come ; eiretSr) firj 'iXdoiev, whenever (the number of times not
being specified) they did not come; ^ ovk e/x7ret/oia, the in-
experience (of some known person), the fact that some one is in-
experienced ; 7} fXTj €fjL7r€LpLa, inexperience in the abstract (without
predicating of any particular person) ; 6 ovk &v, he who is not
existing, the dead man ; ra [xr) oVra, all things whatsoever are not,
a vast limbo outside of our actual knowledge.
The construction of the sentence may change ov to ix-fj, yet
even so, if it is necessary to contradict point blank a word or
statement, ov may be used. See examples at the end of
this chapter.
Whatever applies to ov and fxr] applies equally to their com-
pounds, ovSets, /xrySeis ; ovSe, /x>^Se j ovre, jUiJTe, etc., etc.
§ 280. Ov PRIVATIVE.
Ov prefixed to a word deprives that word of its affirma-
tive meaning and gives it exactly the opposite sense.
Hence it is called privative (privativum).
Especially noticeable under this head is the idiomatic
use of ov with verbs of saying and thinking : ov ^t^^l, ov
<f)aa-Kco, ov vofit^co, ovk olofiuL, ov Bokw, ovk eo).
1 As Lucian (second century a.d.) is sometimes read it may be
observed that he uses fiifi where Attic writers use ov : (1) with Parti-
ciples in a Causal sense, and after ws, 6ti, dion Causal, (2) after Verbs
of Saying and Thinking in Oratio Obliqua.
oh PRIVATIVE. 347
By this idiom ov is used with the principal verb where
in English the negative is joined w^ith the following
Infinitive.
Ov in fact almost coalesces with its word. Compare
the use of the Latin negative {ne in nego {ne-ig-o), ne queo,
nescio) which has gone a stage further than ov in coalescing.
ov ^aai defjLLTOv elvat. PlaT.
They say it is not right.
negant fas esse.
ovK Qjero Secv Xeyeiv. Aeschin.
He thought that he need not speak.
ov fjLot BoKco. Plat.
/ think not.
Note 1. This use of ov with the governing Verb seems more
ancient than with the Infinitive. See Monro's Homeric Gram-
mar, p. 262.
Note 2. This ov privative is sometimes retained where the
construction requires /^tJ.
eav ov 4>rJT€ lav re cfirjre. PlAT. Apol xii. 25 B.
Whether you say no m- yes.
€L fl€V OV TToXXol T^CTttV. LYS. 13. 72.
If they were few.
Cf. ThuC. i. 121 (et OVK OLTrepova-i) ; XeN. An. i. 7. 18 (el ov
ixaxdrai)', SoPH. Ai. 1131, 1242, 1268; El 244; EuR.
Med. 88.
But generally the fir} required by construction is used.
kav fxrj <f)fj 6 eVe/JOS rov 'drepov opOios Aeyetv. PlAT. Gorg. 457 D.
Note 3. Ov exerts this privative or contradictory force on
any word to which it is prefixed.
(a.) Verbs : —
ov
OVK
ov
o-re/ayo), I hate. ovk d^Lw, I consider that not
OK €M, ) ^,. , /. 7.7 (like OV 80 ko)), I require or ex-
^ KexUc., 1 1 hinder Jorhd. ^^^^ ^J^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^^^ ^^ g^^^
OVK vTno-xvovfxat, I refuse. I disdain or refuse (Aesch.
ov TTposTTOLovfiaL, dissiuiulo. P. V. 285).
ov crvfifSovXcvd), I advise one
not to, etc. Thuc. and Hdt.
348 THE NEGATIVES.
(b.) Other words : —
Tol ov KaXd, immorality.
ov KaAws, immorally ; ovk opOC^s, wrongly.
ovx CIS, OVK oXiyoi = TToXXoL, many.
OVK €Aa;(to-Tos = fxeyLO-TOS.
OVK rjKLarTa aXXa fxaXiarraj HdT. iv. 170.
rrjs AevKaSo? rj ov Tre/atreix^o-ts, Thuc. iii. 95., the non-investment
of Leucas.
t) OVK e^oxHTta, THtTC. V. 50 j ij ov StaAvo-fcs, i. 137 ; rj ovk
aTToSocris, V. 35.
€v ov Kaipo), unseasonably, EuR. Bacch. 1288.
Note. 4. In some of these cases the negative doubtless is
due to the Greek reserve and abatement of positive assertion
(litotes), e.g. ovx riKicna, not least, i.e. by implication, most.
§ 281. Oi AND pLTi WITH ADJECTIVES, PARTI-
CIPLES USED AS ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS,
AND SUBSTANTIVES
(For Infinitives used as Substantives see § 283.)
Ov. Mt;.
When definite and known When the members of a
individuals or members class are indefinite so
of a class are spoken of, that the expression is
so that a fact is stated, xuiudllj conditional : (or
ov is used. when certain attributes
are thought of so that it
is consecutive:) or when
the expression is a mere
vague conception, some-
thing thought of rather
than known, [xr] is used.
Instances with ^iri much outnumber those with ov.
OL OVK afyaOoL TroXlrac. 01 /jltj KaOapol Ta<; ')(^6ipa<;.
Those {particular) citizens Antiph.
who are not good, A II who are of impure hands.
O^ AND M17 WITH ADJECTIVES, ETC,
349
01 ov TTLaTevovre^.
Those who do not believe.
(Special known persons
spoken of.)
ii qui non credunt.
at ou/c
aVTUL.
opOal iroXnelai
Plat. Uejp.
These wrong forms of govern-
ment.
Here, as in many such cases,
the ov is privative ; under
which rule are given ex-
amples of adverbs and
substantives.
OU fJLT] 7rL<7T6V0VT€<^.
Those, i.e. ani/ (all) who do
not believe = if any do not
believe.
= OLTLVe<i fXT] TTLCTTeVOVai.
oaoL av fiT] Tno-revcocTL.
si qui non credunt.
Tcov crTpaTiO}T03v ol fir] Bvvd-
fjLevoL Xen.
Such of the soldiers as are
unable.
Ttt opara Kac ra /jlyj (opard).
Plat. Phaed.
The things which are seen
and those which are not
seen.
fiT] caTpo<; aveincTTrifKov.
Plat. Gorg.
He who is not a physician
is inexperienced,
BeLVOV eGTLv Tj fMrj efjuireipta,
Ar. JEcc.
A sad thing is inexperience.
Here no statement is made
that any particular person
is inexperienced, but the
mere conception is spoken
of.
Note on Substantives. When ov is used with a Substantive,
the expression is equivalent to a negative objective sentence.
Thus 17 ovK k^ovcria = quod non licet, the fact that it is not per-
mitted. Whereas rj /xr) k^ova-ia simply means the not being able
as an abstract conception, non licere. Mrj however may be
said to be the usual Attic construction with Substantives.
350
THE NEGATIVES.
§282.
Oh,
Ou is used when the Par-
ticiple states a fact :
the Participle is often
Causal.
Ov AND fJLT] WITH PARTICIPLES.
Mj] is used when the An-
tecedent to the Partici-
ple is indefinite, so that
the Participle is Condi-
tional.
ov iriGTevwv.
Since (as, when, etc.) he
not believe.
fi7] irtarevoav.
If he does not helieve.
aia'^uvoybai ov ttolcov ravra. aLO-'^vpofiac fir) ttoicov rav-
I am ashamed because (that) ra.
I do not do this. I am ashamed if I do not
do this.
BrjXcoao) ov 7rapay€vofM€vo<i.
Antiph.
I will prove that I was not
ov/c av bvvaio, fir] Ka/jLcov,
evSai/jLovetv. EuE.
Thou couldst not be happy,
unless thou shouldst toil.
Kav &(f)X€ XiXias 8pa)(^ixa<s ov
fX€rakaf3(i)v to TreyUTTTOV jue^os
Plat. Apol xxv.
He woidd even have been con-
demned to pay a thousand
drachmae, because he had not
obtained a fifth of the votes.
Sof-er'
OVXL
OVK €VTVXOV(TaL
8vcrTV)(^eiv.
Eur. Bacch. 1263.
Although not fortunate, ye shall
seem not to be unfortunate.
Cf. 270, vovv OVK exoiv
as he is of sense).
0^ AND Mri WITH THE INFINITIVE. 351
Note, ws (wo-Tre/o) ov is more usual with the Participle than
ws [i-r], ws ^-T] appears to be used when the construction of the
Sentence demands /^ly {e.g. when an Imperative or a Con-
ditional particle precedes), though even then ws ov may be
used when a plain statement of fact is intended.
eOopv^dre cos ov Trot-qcrovTCs ravTa. LyS. 12. 73 (cf. 27. 16,
tocnrcp ov).
Cf. Thuc. iv. 5 ; vi. 82. 2, Xen. An. iv. 4. 15.
For ws firj : —
(0? efxov fxy]8e7roT€ dfxeX'QcrovTO'Sf ovrw? e^e Tr]v yvt^fi-qv^
Xen. C^r.i. 6. 11. ^^
But, — d<jf)t€T€ fxe 7] fxrj d<fiUT€ ws ifxov ovk av TrotrycrovTos d\Xa.
Plat. /4^o/. xvii. 30 b; Thuc. i. 78. 1. /SpaSeojs povXema-de
d)S ov Trepl fipa^kiDV.
(OS iiri^ with the Participle, may denote several charac-
teristics, e.g. SiSaa-Ke fj/ ws fx-q etSora, as one who knows not,
Soph. 0. C. 1154.
§ 283. Ov AND iLT^ WITH THE INFINITIVE.
Ov. Ml].
Mr\ is the regular Negative with the Infinitive.
When ov is found with an Infinitive, it is chiefly in
Indirect Statements after verbs of Saying and Thinking,
ov being the proper construction in Oratio Obliqua.
An infinitive used as a Substantive with or without
the Article regularly takes //,rf.
€(^7] OVK eK^rjvac fie eK rov aLa')(^pov fir] aXrjOeveiv.
ifkoLov. Antiph. It is wrong not to sjpeah the
He stated that I did not truth.
leave the ship ^=. ovk €<j)7j
eK^rjvac.
eXeyov ovk elvai avTovofJLOC, y^prj fir) Kara<^poveLV rov
Thuc. irXr^Oov^. Isaeus.
l^ey were saying that they We should not despise the
were not independent, multitude.
352 THE NEGATIVES.
evoiitaev ovk av BvvaaOac to jurj BLKaL(o<; airoKeaaL.
tieveiv. Xen. Antiph.
He thought that they would An unjust sentence of death.
not remain.
6fji(0fJL0K€v ov '^apL6Lauai,
Plat. Ajpol. xxiv. 35 c.
A striking instance; verbs
of swearing usually are
followed by fxr;, see note 4
below.
For other instances, cf.
Soph. Ant. 378, 755 j Plat.
Apol. xvii. 29 B.
Note 1. When ov is exceptionally used with the Infinitive,
it is generally due either to the order of or emphasis on a word
or sentence. Sometimes ov is privative. A positive negation
is always made.
ovSci'os afiapT€LV BiKaios ecrriv. AnTIPH. iv. Tetr, T. a. 6.
There is nothing which he deserves to miss.
= ov8€V icTTiV OV afiapTiiv.
a^iw lyw S>v 6p(i}jx6KaT€ irapajSrjvaL ovBev.
Xen. Hell. ii. 4. 48.
/ beg you to violate no single jooint of your oath.
Observe that ov is used although a Petition strictly requires
fjL^ Cf. Thug. i. 39. 2.
Cf. Soph. Phil 88, €</>vv ovScV=ov/c ^w.
KeXevei ovk kv ry kKKX-qa-ia. aAX' kv t$ dedrpo) rrjv dvdpprja-Lv
ytyvea-dai. AesCH. 3. 204.
{TJie law) requires the proclamation to be made, not in the
< Assembly, but in the Theatre.
Emphasis on the parenthesis.
O^ AND Mt? with the infinitive. 353
^OKa.% yaipr^CTiiv rj ovk aTroOaveLcrOaL ; AnDOK. i. 101.
Do you expect to rejoice, or escape death ?
OVK aT7o9avda-9ai is perhaps privative.
Note 2. xP'^ (XP^^i ^XPl^) ^^® followed by both fxrj and ov
with the Infinitive. xPl °^ ^^7 ^^ considered to stand for
01) XPV-
Soph. Phil. 1363, xPl^ M'^^ [loXelv, k.t.X.
And. 607, XPl^ H'! '^'^eiv.
Eur. Androm. 100, XPV ^' ovttot' eiTreiv, so 214.
Hipp. 507, XPl^ ®^ ^' afMaprdveuv.
Med. 294, XPV ^' ovttot' eKStSda-Kea-Oai.
Note 3. Mrj is not seldom found with the Infinitive in an
Indirect Statement. In some, but not all such instances,
the Statement is general, and bears the character of a
Conception.
aTreKptvaTO fxr^Sevos rJTToyv etvaL. XeN. Hell. ii. 3. 11.
He replied that he was inferior to none; cf. iii. 2. 31 ; iv.
4. 5 j Mem. i. 2. 39.
ot fxavreis Xkyovrai eavTOis p^r] irpoopav to kTviov.
Xen. Symp. iv. 5.
Prophets are said not to foresee the future for themselves.
This is not, however, the strict Attic use, and Xenophon is
often exceptional. See Xen. Mem. i. 2. 39. Ov and yar}
occur in co-ordinate clauses in Soph. Phil. 1058; Plat. Prot.
319 b.
Note 4. Many Verbs which employ an eff'ort of thought or
will prefer /zrj with the Infinitive. Such are Verbs of making
an admission, 6p.oXoyCd, Plat. Phaed. xlii. 98 D, avyx'^pfj^ '• cf.
conviction, Trio-revio, Xen. An. i. 9. 8 ; irkiriKr pat^ Plat. Apol.
xxvii. 37 A : of witnessing, swearing, op^vvpa, Ar. Vesp. 1047,
1281 (also an Epic usage), €p(o = 6piovp,aL, Xen. Cyr. vii. 1. 18;
kyyvQ>p.ai, Plat. Prot. 336 D. (For other constructions of
6p,vvpiL, see Lexicon.)
Verbs of Perception, irria-rapiat, are found with pt] and the
Infinitive in Soph. EL 908, 1092.
z
354 THE NEGATIVES.
§ 284 DIRECT AND INDIRECT STATEMENT
Ov. Mt],
The Direct Statement
takes ov.
ovK e^e^rjv etc rod itXolov,
Antiph.
/ did not leave the ship.
Indirect Statement with
oTi, or w9 takes ov.
For the Indirect State-
ment in the Infinitive, cf.
supra.
/ / * »
irape'^ojiai fjLapTVpa<; co<; ovk
e^e^Tjv eK rov itXolov.
Antiph.
I produce witnesses (to prove)
that I did not leave the
ship ^ OVK e^e/Srjv.
elirev on ovBev avra. fxeKoi
Tov Oopv^ov. Lys.
He said he did not care
about the disturbance ==
ovBev fJLot /jLeXec,
§ 285. INDIRECT STATEMENT WITH
THE PARTICIPLE.
Tjr^'yeCKe rrjv nrokiv ov iro- Note. But Verbs of Percep-
XiooKvdelaav. Xen *^^^ sometimes take /xrj. See
IT /^/7 //T. V 7 ^ Soph. ^71^. 1063-64, a C. 65;
He reported that the city had Thuc i 76 1- ii 17 2-
not been besieged. similarly after SeUwfii, Eur!
Eecta : ovk iiroXiopKridTj. Tro. 970.
DIRECT QUESTIONS.
.^55
eyvQjaav ov TTpa')(d6laav ttju
^v/JLfjuaxi'Civ. Thuc.
They discovered that the al-
liance had not been con-
cluded.
Recta : ouk eirpa'^drj.
Ov in both cases is regular,
going with an Oblique
Statement.
§ 286.
DIRECT QUESTIONS.
Ov expects the answer " yes " (7wnne ?). MtJ expects
the answer " no " (nnm T). They are often associated
with other particles : ap ov ; apa firj ; ov/covv ; /jump (i.e.
fjurj ovv) ; ficov ov ; fjbwv firi ; /uucov ovv ; rj ov ; r) jjuri ;
ravT ov')(l «:aX«9 Xeyerat ; /Jirj croc SoKovfiev TTJSe Xet-
Kokcog. Plat.
Is not this rightly said ?
Yes, rightly.
(^779 rj ov ; iravv ye. PLAT.
Do you assent, or do you not
(assent) ? i.e. Yes or no ?
Certainly (/ do assent).
Ov interrogative with a
Future Indicative is equi-
valent to an Imperative.
ovK a^eu ft)? ra')(^taTa ;
Soph. Ant. 885.
Will you not lead her away
instantly ? (i.e. lead her
away).
Followed by an imperative
Ka\ acpere.
(f>Orjval fJba')(7] ; AeSCH.
Think'st thou we were in-
ferior in this fight 1
Note. fjLxi in an oblique ques-
tion, like num in Latin, loses
this force of expecting a ne-
gative answer. So Soph. Ant.
1253, Eur. Herac. 482.
356 THE NEGATIVES.
ovKovv KaOehel Brjr evOaSc,
ydarpayv ; Ar. Ran. 200.
Sit ye down there, Paunch.
Cf. Soph. Ant 244, Ai. 593,
Phil. 975, 0. C. 834.
Note. Similarly ovk av with
optative, ovk av cfipdareLas ;
which is a gentle <f>pd(rov,
Soph. PM. 122. But ov in
combination with ttov and Srj
(ov TTOU ; ov Tt TTOi; ; ov 617 ;
ov S-q TTov ;) means surely it is
not so ? Cf. Soph. Fhil. 900 ;
Ar. Ban. 522, 526; — the ques-
tion here is really outside the
words " surely not — eh ?"
§ 287. DELIBERATIVE QUESTIONS.
Mr] is used in Delibera-
tive Questions.
fir] aTTOfcptvco/Jbai, ; Plat.
Am I not to ansvjer ?
Xejere, eicnco rj fir) ; Plat,
Speak, must I enter or no ?
Cf. Soph. ^z. 668, rt/x^';
§ 288. IN-DIRECT QUESTIONS.
(a.) Indirect Single Ques-
tion. The Negative is ov.
rfpcoTTjaa, Bta ri ovk e\6oL.
I asked him why he did not
come.
INDIRECT PE TIT ION. 35 7
npcorayopa^ epoma ei ovk
aio-xyvofjuaL. PlaT.
Protagoras asks me if I am
not ashamed.
Ohs. el here is interroga-
tive, not conditional.
(6.) In Indirect Double Questions the usage varies, but ov
is commoner than fjurj. There is generally a reason for firj.
(TKOTTCOfMeV, €1, TTpeTTCl, 7] OV. 6 V€0<; 0V')(^ ol6<^ T€ KpLVetV 6
Plat. to re virovota koi o finr).
Let us consider whether it is Plat.
becoming or not. A child is incapable of de-
oirm lS7)<; ^^'^^^ '^^^^ ^^ allegory
elr 'ivhov elr' oU tviov. ^^^ ^^«^ '^^'
Soph.
That thou may'st see
Whether he be within or not
within.
Note. Ov rather than ii-q seems to represent simply the
original direct double question. Mrj seems to import a doubt
into the question, or to represent it as a conception. Professoiv
Jebb, in a note to Soph. Ai. 6, and Antiphon (Attic Orators,
p. 161), draws a subtle distinction in every case. Thus, he
says (TKOTrwixev €i irpeTT^t y) p-q means, let us consider the question
of abstract fitness : but a-KOTrojfiev et TrpcTret rj ov ; let us see whether
the matter in hand is fit or no.
In this passage of Antiphon, el yj pij — el rj ov occur in
sequent clauses. Similarly in Isaeus, viii. 9, we have, in
three sequent clauses, etVe etVe p-j — /cat el i^ ov — Kal el rj p-q.
§ 289. INDIRECT PETITION.
fit] is always used whe-
ther the Petition is Direct
or Indirect.
pLTj KkeTTje or p,r] KXeyjrr)';.
358 THE NEGATIVES.
a. Direct.
ybi] a^Lovre fie ravra Spav.
Bo not require me to do this.
h. Indirect.
eXeyov avroh jubfj ahiKelv.
Thuc.
They were telling tliem not to
do wro'ng.
LKerevov firj arpe^XaydTjvat.
Andok.
They were begging not to he
tortured.
Note. For exceptions see
under ov and /at) with Infini-
tive. See also oVcos /irj with
Future Indicative (Index).
§ 290. CONDITIONAL.
Ov. M77.
. The Apodosis or Principal The Protasis or Subordin-
Sentence takes ov. ate Sentence takes /jlti.
For Examples see Conditional Sentences.
Note 1. Where ov is found
in a Protasis it is joined
privatively to some special
word. (Cf. supra, p. 347.)
Note 2. €1 interrogative, not
conditional, takes ov not fxrj.
Note 3. When et is used like
ort after verbs of emotion
(6^ar;/xa(o;, KarotKrei/oa), Setvov
to-Tt, and the like), ov, not fx-q,
follows, for we may either say
that a statement of fact is
CONCESSIVE, CAUSAL.
359
made, or that d is virtually
causal. Cf. Isoc. 11 D. /a^
Oavixaxrys et ov irpkirei, DeM. .
197 D. ovK alcTXpov el ov j
Note 4. Also sometimes et
ov is found when a direct
statement is quoted, el, ws
vvv (jiTJa-ec, ov TrapeaKevdcraro,
Dem. 1266. 2, so virtually
Eur. Ion, 347.
§ 291. CONCESSIVE.
Ov. MtJ.
KaiTrep {kul, /cat Tavra, Et, edv (tjv, av), conces-
Kal rot), with a Parti- sive, take firi, being truly
ciple take ov. Conditional.
Kaiirep bvTe<; ov BeLvoc fJ^epu-
vrjdBah pbvr)pL0vev6T€.
Dem.
Though you are not quick at
remembering, yet remem-
ber.
Cf. Soph. Thil. 377 ; Eur.
Ale. 352 = even being.
§ 292,
CAUSAL.
Ok
Mt/.
The regular Negative is ov.
eTrecBr} ovk eSvvavro \apb-
paveiv TO '^aiptov ainevah
rjBr} eirc'^eipovv. Xen.
Since they were unable to
take the fort they now
were trying to depart.
So BcoTc, Thuc. iv. 11. 2.
Note. See Introduction on
use of p^rj in Causal Sentences
in late Greek.
360
THE NEGATIVES.
§ 293. CONSECUTIVE
Oh.
wcrre with the Indicative
takes ov.
ovTco BcaKeifieda ware ovSep
irpa^aL hwafxeda. Dem.
We are in such a mood that
we are unahle to do any-
thing.
Note, ov is found with an
Infinitive.
SiLv' €7rr/7r€tA€i xeAetv wctt' ovre
vvKTos VTTVOV ovt' €^ r^fxkpas
€fji€ crreya^eiv rjSvv.
Soph. El 782.
She threatened to fulfil a dread
revenge, so that, nor day, nor
night, did sweet sleep shroud
me.
Cf. Eur. Hel 107, Phoen.
1357, Thuc. v. 40. 2, viii.
70. 6, Plat. Ajpol. xiv. 26 d.
Note. It is very important
to distinguish between the
regular and the exceptional
use of (l>frT€ ov with the Infini-
tive. The regular use {e.g.
Plat. Apol. xiv.) is due to
Oratio Obliqua. The exam-
ple in Soph. El. 782 is excep-
AND RESTRICTIVE.
Mrf.
wcTTe with the Infinitive
takes 117).
ovT(o<^ aXoyLaTo<; eufiL coare
fiT] hvvaaOai Xoyl^€a6ai.
Plat.
So unreflecting am I that I
cannot reflect.
a(f>l€/jL6V (T€ e(f) ft) T6 fir]KeTL
(j)L\o(To(l)e2v. Plat.
We set you free on the under-
standing that you no
longer pursue 'philosophy.
Cf. Thuc. i. 103. 1. (Fut.
Indie.)
For the rule of e<^ o) re,
see p. 274.
TEMPORAL, LOCAL, AND FINAL SENTENCES. 361
tional. But in all cases we
may perhaps say that there is
a negation of fact.
§ 294. TEMPORAL AND LOCAL SENTENCES.
Ov. Mij.
When the Time or Place is When the Time or Place
definite ov is used. is indefinite /jltj is used
(^e.g. with oTav, oirorav,
eirethav, ottov av, etc.,
with Subjunctive : or
ore, etc., with Optative).
ovKovv, OTav Se fir] crOevw,
TreTravoro/jLac. SoPH.
So, when I have no strength,
I vjill give o'er,
{prav denotes Indefinite
Futurity.)
OTTore fiT) (patev a7rayoi'T€<i
aireKTelvav. Thuc.
Whenever they said ^^ no"
they led them off and exe-
cuted them.
Obs. That ottotc changes ov
<fir]jXL to firj (jirjiMi.
€7r€tBr) 6 avjjp ovK ecpatvero
ct>')(pfji7]v irXiwv. Antiph.
When the man was not forth-
coming I went on my
voyage.
€(o<; fjuev OL avfifxa^oi ovk
el')(pv oTTOt airoaralev
eKpVTTTOV TTjV TTpO^i VfJiOL^
e'xjdpav. Xen. Hell,
So long as the allies did not
know what side to revolt
to, they concealed their
dislike to you.
§ 295. FINAL SENTENCES, ETC.
(a.) Final Sentences.
(h) oiTG)<; with Future
Indicative.
(c.) Verbs of Fearing.
With these Constructions
the regular Construction
JS
362
THE NEGATIVES.
§ 296.
Ou and M77 with Relatives.
Ou.
The Relative takes ov
when the Antecedent is
definite, so that a fact
is spoken of.
^yrovaa ^ap/JLa')^ evpov ov^
a 'ffov\o/ii7]v. Eur.
a '^ovXdfirjv, i.e. a e^ov-
In seeking drugs I found not
what I sought.
Cf Xen. An. ii. 2. 3.
Note. OvSels OCTTtS ov, OVK
fCTTtv oo-Tts OV take ov. Thuc.
iii. 39; vii. 87; Hdt. v. 97.
Plat. Frot. 323 c.
In Thuc. iii. 81, ot 8k
TToAAoi TtOV lK€TtOV 6(T0L OVK
€7r€i(r6r)(Tav, the actual fact is
perhaps emphasised. With a
negative preceding rotovros,
OV always follows (Madvig,
§ 203, note) :
vofxov rWe/xev, otKrja-tv kol ra-
ToiovTOv, eis o ov iras /?ov-
Xo/MVOS €L(T€LCrLV.
Plat. Bep. iii. 416 d.
A treasury which not every one
who wishes shall enter.
Cf. S. Matt. vii. 21, ov ttSs
ctcreAcvo-crat.
Mt;.
The Relative takes /xtJ
when the Antecedent is
indefinite. The use of
fiTj with Relatives is the
same as its use with el.
a 1X7) oLOa ovoe OLOjJLai ei-
Sevai. Plat.
Whatever I know not I do
not think that I know.
01 e/xe fJLT] taaai.
Plat.
Any (all, such as) do not
know me.
6aTi<;
jjLT] avTapK7j<; eanv
ovTo<; y^aXenro^ (J)lXo<; ea-
rl. Xen. Mem. ii. 6. 2.
Whoever is not self-sufficient
is a dangerous friend.
Cf. Aesch. Eum. 618, 661,
Soph. 0. T. 281 (with
Subjunctive and Opta-
tive with av).
This indefinite or generic use
of fx-q shades off" into a Con-
secutive or Final use.
\l/r)cf>l<Tao-6e roiavra e^ wv fx-q-
ScTTOTC v/xtv ixeTafjLcXrjcrci.
Andok 3. 41.
Pass such a sentence that you
ivill never repent of.
O^ AND M^ WITH RELATIVES.
3^3
/xeAAovcrt yap a'
ivravOa Trefi^etv 'ivda fxri tto^'
r]X.LOv cfieyyos Trpocro^ei.
Soph. ^/. 380.
They are purposing to send thee
» where thou never more shalt
see the glory of the sun.
Cf. Soph. Ai. 359, 470;
Phil. 408, 588.
Cf . the Eestrictive ocrov /atj,
oVa /XT^, Ka^' ocrov />i^y, ort />ti^.
ou and jjLTi are both used with the Eelative in a Causal
Sense. The analogy of Causal Sentences seems to show
that ov must be the normal construction; ^r\ is used
where perhaps the fact is delicately put, as for instance
el is put for on after Oavfid^co. This use of /juri arises
from its generic use.
dav/juaarov iroiel^ b? ovhcv
Xen. Mem. ii. 7. 13.
You are acting strangely in
giving nothing.
So Ak. Nuh 692 (^Tt9 oi
(TTpaTeverat), EuR. Med.
589.
TaXaiTTCdpo^ TL<; av 76 av
6pa)7ro<; el o) /jLTjre 6eol
irarpSoo euai fjunqre lepa
K.T.X. Plat. Euth. 302.
Yotc are a miserahle sort
of being since you have
neither national gods nor
sacrifices.
7ra)9 av op6co<i efiov Kare-
ryiyvwaKere, (p to irapa-
irav 7rpo9 tovtovI jULfjBev
avjjb^oXaiov earlv ;
Dem. Apat. 903. 22.
How could you have rightly
condemned me, since I
have no contract at all
with this man ?
Cf. Ar. Ran. 1459.
364 THE NEGATIVES.
§ 297. M77 is used in Expressions of a Wish.
Mt]K6tI' ^cprjv eyo).
Ar. Mtb. 1255.
May I no longer live !
jjLTi TTOT axpeXov XiTTeiv
T7JV ^KVpOV.
Soph. Phil 969.
Would I ne'er had left
My Scyros.
= I ought never, fiiq like
fjuri after hel.
€y^ dpda-vs ovT^ elfil fx-qTG ye-
voifX7]v. Dem. 8. 68.
/ am neither bold nor might I
become so.
lyo) 8' OTTWs (TV fJLrj Aeyeis 6pOQ>s
TaSe oi5t' av Swaifxr^v firjr
€Tr icrr at fir^v Xeyetv. SoPH.
Ant 685.
But that these words thou
speakest are not right I neither
could nor may I learn to say.
ovT av Svvaofxrjv is an Apo-
* dosis, and therefore ov is re-
quired : firjT i7ri(rTai[JLr]v is a
wish ; the /x-^ with ottws is far
more difficult to explain, for
it is an Indirect Statement.
But observe that ottws /xi}
depends on a verb of percep-
tion, iTTto-ra/Aac (see note 4 /xi7
with Infin.). Also oVws /aij
expresses doubt, and is much
less positive than on ov.
Moreover the wish firjS' kiria--
Tai fxrjv may throw its shadow
over the previous line.
Mt; and M,) oh WITH THE INFINITIVE. 365
§ 298. M77 and [Ly] ov with the Infinitive.
A. After a Principal Sentence containing Verbs and
expressions of denying, hindering, forbidding, and avoid-
ing, jXTj is used with the Infinitive where in English we
use no negative.
<^r)<; 7} Karapvel /jlt) BeSpaKevai, raBe ; SoPH.
Dost own or dost deny that thou hast done this ?
r)vavTiw6r]v fjLTjBev TrpaTreiv irapa Tov<i vofiov;.
Plat.
/ opposed your doing anything contrary to the laws.
wjrayopevco firj iroteiv eKicXr^aiav. ArisTOPH.
I forhid your calling an assemhly.
'^TTLo-Tovv /x-q eu/at tovs ra oVAa TrapaSovTas rots redveoya-iv
6/xotov?. Thuc. iv. 40.
They did not believe that those who had given up their arms
were like those who had fallen.
OvrjTovs y' €Trav(Ta pr) TrpoScpKicrdaL popov.
Aesch. F. V. 248.
Ay, I let mortals from foreseeing their doom.
Note 1.
Such verbs are : —
avriXiyd), \ exw (and compounds),
apvovpai (and com- >deny. etpyto (and compounds), Ihirtr
pounds), j ip7ro8(j)v eTvai, ( der.
I dispui
e, doubt.
KWAVO),
aTTayop^via
aTT^xopat, \ -Lf- aTretTTov
^^ ^' ' hesitate,
"^^' \ forbid.
cfievy^
(0,
avoid.
ivXdcra'opaL,
So also oLTroXvopaL, ThUC. i. 128; dTroKpvTTTopaL, ii. 53;
aTTOCTTpeifxi}, viii. 108 ; vireKTpaTr^a-daL, SoPH. 0. C. 565 ;
cfivXaa-ao), 0. C. 667.
366 THE NEGA TI VES.
Note 2.
M^, however, as in the English idiom, is not seldom
omitted.
oi' Oavetv eppvtrdfxrjv. EUR.
Whom I from death delivered.
rovTo Tis etpyet Spav okvos. PlAT.
Some scruple prevents me from doing this.
Cf. Soph. 0. T. 129; Thug. i. 62; Plat. Phaed. 108 e.
Note 3.
Other constructions are (1) wsre [xv] with the Infinitive,
(2) TO ixy] with the Infinitive, (3) tov or tov fxr] with the
Infinitive.
(1.) ayyeAAwv ort ras vavs aTroa-Tpkxj/eic wcrre fxr] kXOeiv.
Thug. viii. 108. 1.
Announcing that he had diverted the ships from coming.
(2.) cf/oyov TO /xt) KaKovpyetv. ThUG. iii. 1.
They prevented them from inflicting damage.
Cf. Aesch. Eum. 691 ; Soph. Antig. 263.
(3.) €K(oXv(T€ TOV KaUiv €7n6vTa<5. XeN. An. i. 6. 2.
-Se kept them from advancing and burning.
€^€fc TOV fiTj KaTaSvvai. Xen. An. iii. 5. 11.
It will keep them from sinking. •
Cf. Thug. i. 76, ii. 49, iii. 75 ; Xen. Cyr. ii. iv. 23.
B. But when the Verbs themselves take a :Negative
or quasi-Negative, pL^ ov and not fjurj alone is used with
the Infinitive.
Here also in English we use no negative in the sub-
ordinate sentence.
Tiva oUi dTrapvYJaecrOaL fjurj oi'^t eirlaraaOaL ra
StKata ; Plat.
Who do you think will deny that he is acquainted
with justice 1 { = no one will deny).
ov Xr]^Q} fjLT} ov Traai irpocj^wvelv. SoPH.
I will not cease to publish unto all.
M,^ AND Mt) oh WITH THE INFINITIVE. 367
Tt e/jLiroBcov fir] ov^o airoOavelv ; Xen.
What is there to hinder us from being put to death ?
(=:no hindrance).
Cf. Aesch. p. V. 627 (rt /AcAAets;); Soph. Al 540, 728;
Xen. Symp. iii. 3 (jo {xrj ov),
C. Also when the Principal Sentence is negative, fjuri
ov and the Infinitive is used after expressions denoting
what is impossible, wrong, repugnant, and the like. Here
in English we use a Negative.
dBuvara rjv /jlt] ov fj,eyaXa /SXaTrrecv. ThuC.
It was impossible not to infiict great harm.
ovBeh fjb av ireLaeiev to fXTj ov/c eXdelv. Akistoph.
No one shall persuade me not to go.
VTT&TXOV (r)T7](T€lV WS OU^ OCrLOV (TOL OV fJLYj OV ^Or)$€lV
StKatocrvvY). Plat. Bep. 427, E.
You promised to search, on the ground that it would be
impious for you not to assist justice.
Cf. Plat. Symp. 218 c (dvorjTov ixyj ov).
J), Sometimes nrj ov and the Infinitive follows a Principal
Sentence which is not Negative in form.
alcrxpov kcm crocfiLav firj ov)(l 7rdvT(i)v KpajTiarov <j6avai.
Plat. Prot. 352 d.
It is immoral not to assert that wisdom is the highest of all
possessions.
In these cases the alo-xpov is practically condemning, blaming,
dissuading from a course.
(xio-re TrdcTiv alarxyvqv etvat /at) (TV(T7rov8d^€iv.
Xen. An. ii 3. 11.
So that all were ashamed not to co-operate heartily.
Compare these two examples with Xen. Cyr. vii. 7. 16,
TtVa atcrxtov fir) cftiXdv tj tov dSekcj^ou ; where a quasi-Negative
Principal Sentence is followed by i^j only.
See Herod, i. 187, Seivov fxr) ov Xaf3eiv.
368 THE NEGATIVES.
§ 299. Mi7 ov with the Participle.
M-^ ov is found with the Participle denoting circumstance
{conditionally, or restridively), after a Principal Sentence ex-
pressing what is impossible or repugnant.
My) ov is practically equal to el ju^j, except, unless.
OVK ap icTTL cfilXoV T^ (fiiXoVVTi OvSfV, fXY) OVK dvTfc^tAoVl/ ',
Plat. Lys. 212 d.
No creature then is a friend to a friend, unless it love in
return, {without loving).
T^Keis ya/> ov Kevq ye, tovt' lyw (ra^tos
e^otSa, 117] ovyl Setfi i/xol cjicpovara ri. SOPH. 0. C. 359.
TJlou comest not empty, this I know full well,
unless thou bring' st some horror to mine ears.
SvcrdXyrjTOS yap av
€LrjV, TOiavSe iirj ov KarotKretptov eSpav. SOPH. 0. T. 11.
hai^d of heart were I,
Compassionating not so sad a session. (Cf. 0. T. 220.)
Other instances will be found in Herod, ii. 110, vi. 9. and
106. IsocRAT. Laud. Hel. 47.
So entirely was p.r] ov eventually regarded as equivalent to
€t fiYj that in Dem. de Fals. Leg. 379. 7, we find it used with-
out a participle expressed : at re TroAets TroAAat ^ai xaXeTral
Aa/^etv fXT) ov XP^^^ '^^^ TroXiopKia,, the cities were numerous and
difficult to take except by long waiting and by siege (sc. XrjcjiOeLa-ai).
Variant Constructions of B. C. D. (pp. 336, 7).
After a Negative Principal Sentence are used sometimes
(1) the Infinitive alone ; (2) p; alone instead of fxrj ov with
the Infinitive ; (3) to pi-q ov ; (4) tov pLrj ov.
(1) ravra ovk e^apvovvrai Tvpamiv. AeSCHIN. iii. 250.
Timj do not deny that they so act.
^lXlttttov TrapeXduv ovk ^SvvavTO KtoXva-ai.
Dem. de Pac. 62. 10.
They were not able to prevent Philip advancing.
(2) ov TTOAVV
Xpovov ju' eirea-xov p,r] /a€ vavo-roAeii/ Ta^v. SOPH. Phil. 348.
Not long while
they held me from quick setting sail. (Cf. Antig. 443.)
M^ AND M^j ol WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 369
(3) ovK ivavTHoa-ofxat to firj ov yeywveti/ 7rai/.
Aesch. p. F. 786.
ni not refuse (lit. oppose thee) to declare the tvhole.
Xen. Symp. iii. 3.
(4) Tts M.rj8(i)v (Tov d-rreXeLffiOy] tov fx-j aKoXovdetv ;
Xen. Cyr. v. 1. 25.
Who of the Medes failed to follow you ?
Instances of omission of /^itJ and /x^ ov are said to be rare.
There are however a good many.
1. MIj omitted after an Affirmative Principal Sentence,
Antiph. Tetr. b. b. 4. and 7. Thuc. iii. 39. 3. Soph. AL
70, 0. T. 129. EuRiP. Or. 263. Arist. Ach. 127. Xen. Hell
V. 21. Plat. Apol. xix. 31 d, xxxi. 39 e.
2. MtJ for ixr) ov after a Negative Principal Sentence,
Antiph. Tetr. b. b. 3. Soph. Phil. 349. Thuc. iii. 39.
IsoCR. Laud. Hel. 47. (Infin. alone after a Negative Sentence.)
§ 300. Mt7 and /xt) ou with the Subjunctive.
Mt] with the Subjanctive expresses anxiety, apprehen-
sion, suspicion, surmise, and so may often be translated
'perhaps.
fiT) Tovro a\rj6e(; fj.
Perhaps this is true.
fiT] aypoLKorepov 7) ro aX-T^^e? eiwelv. Plat.
Perhaps it is somewhat blunt to tell the truth.
The addition of ov gives the opposite or negative
meaning :
/jLj) ov TOVTO aXrj6e<; rj.
Perhaps this is not true.
aXka fJiT) ov TOVT 77 '^^aXeirov, Oavarov eK^vyelv.
Plat. Apol.
It looks as if this were not the real difficulty — to
escape death.
Cf. Grit. ix. 48 C. Phaed. xi. 67 B.
2 A
370 THE NEGATIVES.
Note 1. M^ ov is found graphically with the Indicative in
questions.
aAA' apa firj ovx VTToXafxpaveis ; PlAT. PtoL 312 A.
But perhaps then you do not suppose ?
Note 2. oTTws /xrj, oTTws /xt) ov Is similarly used with the Sub-
junctive and Indicative (Pres. and Future), Plat. Cmt. 430 I),
Meno 77 A, Phaedo 77 B; Kiddell's Digest, p. 140.
Note 3. The same constructions of fx-t] and /xr; ov occur even
more commonly after a Principal Verb like <^/oa(o/xat, opw,
(TKOTTio, dOpo), evvoovfxa.Lj alcrxyvofiai, okvo), klvSvvos ecm, (pof^ov-
/xat, etc.
(a.) With Subjunctive:
(f)povTt^<i) [xrj KpaTLdTOV y /xot cnyav. XeN. Mem. iv. 2. 39.
/ am considering whether it is not best for. me to be silent.
ravra dina-TLav irapk^iL irepl rrjs xpv)(rjs p-rj ov8apLOv ert y.
Plat. Phaed. xiv. 70 A.
This causes a doubt about the soul that possibly it no longer
exists.
(b.) With Indicative :
a. Present Indicative : • '
6pC)ii€V pLT) NtKtas oierat rt Aeyav. PlAT. Lach. 196.
Cf. Soph. Ant. 1253; Eur. Tro. 178, Phoen. 92 (quoted p. 267).
b. Imperfect Indicative :
opa /xt) nat^iDv eXeyev. PlAT. Theaef. 145,
c. Future Indicative :
opa p,r) Scrjo-ei. Xen. Cyr. iii. 1. 27.
KJio/SovpiaL p.7] €vpri(Top.€v. Plat. Phileb. 13. A.
ScSotxa OTTWS /x^ T€V^0jU,at. ArLST. Eg. 112.
Cf. Plat. Crat. 393 c, Rep. 451 A.
d. Perfect Indicative :
<lio/Sovp.€9a fir] dpL<f>0T€p(av rjp,apTr)Kap.€V. ThUC. iii. 53.
e. Aorist Indicative :
Set'Sw p.rj irdvra vqpLeprea eiTrev. HOM. Od. V. 300.
O^ fi^ WITH SUBJUNCTIVE, ETC. 371
§ 301. Ov fJLTJ WITH SUBJUNCTIVE AND FUTURE
INDICATIVE.
A. Ov fiT] with the Subjunctive (generally the Aorist,
but sometimes the Present) expresses an emphatic nega-
tive fature statement.
ov /JLT] TTavawjjbai. ^c\oao(j)ccv. Plat. Ajpol. xvii.
/ will never give up 'philosophy.
ovTOL a ^A')(ai.oiv, olha, /jlt] tl<; v^piarj.
Soph. Ai. 560.
I^one of the Achaeans, I know it, shall ever insult
thee.
B. Ou firj with the Future Indicative has the same
meaning.
dXX! 6L(Tc6\ Qv aoi fjLTj [jbe6e'>^ro[Mai irore.
Soph. El. 1052.
Enter within. I ne'er will follow thee.
etrrrev otl 7) Xiraprrj ovSev firj kukiov oLKielrai, avrov
cLTToOavovTo^. Xen. Hell. i. 6. 32.
He said that Sparta would he governed not one whit
the worse after his death.
Observe that the example is in the Graphic Oratio
Obliqua.
C. 1. Ov firj Interrogative with the Future Indicative
(second person singular) expresses a strong prohibition.
TTOto? Zev<; ; ov /jlt] \7]pr]or6L<; ; ovB' earc Zev<;.
Arist. JS^ub. 367.
Zeus quotha ! dont talk twaddle. There's no Zeus.
w Ov'^ajepi ov firj fjuvdov et? ttoXXou? e/oet? ;
Eur. Supp. 1066.
Daughter, tell not the tale among the crowd.
372 THE NEGATIVES.
2. Ov yJ\ with the Future Indicative (second person)
in the first clause is followed by a second clause express-
ing (a.) an affirmative command (5.) a negative command
or prohibition.
(a.) ov fi7] Siarpt-ylrei';, aWa yevaeo ttJ? Ovpa^ ;
Arist. Ran. 462.
Do7i't shilly-shally, hut taste the door.
(b.) ov fit) TTpoaoiaei^ '^elpa, /jLtjS ay\rei ttcttXcov ;
Eur. Hipp. 606.
Bring not thy hand near, and touch not my rotes.
3. Ov with the Future Indicative (second person), de-
noting an affirmative command, is followed by a Future
Indicative (with Kai fin, firi^e) denoting a negative
command or prohibition.
ov^i' (TV^Kkrjcrei^ (TTOfJua,
Kau 1X1} fjbed7}a-6L<i avOi^; aiGyiaTov^ \dyov<; ;
EUK. Hipp. 499.
Set a seal upon thy lips,
and let not fail again most shameful words.
ov aly averse, firjSe Betklav dpeh ; SoPH. Ai. 75.
Keep silence, and awake not cowardice. (Lit. wilt thou
nA)t silently endure ?)
Some make these two separate questions, one with ov
{nonne ?), the other with /xtJ {mm ?), wilt thou not endure silently ?
and wilt thou play the coward ?
§ 302. Further Examples of ov fitj.
A. ov fxri WITH Subjunctive.
0VK€Tt {xrj SvvqraL /^acriAcvg Yifias KaraXaf^dv.
Xen. An. ii. 2. 12.
There is no longer any likelihood of the King overtaking us.
Ohs. The Present Subjunctive is here used. So also in
FURTHER EXAMPLES OF Ol> fi^. 373
Plat. Eep. 341 c. (ov fxr] oT6s re fj?) : and in Soph. 0. C. 1023,
(cTrevx^^i'TaS one MS. reads eirev^iovTat).
TO jxkyicrTOv KaKov €ko)v ovSels ft^ ttotc ^oLfSy.
Plat. Leg. 731 c.
No one is ever likely voluntarily to choose the greatest evil.
ov fXTj ere Kpvxpo) irpos ovTiva f^ovXofxai dcfuKecrOai.
Xen. Cyr. vii. 3. 13.
/ will not conceal from you ivhom L wish to march against.
See further Soph. 0. C. 408, 450, 649, 1024, 1702 ; Thuc. v.
67 ; Xen. Hell iv. 2. 3 ; Plat. Bej). 499 b ; Ar. Av. 461.
ov fir) a-KMxfr]'?, fxrjSe TroL-qa-ys airep ol Tpvyo8atfxov€S ovtol,
aAA' €vcfiriix€L. Arist. Nub. 299.
Don't you flout, and don't behave like your jpoor comedy hacks,
but, hold your peace.
Elmsley changes a-KMif/ys of the MSS. to a-KOixpei, Put. Indie.
Mid. Similarly in Nub. 505, ov fxr) XaX-ifar)^ has been changed
to AaA/jo-ets. See Goodwin, Moods and Tenses, pp. 186, 187.
If (TKbixpys is right, this is you won't jest, a possible way of
saying don't jest : if o-Kioxp^c, 7rot7Jo-ets, the construction is in-
terrogative like that of C. 1 above, p. 371.
B. ov fXTj WITH Future Indicative.
ov [xrj a-' eyw Tvepioxpopiai ojreXdovra. ArIST. Ran. 508.
ni not suffer you to de])art.
ov rot /XTyTTore cr' eK rwv eBpdvtov,
& yepov, aKovrd ns a^et. SoPH. 0. C. 178.
No one, be sure, from these abodes,
Old Sir, shall drag thee hence.
2d person in the same meaning as the above, i.e. denoting
not a strong prohibition, but a negative statement.
ovKovv TTor' e/c tovtoiv y€ fxrj a-Kijirrpoiv In
68onToprja-€is (Schneidewin, oSotTro/orjo-T^s.) Soph. 0. C. 848.
Never henceforth, on these p-ojps leaning, tho2t
Shalt journey hence.
Tovs yap 7rovrjpov<s ov [lyj ttotc 7roLrj(r€T€ fSeXrLovs.
Aeschin. in Ctes. 177.
You will never make the bad better.
374 THE NEGATIVES.
The following example may denote either a prohibition or
a statement.
ov ytyvwo-KW o-e* ov \xr\ etcret ets t^v oiKiav. ISAEUS, viii. 24.
/ do not know you, you shall not enter the house ; or ov yJq eio-et ;
drniH enter.
C, OVK €5 KopaKas ; ov fxrj Trpocrirov ; ArIST. Ran. 609.
To the crows with you. Be off!
Observe here that the 2d person dual is used.
(i)fXLapioTaT€,TL7roi€Ls; ov pLYj Karaf^rjcra; ArIST. Vesp. 397.
You scoundrel J what are you at.? don't come down.
ov firj '^eyepets rov vttv^ Koiroxov
KOLKKivrjo-eLS Kdvacrryja-ets
(fiOLTOiSa ScLvrjv
vocrov, w TCKvov ; SoPH. Tr. 978.
Observe that e/cKivi^Vets joined by Kat is prohibitive co-ordin-
ately with €^€yep€Ls.
ov /JLT) KaXels ix\
u)vdp<07r\ LKeTiVio, firjSi KaTCpels rovvofxa ; ArIST. Ban. 298.
Don't call me,
Sirrah, I pray thee, nor hlab out my name.
ov fJLYj 8v(rfJL€Vr)S €Cr€L
<f>iXoLS, Travoret Se Ovfxov, Kal -jraXiv a-rpeipets Kapa . .
Se^ec 8e Siopa Kal Trapatrrfo-et Trarpos ; EUR. Med. 1151.
Be not wroth tvith friends.
Forbear displeasure, turn thy face again,
Accept these offerings, and entreat thy father.
ov firj 7rpo(Toi(rcts X^tpa, /SaKxevcrciS S'ltov,
fxrjd' e^ofx6p^€L {xoypiav ttjv arjv e/xot ; EuR. Bacch. 343.
Lay not thy hand on me, go play the hacclmnal.
Nor smudge me with thy folly.
ovKovv KaXeh avTov Kal fxr] d(f)yj(rei<s ; PlAT. Symp. 175 A.
Call him, and don't send him aicay.
ov daxTo-ov oicreLs, jji,r)8' d7narT7](r€L<s ifJLOt ; SoPH. Tr. 1183.
Give me thy hand quick, and distrust me not.
REPETITION OF THE NEGATIVE. 375
3. Ov iiff\ is found in the Obliqua with a Future Optative
representing a Future Indicative of the Recta.
Tct t' aAAot -KavT Wecrincrev
Kal rdirl Tpolas Trepyafx ws ov fxrj ttotc
7r€p(TOL€v, €1 fiTj TovS' ay ovTo. Soph. Phil. 611.
In the Recta this would be ov firj ttotc Trepo-ere lav /xyj ayrjcrOe.
A striking instance, for here the 2d person of the Future
would clearly be a negative statement.
All the rest he prophesied,
And how they ne'er should sack the towers of Troy
Unless they brought him with them.
ov fxrj is also found with the Future Infinitive.
cra^ws yap etire Tetpea-Las ov fii^ TTore
crovTi]vSe yrjv otKOVv^ros ev irpd^eiv ttoXlv. EuR. Phoen. 1590.
Recta, ov fiij TTore €v Trpd^a rj ttoXls.
Cf. Plat. Lack. 197 D, Kal yap poi SoKeU ovSe fx-q ya-drjadaL,
unless for ov8e /xrj we substitute ov8a[xrj as has been suggested.
§ 303. REPETITION OF THE NEGATIVE.
I. Where a simple Negative follows a Negative in the
same clause, two Negatives make one Affirmative, as in
English.
ofSet? ovK tiraaye. Xen.
No one was not suffering (i.e. every one was snffering)p
ov fiovov ov ireiOovrai.
Not only do they not obey.
ov hvvafiai /jLyj yeXav. Ar,
/ am not able to keep from laughing.
II. But where a Compound Negative follows a Nega-
tive in the same clause the first Negation is continued
and strengthened.
aKovei S' ovhev ovhet^; ovBevo<;. EuR. Cycl. 120.
No one obeys anybody in anything.
376 THE NEGATIVES.
yJr) XavOavero) ae fjirjSe rovro. Xen. Cyr. v. 2. 36.
Let not even this escape you.
6eov<; (po/Bovfievoc /uLrjiror acr6l36<; fjbrjSev jjurjSe avocrcov
Xen. Cyr. viii. 7. 22.
Fea7^ the gods, and never do or intend anything either
impious or unholy.
§ 304. OvSefe MT^Set?, OvSeV, Mt^ScV, etc.
A. OvSei? and jxrj^€i<s are used as declinable Substantives
both in the Singular and Plural, with or without the Article,
of persons.
Much more rarely 6, 17, ovSev, 6, ry, ni-jSev.
B. OvSev and fiqSev are used as indeclinable neuter predi-
cates of persons.
C. TO fi-qSev, an indeclinable substantive, is very freely
used both of persons and things.
All these constructions are chiefly poetical with the excep-
tion of (B), which is also Platonic. Herodotus also uses (A)
and (B).
We ma3r observe with regard to them : —
(1.) That ovSets, ovSh denotes what is known or proved to
be actually non-existent or worthless. (Of. rj ovk i^ova-ia under
ov privative.) OvSev is actually
(2.) MrySeis, ixy)hkv denotes an indefinite conception of what
is anything non-existent or worthless. (Cf. i} fxy] i^ova-ia.)
MrjSiv is abstract nonentity, hence to i^-q^kv.
(3.) The two sets often seem to be used indifferently, but
though ovStts is plainer and blunter, yet /-ti^Seis may be really
more contemptuous, " as nothing;' " no better than a mere cipher.''
(4.) The construction of the sentence (with et or an im-
per.ative) may favour /xrj rather than ov.
(5.) Both sets of phrases are the reverse of ns (n) dvai, to
be a somebody.
OvdeU, M^dds, Ovdev, KrjdiP, ETC. 377
Examples :
6 vvv fxlv ovSets, avpLov 8' vTrepixeyas. AriST. Eq. 158.
Nobody now, exceeding great to-morroiv.
cfypovovcTL Si^ixGv jxei^ov ovres ovSeves.
Eur. Androm. 700 ; cf. /. ^. 371.
ayere fx acTroSwu
to;/ ovk ovra fxaXXov r/ firjSeva. SOPH. Ant 1326.
Lead me hence
Who am no more than him that is as nothing.
ov yap rj^tov rovs fxrj8€va<s. SoPH. Ai 1114.
Tovs ^Mvras ev 8pav KarOavMV Se Tra? dvrjp
yy^ kal (TKtd' to fxr)8ev els ov8lv peTrei. EUR. Meleager.
i.e. luhat was believed to be nothing now proves to be actually
nothing.
For the sentiment compare the Epitaph on Gay :
" Life is a jest, and all things show it ;
I thought so once, but now I know it."
(8aLpH)iv) rjfxiv 8' ajroppd Kain fir]8ev ep^eTai. SoPH. El. 1000.
Our future is at ebb, and comes to naught.
Compare the fxr]8€v here with ovSer in the Meleager.
av8p€S rjfxeTepoL elcrlv ovScv. PlAT. Eep. 556 D. ; cf. 562 D.
edv 8oKioart ri ehai ix'r)8lv oVtcs. PlAT. Apol. xxxiii. 41 E.
If they think they are something, ivhen they are nothing.
Here kdv favours ixTq8kv rather than ov8kv. ♦
ot' ov8\v wv tov ixr]8ev dvrea-rrjs virip.
Soph. Ai. 1231; cf. 1275.
i)/jtas TO jxr]8ev ovTas iv Tpoirrj 8op6<s
kppva-aro. SoPH. Ai 121 i; cf. EuR. El. 369.
Ket TO [xr]8\v i^€po) cfipdcrio S' ^/>tws. SOPH. Ant. 234.
Toiyap (TV ^e'^at fx eg to (tov ToSe crreyos
Trjv iJLy]8ev et§ to firjSdv. SOPH. El. 1165.
Examples in Herodotus occur in i. 32, vi. 137, ix. 58, 79.
Note.
ov8€v (/xrySev) Aeyetv, to talk nonsense or idly.
TO ov8' ov8kv. Plat. Theaet. 190 a, the absolute nothing.
6 iJLrj8ev wu yovai(rL = 8v(ry€vijs^ SoPH, Ai. 1094.
ov8€v (fi-qSlv) eTvai, to be doomed to death, as good as dead,
Soph. El. 1166; Eur. Androm. 1077.
378
THE NEGA TIVES.
§ 305. MrJ with Oaths and Assertions.
Mt} is sometimes found with the Indicative after an oath or
a strong assertion.
aa T-nv ^AcbpoSiTTjv . . . firj 'yw cr' dcfirj(TO).
Arist. Ecc. 999, cf. Av. 195, Lysist. 917.
Cf. also II X. 330, xv. 41.
This use of /xtJ should be compared with firj and the Infini-
tive after verbs of swearing and testifying (see fxrj with Infin.
JSfote 4). ^ . ^
The construction is Epic. In Homer 7x77 is found both with
the Infinitive and the Indicative after an oath or protestation.
M-^ repudiates the charge.
to-TW vvv ToSe yata, k.t.X., fi'n rt (tol Ka/cov BovXeva-efxev.
Od. V. 184.
Be witness earth to this— far from me he it to contrive harm
to thee.
to-TO) vvv Zevs avTos, k.t.X., ixri dvrjp eiroxijo'eTaL dXXo<5.
II. X. 329.
Be witness Zeus himself — no other man shall ride.
§ 306. Mrj where ov might have been expected.
Mt7, Y^ere ov might otherwise have been expected, is used
where the structure of the sentence requires or has a natural
affinity with fir]. Such cases are where (1) an Imperative
precedes, (2) where the sentence is Conditional, (3) where
the whole cast of the sentence is of the nature of a concep-
tion, so that the statement denied is not real fact.
1. ifrjifiLa-aa-de tov ttoAc/xov, firj (jiofSyjOevTes to avriKa Setvov.
Thuc. i. 124.
Vote the war without fearing the immediate danger.
ravra a-KorretTe, on fxr) irpovota jjmXXov iytyvero r/ TV)(r).
Antiph. V. 21.
Consider this, that it happened not so much designedly as by
accident.
A very exceptional use of firj, hardly explained by the pre-
ceding Imperative.
Cf. Xen. Cyr. iii. 1. 37, Soph. Ant. 546, Dem. 27. 59.
MISCELLANEOUS INSTANCES. 379
2. o Trats ciTrep Irrrws (fiavepos vfJiLV kcm [xr] ^X-qOeis, 8rjX.ovTai
Antiph. Tetr. B., c. 5.
As to the child, if it is proved to you that he was not struck
when he was standing still, it is evident that he was killed
by his oicn fault.
3. OLjxai fxr] av StKatw? tovtov Tv\(dv kiraivov rov fxrj elSora ri
kcrri vofxos. Xen. Mem. i. 2. 41.
/ think that one who does not know the meaning of law would
not deservedly receive this praise.
The first jjirj is exceptional, but the example is from
Xenophon, an exceptional writer.
rj 8oK€L crot oiov re eTvat eVt €Ketvrjv rrjv ttoXlv cTvai kol /jlt]
dvareTpdcjiOaL, kv fj al yevo/xevat SiKac jmr^Sev ta-)(yov(rLV ;
Plat, Crit. xi. 50 b.
Do you really think it possible for a state to continue to exist
and not be overthrown, in which verdicts which have been
passed have no avail ?
This may be regarded as regular, the /xtJ coming after ohv
re and not after Sokcl.
Riddell, Digest 135, collects some extreme Platonic
instances.
§ 307. Miscellaneous Instances showing the power
of ov to make a downright Negative
Statement. Cf. the use of ov in Emphasis,
p. 352.
This power is very marked in contrasts :
^vfJi/SacveL yap ov rd pXv, rot 8' 015. AeSCH. Pers. 800.
, It is not that some things are happening, while others are net
(i.e. all things are being fulfilled),
rjv 6 TTora/xos Sdcrvs SevSpecrt ira^ka-L jxev ov, ttvkvols Sk.
Xen. An. iv. 8. 2.
The river was overgrown with trees which, though^ n/)t big,
tvere numerous.
aTTwAero 5' ovx't, aAA.' kXvdrj. LyS. vi. 27.
He was not condemned to death, but acquitted.
38o
THE NEGA TIVES.
Of course the construction may change ov to firj : —
(TKOTrdre ixri tovto, d raXavrov eScoKe, dXXa rrjv irpoOvfiiav.
Dem. 470. 26.
Consider not this point, whether he gave a talent, but his will
Yet even in spite of the construction ov may assert itself :
€1 yvoja-O-qa-ofJLeda ^vveXdovres /xev, dfxvvecrOai Se ov
ToA/xwi'Tes. Thuc. i. 124.
If we shall be known to have met together, and yet not to be
venturing to protect ourselves.
This power of ov to assert itself under difficulties is seen
very strikingly in some passages :
^y] 6 ye ov xpv t^oUl. Plat. Euthyd. 307 B.
DonH do what is actually wrong.
The generic /at] might be expected :
eyo) yo.p, et ju,ev iir] (J^lirjV yj^av irapa deovg, rjSLKOvv av ovk
dyavaKrQv tw 6avdT(i). Plat. Phaed. viii. 63 B.
i.e. / should be acting wrongly in not grieving, as in ideality I do
grieve.
In spite of the Conditional structure :
Cf. Soph. 0. T. 651, d vo/xif«ts o^x ^4^'^^^^^-
§ 308. Note on ^xtj, fjur) ov, with the Infinitive and
Participle.
1. Mrj with the Infinitive. This construction is perfectly
natural and intelligible. Indeed the Infinitive without it,
though allowable in Greek as in English, may be somewhat
ambiguous. Thus 6V davelv eppva-dfxyjv would in itself mean
whom I rescued for dying. The addition of firj makes it per
fectly clear that the net result is negative.
The negative was thus used in our earlier English :
You may deny that you were not the cause.
Shakspere, Bich. III. i. 3.
First you denied you had in him no right.
Comedy of Errors, iv. 2,
Precisely parallel in Greek is the use of ov with 6tl and the
Indicative after verbs of denying : dvreXeyov on ovk eyxapolr]
XeN. Hell. ii. 3. 16 ; dpvyjdrjvat (OS OVK aTreScoKC, Lys. iv. 1.
^ The double negative is uot unknown even in Ciceronian Latin
Cf. Cic. De Offic. iii. 102, 118.
NOTE ON M,^, M^ oh WITH INFINITIVE, ETC. 381
2. Mr) ov with Infinitive. Here it is much more difficult to
see the force of each negative, especially as in translating the
Greek into English we make no difference between />t^ and
[i.r\ ov. Thus we translate ocrtov />tT) /SorjOetv, it is pious not to
help ; ovx oa-Lov fir] ov po-qddv, it is impious not to help. But
we may be sure that the force of each negative was, originally
at least, felt in Greek. Observe that the double negative is
only used with the Infinitive when there is a negative, actual
or virtual, in the principal clause. Thus there is an additional
negative over and above that in the preceding construction
(fx-q with Infinitive). Just as /xtj with the Infinitive repeats
and sums up the net negative result of the principal verb, so
when the principal clause is negative, this additional negative
is repeated with the Infinitive, and sums up the efi'ect of the
principal clause.^
That this was not always felt to be necessary is shown by
the examples under B. C. D.
3. Mrj ov with Participle must be explained in the same
way. E.g. in Soph. 0. T. 12, (1) Affirmatively: I should
he kindly — (net result) — in refusing pity (fxr) KarotKret/owv).
(2) Negatively : / should be unkindly — (net result) — m
not refusing pity (/jltj ov KaTOLKreipaiv). The Participial con-
struction is required either because, as in the three instances
from Sophocles, the Participle agrees with the subject of the
principal sentence, or because (as in Herod, vii. 106) it is in
the Genitive Absolute. The Participle denotes circumstance
generally, and more specially condition, restriction, etc., which
are only kinds of circumstance.
Wiinder (Excursus to SoPH. 0. T. 12, 13), while pointing
out the above reason for the Participle, denies that it is con-
ditional, although in 0. T. 221 he translates />i7) ovk e'xwi', unless
I had. In SoPH. 0. T. 12, 13, he says that with an impersonal
construction we might write Setvov av etr] or ala-xvv^) o-v fxoi eir)
fjiYj ov KaTOLKT€ip€iv. It is true that we might thus give the
sense of this one passage, but we could not so analyse the
other passages, while the above explanation seems to suit this
as well as the others.
^ Mr A. Sidgwick communicates the following note: Just as in
KUiXiu) fiT) dpav the negatived infinitive gives the total effect of hindrance,
viz. : the prevented act, so in ov kuXijio /xr; oii dpav the doubly negatived
infinitive gives the total effect, viz. the not prevented act.
382 THE NEGATIVES.
To this superfluous /x^j after verbs of hindering, etc., the
French offers an exact parallel : Emp^chez qu'il ne se mele
d'aucune affaire. Compare too the redundant ne after com-
paratives : — Ces fruits sont meilleurs que je ne le croyais.
With verbs of doubting, denying, etc., used positively, the
French idiom follows the English: — ^je doute qu'il soit ainsi; but
with such verbs used negatively the French ne corresponds to
the Greek /x^ ov : — je n'ai jamais ni6 qu'il ne soit ainsi.
§ 309* Note on \Ly) and /at) ov with the Subjunctive.
The Attic construction is chiefly Platonic and Aristotelian
(cf. Eth. N. X. 9. 6, Fol. iv. 4. 11, ii. 2. 8). But the construc-
tion is as old as Homer, e.g. Od. v. 467, /xrj fte a-Ttl^r] re Kaxr)
/cat ByiXvs eepa-Yj Safxdcrrj, Perchance cruel rime and soft dew shall
blast me. We have here the original deprecatory force of /z^j,
let it not. In a writer like Plato this /xtj has become simply a
suggestion put politely, and with a delicate irony. Closely allied
to this is the interrogative use of /xrj in the example quoted
from the Protagoras (312 a). We need not call the construc-
tion elliptical any more than /x?) ykvoiro need be called ellip-
tical. When a Principal Verb (such as 6/)5) is expressed, the
thought is more logically and fully stated, and the clause with
/xrj has become subordinate: but the two constructions are par-
allel and synonymous.
M^ ov after a Principal Verb is also found in Homer, //. xv.
164, <f)pa^ecrd(j) ixr) fx/ ovSg KpaT€p6s irep €0)v kiriovTa raXdcrcry}
fj^elvai, Let him look to it whether, stout though he be, he endure not
to await my coming. Ov is strictly negative or privative here,
as in the Attic examples. Thus in the construction of /xtJ and
fMTj ov both particles exert their legitimate force. Mrf ov with
the Subjunctive occurs also in Herod, vi. 9.
§ 310. Note on ov fit] with the Subjunctive and
the Future Indicative.
Both constructions are post-Homeric. It is impossible to
trace them with historical certainty, and therefore any explana-
tion suggested must be theoretical.
1. ov firi with the Subjunctive. This construction is found
both in Prose (Herodotus, Xenophon, Isaeus, Plato, Demo-
sthenes), and in Verse (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides,
Aristophanes).
NOTE ON Ov ^77 WITH SUBJUNCTIVE, ETC. 383
Both ov and />t/j appear to exert their proper force. The
construction seems to be the negative of /xi) with the Subjunc-
tive. (See note on that construction, § 309.) Thus /xr) TriO-qTac
would mean far be it that he obey ; ov negatives this apprehen-
sion : it is not a case of such surmise, there is no likelihood of
his obeying, he ivill not obey. Such a construction in the
second person is tantamount to a prohibition, as in the example
from the Clouds of Aristophanes. If this view is correct, we
need no more understand an ellipse of Seos or Setvoi/ between
the ov and the />irj here than in /x/j with the Subjunctive.
ov Seos, ov ^eivov fully expressed occur often enough (Hdt. i.
84 ; Plat. Ajpol. ch. xvi. 28 B, Phaed. 84 b, Rep. 465 b ; Xen.
Mem. ii. 1. 25 ; Arist. Ecc. 650).
2. ov /x/j with the Future Indicative is far more difficult.
In the first place the construction is almost wholly poetical.
It occurs in Hdt. iii. 162, Plato, Aeschines, as a rare
idiom in each. It is very common in Sophocles, Euripides,
Aristophanes.
{a) Is the phrase Interrogative ? ^
In favour of ov fxij with 2d person of the Future being
interrogative are the following considerations : A positive
command is commonly expressed by ov interrogative with the
Future, e.g. Arist. Lys. 459, ovx eA^er', ovTrotrjo-er', k.t.A. ; fol-
lowed by imperatives iravea-de, k.t.X. Sometimes ov /xrj with
the Future (expressing a negative command) appears side
by side with ov and the Future (expressing a positive com-
mand). The juxtaposition is very striking in Arist. Ban.
200-2, a passage which shows that in the time of Aristophanes
the two idioms could be used as exact opposites.
Professor Goodwin's objection to the Future being inter-
rogative, derived from the single passage in the Clouds (296),
where an Imperative and not a Future is joined by dXXd to
ov fjiTj with a Subjunctive (v. I. a Future), is not convincing.
The inference (supposing that the Future is the true reading)
need only be that ov fxyj with the Future had become a stereo-
typed Imperative. And in Arist. Lys. 459 (above). Soph. Ant.
885 we have the Imperative immediately following ov with the
Future used interrogatively, though not joined by a conjunc-
tion to it.
* Mr. A. Sidgwick writes : '* It is to me quite clear that oi fiij with
the Future is usually interrogative ; when not, it is a form of oi ix-fj with
the Subjunctive."
384 THE NEGATIVES,
Against the phrase being interrogative may be urged that
such a theory assigns a different origin not only to ov /xri with
the 2d person of the Future from ov ixtj with Subjunctive, but
also from ov fxrj with the 1st and 3d persons of Future. This
difficulty is increased by the fact that ov fjnj with the 2d person
of the Future may, though rarely, express a negative state-
ment, like ov firj with Subjunctive.
If, in spite of this, the Interrogative theory is maintained,
we should have to assign a different origin to this special
idiom ; doubtless a serious but not perhaps a fatal objection,
for the evolution of popular idioms is as manifold as it is
obscure.
(b) Ov and ov firj followed by kuC, dXXd, Kal /x>^, /x^yoe :
If ov fiYj is interrogative the explanation is simple. Ov
throws its force over each connected clause which follows.
The simplest case is Soph. Tr. 978, where Kal follows. The
most complex is EuR. Bacch. 343, where the process would be
ov /xr] 7rpoa-oia-€L<; ; — ov f3aK)(^eva-€L<s ; (joined by Si) — ov fxrj l^o-
fiop^et ; Will you not avoid bringing near ? Will you not play the
bacchanal ? and will you not avoid wiping off?
If oi) fiTj is not interrogative each subsequent clause will
have to be differently explained. EuR. Bacch. 343 would run
thus — Ov jxr] Trpoaroio-ets, you shall not bring near ; PaKyeva-ei^
Be, but you shall play the bacchanal (like irpos Tavra Trpd^eis,
Soph. O.C. 956); /xr) l^o/xop^et could only be explained on the
assumption of fxyj with the Future being prohibitive, a con-
struction which has yet to be established.
The interrogative theory of ov pufj finds decided support
here, not only from the extreme abruptness of each clause
thus made independent, but from the grammatical difficulty
thus occasioned.
(c) Professor Goodwin {Moods and Tenses, § 89) considers
that in ov jxrj with the Future, ov is added (not interroga-
tively) to /x?i with the Future Indicative used as a Prohibition.
But (l) M with the Future Indicative thus used is a con-
struction of extreme rarity, if it exists at all. Some of the
instances quoted (Moods and Tenses, § 25, Note 5 (b) ), e.g.
Soph. Ai. 572, are probably not to the point, and in others,
assuming the Future Indicative to be the correct reading, a
different explanation seems possible. (2) Assuming the ex-
istence of firj with the Future Indicative as a Prohibition, it is
NOTE ON Ol fxfj WITH SUBJUNCTIVE, ETC. 385
difficult to see how a Prohibition can be got out of ov jxyj with
the Future as a statement. An analysis of the phrase ov (you
shall not) fifj 7rot?jo-€t5 (don't do) would land us in a meaning
precisely opposite to that required. On the other hand, we
get the right meaning if the phrase is interrogative, ov, won't
you, fiT] 7roi7]a-€is ; abstain from doing ?
In ov fir] with the Subjunctive Professor Goodwin does not
attempt to account for the fxrj. He considers the Subjunctive
as ''a relic of the common Homeric Subjunctive used as a
weak Future."
(d) Mr. Eiddell (Digest of Platonic Idioms, p. 177) explains
the double use of the negative on the principle of " simul-
taneity of force;" i.e. both particles, like a double-barrelled
gun, concentrate their fire on one verb. It is quite true that
in course of time the two particles formed one strong redup-
licated negative, their origin being quite lost sight of. Such
cases as Soph. Fhil. 611, Eur. Fhoen. 1590, clearly show this.
Still the question remains, How is it that ov and /jltj, differing
as they do, combine their force 1
(e) Can ov and fxri be separately explained ?
It is firj which requires explanation, not ov. Ov on any
theory exerts its simple contradictory force.
If ov firj with the Future is interrogative, ov fxrj Trotijareis ;
must mean, Won't you abstain from or avoid doing"? It is
always objected that this explanation gives ixtj the privative
force of ov. Not so, for fxrj Troirjo-ets need not represent a
privative ov ttoiw, but rather a deprecated future act. The
use of fiTj with the Future Indicative would help us to un-
derstand how the idiom might arise. Now the independent
use of /x^ with the Future is extremely uncommon. It occurs,
rarely, in questions (e.g. Plat. Bep. 405 A., apa fiiq n
fxet^ov e^ets Aa/?€ti/ reKfi-qpLov). MtJ interrogative is simply
fjnj denoting an apprehension. It occurs after oaths and
similar assertions (II. x. 330, Arist. Ecc. 991). But the
Future Indicative, graphically substituted for the Subjunctive,
is fairly common (cfiof^ovixai pr) evprjo-oiJiev, Plat. Phileb. 13,
and the Future Indicative is joined co-ordinately to the Sub-
junctive in several places (e.g. Aesch. Pers. 124; Soph. El.
43 ; cf. Arist. Ecc. 495).
If ov /Arj is not interrogative then it will be a more vivid
and graphic substitution of ov /xvj for the Subjunctive. The
2b
386 THE NEGATIVES.
process would be ov [irj Trot-r'ja-rjs, it is not the case (ov) /xi)
TToi-qarrjs (of apprehending that you may do), or ov fxr) Trotvjo-et?
(that you really will do). This readily passes into a command
(cf. Eur. Med. 1320, x^^/^' ^' ^^ ^ava-ets ttotc, thou shall not
touch, i.e. touch not).
A list of passages in which ov /jlyj occurs with the Future is
given for reference.
HdT. ill. 162 (ov firj avapXaa-r-qa-ei). AeSCHIN. de CoT. 79. 12.
Xen. Hell. i. 6. 32. Isaeus, viii. 24.
Plat. Symp. 175 A. (ovkow koI fitj).
Soph, (a.) ov fxij, 1st or 3d person :
El. 1052; 0. a 177; Phil. 611 (Optative in Obliqua).
(b.) ov fit], 2d person :
0. T. 637 (ov . . . Kai 1X7]) ; 0. C. 847 (not a prohibition) ;
Ji. 75 (ov . . . fx'qSe); Track 978 (ov /atJ . . . Kat) ; 1183
(ov . . . [xrjSc).
EURIPID. Hipp. 213 ; lb. 496 (ovx^ . . . Kal /xtJ) ; lb. 1601 (ov
/>t>} . . . fxrjSe); Androm. 797; /St^p;?. 1066; Bacch. 342 (ov
ftry . . . 8e . . . /xr/Se).
ArISTOPH. i^6l?l. 202 (ov [XYj . . . dXXd) ; 7Z>. 298 (ov /xrj . . .
/xrySe); /^>. 462 (ov fxr) . . . dXXd) ; Ach. 166; Fesp. 397;
iVw6. 296, 367, 505 (the subjunctive of the MSS. in these
passages has been changed by edrtors to the future
indicative).
CHAPTER III.
ORATIO OBLIQUA.
Introductory.
§ 3II« By Oratio Recta is meant the words or thoughts
of a person given at first-hand, as from his own lips, 6.g. —
/ will give what I have.
By Oratio Obliqua is meant the words or thoughts of a
person given at second-hand by some one else, e.g. —
or
iXeyev on ((os) Swcrot 'a e^ofc.
He said he would give what he had.
If the words are reported in the following way : —
lAeyev oVt (ws) 8(oo"o> a e^w.
He said, " / will give what I have"
we have no Obliqua «,t all: e'Aeyev ort introduces the
original words just as in English we put them in inverted
commas, as a quotation in fact.
e.g. TrpoareXOovTes Se fiOL ry v(TTepaLf^ MeXrjTOS Kal ^vcf)LXr]TO<s
e'Aeyov ort, y^yei^i^rat, w 'AvSoklStj, kol Tr^TrpaKTac 'qjxlv
ravra. Andok. de Myst. 63.
Next day Meletus and Euphiletus came to me and said,
^^ It has taken place, Andokides, we have done it."
But the reporter may give the words thus : —
€(f>r] 8lO(T€LV a ^X^'"
eXeyev ort (cus) Swcret a e^et.
Here we have a kind of Obliqua extremely common in
Greek, and often alternating in the same paragraph with
388 O RATIO OB LI QUA.
the Obliqua given above. From a love of what is graphic and
vivid the Greeks keep the original mood while only changing
the person. Or we may say that they keep the mood which
would be used if the Obliqua were in Primary Sequence :
Observe then that in Oratio Obliqua —
1. The Jp^•507^, whatever it was in the Recta, becomes the
3d in the Obliqua. ^
2. The tense of the Recta never changes. If it did, the
Obliqua would not represent faithfully the time and act of
the Recta.
3. The Mood may either
(a.) be changed to the Optative in the Obliqua (of
Historic Sequence)^
(&.) be retained as it was in the Recta, or in Primary
Sequence.
By Oratio Obliqua is here meant reported speech in
Historic Sequence. Oratio Obliqua in Primary Sequence
involves (in Greek) no change of Mood in the Adverbial and
Relative Sentences, and therefore can at once be dismissed
w^ith one brief example by way of illustration.
Oratio Recta :
/ will remain until they return whom I am sending.
Oratio Obliqua :
<f)-ncrt ) ^iaixevdv » >t > ^^n 'if
T; „ / 1 \ > <y ^ €to5 av cTraveAc^cocrtv ov<5 Tre/XTret.
Aeyet on (wsj j Ota/xcvet '
He says that he will remain, until they return, whom he is
Ing.
vofxi^o), av Tovr' aKptf^Cis fxdOyjTe fxaXXov v/xas T0VT0L<i [xkv
d7^tc^Tryo■et^', e/xot Se f^oi^dqa-eiv. DeM. Onet. 870. 24.
/ consider that, if you learn the truth of this, you will he more
likely to distrust them, and help me.
^ Unless the speaker quotes his own words, or those of a person
whom he is addressing, e.g. "I told you that I knew nothing of the
matter ;" " You stated that you would lend me ten pounds."
RULES FOR SUB-DIRECT CLAUSES. 389
Sub-direct and Sub-oblique.
When Eecta is changed to Obliqua, the Principal Sentence
{i.e. the Substantival Sentence, whether Oblique Statement,
Question, or Petition), becomes itself subordinate to the
reporter's verb (He said, asked, requested). Such a Sentence is
technically called Suh-direct, i.e. subordinate to Recta.
What were the subordinate sentences of the Recta, i.e.
Adverbial or Relative Sentences, become subordinate to a
Principal Sentence which itself is subordinate. They are now
technically called Suh-ohlique, i.e. subordinate to an Oblique
clause. For brevity's sake these terms, Sub-direct and Sub-
oblique {i.e. Adverbial and Relative Sentences in Oratio
Obliqua), will be used in this chapter.
The terms have been explained in the Introductory Chapter,
p. 11.
§312. Rules for Sub-direct Clauses in Oratio
Obliqua.
Such clauses are either (1) Oblique Statements with ort and
to?, or Oblique Questions. Oblique Petitions take an Infinitive, so
that their construction is just like an Oblique Statement in
the Infinitive after ^r]{xi. Sentences with ottcds and oVos //■•^
(with Future Indicative or Subjunctive) follow the construc-
tion of the Oblique Question. The Oblique Statement in the
Participle presents no difficulty.
Co-ordinate Sentences follow the construction of those to
which they are joined.
A. In Primary Sequence, i.e. when the Principal Sentence
takes a Primary tense, the Mood and Tense of the Sub-direct
Sentence undergo no change.
B. In Historic Sequence the Sub-direct Sentence may either
(1.) be just what it was in Primary Sequence, under-
going no change — (this is called the Graphic
Construction) — or,
(2.) the Verb may be changed to the same tense of
the Optative.
But N.B. The Imperfect and Pluperfect Indica-
tive must remain in the Indicative, and not
390 O RATIO OBLIQUA.
be changed to the Optative. If they were
changed we could not distinguish them from
Present and Perfect Optatives. Historic Tenses
of the Indicative with civ must also remain in
the Indicative.
A few instances occur where the Present Optative represents
an Imperfect Indicative of the Eecta. In such cases however
no ambiguity exists.
TO, 7re7rpayfX€va SLrjyovvTO, on avrol fxkv TrXeoiev rrjv 8e
dvacpea-LV twV vavayiov Trpo(rr a^aiev. XeN. Hell. i. 7. 5.
They were describing the fads, explaining that they themselves
were sailing {against the enemy),, and that they had com-
missioned (proper ptersons) to p)ick up the shipwrecked
seamen.
Recta, avTol ^TrXeofiev Kcd Trpocr.erd^ajxiv. Of. vii. 1. 38,
iOeXoi, BovXevoLTO.
Obs. 1. The Tense of an Infinitive in a Sub-direct Clause is
the same as in the Recta, e.g. €ypa\pa, I wrote ; 'i(f>r) ypdipai, he
said that he had written ;■ Xkye, speak ; eKeXevcv avrbv Xkyeiv, he
was ordering him to speak. The time of the Infinitive Tense
may therefore be instantly discovered by turning it back to
the Recta. So with the time of a Participle.
Obs. 2. No verb takes av because of its conversion from
Recta to Obliqua. If in the Obliqua a Finite Verb, Infinitive,
or Participle takes av, it is because it had an dv in the Recta.
The tables of converted Conditional Sentences will show this.
§ 313' Types of Sub-direct Clauses in Historic
Sequence.
A. I. Original Recta (Statement).
f 1. ravra fxavOdvo).
^ 2. ravra ixaQy](jop.a.i.
^ 3. ravra ixefxdOriKa.
VK( 4. ravra kfidvOavov.
v*? 5. ravra ifxefidOtjKrj.
vl 6. ravra efiaOov.
S UB-DIRECT CLA USES IN HISTORIC SEQ UENCE. 39 1
II. Converted to Obliqua in Historic Sequence.
Principal.
cAe^ev oTi, (OS.
1. ravTa fiavOdvei.
ravra fxavOdvoL.
2. ravra fxad'qcrerai.
ravra fiaOijarotro.
3. ravra fiefidOTjKe.
ravra /xe/xa^i^Ktus €try.
4. ravra kfxdvdave.
5. ravra i/JLejxaOi^Kei.
6. ravra efxaOe.
ravra fidOoi.
Sub-direct.
Graphic.
Strict Sequence.
Graphic.
Strict Sequence.
Graphic.
Strict Sequence.
Graphic.
Strict Sequence.
B. I. Original Eecta (Question).
1. Tt fiavBdvets \
2. Tfc fiadyjaei ;
3. Tt jxeixdOrfKas j
4. Tt efiavdaves ;
5. Tt ifiefxaO-qKeis ',
6. Tt efxaOe? ',
rjpero.
II. Converted to Obliqua.
1. oTt or Tt.
3.
fjLav6dv€L. Graphic.
fxavOdvot. Strict Sequence.
fjMdrjcreraL. Graphic.
fiaOrjo-oLro. Strict Sequence.
fjLc/jidOrjKe. Graphic.
fjiefjLadrjKios etr). Strict Sequence.
kixdvdavi.
ffJLCfiad'qKeL.
cfxaOe. Graphic.
fxddoL. Strict Sequence.
Note. The Aorist Indicative is preferable to the Optative
whenever it avoids ambiguity. Thus ovk cTxov on Spdaetav
might mean either they did not know what to do (Recta, Tt
Spdcruifiev ; a deliberative Subjunctive), or, they did not know
what they had done (Recta, Tt iSpda-a/xev ; ). Almost always the
first construction is intended.
392 O RATIO OB LI QUA.
C. Similarly with ottws, ottw? /x?5 (a much rarer construction
after verbs of commanding, etc., than the Infinitive).
Recta : ottcos /xt) ccrea-Oe dvd^LOt eXevOeptas.
See that you be not unworthy of freedom.
.X ,, N eo-ovrat ) Graphic.
^ ' ' ' ' ' ecroiVTo j btrict [Sequence.
D. With Deliberative Questions.
Recta, iroi ^uyw ;
Obliqua, 'qiropet TTOL (oTToi) (jivyy \ Graphic.
<f)vyoL j Strict Sequence.
§ 3I4« Rules for Sub-oblique Clauses in the Oratio
Obliqua.
A. In Primary Sequence they undergo no change of Mood
or Tense in passing from the Eecta.
B. In Historic Sequence :
1. By the graphic construction they undergo no change,
continuing to be what they were in Primary
Sequence.
2. The verb is changed to the same tense in the Optative,
in Strict Sequence.
But N.B. The Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Aorist Indicative
must remain in the Indicative and not be changed to the
Optative. Exceptions will be noticed further on.
§ 3I5* Note to accompany the following Tables.
The construction of Sub-oblique as well as Sub-direct
Clauses is shown in Conditional Sentences converted from the
Recta to the Obliqua. The Recta will be found by referring
to Conditional Sentences (page 198), and need not be repeated
here. The Apodosis is the Principal Sentence in the Recta
and the Sub-direct in the Obliqua. The Protasis is the Sub-
direct in the Recta, and the Sub-oblique in the Obliqua. The
Protasis may be taken as the type of any Adverbial Sub-oblique
Clause by S-ubstituting eTreiSyj, ore, ews, TrpLV, etc., for €t or edv.
It may equally well stand as the type of any Relative Sub-
oblique Clause, but for the sake of completeness a Relative
Conditional Table is given converted to the Obliqua.
TYPES OF ORATIO OBLIQUA.
393
Observe that in the Sub-oblique Clauses, Adverbial or
Relative, the Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Aorist Indicative of
the Recta are not converted to the Optative but continue in
the Indicative.
The conversion of General Suppositions may be thus
shown :
Recta : r\v lyyvs eA.^77 davarro^ ovSets (SovXeraL Ovtictkclv.
aXX €t Tt fXY] (f)€pOlfX€V &TpVV€V cf>ep€iV.
Obliqua after yjv eXOy — fiovXerai — Graphic.
e'Ae^e on el cXOoi — fSovXoLTO.
€L Ti fJbTj cfispoiev — cjTpvvev.
€(f)r) rjv IXOrj — ov^kva ^ovXecrdai — Graphic.
el eXBoi — ov^eva fSovXecrOat.
et TL fxrj (pepotev — orpvveiv cfiepeiv.
He said that, if they were not fetching anything, he
was ordering them to fetch it.
§ 316. Types of Oratio Obliqua, showing Sub-direct
and Sub-oblique Clauses in the Obliqua.
The Protasis is the Sub-oblique, the Apo-
dosis the Sub-direct Clause.
If you do this you are doing wrong becomes, when reported
by another person. He said that if he did it he was doing wrong.
I. With Xeyo)
on, and a finite mood :
1. Primary Sequence :
Sub-obhque (the Protasis).
Sub-direct (the Apodosis)
fel ravra Trotet
aoiKei
TreiroLr^Ke
el ravra eTToiei
ySiKei
eiroLr](Te
ySiKYjore
eav (rjv) ravra ttolt)
dSiK-jo-ei
Xeyec on (a)5)< TToiiqa-ri
€t ravra iroLotrj or
dSLKoiYj dv or
TTOLT^rrete
dSLKYjo-eiev dv
el ravra iroi-qa-ei
dhiKYjcrei
el ravra eTrotei
r]8iK€L dv
\el ravra e7roir]cre
"q^iKYjo-ev dv
394
ORATIO OBLIQUA.
2. Historic Sequence :
f
lAe^e oTi (ws)
In the graphic construction the construction after e'Ae^e on
will be just the same as after Aeyet on. The Future and
Perfect Indicative (graphic) are commoner than their cor-
responding Optatives.
II. With <^ry/xi and an Infinitive :
1. Primary Sequence :
r A. Present d ravra Trotets
kiroUiS
eTroLrjcra?
el ravra ttoloitj
el ravra e-rroUt
dSLKOirj
rjStKeL
€7roir)(T€
el ravra Troioir]
aoLKrjcrete
'qSiKrja-e dv
Troi-qa-ete
el ravra TroioLrj
dSiKOtr] dv
TTOi^crete
el ravra Troi-qcroL
el ravra eiroieL
dStK'qcreLev dv
dSiK-ja-oi
rj8LK€i dv
el ravra eTroi-qa-e
rjSiKrjo-ev dv
B. Past el ravra i
t^^^^^ <Te i C. Future a. kdv Ta{5ra [ ""'T
b. el ravra <
II.
{
aoiKetv
dSiKeiv
dSiKrja-ac
dSiKirja-eLv
dStKciv av
d8iKrj(TaL dv
dStKT^o-etv
dSiKelv dv
d8iKrj(TaL dv
OL-qa-ris
TTOLoirjs
TTOL-qa-iELas
[^ C. el ravra 7roiryo-€i5
A. Present et ravra iTrotets
B. Past el ravra e-n-otrjcras
Note. An Imperative in Apodosis would of course depend
on a Verb of commanding (Indirect Petition),
Ovpav, knock at the door ; elire Koirreiv rrjv dvpav,
knock at the door.
2. Strict Historic Sequence :
I A. Present et ravra iroLoirjs
B. Past et ravra { , ,
eTTOirjcras
TTOiOir]^
TTOtijcreias
7 5 r. I TTOlOL-nq
0. ei ravra < , '
TTOLrja-etas
C. el ravra TroL-qa-ots
{
fw or ^^ ^ Q Future a. el ravra [
{
e.g. KOTrre rr)v
he told him to
dSiKetv
dSiKetv
dSiKrjaai
dSiKT^a-etv
dSiKetv dv
dSiKyja-ai dv
dBiK'qcreiv
THE APODQSIS IN THE PARTICIPLE. 393
f A. Present d ravra eiroUcs dSiKeLV av
( B. Past el ravra eiroLr}cra<s aSiK^o-at av
Note. Et with the Optative in the Strict Historic Obliqua
stands for three distinct forms. Thus et 7rotoir;s may represent
(a) el TTotets, a present condition ; (b) edv 7rocr]<s, an ordinary
future condition ; (c) el ttololtjs, a less graphic future condition.
§ 317- The Apodosis in the Participle.
1. Primary Sequence.
otSd (re, el ravra Trotct?, dScKovvra, and SO on, the Participle
in each case being in the same tense as the corresponding
Infinitive.
2. Historic Sequence.
ySrj (rCj ei ravra iroLotrjs, dScKOvvra, and SO on.
Note, el ravra Trotto aSt/cw becomes oiSa el ravra Trotw aSiKwy,
§ 318. A Relative Sentence in the Sub-oblique
Clause.
Recta.
a. e'x^' StSwcrt
a el^e or ec^e eStSov or e8o)Ke
r*- a €)(0t SlSolt] av
t ^ a e^ei * Siocrei
? C^' a eL)(ev eSiSov av
Cct^ a e(T)(€v eSiOKev av
Note. Observe that a dv exy becomes in the Obliqua a e^ot :
whereas a etxe remains a etxe, and is not converted into a exot.
a exoi represents three forms, a exec, a dv exy, d exot, but
the Apodosis is in each case sufficient to prevent ambiguity.
If, however, a etxe eSiSov were changed to a e'xot BiSotrj the
ambiguity would be real.
396
O RAT 10 OB LI QUA.
Ohliqua.
Note. After cAeJe on or w?, by the Graphic Construction
the clauses would remain unchanged : but the real Obliqua
would be as follows : —
eXc^e OTi (ws) a €)(ot
BiSotY]
a e^xe or ecrxe
iSiSov or e8(OK€ (or, instead of
eScoKC, Sotrj)
a €Xoi
ScM-oL (more commonly Suxrei)
a e^ofc
StSotrj av
a e^ot
SaxroL (Swcrct)
a etx^v
eSiSov (XF
a ecrxev
eScDKcv av
Note. Observe the retention of the Aorist Indicative, which
is not changed to the Optative. If we were to write e'Ae^e on
Swcrot (Stuo-et) a XdjSoL, or ecfirj Siocreiv 6 n Xaf^ot, we should
rightly take this to mean, he said that he would give whatever he
took ; a Xd/SoL would represent a Recta d dv kdjSio, and not
a e\aj3ov, what I actually took.
§ 319* Some real Examples analysed.
Principal. Sub-direct. Sub-oblique.
Ci n fJidx'rj'S Sojtrot.
1. e(f>r] Xr]7rT€ov eivat \ irapa-
eXeyei/ on (ws) X-qirreov ecrrt j (TTara?
Adapted from Xen. Cyr. viii. 1. 10.
He said that he must get comrades j if there should be
I need of a battle.
Recta : Xrjrrnov icrn Trapaa-Tdras ci n fidx^jS Ser^cret.
I must get comrades if there shall be need of a battle.
The Obliqua is partly Graphic, partly strict Historic.
2. c4>y]
e'Aeyev on
He said
(-')
ov^ev ai'Tw fiiXeiv
ov^ev avTM fxeXot
that he cared not
eTretSr} elSeirj.
Lys. xii. 74.
since he knew.
Recta : ovSh jxoi ixkXei eTraSr)
e/SovXevovTO oVws totev
They were con-
eTreiSrj yevoiVTO irapd
TO) 7roTa/xa>.
Adapted from Thuc. vii. 80.
how they should go I tvhen they came to
I the river.
Recta : ttws tw/xei/j €7retSav yeva>p,€6a ; a Deliberative
Question.
REAL EXAMPLES ANALYSED.
397
Principal.
4. ia-KOTrei
He was consi-
dering.
Eecta :
5. "AVVTOS €<f>rj
Anytus said
that
Eecta :
Observe that
changed to
6. XeyovQ-L Se
Sub-Direct.
TTWS avTW ecroLTO
how he should find one
TTOJS fJ^OL ecrraL
ov)(^ 0101/ re etvai to firj
aTTOKTeivai fxe
it was impossible for you
not to sentence me to
death
Sub-oblique.
oVrts ddxj/oi,
ISAE. ii. 10.
to bury him.
ocTTLs Odij/^L ;
evretSr) elcryjXOov Sev-
po.
Plat. Jpol. xvii. 29 c.
when once I had been
brought into this
court.
ovx oTov T€ ia-rtv to fxi] I iireiSy) ela-yjXde Sevpo.
oLTroKreLvai ^oiKpdriq \
the Aorist Indicative of the Recta is not
the Obliqua.
They say
0)5 €V T]] yrj air^uaviv o
dvrip, Kay it) XlOov avri^
kvkfSaXov els rrjv Kecfta-
Xrjv,
Antiph.
that the deceased was
murdered ashore, and
that I struck him on the
head with a stone.
OS ovK i^e/Srjv to
irapdrrav Ik rov
irX
otov.
de Caed. Her. 26.
though as a matter
of fact I never left
the ship at all.
Observe here that the Aorist Indicative is kept in the Sub-
direct Clauses, and also (of course) in the Sub-oblique
Clause.
7. €(f>r]
He said
p^eyjpi TovTov ^eiv p.av-
Bdvuv
that it was necessary to
go on learning for so
long a time
Recta : p-eyjpi tovtov Sec fxavOdvetv, ews av ykvqrai^ kdv ttotc
^erjo-rf.
€(os LKavo<s Tts ye-
voiTO, etTTore Serjo-ete,
K.r.X.
Xen. Mem. iv. 7. 2.
until one became cap-
able, if ever it should
be necessary, etc.
398 ORATIO OB LI QUA.
§ 320. The Infinitive, and on (w?) with Finite
Moods in the Sub-direct Sentences.
Both these Constructions occur in the Sub-direct Sentence,
i.e. in the Principal Sentence of the Original Recta. But the
Infinitive is unquestionably the most common, as it is the
most natural, simple, and easy mode of expression. Greek
writers seem unconsciously to slide into it, even after an
Obliqua has been introduced in the first instance by on or ws.
In consequence of this love for the Infinitive, one or two
peculiarities should be observed.
1. An Obliqua (indirect words or thoughts) is often
suddenly introduced without any introductory Principal
Verb. A Particle is the only warning given, said he, he
thought, it was said, or some such expression was in the
writer's mind and can be easily supplied. And in such a
case it should be noticed that the Predicate in the Nomina-
tive accompanies the Infinitive when referring to the Subject
of the Infinitive and of the chief Verb.
Latin and English have the same free and natural usage.
(a.) ^Ayts rovs Trpecr/SeLs Is AaKeSaCfxova iK^Xcvcrev^vai' ov
yap €Lvai Kvpio'S avTos, k.t.X. XeN. Helli U. 2. 12.
Agis recommended the envoys to go to Laceddejnon (ex-
plaining that) he was not himself competent, e)cr^^
(b.) UXoLTiov Se o8e, t5 avSp€<s 'AOrjvaLoi, /cat Kptriov Kal
K-piTofSoyXos Kal 'AttoAXoSw/jos KeXevovac fxe Tpid-
Kovra fxvojv Tif-cqaraa-dai, avroi 8' kyyvacrdai.
Plat. Apol. xxviii. 38 b.
Plato here, and Crito, and Critobulus, and Apollodorm,
wish me to propose thirty minae (desiring me to say
that) they themselves are the securities.
hvoLV \pr](riixoLV ov StafxapTrjorea-daL rrjv rroXiv 'qyovfi-qv irXev-
aavTiov rjfx(t}v' i] yap ^lXlttttov, a fxev eiX-qf^ei rrjs ttoAco)?,
d7ro8(0(r€tv, twv Se Xolttcov a</)e^ecr^at, 7], {xr) ttoiovvtos
Tavra, aTrayyeActv i^/xas evdeios Sevpo, k.t.X. DeM. 388. 15.
One of two useful ends I considered the state would not lose.
Either Philip would restore the possessions of the state
1 English expresses this just as neatly, with still less warning :
* ' Agis recommended the envoys to go to Lacedaemon. He himself was
not competent, etc. "
INFINITIVE, ETC., IN SUB -DIRECT SENTENCES. 399
which he had taken, and would hold his hand from the
remainder, or, if he were not to do this, we should at once
bring back word here, etc.
2. In the same way, but not nearly so often as an Infini-
tive, an Optative may be introduced by an explanatory yap.
(a.) e'Aeyov otl 7ra vtos a^ta Aeyec 'EevdrjS' xeifiuiv yap etrj,
K.T.X. Xen. An. vii. 313.
They said that what Seuthes said was quite right : f(yr it
was winter, etc.
The whole paragraph 13 is very instructive, and should be
carefully read. Observe that the Obliqua ends with a direct
indicative of the writer, k^oK^i.
(b.) Or the Optative continues the Obliqua after a preceding
Optative with oVt or w?.
direKpLvavTO avrca, otl aS^Ji/ara orcfiicnv etrj iroulv a TrpoKa-
Xelrab avev ' KdrjvaLtav' TratSe? yap (T(f>iov Kal yvi/ai/ces
Trap' €KeLvots etr^crav SeSuvat 8e Kac, k.t.A. ThUC. ii. 72.
Obs. That after the Optative the writer slides naturally into
the Infinitive SeSievat.
They answered him that it was impossible for them to comply
with their proposals without consulting the Athenians, for
their wives and children were with them; moreover they
were afraid, etc.
(c.) In Soph. Phil. 615, an Optative is still more abruptly
introduced.
evdeo)^ VTrkcr\ero
Tov avSp' 'A)(^aLOiS rovSe SrjXcocreLV ayoyv
OLOLTO fiev fxaXicrd^ €KOvcrLov Aa^wi/.
€t fir) BkXoi S', OLKOVra' [xai tovt(i)v Kapa
T€JJ,V€LV e(ji€iTO T(u OiXoVTi [XT] TV^Wv].
Straightway he promised
To bring and show this man to the Achaeans.
Most like with his consent he thought to take him.
Should he refuse, then in his spite, etc.
Out of virea-x^To is to be supplied {eXe^ev ws) before ololto.
And observe, as in the preceding passage of Xenophon, the
Direct Indicative i^eiro is resorted to, relieving the artificial
strain of the Optative. Of. also Plat. Phaed. 95 d, ^wq
. . . oLTToXXvono: Rep. 420 C, evaAt^Xi/A/xei/ot etev. With the last
400 ORATIO OBLIQUA.
instance compare Soph. 0. T. 1245, v<^' mv Odvoc . . . AtVot.
Here, although in a Eelative Sentence, the Optative crops
up; it is equal to eXe^ev on vtto rovnov ddvot, SO that the
clause is virtually Sub- direct rather than Sub-oblique, being
introduced by fivrifi-qv e'xovo-'. The passage is discussed in
Madvig's Syntax, p. 116, note 2, and Goodwin, Moods and
Tenses, § 77, 1 (e).
3. The Infinitive and 6tl (J)s) with a Finite Mood alternate
in the same Obliqua.
ol AaKeSacfiovLOi eTirov, on cr<f>L(TL fxev SoKolev dBiKeiv ol
'A6r]vaiOL, f^ovXecrSai Se koI Tov<i Travras ^vjxixd^ovs
irapaKaXecravres xlyrj(fiOV cTraya-yeiv. ThuC. i. 87.
Obs. on fiev SoKotev co-ordinate with PovXea-Oal 8e.
The Lacedaemonians told them that their own judgment was
that the Athenians were in the wrong : they wished, how-
ever, to summon all the allies as well as themselves, and to
put the matter to the vote.
Xey€L<s (TV, (3 Trdrep, ws l/xot SoKei, on, iocnrcp ovB\ yewpyou
dpyov ovBlv o^eAo?, ovrws ovSe crTpaTrjyov dpyov ovdev
64>eXo^ elvat. Xen. Cyr. i. 6. 18. ^-^^
You say, father, as I understand you, that, just as an idle
husbandman is of no use, so an idle soldier is of no use.
Observe that the verb eo-rt is omitted in the sentence
introduced by loairep, and the finite construction with on is
not carried out at all.
4. And this is the greatest peculiarity. Such is the natural
Greek yearning for the Infinitive, that Sub-oblique clauses,
both Adverbial and Eelative, instead of taking a Finite Mood,
are actually followed by an Infinitive. In some cases the
writer, after beginning with if, since, when, which, etc., seems
mentally to throw in a "said he," "it was said," "it was
agreed or' thought," and passes to an Infinitive: in others the
preceding Infinitive seems to exercise an assimilating influence
over the Sub-oblique Verb.
{a.) icfjr) Se, €7r€iSr) ov eKJSrj vac rrjv ^v)(t^u, iropevecrOaL fxera
TToXXQv. Plat. Eep. 614 b.
He said that wheji his soul had gone out of him (i.e. his
body), he was journeying with many.
Several similar instances occur from 614 to end of the book
after Iv w, ovs, ore, ei's o, ov, ws.
INFINITIVE, ETC., IN SUB-DIRECT SENTENCES. 401
(&.) Aeyerat Koi 'AAK/xatwvt tw 'AfMcfudpeo), ore 8r) dXacrOat
avTov fJLerd tov (ftovov Trjs fxrjTpos, rov 'AttoXXih
TavTy]V TTjV yrjv \py]crai oIk€lv. ThUC. ii. 102.
There is a tradition moreover that Apollo by oracle
directed Alcmaeon, the son of Anvphiaraus, ivhen he
was a wanderer after the murder of his mother, to
inhabit this district.
Strictly ore ■v^A.arq.
(c.) Fvyryv cfiacrlv tSovra to yacrixa koX OavfidcravTa Kara-
f^rjvat, Kal iSeiv dX\a re Oavfiaa-Ta Kal I'mrov
)(aXKOvv KOiXov, 6vpi8a<s e^ovra, Kad' as iyKvxj/avTa
IBetv evovra ve/cpov, ws <^atv€cr^at, fiel^ui ^ Kar'
avOp(D7rov' rovTov 8e dXXo /xev e;^etv ovSev, rrepl
6e rrj X^'^P^ XP^'^^^^ SaKrvXiov, ov TT€puX6p.€V0V
€K/3^vaL. Plat. Bep. ii. 359 d.
Gyges, the story runs, seeing the abyss and marvelling at
it, descended aTid saw, among many other marvellous
things, a hollow brazen horse, fitted with windows,
through which he peeped and saw inside a corpse, so
it seemed, of more than human stature. It had
jiothing but a golden ring on its finger, ivhich Gyges
took off, and so made his way out.
KaO' as etSev — ws l<^aiV€TO — aAA,o fxev €L)(e — ov TrepieXonevos
Though Latin has the same construction of the Eelative
with the Infinitive, yet Cicero in translating this does not
avail himself of the identity of idiom (see De Offic. iii. 38).
Note. Latin has, though very rarely, this idiom of the
Relative with the Infinitive : the often quoted instance from
Liv. xxiv. 3 appears to rest on an incorrect reading, but in
Liv. XXX. 42 an undoubted example occurs.
Quorum oratio varia fuit, partim purgantium, quae questi
erant missi ad regem legati, partim ultro accusantium
socios populi Romani, sed multo infestius M. Aurelium,
quern ex tribus ad se missis legatis, dilectu habito,
substitisse et se bello lacessisse contra foedus, et saepe
cum praefectis suis signis conlatis pugnasse.
They spoke on a variety of topics. At one time they endeavoured
to clear themselves of the charges brought by the commis-
sioners sent to the king ; at another time they were bringing
2 C
402 ORATIO OBLIQUA.
counter charges against the allies of the Roman peojjle, with
much greater rancour however against M. Aurelius, ivho
(they said), out of the three commissioners sent to them, had
levied troops, stayed behind, and had commenced hostilities
against them contrary to treaty, and had fought several
downright battles with their officers.
§ 321. Assimilation of Optatives.
A, After an Optative in a Principal Sentence it is usual
for another Optative to follow in an Adverbial or a Relative
Sentence as if in Historic Sequence. As the Optative is not
in itself past, but on the contrary almost invariably refers to
future time, we can only explain /mis ""on the principle of
assimilation. \
(ft.) Te6vaLr}v ore fioi aqKin rav'tuixkXoL.
\-^ MiMNERMTJS, i. 2.
Then might I die whensoever this is no longer my care.
For oTttv fj^iXy.
(b.) TTtos av Tt?, a ye /x-q kiricnaiTO, (TO<f>os av eirj ',
Xen. Mem. iv. 6, 7.
How could one be wise in what he does not know for
certain ?
Instead of a iTTio-Tarai, or a av /xt) ii7L(JTi]rai.
(c.) €t aTro6vr](TKOi fxev iravra ocra rov ^rjv fxeraXafSoi,
CTTCtS?) Sk aiToOdvoL, jjiivoi ev tovtoj tm (rx^rj/JiaTL Kat
jXYj irdXiv dvaf^iiocTKOtTO, dp' ov TroXXr) dvdyKT],
TeXevTOJVTa Trdvra reOvdvau Kal firjSev ^rjv ;
Plat. Fhaed. xvii. 1. 72. '
If all things whatsoever partake of life should die, and
when they die, abide in this condition and not come
to life again, does it not inevitably follow that in the
end all things will be dead and nothing living ?
For ocra dv fieTaXdfSrj — eTretSdv aTroddvrj.
But TLS ovK dv fXLO-qcreuv ^lXlttttov, el cfidivotTO roijTOis ^ttl-
^ovXeimv, virep S>v 6 rrpoyovos avrov TrpoeiXero
Kiv^vveveiv ] Isoc. Phil. 77.
Because TrpoetXero was Aorist Indicative in the Recta.
Wlio would not detest Philip if he shoidd be proved to be
conspiring against those in whose behalf his ancestor
deliberately decided to face danger ?
ASSIMILA TION OF OPTA TIVES. 403
Note. After an Optative denoting a wish, the sentence may-
be assimilated.
Ovixov ykvoLTO X^^'P'' TA?ypwo-at ttotc
tV ai M-VKYJvaL yvot€V rj ^TrdpTr] 6' on
X'q ^Kvpo<s duSpojv dXKtjxojv p-'^T-qp ecfiv. SoPH. Phil. 324.
For Lva yvMCTL. It is generally stated that a Final Sentence
is never assimilated. See Soph. Phil. 961, an often quoted
instance. See also Soph. Track 955; Eur. Bacch. 1252 (and
consult the note in Sandys' edition).
In Eur. Bacch. 1384, we get both constructions. Assimila-
tion and non- Assimilation combined :
eXdoLfJLL 8' OTTOV
firJTf. Kt^atpwv fJiLapos fi i(ri8oL
fJLrJTe K^idaipcov' ocrcroLcrLv eyw,
/Jii]6' o9i Ovpcrov fivrjfx ai/aKetraf
B(XK^a6s 8' aAAatcrt fxeXotev.
§ 322. B. 1. Occasionally this Assimilation does not take
place.
(a.) Ills dv 8lk7]V Kptvetev 1^ yvotrj Xoyov
irplv dv Trap' dp.<^olv fivdos ^Kfiddrj aracfiioq ;
Eur. Her. 179.
Trplv dv €KixdOrj, and not rrplv eKfJidOoi. Cf. Hel. 176,
Ion 672, Plat. Bep. ii. 359 c (o n dv /SovXrjTat).
(h.) Kv/)OS 7rpo(TKaXQ)v tovs (piXovs lo-TTOvSaioAoyetro, ws
8rjXoir), ovs Ti/Act. Xen. All. L 9. 28.
ovs TLixd, and not rt/xw?;.
2. An Indirect Statement with oVt or ms, an Indirect Ques-
tion, or a Sentence with oVws when following an Optative, is
not so assimilated, nor usually a Final Sentence.
(a.) ov 8' dv efs dvT€LT70L ws ov (rvp.<fi€p€L ry ttoXcl.
Dem. 202. 23.
Not even one would reply that it is not expedient to the
state.
Here dv avTeLiroi is a Principal Sentence in Primary Time.
404 ORATIO OBLIQUA.
(h.) et Tt? Aeyot avdpoiirov ecTTrjKora, Ktvovvra 8e ras )(et/9a?
T€ Kal rrjv KccfyaXi^v, otl 6 avros ecTTrjKe re /cat Kivetrai,
ovK av d^LOLiJiev ovt(d Xeyeiv 8eiv.
Plat. Eep. iv. 436 d.
If one should say of a man who is standing still, but is
moving his hands and his head, that the same man
is both stationary and in motion, we should not allow
this to be a correct mode of expression.
(c.) 6 Trpo)pev<s rrjs vews . . . Kal olttiov av eiTroi, ottov eKao"Ta
KetraL Kal oTTOcra tp^rtv, XeN. Oec. viii. 14.
(c?.) OKvotrjv av els ra irXota e/x^aiveiv, a Kvpos rifxcv Soltj,
jA,rj rjiias avrals rdis TpiT^peai KaTaSvcrrj.
\^ Xen! An. i. 3. 17.
§ 323. Examples of Mixed Graphic and Strict
Obliqua.
(a.) irpoeiTTOv v/XLV otl el jxr] TrapecroixeOa a-vcrTpacrevcTOfievoL,
eKeivoi ecfi rjfxas loiev. XeN. Hell. V. 2. 13.
/ told you beforehand that if we should (shall) not be present
to join them, they would march against us.
(&.) ecfiof^etro firj 01 AaKeSaLfiovtoi or^as, oiroTe cracfiMS aKovcreLav,
ovKeri d<{)(Ji}(TLV. ThuC. i. 91.
He was afraid that the Lacedaemonians would no longer let
them go, whenever they heard of it.
(c.) elirov Trj /3ovXfj ore elSet-qv rovs TroLT^cravra's, Kal e^^^Aey^a
TO, yevoiieva on elcrrjyqa-aTO jjcev ttivovtcov rjpiov ravrrju
rrjv (3ov\r]v Ev<^iA>;tos, avreiTrov 8e eyw, Kal rare pXv ov
yevoiro 8C e/Jie. AnDOK. de Myst. 61.
/ told the Council that I knew who had committed the act, and
I established the facts that Euphiletus had suggested this
scheme, and that I had opposed it, and that on that occasion
it was not executed owing to my opposition.
, , . el(Tr]yrj(raTO Ev^iAryros, avretTrov 8e eyw, ovk lyevero.
§ 324. Virtual Oratio Obliqua.
Virtual Oratio Obliqua occurs when the words, thoughts,
and motives, not of the writer, but of the subject of the
sentence, are given rather by implication or allusion than
directly introduced.
PAST TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. 405
Ul.) Tov Ile/JiKAea eKctKi^ov oTt CTTpaTTjyos cov ovk iTr^^dyoi.
Thuc. ii. 21.
(The Athenians, 01 ttoXXol, grumbled thus : a-TpaTrjyos oiv ovk
(h.) ol 5' MKTeipov, €t aXiiicroivro. XeN. -^?l. i. 4. 7.
0//ier5 v;er^ pitying them if they were to he captured (felt pity
at the thought).
The thought was oiKrpoi la-ovrat d aXaxrovTai.
(c.) OLcrOa i7raLV€(ravTa"OpLrjpov tov 'Ayafxe/xvova tos /Saa-tXevs
itrj dyaOos. Xen. Symp. iv. 6.
You know that Homer praises Agamemnon as being a good
king.
Cf. laudat Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens.
Cic. Be Offic. ii. 76.
(d.) rdXXa, r]v ert vav/xa;(€tv et *AOy]vaioL ToXfi-qa-iacri, irap-
eo-K€va(ovro. ThUC. vii. 59.
They were making all other preparations in case the
Athenians should venture on a battle.
Here, observe, the graphic rjy ToXpujo-uxri is used instead of
et ToXfi^cretav.
(e.) Compare
TT/oos T>)v TToXiv, €L €7r L f^orj 6 oUv, kyutpovv. Thuc. vii. 100.
They were advancing on the city in case the citizens should
march out against them. .
Et and eai/ often allude in this way to a thought. See SoPH.
0. C. 1770, edv TTOiS 8iaK(uAiJcrw/x€v : SoPH. Ai. 313, et fxtj (fiavott]V.
§ 325* Past Tenses of the Indicative in
Oratio Obliqua.
I. For instances of the Imperfect and Pluperfect Indicative
in Sub-direct Clauses, see Xen. An. i. 2. 21, Hell. vii. 1. 34.
II. For instances of the Imperfect, Pluperfect, and Aorist
Indicative in Sub-oblique Clauses, see Xen. Mem. ii. 6. 13;
Thuc. vii. 80 (ovs pLerkTrep^xfav) ; Dem. 869. 9 (wv aTreSoo-av) ;
Xen. An. i. 9. 10 (eVet eyevero); Cyr. ii. 2. 9 (riv eypa^a).
4o6 '0 RATIO OBLIQUA.
The Indicative may be accounted for on the same or ana-
logous principles in the following passages :
(a.) ^XPV^ '^^'^'^ dX\ov<s fxrj TTporepov Trepl rwv ofJLoXoyovfx^vojv
^vfji^ovXeveiv, irplv irepl rtov dix(f>i(r/3T]Tovjji.ev(x>v rjixas
tStSa^ai/. Isoc. Panegyr. 19.
Here Trplv SiSa^eiav would represent irplv av StSd^ioa-L.
(b.) T]5ews av KaXAiKAet en 8 leXey 6 firju, ews avrc^ rrjv tov
. 'AfXffiLOVO's d7re8(jiKa[p7J(riv dvrl rrjs tov ZyjOov.
\ Plat. Gorg. 506 b.
ews aTreSwKa and not ea)§ o^roSotryv, which would represent
€ws dv aTToSu). ^
§ 326. Apparently Abnormal Obliqua.
Sometimes, but rarely, instead of either the Graphic or the
real Obliqua, we get an Indicative. An examination of
passages seems to show that the writer throws in the mood
and tense from his own point of view instead of giving the
mood which would be required if he were quoting words or
thoughts.
((t.) K.vpo<s v7rk(T\€T0 TOLS M.iXrjcrioiS (fivyaanv^ ei^KaAws Kara-
,cpd^€L€V, k<\i d icrrpaTev€TO, p.r] TrpocrOev 7rav€(rOat, Trplv
avTovs Karaydyoi oiKaSe. Xen. An. i. 2. 2.
The Recta would be •^r KaraTrpd^w, ccf)' d a-TpaTevofxai ov
TvavcrofJiai Trplv dv Karaydyio. 'i(f)' d icrrpaTemTO is really a bit
of the writer's narrative.
«
(6.) Xeyerat 8' avrov (HavcravLav^ fieXXovra ^vXX7](f)9^(rea-dat
. . . yvojvaL €(fi w ky^(x)pei. ThUC. i. 134.
It is said that Pausanias, when on the point of being arrested^
knew for what purpose he {the ephor) ivas coming.
!</)' w xiapoL'T) or x^P^^ would be the usual construction ; ix<op€i
is the mood and tense of the writer rather than of the subject
Pausanias.
(c.) 'iXeyov ov KaXCys TrjV 'EAAaSa eXevOepovv avrov, el dv8pas
8ie(fi0eLpev, k.t.A. ThUC. iii. 32.
They told him that he was not liberating Greece in the right
way, if he was destroying men, etc.
Obliqua would require el 8ia(^9eipei, or 8ta(f)9€Lpot. Cf. Thuc.
vi. 29, eipyaa-To (taking 8Le<fid€Lpev as Imperfect. It may be
Aorist).
LONG SPEECHES IN OBL/Q^^XI'S I Y fpE 31 '
iin rer'fli^ wntei-' J^i
Precisely in the same way it is open in Latin
to employ an Indicative or a Subjunctive. Thus we might
say, legati, mirante consule, quod morahantur, venerunt (or quod
morarentur) ; morabantur would give the writer's statement
{morarentur would express the consul's feelings).
{d.) The most peculiar instance perhaps is in Arist. Vesp.
283, Xiyoiv (I)? cf)iX.a6ijvaL0's "^v kol KaretTTOi, where the Xeyojv
ws seems to necessitate a quotation of words (ws eo-rt or €t>/).
§ 327. ZONTG SPEECHES IN OB LI QUA,
Long Speeches in the Oratio Obliqua, such as we find in
Livy, are rare in Greek. Greek is too lively, too anxious
constantly to recur to the present, and cannot bind itself to
the formal regularity which characterises a Eoman Obliqua.
The introductory verb e(^->^, 4'Ae^e, rj/Dero, eiTrei^, is repeated, or
the writer breaks away suddenly into the Eecta.
For longer specimens of the Obliqua see Plat. Symj). 189,
Bep. 614 B, Thuc. vi. 49, Xen. Cyr. viii. 1. 10, 11.
A very instructive example .occurs in Andokides de
Mysteriis, 38, etc., which is here given at length : —
€<fir) yap AiOKXetSyjs eTvat jxev Diokleides stated that he
oLvSpoLTToSov ot cTTt Aavpcco, 8dv had a slave at Laurium, and
Se KofiLcraa-Oat dirocfiopdv. dva- that he had occasion to fetch
o-ras Se tt/sw ^evadeh rrj<i topas a payment due. Rising early
fSaSi^cLv efvat Se Travo-eAryi/oj/. he mistook thfe time and
eTTct 81 irapd to TrpoTrvAatov tov started : there was a full moon.
Alovvctov ■^]v, opdv dvOpioTTovs When he was by the gateway
TToXkovs drro tov (jjSccov Kara- of Dionysus, he saw several
fSaivovras et's rrjv 6p\ri(Trpav' persons coming down from
Seio-as Se avrom, ela-eXdiov viro the Odeum into the Orchestra.
rriv oTKLav Kade^ecrOat fxera^h Afraid of them, he withdrew
TOV Kiovos Kal rrjs o-rrJA-j^s e</)' into the shade and crouched
y 6 (TTpaTTiyos ecrTiv 6 x(^Xkov<s. down between the column and
opdv Be dvdpu>7rovs tov fxh the pedestal on which stands
dpidfxov /xaAtcTTa rpiaKocrcovg, the Bronze General. He saw
€<TTavai 81 KVK Ao) dvd ttcvtc ko.I some three hundred men
8€Ka dv8pa<s, tov<s 8e dvd standing round about in
€iK0(rLV 6/otoi/ Se avT(ov irpbs groups of fifteen and twenty
TTjv a-€X'qvr]v TO, TTpoa-oiira twv each. As he looked he recog-
4o8
OR ATI O OB LI QUA.
TTAeicrTOJv yiyvwcTKetv. K-at Trpco-
rov fikvj w av8p€S, tovO^ vireOero
SeivoTaTov vrpay/xa, olfiai^ ottws
€1/ eK€LV(i) Hy] ovTiva (SovXoito
*A6Y)vcu(av (pdvai rwi/ av8p(av
TovToyv €LvaL, ovTLva Se /x^
/3ovX.OLTO, Aeyetv ort ovk: r)v.
tSwy 8e ravr' €^7; errl Aavpiov
t€vat, Ktti T^ varepaia aKovetv ort
01 'E/3/Xat €l€V TTepLKCKOjJLIXeVOt'
yvwvai ovv evOvs on tovto)v eirj
TO)v av8p(}}v TO kpyov. tJkojv Si
els acTTV ^iqriqras re 'r]8r] yprfp^e-
vovs KaraXapf^aveiv kol pr^-
vvrpa K€KYipvypeva e/carov pvas.
ISmv 8h EiJ^r^jUov rov KaXXiov
rov Ty]\€k\€ovs aSeA^ov Iv, tw
■^aXKai^ Ka6Y)fi€vov, dvayay(x)v
avTov eis to 'Hc^atorretov Aeyeti/
dtrep vplv eyw eiprjKa^ o)s tSot
1^/xas €v^ €K€Lvrj rfi vvkti ovkovv
SeoiTo Trapd rqs TroAews ^-qpara
XafSelv pdWov rj Trap" rjpuyVy
t^xrO' Yjpas €;>(eiv (JhXovs.
eiTreiv ovv rov l^v(}irjpov on
KaAws TTOtT^creiei/ cittwi/, Kat vvv
7Jk€lv KeXevcrai ol els rrjv Aew-
yopov olntav, tV ckci ^'^yj^vrj
yuer' eyaov 'AvSokiSt^ /cat ercpois
ots Sei. r/KCtv €<^r/ T17 varepaia^
KOL 8r) KOTTTCIV Tr]V OvpaVy TOV
Be TTaripa tov kpov rv^eiv
k^iovra, KOL eiTreiv avrov dpd
ye ere o'lSe 7Tepipkvov(ri ; ^prj
nised most of their faces by
the moonlight. Now in the
first place, gentlemen, this
story on which he bases his
evi^fence is a most extraordin-
ary thing; his object, I take it,
being that it might rest with
hin^ to include in this list
any'Athenian he wished, or to
exclude any he did not wish.
After seeing this he stated
that he went on to Laurium,
and next day heard of the
mutilation of the Hermae.
So he knew it was the work
of these persons. Returning
to town he found the com-
missioners of inquiry chosen
and a reward of a hundred
minae offered for information.
Seeing Euphemus the son
of Kallias and brother of
Telekles sitting in his forge,
he brought him up to the
Hephaesteum, and told him
exactly what I have said to
you, how he had seen us that
night. Now he- did not (so
he said) desire to receive
money from the state more
than from us, if we would be
his friends.
Euphemus then told him
that he had acted rightly in
telling him, and noAv he asked
him to come to the house of
Leogoras, to meet me there,
said he, with one Andokides
and other needful persons. He
said that he went next day,
and just as he was knocking
at the door my father hap-
LONG SPEECHES IN OBLIQUA.
409
fxevTOL fxrj air biO €.1(7 6 at roiovrovi
(f)i\ovs' eiTTovTa 8e avrov ravra
OLX^crdaL.
Kai tovtcj) fiev tw Tpoirco tov
Trarepa fiov OTrioXXve, a-vveiSora
aTTOcfiaiVMV. eliretv Be rjfxas on
SeSoyfxcvov rj/JLiv eir] Svo fxkv
rdXavra apyvptov StSovat 01
aVTi TWI/ €KaTOV fXViiiV TWV Ik
rov SrjpLooTLOV, lav Se /caracrxw-
fxev T^jLtets a /SovXafxeda, €va
avTov rjfiMv cij/at, ttlcttlv Se
rovT(x)v Sovvai re koI Se^acrOaL.
mroKplvaa-daL Se avros irpos
ravTa on /3ovXevcroiTO. o^/xas
Se KeXevcLV avTov 'rjKeiv eis
KaAAtov Tov TrjXeKXcovs, tVa
Ka/ceii/os Trapetr). tov 8' av
KTjSecTT'qv fjiov ovT(ji)<S (XTrcuAAvev.
'iJKCtv i(^y] ets KaAAtov, /<ai
KadofJLoXoyi^(ra<s r]}xiv manv
Sovvai ev aKpoTroXet, Kal rjfJLas
(TwOefxeuovs ol to apyvptov els
TOV eTTLOVTa fxrjva Sixxreiv Sia-
\pev8ea-6ai Kal ov SiSovaL' yJKetv
ovv ixrjvv(T(DV TO, yevofxeva.
pened to be going out, and
said, "Oh, is it you these
people are expecting 1 Well,
one ought not to reject such
friends." So saying, he was
off.
In this way he tried to ruin
my father by denouncing him
as an accomplice. (According
to him) we said that we pro-
posed to give him two talents
of silver instead of the hun-
dred minae offered by the
Treasury, and that if we
gained our object he was
(should be) one of our num-
ber, and that we exchanged
pledges of this. His own
reply to this was that he
would think it over : we, how-
ever, told him to come to the
house of Kallias son of
Telekles whose presence we
desired. Again in this he
tried to ruin my relation.
He came, so he said, to the
house of Kallias, and accord-
ing to agreement he gave us
pledges on the Akropolis, and
we, after stipulating to give
him the money by the next
month, break our promise and
refuse to give it. Conse-
quently he is present to in-
form of the facts.
CHAPTEE
FIGUEES OF EHETOEIC, Etc.
§ 328. Alliteration.
Alliteration, or the repetition of the same letter.
e.g. Who shall ^^ecide when doctors, c^isagree ]
Subdola cum ridet placidi pellacia ponti. Luc. ii. 559.
Tympana tenta tonant palmis et cymbala circum
Concava, raucisonoque minantur cornua cantu.
Id. ii. 618.
OavaTOV Oarrov 6d. PlAT. Apol. xxix. 39 A.
It {wickedness) fleeth faster than fate.
ri rw TravwAet iraTpl riav jxlv i^ ifiov
TraiSiov TToOos Trapeiro ; SoPH. El. 544.
Or hy thy felon father, for the family
I bore him, was all fondness flung aiuay ?'
Tov 8' dypiois oacroLcn TraTrr-qvas 6 irats
TTTVcras TrpoorwTTOi. SoPH. Ant. 1231.
Cf. Soph. Ant. 50, where an initial a occurs seven times.
Instances may easily be collected. Ours is the most alli-
terative of languages. Shakspere abounds with natural
and beautiful examples. As is well known. Early English
alliterative poetry consisted of couplets, in which each section
contained two or more accented words beginning with the
same letter.
In a somer seson, whan soft was the sonne,
I shope me in shroudes, as I a shepe were,
In habite as an heremite, unholy of workes,
Went wyde in fis world, wondres to here.
Fiers the Plowman..
410
ANAKOLUTHIA. 411
Shakspere ridicules the abuse of Alliteration :
Whereat, with blade, with bloody blameful blame,
He bravely broached his boiling bloody breast.
" Hortatur me frater, ut meos malis miser mandarem natos "
of Accius (Cic. Tusc. iv. 77) is little better.
§ 329. Anakoluthia.
Anakoluthia or Anakoluthon is the term used where the
structure of the sentence is not grammatically followed out.
It is either natural and unstudied, or artificial and rhetorical.
It is natural and unstudied in Herodotus, whose irregular
constructions arise from his writing just as if he were talking.
It is natural and unstudied again in Aeschylus, whose
thoughts and emotions are too big for his words, and in
Thucydides, who thinks more of matter than manner. It is
rhetorical in Plato, who purposely imitates the easy freedom
of ordinary conversation. Sometimes Anakoluthia arises
from mere slovenliness, as in Andokides.
During the progress of a sentence a new idea strikes the
writer ; a new expression is thus introduced and becomes a
disturbing influence. Or an explanation may be necessary ;
and a parenthesis, more or less long, is inserted. The
sentence thus may wander far away from its original con-
struction. Generally the writer is aware that he has gone
astray, and goes back, not to the grammar, but to the sense
of the passage, resuming often in a diff'erent construction with
a particle 8e, Stj, ovv, so, then, as I was saying.
There are many kinds of Anakoluthia, and the figure is
constantly recurring. One or two specimens are given just
to show what is meant :
dvSpOLV 8' o/xatfMOLV OdvaTO<s wS' avroKTOvos, —
ovK ecTTt yyjpas rovSe rov fJLtda-jJLaTos.
Aesch. S. c. Theh. 681.
Here Odvaros, the subject, has no verb (yrjpda-K^i). Instead
of the verb the writer solemnly pauses, and substitutes a
second sentence nearly complete in itself.
\
But blood of brothers shed by fellowly hands,
There is no age for such pollution.
412 FIGURES OF RHETORIC, ETC.
TO, Travra ya/j rts ly;;(€as dv^' a^aros
€vd<j, fxaTrjv 6 ixoxOos. AeSCH. iJh. 521.
Powr all the atoning offerings in tJk world
For one life spilt — vain were thy toil
Grammatically : fxdrrjv av [xoxOoLrj^.
ot 'A6r]vaiOL vocro) eine^ovTo Kar' dfxcfiOTepa, rrj^ re copas rod
iViavTOV ravTYjS ovcrrjs, ev fj dcrOevova-LV dvOpio-iroi [xdXicrTa^
Kat TO \<j)piov a/xa, Iv w ecrr/jaTOTreSevovTO, lAwSes ^at
XaAeTTOV r]i/. ThUC. vii. 47.
Grammatically it should have been tov x^P^^v lAwSors Kat
^aAcTTov oVtos.
jTAe Athenians were suffering from sickness arising from two
causes, first, because this was the time of year when sickness
is 7nost prevalent, and next, the ground on which they were
encamped was swampy and unhealthy.
Cf. iv. 23, Kat TTcpl IltjAov — T$ retxet. HdT. vii. 74, Kat
TToAAa — dfivvacrOat,
One simple instance from Plato may suffice to show how he
imitates the freedom of ordinary talk : —
•^XOov CTTt Ttva TWi/ SoKovvTO)v CTo^wv efvai . . . Kat SiaAeyo-
fievo<s avTM, eSo^e fxoi ovtos 6 dvrjp Sok^lv fxev etvat cro^o?,
K.T.A., elvai 8' ov. Plat. Apol. vi. 21 b.
/ went to see one of those who had the reputation of being
wise. And talking with him, this man seemed to me to be
considered wise, without being really so.
As if it were SiaAeyd/xevos avTM c'Sd^ao-a, conversing ivith him
I thought.
§ 330. Antiptosis.
Antiptosis. The Subject of the Subordinate Clause is
the object of the Principal Clause.
The stock instance is "nosti Marcellum, quam tardus sit"
for " nosti quam tardus sit Marcellus." " I know you not,
whence ye are."
This is a common construction in Greek, Latin, and
English.
It€ov ovv (TKOTTovvTi TOV XPWH-^^ '^^ Acyet. Plat. Apol. vii.
21 E.
/ must go on then examining the oracle, what it means (i.e.
examining what the oracle means, or the meaning of the
oracle).
ASYNDETON AND BINARY STRUCTURE. 413
otiSe /x€V ovScis Tov ddvarov ov8' et rvyxa^'ct iravTOiV fxeyicTTOV
6v Twv dya^wv. PlAT. ^^o/. xvii. 29 A.
No one knows {with regard to) death, even whether it is (not)
the greatest possible blessing.
We may say that the Accusative and the Subordinate
Sentence together become the object of the principal Verb.
Antiptosis is commonly explained as above, but the simpler
and more rational account is that the Subordinate Clause ex-
pands and explains the Object or Accusative of the Principal
Clause.
§ 331. Asyndeton.
Asyndeton, or the omission of Conjunctions, the stock
instances of which are Shakspere's
Unhousel'd, disappointed, unanel'd ;
and Cicero's Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit.
Cf. Milton's Unrespited, unpitied, unreprieved.
Unshaken, unseduced, unterrified.
Exhaustless, spiritless, afflicted, fallen.
aKXav(Tro<s, a<f>L\os, avvficvatos. SOPH. Ant. 877.
Unwept, unloved, unhymned.
(icjiiXov, eprjfiov, airoXiv, iv {wcriv vcKpov. SoPH. Phil. 1018.
Friendless, lone, citiless, midst the living dead.
The use of the figure is to set forth each idea separately,
and pointedly. It is so common that further instances are
unnecessary.
§ 332. Binary Structure.
One conception is stated twice over, so that two aspects of
it are given. This double presentment enables the reader
to obtain a fuller view of the conception as a whole.
Mr. Riddell aptly describes this artifice as giving a rhetorical
*' binocular vision." It is commonly employed in Similes.
civ 8' ^Kya}x€ixviiiv
Lcrraro SaKpvx^iiov, coo-re Kp-qvrj fX€X(xvv8po<s . . .
cos o f3apvaT€vdx(j)v iTze' Kpyeioidi fxerrjitSa. II. ix. 13.
Cf. Soph. Ai. 840, 0. C. 1239.
414 FIGURES OF RHETORIC, ETC.
Tavra k-yiii ^oKisi d/covetv, locnrep ot Kopvf^avTidvres twv
avXdv SoKovcTiV oLKOvecv . . . kal ev efiol avrrj rj rj^rj . . .
/So/x/Set Plat. Crito, 54 d.
ov TavTov TOVTO TrcTTOv^acrtv, . . . aKoXaaic^ tlvI (T(i)(f>poves
eio-iv ; Plat. Pliaed. 67 e.
ovTwcrt crot ^okC^^ ov^kva vo/jll^(d Ocov itvai j
Plat. A;pol. xiv. 26 e.
Binary Structure in giving two descriptions of the same
object differs from Apposition, which gives but one descrip-
tion, though in certain forms there is a resemblance between
the figures. Asyndeta and Anakoluthia often occur in this
structure. The artifice is used by all Greek writers, but it is
employed in an almost endless variety of subtle forms by
Plato. See Eiddell, pp. 196-209, whence the above examples
are taken.
Antiptosis is a form of Binary Structure.
§ 333* Brachylogy or Abbreviated Construction.
(Including Zeugma, Constructio Praegnans, Brachylogy of
Comparison.)
Brachylogy is a kind of Ellipse ; but where Ellipse actually
suppresses a word or sentence altogether, Brachylogy leaves
them to be supplied from some corresponding expression in
the context. Brachylogy is thus more essentially artificial
than Ellipse.
€cfipacra<g vTreprepav Trj<s t6t€ x^/otTO? (sc. VTreprepav X'^P^^i ^^^
Xct/otv supplied from x^P^'^^^)- Soph. El. 1265.
A Substantive, an Adjective, a Pronoun, a Conjunction, or
a Verb may thus be supplied from the context.
TO, pkv aAAa, oa-aTvep Kal Trdvres v/xeis CTrotetre.
Xen. Cyr. iv. 1. 3.
i.e. TO, pev aA,Xa (sc. k-nroUi, supplied from CTTOieiTe).
In the common phrases ov^lv aXXo yj, rl aXXo r/, aXXo n r|, a
different verb of more general meaning is supplied from a
special verb in the context.
ot AaKeSatpLOVLOi aXXo ovBev •)) Ik t-^s yi^s lvavp.a\ovv.
Thuc. iv. 14.
i.e. aXXo ovSlv kitoiovv rj. PlAT. Apol. 19 D.
ravra Kal Troielv Kal Tracrxciv a irda-x^t'. PlAT. Phaed. 98 A,
supply Kal TTOUL,
CONSTRUCTIO PRAEGNANS. 415
§ 334. Zeugma and Syllepsis.
Zeugma is another form of Brachylogy. There is only one
verb in the sentence, but more than one noun. The verb
strictly applies only to one of the nouns, but suggests the verb
required by the other.
d/\A,' rj TiVOOMTiv r\ fSaOva-KacjiCL Kovet
Kpvxfov ViV.
Soph. El. 435 ; cf. El. 72, Ai. 632, EuR. Bacch. 142.
No, or to the winds (sc. /ae^es) or in the deep-dug soil bury
them.
A violent instance of Zeugma :
ecrdrjra 8e (popeovo't rrj 'HiKvOlkyj ofxottjv, yXQxrcrav Se ISi-qv.
Hdt. iv. 106.
They wear a dress like the Scythian, but (speak) a language
of their own.
Cf. the old Tyne ballad : " He wears a blue bonnet, wi' a
dimple on his chin."
7rpo6vfxt<^ Xpat/JLevoL /cat irapaKeXevor/xM. ThUC. iv. 11.
W'ith energy and with mutual exhortation.
X/)tu/xevofc goes with both nouns not quite in the same sense.
This sort of Zeugma is sometimes distinguished as Syllepsis.
1 Cor. iii. 2, yaAa vfjLois liroTta-a ov fSpiopia, is a stock instance
from the New Testament, eirona-a suiting ydXa only. Cf. L.
i. 64.
§ 335« Constructio Praegnans.
Constructio Praegnans is a form of Brachylogy. Two
Sentences are compressed into one.
ov eSet KaKOTraOeiv rw crMpan IvTavOoi ov^kv fie (i)(j)€Xrj(T€v y)
ip-n-eipia. Antiph. de Caed. Her. 2.
Where I ought to have endured personal ill-treatment hither
(i.e. here, whither they have brought me), my experience
proved no help to me.
It is common with certain Prepositions {ds, iv, i^) and with
Relative Adverbs.
e.g. rats iv r-Q yy KaTair€<f>€vyvLaL<; (sc. vavcrt).
The ships which had fled to the shore, and were on tJie shore.
4i6 FIGURES OF RHETQRIC, ETC.
K€Lvo<s 8' oTTov Pe/SrjKev, ovSet? ofSe. SOPH. Tr. 10.
WTiere {for tvhither) he is gone none knowetk
OTTOV for oTTOi. Cf. Phil. 256.
Constructio Praegnans is very common in the New Testa-
ment. A stock instance is ^lXlttttos evpWrj els "A^wtov. Act.
Ap. viii. 40. See 2 Tim. iv. 18, Matt. v. 22, evoxos els rijv
•yeevvav.
§ 336. Brachylogy of Comparison.
Brachylogy of Comparison, or Comparatio Compendiaria.
The stock example is from 11. xvii. 51, Ko/Aat xapiTea-iriv
ofxoiai, i.e. Kofiat 6/xotat ^apirinv Ko/xattrt, hair like the (hair of)
the Graces.
*H(^ata-Tov 8' tKave Sofxov Qens dpyvpoTre^a
a(f)9tT0v darepoevra, ixeTairpeTre ddavdrotcnv. HOM. II. xviii.
i.e. fxerairpeTrea So/jlolo-lv dOavdriov. [368.
Silverfooted Thetis came unto the house of Hephaestus
Incorruptible^ starry^ conspicuous among the Immortals.
Xetpov dpa-eviov vocrov ravry^v vocrov/jLev. EUR. Androm. 220.
I.e. ^(eLpova ap(Tev(av vocrov vocrov voaovfxev.
Worse than men this plague we are plagued withal,
ofxotav rais SovAats el-^e rrjv ia-OyJTa. XeN. Cyr, V. 1. 3.
Cf. Rev. xiii. 11, eT^e Kepara 8vo ofioia dpvLM.
§ 337' Catachresis.
The use of a word not in its strict meaning.
vTTOTTTevo), / expect; Saiixovios, extraordinary ; Oavfiaa-Tos
Oavfxda-iosy strange, eccentric, funny, capital, excellent ; /.uyas (sc.
Xoyos, Plat. Phaed. 62 b), puzzling ; V7r€p(f)vu)s ws (o^oAoyw),
I decidedly do (assent) ; dixy]\avQ>s ye ws a-<f>68pa, most decidedly.
See Eiddell, Digest, p. 240.
§ 338. Ellipse and Aposiopesis.
The suppression of a word or sentence.
e.g. 17 avpiov (sc. rjfiepa).
is KopaKas (sc. fSdWere, eppere, ot'x^ecrde).
To the crows !
EUPHEMISM. 417
The suppressed word or sentence can, of course, be easily
supplied. The figure is mechanically and unconsciously em-
ployed in many common every-day phrases. The object of
its artificial use is to give brevity and pith to the expression.
^lilv fi€V evx^s rdcrSe (sc. ev'xo/xat). AeSCH. CIlO. 142.
For us these prayers —
The omission of the Subject with its Verb, of the copula ia-n,
of the substantive with its epithet or genitive (ol dyaOoc, 6
^iXtTrTTov), are common instances of unconscious Ellipse.
Instances of unconscious Ellipse of Sentences occur in the
phrases ovx on, fxr] on, ovx ottws, etc., and more or less so in
the suppression of a Protasis, or of an Apodosis.
Aposiopesis is a form of Ellipse. ^ In animated and excited
expressions the speaker breaks off abruptly, leaving the rest
of the sentence to be understood.
fjL-qSev TT/oos opyrjv Trpos Oecov (sc. Spdcrrj's). SOPH. El. 369.
By Heaven ! naught in anger.
fx-q rpLJSds eV (sc. TTopL^ere or some such verb). Antig. 577.
No longer tarrying !
/xtJ iioi Trp6<fia(jiv. Ar. Ach. 345.
No shuffling !
fxrj jxoi ye fivOov^. Ar. Vesp. 1179.
Come ! no tales I
Vergil's " quos ego : sed motos praestat componere
fluctus," is Quintilian's stock instance. " Quid multa % "
" quid plura % " are common cases.
§ 339* Euphemism.
The substitution of a colourless or an agreeable expression
for a strong or disagreeable one. It is the reverse of " calling
a spade a spade." The Greeks carefully avoid the mention of
death especially, e.g. en-pa^' oVws errpa^e.
e.g. dX,Xo n Tra^eti/. Plat. Crito, iv. 44 e, to suffer something
^ 'ArrocidsTTTjais. Reticentia, Cic. Obticentia, Celsus. Interruptio al.
Quint.' Inst. ix. 2.
2 D
4i8 FIGURES OF RHETORIC, ETC,
So we say " in the event of anything happening."
cyo) yap etix eKetcr' oVot Tropevreov. SoPH. Ai. 690.
For I shall go thither where all must go.
Spoken by Aias when contemplating suicide.
SeSoiK eyw
fx-q fxoL ^c/SrjKrj. SOPH. Fhil. 494.
Where Philoktetes fears that his father may no longer be
alive.
§ 340- Hypallage.
A change of case, so that a word does not agree with the
case which logically it qualifies. In such constructions the
word agrees with a compound expression, so that the figure
is a form of Synesis rather than Hyperbaton. The stock
instance is from Horace —
Nee purpurarum sidere clarior
Delenit usus,
where the adjective clarior, instead of agreeing with pur-
purarum (purple robes) agrees with the compound substantive
usus purpurarum.
to TraTp^ov ecTTtas fSdOpov. SOPH. Ai. 860.
Seat of r)iy father's hearth.
For Trarpcoas ccrrtas /Sddpov.
So Antig. 794, vciko? avSptuv ^vvaufiov, where vet/cos dvSpuyv
forms one word : Trach. 817, SyKov ovo/xaro? jx-qrp^ov.
Tov 8' dOXL(i)<s davovTa JJoXwclkovs v€kvv. Soph. Ant. 26.
For 6av6vTO<3 TloXvV€LKOVS.
In Lucretius, i. 474, we have an instance of true Hypal-
lage : Ignis Alexandri Fhrygio sub pectore gliscens. Mr. Munro,
in his note on the line, collects some striking parallels from
other writers.
§ 341. Hyperbaton, Chiasmus, Hysteron-Proteron.
The displacement of the natural order of words. Its chief
use is to give emphasis to a word. It also enables language
to represent the rapidity of thought, one word instantly
catching up another word.
LITOTES. 419
Easy and familiar instances are —
ciVe, w Trpos Aios, MeATjrc. PlAT. ^j:;o/. xiii. 25 C.
Like the Latin
Fer te Deos oro.
Certain words in particular are thus displaced, especially ye,
fxevTOi, aVj Ixi, io-cos, ovk in ov (firjixi, etc.
ap' ovv av fxe oiecrOe rocravra erfj BtayevearOaL ;
Plat. AjpoL xxi. 32 e.
Tts ^v ev y fxaTTOfxeOa fxdvToc raX(f>LTa ; AriST. Nub. 788.
rax' av opdios tcrws /xe^^otro. PlAT. Xe^. 640 D.
Chiasmus is a form of Hyperbaton. Chiasmus is the In-
verse Parallelism of Clauses and Sentences :
Trav fiev ipyov ttolv B' eVos Xeyovras re Kal TrpdrTOvras, —
where the outside epyov belongs to the outside it pdrTovr as,
and the inside cVos to the inside Xeyovras.
ovT dStKct, out' dSiKetrat, ovd^ vtto Oeov, ovre deov.
Hysteron Proteron (vcmpov rrporepov) reverses the order in
which events occur, e.g. Tpd<fi€v -^S' eyevovro.
e'xets Tt Kela-rJKovcras ; SOPH. Ant. 9.
dXXijXovs StSdcTKeiv re Kal <f>pd^€LV. PlAT. Apol. iii. 19 D.
atcr^avo/xevos pXv KaX Xvirovixevos Kal SeSiws on dnr])^-
davofxrjv. Plat. A^ol. vi. 21 e.
On the Hyperbaton and its forms see Eiddell, p. 228.
§ 342. Litotes.
Litotes or Meiosis, smoothing or diminishing a stronger
conception by a weaker statement. A common enough figure
in all languages, but especially suited to Greek taste, e.g. ovx
^(Tcrov, not less, i.e. more; ov fxdXXov, not so much.
€L fiev yap tovto Xeyovcriv, ofxoXoyoirjv dv eywye ov Kara
TOVTOvs eivai p-qrwp. PlAT. Apol. i. 17 B.
If this is what they mean, I must admit that I am an orator,
not as they are orators (i.e. an orator of a far higher order
than they).
420 FIGURES OF RHETORIC, ETC.
^(aipOVO-LV €^€Ta^OfJL€l'Oi<S rOL<S olofJi€VOl<S €LVai (robots, O^CTL 8'
ov- ecTTL yap ovK drjSk. Plat. Apol. xxii. 33 C.
They enjoy the cross-examination of those who think they are
wise, without really being so. It really is not disagreeable
(i.e. it is extremely amusing).
Kelrat Oavo)v SetXauos, ov jxdX' cvtv^ws. AeSCH. Fers. 327.
Lies low in death unhappy, not all fortunately (i.e. all in-
gloriously, because unburied : an euphemism also).
§ 343. Oxymoron.
Oxymoron is the contrast by juxtaposition of opposite
conceptions, e.g. from the Paradise Lost :
Our final hope is flat despair.
Dishonest shame
Of Nature's works, honour dishonourable.
A universe of death . . .
Where all life dies, death lives.
In King John the despairing and passionate Constance cries :
Death, death ; amiable, lovely death !
Thou odoriferous stench ! sound rottenness !
t-)(9p(av dSojpa Swpa. SoPH. Ai. 665. .
Giftless the gifts of foes.
fxatveTaL 6' vcf)' rj8ov7Js
P-y]T"^P dpi'qTutp. Soph. El. 1154.
She is mad for joy^
A mother, yet no mother.
ocria Travovpy-qcrao-a. SoPH. Ant. 74.
Daring a holy crime.
€^€(fidLv6' at rpiCTKaXixoL
vae? avaes avaes. AeSCH. Pers. 680.
They are destroyed those three-banked
ships, ships no more, ships no more.
Cf. Catullus : funera ne funera.
Cf. Aesch. p. V. 545, x«P^? axa/jis. Soph. 0. T. 1214,
ya/AOS dyafios.
PERIPHRASIS AND PLEONASM. 421
Oxymoron is well caricatured by Shakespeare :
A tedious brief scene of young Pyramus
And his love Thisbe, very tragical mirth.
Merry and tragical, tedious and brief !
That is, hot ice, and wonderous strange snow.
How shall we find the concord of this discord ?
§ 344* Periphrasis.
Periphrasis or Circumlocution is a roundabout way of using
two or more words instead of one, e.g. 'I<TfjLrjvrj<s ndpa, head of
Ismene, for 'la-ix^vq \ dpkjxixara ^dXov (Plat. Leg. 953), children
of the Nile, i.e. Egy^ptians (cf. the Hebrew, children of Israel,
sons of Belial, son of peace, etc. ). The word XPW^ occurs in
one or two phrases : vos jxeya ^pr^iia, Hdt. ; to xPVH'^ '''^^
vvKTiov, Ar. Nub. 2.
Very often the Substantive is used for an Adjective or an
apposition, e.g. nooretSwi/os Kpdros, the might of Poseidon, for
the mighty Poseidon (Aesch. Eum. 27); irapdevia Tous, the virgin
To (Aesch. P. V. 898); firjTpos a-e^as, a revered mother (P. V.
1090). So in Latin, mitis sapientia Laeli, prisci Catonis
virtus (Horace).
Periphrasis is employed in the use of Tenses, e.g. /xeAAw
TTot^o-etv, fxeXXo) reOvdvai (Plat. Apol. xviii. 30 C and xix.
32 a), dTifjLda-a<s e^et, periturus sum, fore or futurum esse with
a Subjunctive mood.
Very often, again, both in Greek and Latin, a periphrasis
is used for a simple verb, especially with e'xw, e.g. ev vo> e'xw
= Siavoovfxai : (^yaovi/xws €)(0J = c^povQi : dappaXeois e^w = Oappoi
(all in Plat. Apol.): AvTn^/ow? e'xw = XvTvovp.aL (Soph. El. 766) :
■qSovrjv (fiepetv = rkpireiv (SoPH. El. 286) : (^(jovqv Xa/Seiv =
cficovelv, etc.
In fact these periphrastic verbs are of constant use both in
prose and poetry.
§ 345« Pleonasm.
Pleonasm or Redundancy is the employment of words
apparently superfluous. Apparently, for a second expression
may often define or amplify a pt-evions expression, e.g. 6
CTTpaTTjyos T^s a-Tpanas, /:iovov Kad' avrbv KovSev^ dXXov.
422 FIGURES OF RHETORIC, ETC.
A cognate accusative is a sort of pleonasm, fj^o-x^^ jxax^a-Oai :
or an adverb with its adjective, fxkyas /xeyaAtoo-Tt (k€lto). II.
xvi. 776, {he lay outstretched) huge ivith his huge length.
Adverbs are often thus combined : to? dXrjOios to) ovtl :
TrdXiv av^t9, av ttolXlv avdis : eVetTa /xera ravra. The repeti-
tion of the negative and of dv are cases of Pleonasm.
Tt Srj Aeyovres StejSaXXov ol SiafSaXXovre^ ;
Plat. Apol. iii. 19 b.
€7rL€LK7J dv fxoL SoKOj XeycLV Aeywv. PlAT. ApoL xxii. 34 D.
Periphrasis is a form of Pleonasm.
§ 346. Prolepsis or Anticipation.
What is intended, or expected to take place, as spoken of,
by anticipation, as having already taken place.
It occurs most commonly with a predicative adjective. A
good instance is found in Juvenal :
Paullatim caluerunt mollia saxa.
i.e. caluerunt ita ut mollia fierent.
A stock instance is —
€V<j>Y]ixov, w TaAatva, KOtfJiyjcrov crro/xa. AeSCH. Ag. 1258.
i.e. wcrre cvcfirjfjiov eTvai.
€^a KLV€i (hOeyixar SpvtOoiv cracfirj. SoPH. El. 18.
Awakes to shrillness the birds' matin songs.
See V. 14, rt/xwpov.
yoveo)v
eKTifiovs to-)(0 vera irrepvyas
o^vTovtov y6(x)v. Soph. El. 242.
Restraining the wings of shrill-voiced waitings
So that they honour not a parent. Cf. Antig. 1200.
Cf. Eur. Bacck. 70, 183.
§ 347- Puns.
(Paronomasia, Annominatio.)
Occasionally Greek writers indulge in them.
dAXot yap, 5 McXr^TC . . . (ra^al§ a7ro<^atv€t5 rr^v cravrov
dfxeXeiav, oVt ovSev croL /xe/xeAr/Ke irepl &v l/xe eicrayet?.
Plat. Apol. xii. 25 c.
(See xiv. where the pun is repeated.)
PUNS. 423
Riddell, p. 242, collects many instances from Plato.
d7r€(TT€prjKas rov fStov rot to^' eXiov. SOPH. Fhil. 931.
where there is clearly a play on ^tov (bow) and jStov (life).
The grandest instance of punning or playing on words at a
solemn moment is in Shakespeare {Richard IL, Act ii.), where
the dying Gaunt dwells on his name :
Old Gaunt indeed, and gaunt in being old, etc.
So of Helen :
eAems, e'AavS/Dos, eAcTTToAt?. AesCH. Ag. 689.
Helen, the Hell of ships, the Hell of men, the Hell of towns.
Compare the pun made on the rock-built Assus recorded in
Athenaeus viii. 352.
"k-crcTov W\ io<5 K€v Oacrcrov oXeOpov iretpaO' LKr]ai. II. vi. 143.
Paronomasia is the combination of words of similar sound
or cognate form.
utrum propter oves an propter aves; Varro, B. R. iii. 2. 13.
Traume sind Schaume (lit. dreams are bubbles).
Socrtv KaKav KaKWV KaKOts. AeSCH. Pers. 1041.
djpOovd^ 6 TXrjfiiov 6p6o<s 1^ opBQiv SL(fip(av. SoPH. El. 742.
Avtos cavTov, avTos v<f)' eavrov, etc., would be familiar
instances.
ENGLISH INDEX.
Reference is only made to subjects which are not easily found in the
Table of Contents.
The numbers refer to the pages of the book.
Ablative represented by
Genitive, 78-9.
Accusative, see Table of
Contents, 66-78.
Absolute, 95.
with Infinitive,! 13,
158; 179.
with Infinitive instead
of Nominative, 180.
in Apposition to Sen-
tence, 25, 74.
with Prepositions, 289.
Active Voice, 120.
Adjectives which take a
Genitive, 100.
which take a Dative,
119.
Adverbs which take a
Genitive, 100.
which take a Dative,
119.
Adverbial sentences, 9.
Agent, how denoted, 131.
;- denoted by Preposi-
tions, 289-90.
— — Genitive of, loi ;
Dative of, iii.
Anastrophe, 289.
Aorist, uses of, 145-9.
Sometimes the equival-
ent of the English,
Present, Perfect, or
Pluperfect, 147.
Apodosis, meaning of the
term, 195, footnote.
without av, 217-9.
Apposition, 5 ; Peculiarities
of, 24-26.
Article,2 5.?,?_Table of Con-
tents, ch. ii., 27-46.
as Personal, Demon-
strative, and Relative
in Attic, 28.
Article, for Possessive, 30.
with words used ma-
terialiter, 35.
not repeated with a
second noun, 35.
Asyndeton, 24.
Attraction, 58.
Attributive or Epithet, 5 ;
Peculiarities in Construc-
tion, 23-4.
Cases, Preliminary Note
on, 64.
Causal Sentences, see Table
of Contents, 276-9.
Causative Active Voice,
125 ; do. Middle, 127.
Collective Noun with Plural
Predicate, 19.
Comparative and Super-
lative, 120-3.
denoting too great
a degree, 97, 120, 121.
Concessive Sentences, see
Table of Contents, 249-
251. .
Conditional Sentences, see
Table of Contents, 193-
231-
Sentences, examples
of, 209-231.
Consecutive Sentences, see
Table of Contents, 269-
275- .
Co-ordinate Sentences, 7.
Copula, I ; Verbs used as,
12 ; omitted, 13.
Construction Kara <rvve<Tiv,
24.
Dative, see Table of Con-
tents, 104-119.
Dative of interest in Par-
ticipial phrases, 107.
of circumstance used
adverbially (^.^. <Ti.yrj),
114.^
with Infinitive, 13, 158.
as an Oblique Pre-
dicate, 45.
Dawes' Canon, note on, 267.
Deliberative or Dubitative,
see Questions.
Definite and Indefinite
Sentences, 194-5.
Demonstrative Pronouns as
Subjects and Predicates,
18.
Pronouns preceding a
sentence in Apposition,
25-
Deponent Verbs, 131.
Dual Number, 19, 20.
Emotion, Verbs of, with
Participles, 170.
— — Verbs of, with el for
OTt, 186.
Epithet, see Attributive.
Fearing, Verbs of, with
fj.ri, |u,T) ov, 262-8.
(i) With Subj. or Opt,
262.
(2) With Fut. Indie,
264.
(3) With oTTw? ju-rj and
Fut. Indie. Subj. or
Opt., 265.
(4) With ws and Fut.
Indie, 265.
(5) With Infin., 265.
(6) With ei Interroga-
tive, 266.
1 For an explanation of this construction, see Monro's Homeric Gramtnar, p. 158.
2 See Monro's Homeric Grammar, where the uses of the Article are arranged under
three heads.
425
426
ENGLISH INDEX.
Figures of Rhetoric, see
Part III., ch. iv., Table
of Contents.
Final Sentences, 252, 259.
(1) With IVa, cos, OTTO)?, i
and Subj. or Opt., |
^53-. . „ „ :
(2) With W9, OTTO)? av \
and Subj. (not Opt.),
255-
(3) Rarely with Fut.
Indie, 256.
Frequentative, see Itera-
tive.
Future Middle as Passive,
125.
Perfect, 150.
Indicative, with ottws
Final, 256, n. 4 ; Fut.
Opt., as Obliqua of
above, 256.
Genitive, see Table of Con-
tents, 78-104.
Absolute, 1 96, 165-7.
with Infinitive, 13,
158.
as Oblique Predicate,
45-.
in Apposition to an-
other Genitive supplied
in the Possessive, 26, 49.
Gnomic Tenses, 151. |
Graphic (or Vivid) con-
struction, i.e. the Sub-
stitution, in a Subordinate
Clause in Historic Se-
quence of the Mood
used in the Primary
Sequence, 138, 182, etc.
see also Oratio Obliqua
passim, esp. 386, 404.
H
Hoping and Promising,
Verbs of, with Pres. and
Aor. Infin., 180-1.
Imperative Mood, 136-7.
Imperfect Tense, uses of,
143-4-
Indicative Mood —
states facts or asks
questions, 132.
in the Indirect State-
ment, 181, etc.
Indicative Mood —
in the Indirect Ques-
tion, 188.
in the Indirect Petition
(Fut. Indie), 192.
in Definite Sentences,
194-5-
in Conditional Sen-
tences, see Part II. ch. ii.
{a) Present Conditions.
(b) Future Conditions.
{c) Past Conditions.
Id) Unfulfilled Past or
Present Conditions.
in Temporal Sentences
to denote Definite Time,
see Part II. ch. iii.
in Concessive Sen-
tences, see Part II. ch. iv.
in Final Sentences of
Past Purpose, 257.
in Relative Final Sen-
tences, 258.
with oTTws Modal (Fut.
Indie), 259, etc., 262.
with Verbs of Fearing,
263.
with Consecutive Sen-
tences, see Part II. ch. vi.
with Limitative or Re-
strictive Sentences, 274.
with Causal Sentences,
see Part II. ch. vii.
with Expressions of
Wishes, see Part II. ch.
viii.
with Relative Sen-
tences, see Part II. ch.
ix.
substituted for the
Optative by the Graphic
or Vivid Construction in
Historic Sequence where-
ever the Recta or the
Primary Sequence took
an Indicative.
Infinitive, see Table of
Contents, 153-162.
Epexegetical, 155-6.
compared with Latin
Supine, 155.
after a Comparative
with 7) or aisTe, 156.
with to)9, ois ye, Limi-
tative, 156.
for Imperative, 2 159.
denoting surprise, 160.
personal and im-
personal passive con-
struction, 159.
1 Infinitive, with toG denot
ing a purpose, 162.
in Indirect Statement
178, etc.
in Indirect Petition
191.
with Verbs of Fearing
265. _
with T<p, used caus
ally, 279.
in Oratio Obliqua
introduced without a
Principal Verb, 398.
and Finite Mood
alternating in Orat.
Obliqua, 400.
with Adverbial and
Relative Sentences in
Orat. Obliqua, 400.
in Latin Orat. Obliqua,
401.
Indefinite Tenses, see
Definite.
Time, three kinds of,
232.
Iterative (Frequentative)
Tenses, 151.
See Temporal Sen-
tences.
Limitative or Restrictive
Sentences, 274-5.
Locative Case, 64-5, 116.
M
Middle Voice, 3 125-130.
(and Active) Verbs.
Alphabetical List, 127-
130.
Modal Sentences with ottw?
oTTtb? uri, 259-262.
(i) Fut. Indie, or Fut
Opt., 260.
(2) Subj. or Opt., 260.
(3) OTTt], OT(f) TpOTTOJ, e^
OT&) TpOTTO) for OTTO)?,
261.
(4) oTTws with av and
Subj., 261.
(5) With /Ajj for OTTO)?
/oiTj, 261.
Moods, see Table of Con-
tents, 132, 137.
N.
Negatives, see Part III.,
Ch. ii., Table of Contents.
1 See Monro's Homeric Grammar, p. 167.
' On the Infinitive as an Imperative see Monro's Hotneric Grainmar, p. 162. The
whole of the chapter (see especially the Infin. as Subject, 157, Accus. with Infin., 158,
Origin and History of Infinitive, 163), is worth careful perusal.
3 For the Middle and its uses, see Monro's Homeric Grammar, p. 7. The Passive
has grown out of the Middle, in fact was originally one of the uses of the Middle.
ENGLISH INDEX.
427
Neuter Plural, with Verb
Singular, 15.
Plural, with Verb Plu-
ral, 15.
Singular Predicate,
with Plural Subject, 15.
Pronoun, (Adj. or Adv.)
with Gen. (like Lat. paul-
lum sapientiae), 85.
Nominative Case, 65.
with Infinitive, 13, 158,
179.
with Participle, 187.
Object, Direct and Remote
5-
Sentence, 252, foot
note.
Optative Mood—
Introductory Note, 132
in Independent Sen
tences, 135, etc.
A. Denoting a Wish
(an Exhortation
Command, or Pro
hibition).
B. Deliberative Ques
tions.
in the Indirect State
ment, 181.
in the Indirect Ques
tion, 188.
in Deliberative In
direct Questions. 190.
in the Indirect Peti
tion (Fut. Opt.), 191, 262,
in Conditional Sen
tences, see Part II. ch. ii
(a.) In Future Condi
tions.
{b.') In General or Fre
quentative Past Con
ditions.
in Temporal Sentences
denoting Indefinite Time
(which is of three kinds)
see Part II. ch. iii.
in Concessive Sen
tences with el /cai, Kai el
250.
in Final Sentences,
252, etc.
in Relative Final Sen
tences, 259.
with oTTws Modal (Fut
Opt.), 259.
with Causal Sentences
in Virtual Oratio Obliqua
=77- . ^ . ^
with expressions of a
Wish, 280.
used in Primary Se-
quence, 256.
Optative Mood—
the Optative with av,
found in other Sentences,
is always an Apodosis
used subordinately.
Optative in Oratio
Obliqna introduced with-
out a Principal Verb, 399.
Assimilation and Non-
Assimilation of Optatives,
402-3.
Oratio Recta and
Obliqua, 10. Virtual Ob-
liqua, II, 240, 243, 277,
etc.
see Chapter on Oratio
Obliqua.
Oratio Obliqua, see
Part III., ch. iii. (Table
of Contents).
Participle, see Table of
Contents, 162-177.
Fut. Part, with Article,
163.
Neuter or Substan-
tive, 164.
with Verbs of Percep-
tion, Emotion, etc., 170,
etc.
in Indirect Statement,
187, etc.
Conditional Protasis,
224.
Conditional Apodosis,
227.
Temporal, 247-8.
Concessive, 249.
Final, 258.
Causal, 278.
Passive Voice, 130-1.
Voice, in Greek and
Latin, 130.
Perception, Verbs of, with
Participle, 186.
Verbs with on, or a>s,
187.
Verbs with Ace. and
Gen., 88.
Verbs with Preposi-
tion, 89.
Verbs with Adjectives
and Adverbs denoting
Perception in Gen., 100.
Verbs with juirj, and
Infin., 353.
Verbs with ju,>7, and
Particip. , 354. See 364.
Perfect Tense, uses of, 144.
Person, 2d pers. sing., used
impersonally, 22.
Petition Indirect, 191-2.
Plural for Singular, 21-2.
Predicate, i, 13, contrasted
with Attributive, and Ap-
position, 5. Supplemen-
tary, 2, 22 ; Oblique or
Dependent, 43-5.
agreement of, with
several Subjects, 16-18.
with Article, 37.
Prepositions, see Table of
Contents, Part III., 286,
etc.
Quasi Prepositions
288, 301-2, 306.
Present Tense, uses of, 142
Principal and Subordinate
see Sentence.
Promising, ste Hoping.
Pronouns, see Table of Con
tents, Part I. ch. iii..
47-63.
Personal, for Reflex
ive, 48.
• Possessive, for a Geni
tive Subjective, or Objec
tive, 49.
in Gen., agreeing with
a Personal Pronoun im
plied in the Possessive
49.
Reflexive, for Recipro
cal, 50.
as antecedent to the
Relative, 52, n. 4, 55, «. i.
Protasis and Apodosis,
, meanings of, 195, footnote.
Questions, Indirect, 188.
Indirect, Deliberative,
190-1.
Deliberative, in Subj.
and Opt., 134-6.
Recta and Obliqua, 10.
Relative Sentences,9, 284-5. 1
Restrictive, see Limitative.
Schema Pindaricum, 16.
Sentence, parts of, i.
Simple and Compound,
Principal and Sub-
ordinate, 6.
Co-ordinate, 7.
Subordinate classified,
7-10.
Sequence of Moods, 138.
Singular for Plural, 18.
Statement, Indirect, see
Table of Contents, 178,
187.
1 On Relative Sentences, see Monro's Homeric Grammar.
428
GREEK INDEX.
Subdirect and Suboblique,
II, 389 (and Orat. Obi.,
passim).
Subjunctive 1 —
Introductory Note, 132.
in Independent Sen-
tences, 134, 135.
A. In Exhortations.
B. In Prohibitions.
C. In Deliberative
Questions.
D. Denoting a future
possibility (a very
rare Attic construc-
tion).
in Deliberative Indirect
Questions. 190.
■ in Indefinite Sentences
with a.v, 194.
in Conditional Ques-
tions {see Part II. ch.
ii.).
(a.) In Future Condi-
tions.
{b.') In General or Fre-
quentative Present
Conditions.
in Temporal Sentences
denoting Indefinite Time
(which is of three kinds),
{see Part II. ch. iii.).
Subjunctive, in Concessive
Sentences with eav /cat,
(cat kav. 250.
in Final Sentences of
Primary Sequence {see
Part II. ch. V.)
in Modal Sentences
with oTTcds, etc., as a rarer
and variant construction,
260.
with Verbs of Fearing,
etc., 263, etc.
alternating with Opta-
tive, 182-184 {see Com-
pound Sentence and
Oratio Obliqua passim,
and 254, «. i).
Substituted, by the
Graphic or Vivid Construc-
tion, for the Optative in
Historic Sequence where-
ever the Recta or the Pri-
mary Sequence took a Sub-
junctive, see Graphic.
Substantive used as Adjec-
tive or Attributive, 23.
Superlative and Compara-
tive, 120-123.
Swearing and Witnessing,
Verbs of, take /iatj, 353,
n. 4, {see 352).
Temporal Sentences, see
Table of Contents, Part
II., ch. iii., 232-248.
Tenses, see Table of Con-
tents, Part I. ch. vii.,
138-152.
Time in the Moods, 139.
Tmesis, 288.
Transitive Verbs become
Intransitive, 124.
V.
Vocative, 80.
Voices, see Table of Con-
tents, 124-131.
W.
Wish, expressions of. 280-3.
1 On the Subjunctive and Optative see Monro' .<; Homeric Grammar (Subjunctive
in Principal Clauses, 196 ; in Subordinate Clauses, 201 ; Optative in Simple Sentences,
215 ; in Subordinate, 219 ; History of Subjunctive and Optative, 229, etc.).
GREEK INDEX.
The numbers refer to the pages of the book.
A privative, Adjectives
compounded with, take
a Gen., e.g: aiJ.vi^fX(ov,
avTjKOO?, 98, 103.
aya66v (eu, KaKov, etc.),
Xeyo), SpCi, etc., with
double Ace, 72 (for Pas-
sive forms, see 73, n. 2).
aydWofjiai, with Dat., 112.
ayajuat, with Gen., 94.
ayavaKTS>, with Dat., 117.
ayeiv xeipos, 87.
ayvo?, with Gen., 103.
a.Se\<f>6^, with Gen. or Dat.,
dSt/cto, with double Ace,
A9r)V(x>v 7roA.t?, 81.
aOvfjib), with Dat., 112.
aiSoiifxai, with Ace, 75.
atpto, with Gen. of Charge,
at(Txvvo/u.at, with Acc, 75.
— with Dat., 112.
— with Infin., 155, 172.
— with /u.r], 264.
alcrOavofJiai, with Gen., 86.
— with Particip., 169, 175,
_i86.
atTtto/utat, with Gen. of |
Charge, 95. _ [
aKo\ov66<;, with Gen. or
Dat., 119.
oLKoKovOoi, with Dat., 118. j
OLKOvoi, a.Kpott)fX.aL, with
Gen., 86.
aAt?, with Gen., 82.
a\CcrKOfj.a(., with Gen. of 1
charge, 95. _ j
aAAos, dAAoios, with Gen., I
., ^°3- . . i
dAAos, meaning besides, 62. j
6 dXXoj, meaning in general,
aAAo? oaos, aAAo? etrt?, 60.
dAAdrpios, Dat. or Gen.,
, 79, 119- .
'Ajaa, quasi-Prep., 306.
ct^ta, with Dat., 119.
aixapTavu), with Gen., 86.
ajxei^oixaL, with Gen., 93.
d/ieXto, with Gen., 87.
afivvM, with Dat., 116.
dju,ui/o|aat, with Acc, 76.
aixvvu} and afjLvvo fxai, 129.
a^^t. Prep., 317-319.
afiKfyteuvvfjil, with double
Acc, 72.
a/n</)tcr/3rjTc3, with Gen. and
Dat, 117, 118.
— with joiTj, /lATj ov, 365.
"Av, .see Part II., ch. ii.,
Table of Contents, 193-
231.
GREEK INDEX.
429
"Av, with Iraperf. and Aor.
Indie, denoting a re-
peated act, 151.
— with Aor. rSfin., after
Verbs of hoping, etc.,
181.
— with Infin., in Indirect
Statement, 181.
— with Optat. , in Indirect
Statement, 185.
— with Particip. , in In-
direct Statement, 187.
— with Aor. Indie, not
denoting an unfulfilled
condition, 216.
— omitted with the Subj.
in Subordinate Sentences,
245- .
— retained with the Qptat.
in Subordinate Sentences,
246.
— with Final Sentences,
255- „
— with oTTws Modal, 261,
n. 4.
— with uiCFTi Consecutive,
272, n. 2.
'Ava, Prep., 291, 292.
a.va.'^Ko.Cfii, with double Ace. ,
. 73- ,
avay/caios, construction of,
ava/u,iju.v7jcr/c<o riva. ri and
Tiva Tivos, 73, n. 3.
Avev, 301.
dvi7p=Tis, with Gen., 83.
dvTexw, with Dat., 118.
dvTexojaai, with Gen., 86.
'AvTi, Prep., 294.
dvTiXeYW firj and jiatj ov,
, 365-
avTiTTOiw, with double Ace,
72. !
dvTt'crTpo(|)09, with Gen. or j
Dat., 119. _ _ I
dvvTti), with Particip., 172. 1
dftos, construction of, 159. !
a^tw, with Gen., 93, 103. |
anayopevo) (dtTreiTrov) fxri, fii]
ov, 365.
anaWdaa-ix), -o/xai, with
Gen., 99.
anavrCii, with Dat., 118.
aneiOSi, with Dat., 116.
anex96ivo(iai, with Dat.,
. V7-
aiTe\ui, with Gen., 99.
d7rexOju.at /utr), fx-rf ov, 363.
a.nt.<xrla, with Dat., 116.
— (dn-itrTiaj/ rra.pix'^'-) fJ^V,
fx-T) ov, 264, 365.
'Atto, Prep., 295-297.
diroSexofxai ravTo. rtvo?, 88.
diToSiSpda-Kia, with Ace, 75.
airoSt'6o/xai, with Gen., 93.
dnoKdfivu), with Particip.,
172.
diroKpyTTTOfiaL firj, jiirj ov,
, 365. , ,
anoKavM n Ttvo?, 85, 86.
dnoKvop.aL fj.rj, jixtj ov, 365.
dnopCa, with Gen., 82.
dnoarepio, with double
Ace, 72.
a.TroaTpe(f)ix) fxr), yJr] ov, 365.
dirorpiTtbi, with Gen., 100.
d7roTvyx«*'<«>> with Gen.,
^ 86.
otTro^evyw, with Gen. (of
^ charge), ^5.
anTOfjLai, with Gen., 86.
dpT^yoi, (poet.), with Dat.,
. "^•
dp/co), dpKel, construction,
173-
dpvovfjiai 1X7] and /ht) ov, 365.
dpri, with Present, 143.
a.px<o, dpxojaat, with Gen.,
86, 88, 98.
— with Infin. and Particip.,
„ ^71-
are, Causal.
a.vroKpa.T(ap, with Gen., 103.
avTos, various uses of, 53-
55-.
— with Dat. of Circum-
stance, 114.
— strengthens Reflexives,
49.
— subject to Infinitive, 179.
avTO-8iKa.io(Tvvi}, etc. (Plat-
onic idioms), 26, 55.
avTOs and 6 avr6<;, 42, 53-4.
6 avTOf, constructions of,
no.
d^atpoO/aat Ttvd Ti, and
TLvd. Ttvos, 72, 73, n. 3.
d(f)Criij.t, with Gen. (of
charge), 95.
d<^i<mjju.t, with Gen., 99.
dx^o/Atti, with Dat., 112,
"7-
dxpeios, dxprf<7T0<;, with
Dat., 119.
"Axpt, quasi-Prep., 302.
— temporal Conjunction
(see /xe'xpO-
B
PaCvu) noSa, 77.
/Sapews <f>ep(i), with Dat. 117.
/SaortAevu), with Gen., 98.
^id^o/utai, with Ace, 78.
^AdTTTto, with double Ace,
72-
/SXacrreiv, with Gen., 80.
jBAeVw vSttv, etc., 78.
/SoTj^w, with Dat., 116.
/SovAevo) oTTw?, with Fut.
Indie, etc., 261-2.
yeku, with Ace, 76.
yevoi, with Gen., 84, 86.
yripoTpofjxS, with Ace, 76.
•ypd<f)0|uat, with Gen. of
charge, 95.
— with double Ace, 73.
yvp.v6?, with Gen., 82, 98,
103.
SaKpvto, with Ace, 76.
SeSoLKa, with Infin., 155..
SepKO/jiaL nvp, 'Aprjv, etc.,
,78- , .
Sr], SrjTTOTe, Sijirorovv, as
Suffixes, 58.
SrjAos, SrjAo), constructions,
J72, 174.
oet, constructions, 117.
Sel oTTojs, 261, n. 8.
Sevrepos, SevrepaTo?, with
Gen., 97.
Atd, Prep., 307-310.
Sia/BdAAo), with double Ace ,
72. ^
otaAAacra'a) Tiva. tivi, 105.
5^aAe'70/u,a^, with Dat., 109,
118.
Siavefiui, with Ace and
Dat., 105.
StaTrAe'w, with Ace, 75.
S(.a<j)ep(a, with Gen., 97.
dta(f,epofx.ai, with Dat., 98,
109.
SLa<f,ep6vr<ag exw, with Gen. ,
97, 103. _
ota(/)opo9, with Gen., 97,
with Dat. or Gen., 109,
119.
SiSda-Kui, with double Ace,
72.
Ste'xw, with Gen., 99.
St/catos, construction of,
. ^59-
ot;rAacrio?, etc., with Gen.,
97-
6n//w, with Gen., 87.
SiiOKia, with Gen. of charge
(6 Siu>K(jiv), 95.
SoKel, SoKU), construction of,
IJ7, 159-
Svolv OaT^pov, etc., 26.
Svo-epw?, with Gen., 103.
Sva-vovi, with Dat., 119.
edv, see Conditional and
Concessive Sentences.
— never Interrogative, 191,
footnote, 207.
eavTov, for ist and 2dpers.,
50-
— Reciprocal, 50.
e-yyvs, with Gen and Dat.,
t.yyvuip.o.1, with ju.^ and
Infin., 353.
430
GREEK INDEX.
iyta ((Tv) for avTog, as Sub- |
ject of Infin., i8o.
eyKoXS), vrith Dat. , 117.
eyKpa-nj?, with Gen., 103.
eSei, without ap, 144, 218.
€t. See Conditional and
Concessive Sentences.
— Interrogative. See In-
direct Question. _
— Interrogative, with Subj. ,
291.
— Interrogative, with Verbs
of Fearing, 266.
— for oTi with Verbs of
Emotion, 186.
— with Subj., 245.
ei (edv) KaC, Koi el (eav),
250.
ei, ct yap, et0e, with Wishes,
_ 280-283.
et fie jU,TJ, 208.
ei (eav)=si forte, 208.
el eav, in Virtual Obliqua,
ei ov, 347, 358, 359. _
etn-ep (eavrre'p), quasi con-
cessive, 250.
el»cbs ^v (without av), see
e"5ti.
elicuj, with Gen., 99, Gen. or
Dat., 106.
eljoti, with Gen., 90.
elpyui, with Gen., 99.
— fJ-V, I^V ov, 365.
Els, Prep. 292.
els 5i5ao-»caA.ov, Ai5ou, etc.,
79.
els dvijp, with Superlative,
133.
eicret/xt, with Ace, 75.
'E/c, 'E^, Prep., 297.
eKttTi, 301.
eKStSpacTKw, with Ace, 75.
eKpaCvu), with Gen., 100.
e/ceti'os, uses of, 52.
eKTrAjjiraofxat, etc. , with
Ace, 75.
eAttTTw, eA.aTTOvp.at, with
Gen., 98. ^
eA.ev0epos, eKevOepto, with
Gen., 98; 99, 103.
cAAtTT^s, with Gen., 113.
e'AKOs ovTacrat, etc., 69.^ ,
ep.p,o;'Os(epp.eVco), with Dat., j
119.
ep,7rAeco?, with Gen., 82. •
e'p.Tetpos (aTretpos), with
Gen., 103. ^ I
ep,7ro5t^op.ai(ep.7ro6wi'eii'ai), 1
Dat. 116.
— p.17, p-T) oy, 365.
e'p.(|)VTos, with Dat., 119.
'Ev, Prep., 302.
iv, when used with Dat. of
Time, 115. '
evavTios, with Gen. or Dat. ,
103.
iySvui (f/cSvo)), with double
Ace, 72.
epeKa, eveKcv, 301.
epyoiii fxr), p.T) ov, 264.
ei'TpeVopat, with Gen., 87.
evTvy)(^dvi)i, with Dat. , 109,
1^18.
e^ OTOV TpOTTOV, 261.
e^icmqfjii, with Ace, 75,
with Gen., 100.
eot/ca, with Dat, 117, con-
structions of, 159.
enaivoi, with double Ace,
72.
e7raipop.ai, with Dat., 112.
eTTc'^ecpi, with Gen. of
charge, 95.
eTre'pxopai, with Dat., 118.
eTTjjjSoAos, with Gen., 90,
103.
eTrTjpea^tu, with Dat., 117.
'Etti, Prep., 318-327.
— Verbs compounded with,
take a Dat., 118.
eTTiSe'rjs, with Gen., 103.
eTnSeCKvvfj.L, with Partie,
187 (see 174 A.).
enCSo^o^, constructions of,
159-
eTTiKovpos, with Gen., 103.
eniKOvpta, with Dat. ii6.
e;n.p,eA^?, eTTiAijcrpwv, with
Gen., 103.
e7ripeAovp,ai, with ottws.
Modal, 260-1.
— with Infin., 261, «. 6.
eTrtcTTapat, with Partie, 175.
— with Partie, and with
Infin.
— with p^ and Infin., 353.
€7rtTi0ep,at, with Dat., 117.
eTTiTTjSeios, with Dat., 119,
constructions of, 159.
iTTLTvyxo-voi, with Dat., 87.
eVopat, with Dat., 109, see
also 118.
epi7p.os, with Gen., 82, 103.
ep/^oj, with Dat., 117.
epw, with Gen., 87.
— with p.jj and Infin., 353.
eptuTw (r)p6fi.r]v), with double
Ace, 72.
ecrOCui, with Gen., 84.
ecTTLv o'l, e'lCTiv o'l, eviot,, 60.
eVepos, with Gen. , 97, 103.
evSaifjiovL^ui, with Gen., 94.
ev'Aaj3ovp.ai, with Ace, 76.
— with Infin., 155.
— with oTTws, 260, with p.^,
p.7j ov, 264, 365.
evAoyw, with double Ace,
„72-
evi/ovs, with Dat., 119.
«(^e^Tjs, with Dat., 119.
6<if>' w (cj> Te), Limitative, 274.
i(j)iKPovixaL, with Gen., 86,
. 87.
exOpo?, with Dat., 119.
e;j(opat, with Gen., 86;
Meanings of, 90.
expi^v (xPVi'), without av,
144, 218.
ex(^, with Gen., 90.
— as a Copulative Verb, 43.
— My,M ov, 365.
exmv, in colloquialisms, 165.
^rjAw, with Ace , 76 ; with
Gen., 94.
H
rjSrj, with Present, 143.
Tj Tts Yj ovSets, 62.
rj Kara, fj &)? (ai<rTe), with
Comparative, 121.
r/Sop-at, with Dat., 112.
rjp.t(rvs (6) Tov xpovov, etc.,
. 8-5. . .
i9p.a)j/ (vp,ai^') avriav, Parti-
tively, 51.
i)TTa)p.ai, with Gen. , 97-98 ;
with Dat., III.
©
Qappu), with Acc, 75.
Oavfid^o}, with Gen. , 94.
flavp-ao-TOs otTos, etc., 59.
fliy-yai'w, with Gen., 86.
tStos, with Gen. or Dat., 79,
tepos, with Gen., 79.
iKavos, Constructions of,
„ ^73-.
iva, Final Conjunction, 253.
'iva dv, not Final, 255.
Itropotpos, with Gen., 84.
IcroppoTTOs, with Gen. or
Dat., 119.
to-os, Constructions of, no,
^ 119.
lo-w, with Acc. and Dat.,
117.
K
KaOapos, with Gen., 82, 98,
103. ,
Kai, Kanrep, KaC ravra, see
Concessive Sentences,
242.
Kat, joining two Adjectives,
24.
1 See Monro's Homeric Grajiunar, p. 93.
GREEK INDEX.
431
Kav, Ka.v et, 209.
(coKOvpyo?, with Gen., 103.
KaAbs Acayaflos, 24.
AcaAw, with double Ace, 71.
Kara, Prep., 310-313.
Acara tovto eivat, 157.
KaTOLKpCvo), KOLTayiyvuiO-Kia,
etc., with Gen., 95.
KaranoKeixCi, with Acc, 76.
Kara^povoi, with Gen., 87.
Keipea-Oai, with Dat., 107.
/ceA.evcu, with Acc. and Dat.
also with Acc. and Inf.,
116.
«v6s, with Gen., 82.
Ke<|)dAatov {dtnique, ad
summam), 26.
/CtV5uv6s eCTTl /A^, jtAT) OV, 264.
Kt^ai'to, with Acc, 86.
AcXvto ravTo. <rou, 88.
KOivos, with Gen. or Dat.,
79' "9- . ^. .
-/COS, Adjectives ending in,
with Gen., 113.
Koivwvaj, with Gen. and
Dat. 84.
Kpa.T(a, with Acc. and Gen.,
87, 97, 98.
KpvTTTtti, with double Acc,
/cvptos, with Gen., 103.
Kvpw. with Gen., 86, 87 ;
with Particip. (poet.),
173-
Kiokvo), with double Acc,
72.
— ti.ri, M OV, 365.
\ayxav(a, with Gen., with
Acc, 85 «. I ; with Acc.
and Dat, 116.
A.afxj3ava>, with Gen. and
Acc. , 87.
A.aju,/3avoju,at, with Gen., 86.
Aav^ctvo/ixat (and Compds. ),
with Gen., 86.
kavGdvio, with Acc, 76.
kavddvoj, Ka0(ov construc-
tions, 173, 174.
Xarpevu), with Dat., 116.
AetVo/xat, with Gen., 98.
XrjYco, with Gen.. 99.
AoiSopto, with Acc, 73, «. 3.
A.oi5opo{}jaai, with Dat. 73,
H. 3, and 117.
\v(TiTeKel, with Dat., 117.
M
fid, and similar words, with
Acc, 77.
IxaKapi^txi, with Gen. (and
Aoc), 94.
jjidWov rj, with Compar.
and Positive, 121.
/xaxoju.ai, with Dat., 109,
fjLeioveKTw, with Gen. , 98.
ju.eAet ju,ot tovtou, 87.
lj.eX.eL, /AeTaju.eA.et, Construc-
tions of, 89, 117.
ju.eA.ei /xot, jaeAerw, with
OTTws Modal, 260, 261.
fieWbi, forming Periphras-
tic Future, 140.
— iris (rt) OV ixeWui ; 150.
— fi'?. M OV, 365.
fj.efx.<i)Qfj.ai, with Acc. and
Dat., 73, «. 3, and 117.
— also Acc, also Gen.,
117-
ju.e'o-0?, with Gen. , 103.
/u.e(rr6?, with Gen., 82.
Mera, Prep., 316-317.
/u.eTfli5t6wju.t, with Gen. and
Dat., 84, 105.
fieraKafipdvui, with Gen.,
84- , .
fxera^v, with Particip., 165.
jaeTaTTOiovjLtai, with Gen.,
84.
fiereL^L, with Acc, 75.
/u,eTe'p;^Oju.at, with Acc, 75.
IxerecTTL, with Gen. and
Dat., 84, 117.
jaeTe'xw, with Gen., 84 : with
Acc, 85, «. I.
jneVoxos (a/u-eVoxos), with
Gen., 84.
/ae'xpi, Conjunction, 238 ;
quasi-Prep., 302.
M»j, j^^ Chapter on Nega-
tives.
jxr] pufi for jurj ov, 264.
ju,r; for oTTius/u.!?, Modal, 261.
jJLrj, omitted after Verbs of
denying, and fj-rj for jutj
ov, 369.
/xTjSe' ju.Tj6e'j76p, Concessive,
249-,
fAT/S' el, jLnjfi' ectv. Conces-
sive, 250.
ixr)vvui, with Dat. and Acc,
ii6._
fjir)\av(ii)ixai ottwj, etc., 260,
a6i.
fLiKpov, 83.
f/.ilJivri<TKOfjiai, with Gen., 86.
ju-icrw, with Acc, 117.
fxp-qfjitav (dfjLvrjixojv), with
Gen., 103.
N
vol ij.d {vT)), with Acc, 77.
ve'/Aw, with double Acc, 71.
vLKUifjiai, with Gen., 97 ;
Dat., III.
vofii^(x), with Dat., iii.
^wiTj/xt, with Gen., 86.
6 /SovAojuevo? (6 tuxw*'), 31,
o (orrep) \ey<o, 60.
o5e, 661, uses of, 51, 53.
o^w, with Gen., 86.
oGovveKa, for ort in state-
ments, 185 ; Causal, 277.
ol5a {^vvoiSa), with Partic.
with Infin., 175.
otKeios, with Gen., 79.
oiKTeipu), with Acc. and
Gen., 94.
oi'/aot, with Gen., 94.
olov, with Superlative, 123.
olo?, in Attraction, 60.
oios re, 60.
olo?. Consecutive, 275 ;
Causal, 278.
oicrd' 6 8pdarov ; 137.
ot;;^Ojaat, with Partic, 174.
bkiyov, bkCyov Sel, 82 ; oAt-
■yow Seiv, 157.
oAiyoDpu), with Gen., 87.
6ju,iXaj, with Dat., 109, 118.
oiJLvvfjLL, with firi and Infin.,
" ^"- r> ' ^
0/u.oios (avojiAOios), 119.
— Constructions of, no.
b/jLoio), with Acc. and Dat.,
117-
OjuoAoyw, with Dat., 117,
119 ; with Partic, 187.
o/aoo'e xwpoJ, with Dat., 117.
ojiAov, With Dat., 119.
6ju,iovvju,o?, with Dat., iig.
0/u.tos, .y^^ Concessive Sen-
tences, 249.
ovofid^w, with double Acc. ,
OTrrj for oirws, with Fut. ,
261.
oTTore, Causal, 277.
oirw?, Final, 253 ; Modal
with Fut., 259, etc. ; in
Indirect Petition, 262 ;
for oTi in Statements,
185 ; Temporal, 235 ;
oTTws dv, with Opt. not
final, 255.
op-yi'^ojaai, with Dat. and
Gen., 94, 117.
bpeyoixat, with Gen,, 86.
bp<})av6s, with Gen., 98.
bpiii jarj, ixrj ov, 264 ', OITWS,
260, 261.
OS, Personal, 29 ; Relative,
57 ; Interrogative, 56 ;
Conditional, 225, 226 ;
Consecutive, 274 ; Causal,
278.
OS ye Causal, 278.
o<ros, see olos-
ocroi' "ye jui' elSevai, 157.
OS Tre'p, 57.
ocrrts, Relative, 57 ; In-
432
GREEK INDEX.
terrogative, 56 ; Condi-
tional, 225, 226 ; Con-
secutive, 274 ; Causal,
278.
h(T(^pcLivo(ji.at,, with Gen., 86.
ore, Temporal, 234 ; Causal,
277, n. 3.
oTi (and ojs), in Statements,
178, etc. ; difference be-
tween, 184.
Causal, 276 ; with Verbs of
Fearing, 265.
oTi, with Superlative, 123.
OTOJ TpOTTO) for 0770)9, 261.
Ov, ovK, ovyt, see Part III.
ch. ii. (Table of Con-
tents), 345, etc.
ov fxa, with Ace, 79.
ov /lATj, with Fut. Opt. and
Infin., 375.
0116' el (eav), Concessive,
250.
oiifie (Trep), Concessive, 249.
o5, ot, e. Reflexives, 50.
ov8el? osTts ov, 59.
ov/c 016' av 61, 203.
o5v, as a Suffix, 58.
ovvsKa for ort, 185.
oStos, ovTocrC, Relatives,
^57-
ovTOs, keus tu ! 66.
ovTw, in Wishes {sic — ut),
282.
o(^pa (Epic and Lyric),
final, 253.
o^LfjiaGT^';, with Gen.* 103.
n
7ra\ai, with Present, 143.
Tzav^quidlibet ^ 63.
trdvTa elvat. 16.
Ilapa, Prep. 318-332.
— Verbs compounded with,
take Dat., 118.
TrapajSaAAto, Constructions
of, 118.
TrapaTrArjcrio?, with Dat.,
119 ; Constructions of,
no.
TrapaaKevao-TiKoSjwithGen. ,
103.
napacrKeva^o) ottws, etc.,
260, 261.
TrapaTaa-a-Ofxai, with Dat.,
118.
Trapa^wpw, with Gen., 99.
TTttvco (Ace), and Gen., 99 ;
7ravo/u,at, Gen., 99 ; Travw
and Travo/aat, with Par-
ticip., 163, 170.
TrevTjg, with Gen., 82, 103.
TTeidofx-aL, with Dat., 116.
ireidov and tti^ov (n-ot), 116.
Trep, as a Suffix, 57.
TLepi, Prep., 332-335-
— Verbs compounded with.
take a Dat. of reference,
118.
7rept^aAXoju,at, with double
Ace, 72 ; Constructions
of, 118.
TrepLyLypofxai., with Gen.,
97- . , ^
TrepteijiAt, with Gen., 97.
Trepiepxofj.ai,, with Ace,
75-
TreptTrXew, with Ace, 75.
TrCfj.Tr\riixL, with Gen., 82 ;
Dat. , 82.
TTtVw, with Gen., 84 ; Ace,
85.
Tricrrevw, with Dat., 116.
TTLcrTevu) (Trenei<rfj.ai), with
/lAij and Infin., 353.
771'crvvos, with Dat., 119.
nXeoveKTcj, with Gen., 98.
TrAeto?, with Gen., 103.
TrArjprj?, with Gen., 82.
7rAovo-to9, with Gen., 82.
TTOiov/jiai, with Gen., 79.
TTOios ; Tro^ei' ; in Repeti-
tions, 56.
TTOios and ttoctos (indefinite),
61.
TToAe'jaio?, TroAejao), with
Dat., 119, 109.
ttoAAt) t^5 x'^P"^?" 85 •
TToAAoo-To?, etc., with Gen.,
97- „
TToAAov Set (Sew), 83.
TTorepo? ; and Trorepos, 61.
TTOv yrjs ; etc., 85, n. 3.
irpaKTtKo?, with Gen., 103.
Trpdcraw (Trpdcraofiai), with
double Ace, 72 ; Trpda-croi
oirws, etc. 260, 261.
TTpeVei, with Dat., 117.
IIpo, Prep., 300.
TTpoOv^ovfxaL, with Ace,
76; oTvoiq. etc., 260, 261.
irpoKaKovp-aL, with Gen. of
charge, 95.^
TrpoKeijLiai, with Gen., 100.
7rpos(|)tA^?, with Dat., 119.
■n-poTLfxw, with (Ace) and
Gen., 100.
IIpo?, Prep., 336.
— Verbs compounded with,
take a Dat., 118.
TTposayopevw, with double
Ace, 71.
Trposeiju-i, with Dat., 118.
Trposepxc/Ltat, with Dat.,
109.
7rp6sTj/cei /moi tovtov, 117.
Trpos/cpovw, with Dat., 118,
119.
7rposTV7x**''^> with Dat.,
87, log, ii 8._ ^
7rpoTtpatos,/u^gien., 97.
TTwAw, with Gen., 93.
TTws yap df ; 209.
TTws du ; in Wishes, 215,
280, etc.
cnjjaetov Se, 26.
<riw7raj, with Ace, 76.
o-KOTTw et, Interrog., 261 ;
OTTws, etc. 260, 261 ; /u.^,
jarj ov, 264.
cTTTOvSd^w oTrioj, etc., 260,
■ 261.^
aracnd^co, with Dat., 117.
(TTepia-KOfJiaL, with Gen., 99.
crrec^ai'oviaai, with Dat.,
117.
(TToxd^ofxaL, with Gen., 86.
(TTpa-nqyio, with Gen., 98.
<ruyyiyi'io<rK(o, with Dat.
and Gen., 95.
(TvyyvbJfjiUiv, with Gen., 103.
crvyxiopui, with /u.>j and In-
fin., 353.
<jvKO(jiavTU), with Ace, 76.
crvWafi^dvui, Construction,
118.
o-vja^ovAevw, with Ace and
Dat., 116.
(rv/u./u.axos, with Dat., 119.
(7Vju.(|)epov, o^v/x(/)opos (acrv/A-
(jbopo?), with Dat., 119.
<rvp.^ovw, with Dat., 117.
Svv, Prep., 305.
— with Dat. of Circum-
stance, 114.
a~vv 0e(3 elneiv, 157.
l,vvea-i?, see Construction
Kara avveaiv (English
Index).
— Verbs compounded with,
take a Dat., 118.
(TvvdSui (Sta'Sw), with Dat.,
117-
a-vvaWdaao}, with Ace and
Dat., 117.
<Tvveifj.i, with Dat., 118.
a-vvekovTi (crvvTeVi'ovTt) el-
nelv, 107.
o-vvoiSa, Construction, 118,
175-
cr^xxAAoju-ai, v/ith Gen., 86.
axeSov elirelv, 157.
crxT^M* i^"-^' oAov Kat /xe'prj,
24.
ra TTpHora eivai, 16.
rdSe, TotSe TrdrTa, 52.
Tda-aro, with Gen., 93.
TeKfxripiov Se, 26.
Tepivoi, with double Ace, 71.
T195 avTTJs riixepd? and t??
avTT^' rjixepa, 92.
Tt p.a6u)V ; Tt Tra^wv ; (rt'
exwi', Tt /SovAo/xevos), 164.
Tiju.to?, with Gen., 103.
GREEK INDEX.
433
Tiju-w, TiixCifjiai., with Gen.,
93-
Ti/Lnopov/ota^ with Acc, 76 ;
see 129.
Ti/Awpo), with Dat., 116.
Tis, idiomatic uses of, 26.
TO /oi>7 (/xr; ov), Tov or tov
fur) (/xrj ov), with Infin.,
after Verbs of denying,
etc., 366, 367, 368.
TO TTOloV, TO Tl ; 56 ; TO
noLov, TO iTOcrov, 63.
ToiovTos, followed by ov,
362.
Tofevw, with Gen., 87.
TOV, with Infin. Final, 94,
see 366.
TOV A01770V and to Kolttov,
92.
rvy^dpta, with Gen., 86 ;
with Particip. , 173.
tovt' e/cetvo, 52.
Tpa^rji'at, with Gen., 80.
TpC^tav, with Gen., 103.
Tvpavi'eva), Tvpavvu), with
Gen., 98.
TV</)A6?, with Gen., 103.
v^pi^oi, with double Acc,
UTraxovw, with Gen. and
with Dat., 116.
iijrapxw, with Particip., 171.
VTreKTpaireaOai. fjnij, fxr} ov,
, 365.
Yirep, Prep., 314.
vnepaKySi, with Gen., 100.
virep^akkio, with Acc, 75.
vnepexio, with Gen., 97.
VTrepc^vrj? oao?, etc., 59.
UTrev^ufos, with Gen. and
Dat., 103.
vmqpeToj, with Dat., 116.
VTrto-;(i'ovju.at, with Dat. and
with Acc, 116.
'Ytto, Prep., 341.
VTTo^aAAw, with Dat., 116.
vTToSvojixat, with Acc, 75.
V7707rT€VCU JUI7, fXYf OV , 264.
vTTOTcA^s, with Gen., 103.
VTTOTiOeixai, with Dat., 116.
vno^evyui, with Acc, 75.
va-repoi, vaTepC^w, with
Gen., 98.
vo-Tepo?, vcTTepalo^, with
Gen., 97.
v4>C<rTafj.aL, with Acc, 75.
$
<})avep6<;, (jjavepov, i^taivofi-at.,
Constructions, 173, 174.
(/)ei6oju.ai ((/)eiSu)A.6s), with
Gen., 99, 103.
<^ei), with Gen. , 94.
<j!)ev-ya) St/crjv, 81 ; with Gen.
of charge, 95 ; 6 ^evyoiv,
95- , . ,
(}>evy(0 fir], ju,rj ov, 365.
<l)9dvo), with Acc, 76 ; with
Particip., 171.
(})0opu), with Gen., 94 ; with
Dat., 117.
(/)tAtKws Sta/ceiju-ai, etc, with
Dat.
(^iA.66(opos, with Gen., 103.
4>iKofJia9yf<;, with Gen., 113.
^o/3ovju,ai, with Acc, 76 :
with Infin., 155 ; with/otij,
joiT) ov and variant con-
structions, 266, etc.
4>pi(T(r<a, with Acc, 75.
(fypovrC^io orrw?, etc., 260,
261 ; jury, ju-rj ov, 264.
</)vA.d<7-crw, -Oju.at on-ws, etc.,
260, 261 ; 1X7], jixij ov, 264,
365-
(^vAdo-CTo/itat, with Acc. 76 ;
<|>vi'ac, with Gen., 8:
X
Xat'pw, with Particip., 170.
XaAeTraiVw, ^''^^^'''ws <f)ep<a,
with Dat., 112-117.
Xapt^ojoiat, with Dat., 116.
Xdpii/, quasi-Prep., 302.
Xopevu) Oeov, 72.
Xpr? {XPW, ^XP^v), with /x^
and ov, 353.
XP^v, 5^^ expi]!'.
XPW^MO?, XP'J'^'ros (aXP*?*^-
Tos), with Dat., 119.
Xp(>>fio.L, with Dat., iii.
Xwpi^w, with Gen., 99.
Xwpi's, quasi-Prep. 301.
tl/evSofxai, with Gen., 86
with double Acc, 72.
\j/iA6<: with Gen., 98, 103
xIjiKw, with Gen., 99.
a
wi/rjTos, with Gen., 103 ;
(ovovjLtat, with Gen., 93 :
with oTrws, etc., 260, 261.
wpatos, with Gen., 93, 103.
ws. Modal, 253 ; for ottws
Modal, 261, n. 3 ; Final,
253 ; with Final Particip.,
258 ; for ojsTe, Consecu-
tive, 275 ; ojs av. Final,
255 ; in Wishes, 280, etc. ;
Comparative (also (o^irep)
with Particip., 165, 167.
ws, with Superlative, 123.
ws (oisrrep) ov and fii], 357.
tos eVos einelv, and similar
phrases, 157.
(uSTrep ap el, 20Q.
w9Te, Consecutive, 269-273 ;
Limitative, 274.
uisTe fj.rj, with Infin. after
Verbs of denying, etc.,
. 366.
w(/)eAov, without av, see
eSet; in Wishes, 281-283.
TABLE OF REFERENCES.
Aeschines, B.C. 389-314 (?)
Aeschylus, B.C. 525-456.
Andocides, B.C. 440 (?) — last speech 390.
Antiphon, B.C. 48o(?)-4io(?).
Aristophanes, B.C. 450 (?) — last play 388.
Demosthenes, B.C. 384(?)-322.
Euripides, B.C. 480-406.
Isaeus, dates of speeches B.C. 389-352.
Isocrates, B.C. 436-338.
Lysias, B.C. 435 (?)-378.
Plato, B.C. 429(?)-347.
Sophocles, B.C. 496-406.
Thucydides, B.C. 471 (?)-40i (?).
Xenophon, B.C. 429 (?)-356 (?).
The reference to the mithor is on the left hand, that to the page of the
Grammar on the right hand.
LINE
PAGE
LINE
PAGE
LINE
PAGE
AESCHINES.
Choephorae
366, .
239
142,
417
384,
77
III. In Ctesiphontem.
200
74
431,
204
86, . . . 39
257,
265
460.
272
177. • • • 373
262,
43
465.
90
204, ... 352
290,
251
466;
239
333. • • -49. 122
392,
136
529,
210
521,
412
680,
420
AESCHYLUS.
705,
92
761,
793,
69
237
87
Agamemnon.
Etwte7iides
37, • • • 212
256,
21
800,
379
67,
318
344,
299
1041,
423
130.
200,
340
218
618,
661, .
362
Prometheus Vinctus.
225,
74
10, . . . 255
305
Persae.
T2,
107
642,
29
10,
255
152,
257
689,
423
49,
16
165,
243
788,
77
100,
82
248,
365
813,
297
112,
265
285,
347
930,
206
124,
385
419,
318
1030,
343
162, .
26
481,
242
1067,
244
164, . .
102
627,
367
1358,
422
182,
92
650,
337
1379,
327
297,
251
786,
369
1400,
325
319,
III
830,
318
1438,
40
327,
420
l^l^
154
1439.
21
331,
74
898,
431
1487,
301
337,
301
904,
74
434
7 ABLE OF REFERENCES.
435
LINE
987,
1047,
PAGE
93
136
Septem ad Thebas.
513.
553,
672,
681,
821,
843,
IS,
594.
62
206
778
289
411
note 341
. 318
Supplices.
309
74
ANDOCIDES.
I. De Mysteriis.
30,
38,
43,
50,
54.
57,
58, 59.
61,
63,
lOI,
180
• 50, 407
244, 256
41
223
224
218
404
. 387
353
II. De Reditu.
10, . . . 41
12, . . . 223
III. De Pace.
41, • • • 362
ANTIPHON.
III. Tetral. B. /3.
I
4,6,
5,
5.
6,
10, II,
63
41, 48
369
225
379
214
45
IV. Tetral. T. a.
223
352
K De Caede Herodis.
I and passim, . 45
415
122
50
217, 219
357
205
223
LINE
17,
19,
21,
24,
25,
26,
90,
91,
92,
PAGE
122, 225
225
• 378
2l8
244, 250
397
213
225
225
VI. De Choreuta.
209
214
206
ARISTOPHANES.
Achartiians.
57,
94,
106,
166,
196,
364,
384,
418,
466,
474,
562,
675.
761,
959,
991,
1000,
ICX)I,
1048,
1055,
1078,
1180,
54,
195,
461,
964,
Aves.
Ecclesiazusae
105,
115,
236,
493,
495,
650,
991,
999,
112,
158,
926,
Equites.
41
41
250
78
56
386
88
58
123
56
225
58
219
120
213
56
215
160
312, 342
52
214
122
334
137
378
373
244
301
349
16
265
256
383
385
378
26s, 370
377
261
459,
917,
5,
77,
118,
153,
296,
299,
341,
345,
367,
490,
50s,
520,
692,
698,
788,
792,
819,
876,
1027,
1301,
1368,
438,
1133,
II5I,
23,
200,
202,
298,
456,
462,
504,
522,
526,
6og,
636,
643,
830,
866,
955,
1459,
469,
283,
397,
774,
1 179,
Lysistr.
Nubes.
Plutus.
Ranae.
Thesr,i.
Vespae.
DEMOSTHENES.
Olynthiac i.
15, 25,
3"
\
*.The references are to the pages of Reiske's edition, 1770. The numbers in brackets
are the references as given in the text of this Grammar, in compiling which different
editions of Demosthenes have been used. Some of the examples, about eighteen, bor-
rowed from other books, have not been verified in Reiske. They are omitted in this
list, but not in the text, as they are evidently authentic, and useful.
436
TABLE OF REFERENCES.
LINE
PAGE
LINE
PAGE
LINE
PAGE
Olynthiac ii.
24, 14 [2, 22],
330
381, 5, • . •
381, 10, .
143
160
EURIPIDES.
388, 15, .
398
A Ices t is.
Olynthiac in.
391, 9 [11],
219
18,
^
29, 22 [same construction
395, 8 [§ 190], . .
206
150,
jOO
343
341
172
221
314
94
221
as in text],
Philippic I.
40, I [Phil. i. I], .
70
239
418, 13, .
434, 6, . . .
In Lepiinem.
75
266
346,
662,
671,
690,
44,' 12 [Phil. i'. 44],'
320
224
460, 2 [20, 10],
470, 26, .
sS
741,
755,
45, I [Phil. i. 18], .
206
478, 25 [20, 73],
313
45, II [iv. 39],
49, i4[Phil. i. 9], .
108
43
In Midiam.
134,
168,
Andfotnache.
51, 27 [Phil. i. 10],
90
527, 3. • • •
321
. 18,52
416
54, 20 [Phil. i. 54],
150
528, 16 . .
339
530, 21 [21, 51],
209
220,
De Pace.
582, 25, .
206
441,
341
6i, 17 [de Pace iv.]
76
In Ajidrotionein.
700,
797,
377
386
Philippic II.
596, 17, .
257
946,
1077,
114
377
66, 12 [Phil. ii. 66],
255
In Aristocratetn.
1251,
307
De Chersoneso.
660, 7 [23, 120],
16
Bacchae.
107, 8 (viii. 70),
331
In Timocratem.
I,
71
Philippic III.
734, 2 [24, 107],
278
5,
71
734, 5 [37, 28],
34
29,
74
112, 7, . . .
219
763, 15 [24, 203], .
76
70,
422
119, 8 [9, 31], . . 23
124, 19 [same construction
In Aristogit. i.
142,
156,
415
342
as in text].
314
773, I, . . .
261
183,
422
129, 19 [129, 72], .
17
In Aphohnn i.
250,
74
130, 14, .
265
270,
350
Philippic IV.
815, II, .
816, 12, .
313
325
277,
331,
304
287
141, 3 [i, 141],
265
822, 8, . . .
325
342,
386
De Rhod. Libertat.
834,23, .
229
343,
757,
374
322
197,8, . .
359
In Aphobum 11.
847,
71
Pro Megalop.
837, 13 [11], .
841, IT, .
572
230
1039,
"34,
323
114
202, 23, .
403
842,9, .
282
1263,
350
207, 4, . . .
261
1288,
348
218
Pro Phano in Aphob.
1312,
De Corona.
{Aphob. HI.)
1353,
71
229, 16 [21, 26],
33^
849, V4, .
257
1368,
323
236, 10 [12],
260
242, 10 [242], .
224
In Onetor. A,
Cyclops.
243, 17, .
115
86s, 24, . .
246
120,
375
246, 10, .
41
869,9, . .
405
131,
137
268, 28 [18, 124], .
135
870, 24, .
388
595,
262
269, 19 [18, 127]
274,28, .
,s
In Stephanurn.
Electra.
278, 15 [21, 117], .
24
"13, 4 [45, 38],
164
231,
25
288, 29, .
323
323
In Polyclem.
369,
939,
377
62
292, 21, .
304
1206, 12 [Meid.],
206
1035,
16
301, I, . .
301, 27 [18, 220]
313,6, . . .
39
261
In Cononent.
1266,2, .
359
1061,
1 165,
Hecu
ba.
281
377
De Pals. Legat.
In Neaerarn.
1360, 20 [viii. 70], .
580,
318
343, 19 [19, 8],
106
331
730,
272
372, I, . . .
267
Epitaphium,
836,
280
379, 7, • ■ •
368
1397, I, . . .
299
1085,
III
TABLE OF REFERENCES.
437
LINE
ac;e
I-INE
I
AGE ,
LINE V
AGE
nil,
218
Orestes.
V Pkilippus.
1 138,
257
263,
.
369
77, • . •
402
1154,
1275,
344
147
374,
418,
\t
VI. Archidamus.
Helena.
497,
529,
lOI
23
13, • • •
24 .
269
122
107,
360
622,
341
25 [120J,
206
176,
.
403
680,
249
26, . . .
242
825,
.
206
936,
172
89, • ' .
26
88s,
93
1098,
25
107 [138 A], .
212
1358,
•
16
1320,
1593,
211
.;f8
VII. Areopagitiais.
Heracleidae.
64 [152 d], .
315
37,
130,
306
24
Phoeiiissae.
92,
. . 267
, 370
VIII. De Pace.
179,
243
.403
518,
319
114,
321
248,
482,
265
355
710,
838,
169
23
IX. Evagoras.
699,
23
1215,
211
74, • • •
329
800,
971,
23
304
1216,
1357,
228
360
X. Heleuae Lmid
Hercules Furens.
1590,
1621,
375
212
28, . . .
47, • • •
sli
1054,
1435,
.
265
250
1624,
Rltesus.
249
XII. Panathenaiciii
97, . . ■
20
mppolytus.
5,
415,
131
25
213,
407,
386
280
XV. Antid. s. ve de Permii-
tatio7ic.
496,
386
.S
'iipplices.
33, ■ • •
251^
499,
372
484.
330
606,
372
^97'
836
LYSIAS.
659,
13
1066,
371
,386
701,
"03,
339
22
Troades.
i. 4,
21,
49
262
1410,
280
178,
370
IV. I,
380
1425,
107
214,
254
vii. 27,
270
1601,
386
662,
55
xii. 44,
261
Ion.
III;
24
332
48,
250
351
15?, : ■. :
1074,
1523,
fphisenia in A id.
359
403
75
267
905,
970,
]
SAEUS.
176
354
74,
xiii. 83,
xix. 39,
.. 49,
x.xii. 4,
97
59
245
436,
489,
171
244
32,
De Pyrrhi Hered.
107
18,
xxv. 27,
xxvii. 16,
180
30
3!;i
754,
1025,
292
55
V.
De Dicaeoff. Hered.
x.xx. 13,
62
1047,
77
26,
74
PLATO.
Ipkigenia i7i Taur
VI.
De Philoct. Hered.
Apology.
534.
71
6,
20
i. 17 A, .
184
1203,
1371,
Medea.
137
289
Vli
9.
24-
. De Cirott. Hered.
357
1715,62
222, 312
216
,419
320
320
88,
.
347
o/t
ii. 18 A,
• 95
159
216,
297
18 B,
74
233,
93
ISOCRATES.
18 c,
37
334,
627,
82
315
I
Ad DemoJikutn
18 D,
iii. 19 IS,
44
210
422
753,
58
15,
60
19 c,
2S0
1018,
112
19 u.
210, 414
419
1151,
374
\. Panegyricns.
iv, 19 E,
22
1271,
135
19.
242
,406
20 A,
109
2 E 2
438
TABLE OF REFERENCES.
MNE
PAGE
LINR
>AGE
LINE
I'AGK
20 15,
. 29
215, 223
xxxii. 40
0,
204
835 D,
17
20 C,
216
40 E, .
209
895 B,
277
V. 20 E,
■ 44
250, 325
... 41 A, .
32s
948 c,
.
19
21 A,
68
XXXIU.
42
A (in text xxxu.),
942 C,
135
vi. «I B,
187, 412
258
21 I),
21 E,
225, 249
419
Cratylus.
212 D,
Lysis.
368
vii. 22 A,
68
393 c,
370
216 C,
267
22 B (in text
vfiii.), 151
430 D,
370
218 D,
.
267
22 c (in text
vi.), 13
viii. 22 D,
, 18?
Crito.
Meno.
22 E,
270
iii. 44
D>
257
70 A,
370
ix. 23 A,
209
IV. 44
E,
417
70 c,
.
59
2315,
221
45
A,
159
73 B,
70
XU. 25 B,
203,
250, 347
45
B,
191
, 270
90 E,
341
... 25 c,
xui. 25 c,
422
419
.V. 45
IX. 48
^1
C,
2C8
129
369
Phaedo.
25 D,
270
xi. 50
B,
379
s8e,
.
278
xiv. 26 D,
. 360
XU. 50 c,
211
228
60 c,
148
26 E,
414
50
D,
335
61 B,
369
XV. 27 D,
214
51
A,
174
62 B,
416
xvi. 28 B (in text
XV.),
XV. 53
E>,
205
68 b,
211
264, 383
xvi. 54
B,
120
69 A,
.
340
28 c,
. 236
70 A,
264, 370
xvii. 28 D,
2T2, 224
Euthydemus.
72 c,
402
28 E,
234. 259
299 B,
228
77 b(
in text 77 -6),
242,
29 A,
413
302 c.
_
16
251, 370
29 B,
100,
i6s, 352
304 E,
257
84 b,
383
29 c,
205, 211
307 B,
380
84 c,
338
29 D (in
text xviii.), 26
84 E,
267
30 B,
351
Ejithyphro.
85 A,
.
91, 100
30 c,
.
205
12 D,
216
87 E,
.
136
30 c (in
text
XXIX.), 25
14 C,
217
88 A,
38, 242
xviii. 30 A,
251
93 B
(Phaedr. in
30 c,
421
Gorgias.
text), .
25
30 D,
105, 156
457 D,
274
, 347
95 A,
399
31 A,
204, 210
457 E,
265
98 A,
.
414
xix. 31 D,
369
4591^,
349
98 D,
353
32 A,
251
278, 421
477,
26
.102 D,
278
XX. 32 A,
68
479 c,
271
108 E,
366
32 B (in text
xxiii.),
298, 316
479 D,
489, .
•
91
90
Phaedrus.
xxi. 32 D,
203
495 D,
262
227 H,
205
33 A,
210
499>
25
228 D,
343
33 B,
221
506 B,
406
229 A,
.
40
xxii. 33 c,
420
514 A,
48
239 D,
75
33 D,
219
516 E,
.
309
242 c [Phaedo],
16
33 E,
34 A,
40
219
Laches.
260 b,
279 A,
: :
23
335
34 D,
xxiii. 34 c,
422
250, 316
180 c,
180 E,
251
24
Philebns.
34 D.
203
195 A,
301
13 A,
264, 370
35 A,
. 236
196,
370
27 E,
•
42
xxiv. 35 B,
35 c,
301
352
Leges.
Politicns.
XXV. 36 A,
350
640 D,
419
276 c I
ical el], .
251
xxvi. 36 C,
243
679 C,
21
303 A,
103
xxvii. 37 D,
88
698 C,
113
303 D,
32
xxviii. 38 A,
38 B,
: 3^'
701 D,
715 E,
301
122
Protagoras
xxix. 39 A,
225
, 272, 410
719 E,
205
30915,
r
39 c (el Kal,
ntext
721 A,
81
313 c.
262
icai el
, 251
726 A,
316
320 A,
303
xxxi. 39 E,
237, 369
731 c,
373
321 A,
■
261
40 B,
234
737 E,
71
322 D,
.
328
41 E,
377
809 E,
335
323 c,
362
TABLE OF REFERENCES.
439
Li.NK
326 D,
329 B, .
336 13, .
352 1), •
358 I-., .
Reptihlii
329 I',
337 E,
338 D,
339 E,
344 D,
345 E,
348 E,
352 c,
354 A and B,
358 B,
359 c,
360 B,
360 D,
362 D,
362 D (O in text),
393 E,
398 A,
404 B,
405 A,
406 C,
408 c,
412 A,
416 D,
424 R,
427 E,
428 c,
434 B,
436 D,
451 A,
459 B,
461 B,
463 D,
465 B,
470 A,
470 B,
472 B and
475 A,
478 B,
494 B,
499 B,
511 A,
517 A,
518 c,
539 A, .
545 A (in text 535),
549 E,
562 c,
567 A,
574 E,
579 B,
579 B,
590 A,
591 B,
606 B,
607 C,
610 A,
612 B,
614 B,
615 B,
24
206
353
367
325
100
192
24
192
45
177
186
136
32
208
. 403
274
121
55
•136
256
3"
250
385
25
211
150
362
86
363
25
112
404
265, 370
10 1
75
102
383
lOI
3-'J4
38
321
21
229
02, 373
343
229, 230
180
261
38
192
89
255
343
82
85
314
316
25
20
229
, 228
400
407
LINE
PAGE
LINE
615 D,
205
586,
616 C,
299
593,
632,
659,
Soj>histes.
235 A,
. 267
66s
254 A,
38
674,
680,
Sy^nposium
690,
175 A,
374
692,
179 B,
. 328
715,
185 E,
251
725,
186 B,
22
728,
187 D,
255
767,
189,
407
803,
213 D,
261
807,
222 A,
205
816,
828,
840,
Theaetetics
145,
370
960,
145 B,
. 267
1094,
155 A,
. 238
1114,
169 B,
21
1121,
183 E,
2i4
1131,
190 A,
377
1231,
Tiinaeiis.
1242,
1264,
25 D,
311
1268,
l\^'
145
1274,
86 D,
23
1275,
^340,
SOPHOCLI
:s.
1418,
Aias.
6,
357
9.
27.
114
20,
42,
49
25,
44,
71
26,
51,
322
28,
70,
369
30,
75,
372
41.
122,
249
42,
123,
277
43,
153,
112, 277
48,
263,
226
50,
271,
237
69,
272,
234
74,
275,
42
85,
285,
92
91,
313,
405
97,
318,
89
100,
359,
363
115,
367,
94
152,
377,
323
170,
403,
135
172,
434,
250
182,
470,
363
212,
474,
113, 171
223,
475,
331
234,
496,
245
239,
536,
204
242,
540,
367
244,
557,
189
260,
560,
371
263,
564,
91, 251
'265,
567,
192
323,
572,
384
378,
PAGE
147, 148
356
415
85
420
151
418
4x8
147
277
59
367
114, 306
100
106
335
413
305
377
337
44
347
377
347
280
347
377
377
123
244
277:
Antigone.
419
171
106
418
82
302
261
85
40, 52
154
410
204
420
305
235
271
122
114
71
277
305
20, 295
77
185
51, 377
189
172
356
177
366
155
245
352
440
TABLE OF REFERENCES.
267,
i'AGE
LINK
159
25
1 9.
• 238
; 14.
• 368
! 18,
214
j 24,
. 176
25,
204, 209
32,
106
38,
213
! 43,
90
49>
73
: 58,
• 378
66,
173
1 72,
304
i ^4,
45, 323
1 85,
.113
121, etc
324
123,
■ 136
141,
T06
174,
246
183,
102
188,
6s
193,
22, 204
225,
• 185
244,
304
248,
278
264,
245
267,
106
269,
62
272,
352
285,
74
286,
418
293.
413
299.
204
305.
.^"■S
317.
337.
302
338,
337
344'
314
360,
• , 299
364.
• 69, 299
369-
76
372.
75
380,
245
381,
87
384,
354
386,
88
390.
295
399.
160
404,
87
415.
n
423,
306
424,
24
435'
45
447'
102
478,
189
479>
29 1
496,
422
547'
81
549'
122
555-
85
556,
410
562,
333
57I'
355' 370
580,
44
604,
377
612,
Electra.
I'AGE
LINE
627,
160
630,
422
640,
422
668,
173
676,
250
677,
89, 234
679,
„ 277
682,
84, 385
690,
"5
705'
257
707,
106
711.
415
736,
104
742,
104
749,
77
766,
69. lOI
771,
87
782,
115
811,
330
817'
100
875,
115
908,
245
920,
347
945,
147
950,
299
955,
236
956,
no
974,
108
977,
339
979.
421
996,
236
1000,
305
1022,
62
1038,
32, 177
1052,
63
1054,
80
io59>
31, 298
1061,
250
1092,
156
1095,
417
1117,
104
1122,
363
1131,
268
II34'
99
"54,
236
1165,
85
1166,
22
1172,
85
n8o,
67
1195,
234
1210,
88
1214,
415
1236,
99
1262,
92
1265,
99
1274,
106
1308,
251
1309,
112
1334,
246
1343,
77
1348,
337
1433'
93
145I'
267
1460,
215
1476,
83!
1496,
TABLE OF REFERENCES.
441
LINE PAGE
LINE PAGE
LINE
PAGE
Oed. Col.
65, . . . 311
10,
• 31. 340
38,
79
88,
352
12,
175
65,
354
102,
304
17,
296, 297
118,
261
122,
356
21,
• 326
178,
373
169.
185
23,
120
305,
62
197.
94
24,
107
317,
162
244.
71
36,
lOI
337,
\l
285,
307
37,
325
359.
368
289,
151
38,
218, 244, 325
408,
373
348.
368
39,
• , 352
450,
373
349.
369
41.
161, 3IS
502,
301
353.
323
44,
115
509.
245
377.
359
45,
120
556,
171
408,
363
54,
334
565.
365
409,
274
56, .
293
595.
245
427.
277
58, .
15
649,
373
444,
274
60, .
319
667,
. 365
487,
301
62,
. 366
707,
62
494,
418
64. .
. 298
746,
322
523,
68
65, .
. 261
761,
227
534,
301
67,
333
^34.
356
554.
• 318
68,
244
848,
373
588,
363
70,
221
956,
149. 384
611,
375, 385
71,
145
969,
271
674.
164
73,
268
996,
73
764,
246
74,
166
1023,
372
825,
255
76, .
354, 366
1024,
373
900,
356
^v •
304
"54.
351
914,
276
78,
351
1239,
413
917,
245
86,
339
1441,
245
931,
423
87, .
400
1443,
304
961,
243
89, •
59
1455,
331
969,
281
91,
13, 296, 404
1513.
39
975,
356
95,
112
1702,
373
1030,
107
96, .
. 60, 91
Oed. Tyr.
1079,
1171,
19
122
97,
99.
45
236
II.
368, 381
1224,
70
ICX>,
99
129,
366, 369
1289,
147
102,
. . 276
198,
^il
1293,
304
103.
. . 360
220,
368
1314,
147
104,
29
255,
144
1363,
353
107,
170
281,
362
1441
340
109,
238, 292
302,
251
112,
. 68
314,
304
Trachiniae
116,
166
442,
154
389, . .
296
118, .
. 85, 244
446,
208
545,
154
120,
299
544,
. - 410
577,
295
121,
121, 347
551,
380
631.
256, 299
123,
23
454,
298
687,
246
124,
373. 380
^^2'
309
817.
418
125,
168
888,
302
978.
374, 384
126,
131, 168
1129,
309
1 100,
323
128,
115,365
1214,
420
1122,
102
131,
99
1267,
207
1129.
264
132,
242
1326,
295
1183,
374
134,
406
1380,
123
1342.
211
137,
246, 348
1387,
257
140,
91
1391,
257
THUCYDIDES.
141,
314, 330
1437.
1770,
lOI
405
Book I.
Book
n.
Philoctetes.
I,
2,
. 36
85, 3^7
8S, 273
3,
4.
• 8s. 191
26, . . . 44
3.
335
5,
23
46, . . . 276
4,
94, 162
15,
• 19, 321
60, .
304
8,
293
17,
343, 354
442
TABLE OF REFERENCES.
LINE
PAGE
LINE PAGE
LINE
PAGE
l8, . .
309
38, . . . 83
50,
123, 244
20,
115
40,
310
57,
306
21,
277, 405
41,
246
59.
405
32,
162
47.
92
64,
343
36, . .
323
60,
92
70,
255
38, .
III
64,
342
71,
151, 222, 244
40,
310
66,
268
74,
55
41,
18
70,
322
75,
121, 312
49, •
107, 366
90,
237
V'
• ^ ^^
52,
226
102,
310
80,
396, 405
53.
365
106,
331
81,
34
60, .
277
118,
320
87,
. 362
61, .
121
125,
168
92,
301
72,
399
128,
261
100,
405
t, : .
45
304, 322
130, . . .85, 297
Book
VIII.
89, .
347
Book V.
I,
3^
92,
147
9, . . . 160
23,
316
93,
. 256
10,
244
36,
39
95,
105
17,
76
40,
. 237
97, . •
. 326
32,
175
66,
196, 221
102,
401
33.
92
70,
360
5^^/^
III.
34,
35.
320
348
72,
74,
: ^l
I,
. 366
37,
131
85.
39
10,
237, 322
40,
360
86,
• 34, 51
12,
121
46,
90
89,
• • . 11
13,
305, 322
50,
348
108,
36s. 366
14,
271
55.
109
15,
31
67.
373
XENOPHON.
22,
29,
254
107, 244
74,
103,
20
310
Anabasis.
32,
. 406
105,
265
i. I, I, .
20
37>
120
III,
76
I, 3, •
147, 184
39,
362, 369
I, 10,
227
40,
224
Book VI.
2, 2, .
. 406
41,
. 246
4, . . . 245
2, 5, •
255
46, .
123
5,
306
2, 8,.
343
49,
■ ^ 273
21,
245
2, IS,
' • 0. 321
53,
264, 267, 370
32,
342
2, 21,,
186, 405
54,
. 51, 210
34.
160,
320, 333
2, 23,
15
55,
209
37.
• 331
2, 31,
21
59,
337
39.
. 58, 105
3, 17,
404
64, •
III
49.
407
4,7.-
405
69, •
299
50,
259
4. 20,
226, 272
74.
219
54-
261
5. 5,-
62
75,
. . 366
58,
245
5. 13,
272
81,
298, 362
62,
114, 238
6,-2, .
. . 366
88, .
. . 184
76,
75
6, 10,
87
95,
• . 348
77,
18
7,18,
347
96, .
299
82,
351
8, 12,
ISO
103,
271
100,
208
9, 3, •
323
105,
. 326
9, 10,
405
Book
IV.
Book VII.
2, . . . 331
9, 20,
ii. I, 4. .
337
217
i»
. 76, 104
10,
297
1,6,.
19
4,
. . 238
II.
304
I, 15,
25
5,
• . 351
17.
255
1,16,
17
II,
264, 359. 415
21,
60
2, 3, •
. 362
14,
414
22,
76
3, II,
. . 367
16, .
242
23.
334
3. 13,
273
17, . 3f
5, 43. 245, 299
29,
296
3. 25,
. 270
18, .
. . 316
31.
334
4, 22,
163
28, .
327
34.
91
... 5. 13,
205
29,
39
42,
227
111. I, 19,
237
33,
192
47.
412
2,6,
2S9
TABLE OF REFERENCES.
443
LINE PAGE
LINE
PAGE
LINE
PAGE
2, 29, . . 242
3, 9. •
74
V. I, 17,
301
3,18,
240
3, 18, .
240
2, 13,
404
4,9,-
81
3, 35,
206, 270
4, 2, .
335
5. I. •
330
3, 51,
121
vi. 4, 12,
34
5, 7.-
273
iv. I, 3, .
414
vii. 1,8,.
251
5, II,
366
I, 18,
261
I, 34, • 277
,405
5,16,
291
I, 21,
180
5,18,
247
2, 25,
257
Memorabilia.
IV. 2, 6, .
272
40
3, II,
4, 21,
271
59
i^ApotriHeumata).
4, 15,
351
5, 15,
272
i. I, 4, .
277
4, 23,
75
5, 37,
239
I, 5, •
216
4, 24,
24
6, 8, .
93
2, 6, .
246
8,2,.
379
V. I, 25,
369
2, 7, •
264
8,4,.
18
2, 12,
265
2, 35,
121
8,5,.
96
2, 35,
• 309
2, 39,
353
V. I, 10,
219
2, 36,
376
2, 41,
379
2, 5, .
276
vi. 2, 30,
265
2, 46, . .
281
3,35,
81
3. 19,
271
4, 14,
336
4,16,
166
.. 4, 16,
156
ii. I, 8, .
344
4,30,
92
vii. I, 18,
358
I, 25,
383
7, 5,.
242
3, 13,
373
2, 39,
^ft
8,17.
324
4, 4. .
333
3, 3, . •
168
vi. I, 21,
55
5, 13,
71
3, 18,
220
2, I, .
232
5, 49,
246
6, 2, .
362
3, 17,
90
. 7,16, .
367
7, II,
104
3, 20,
177
viu. I, 10,
396
7, 13,
363
3,26,
^t
I, 10, II, .
407
...9,8,. . .
109
vii. I, 4> •
248
I, 48,
22
111. I, 6, .
177
3, 13,
399
3, 40,
113
5,1,.
'37
3, 34,
323
4, 16, .
191
5, 17, . 121
,156
6.4,.
76
6,3,.
258
11, I, .
97
*8, 6, .
309
6, 13, .
48
. 13, 3,. • 121,
t272
8,22,
54
7, 19,
152
IV. 1,3,.
38
Cyropaedia
7, 22,
376
2, 36, . .
2, 39.
4, 12, . .
17
370
207
i. 2, I, .
80
Hellenica.
2, 5, .
255
i. I, 16, .
166
6,7,. . .
402
2, II,
20
I, 28,
306
7, 2, .
397
3,3,.
278
I, 34,
323
3,9,.
29
6, 32, .
371
Agesilans.
4,14,
^il
.. 7, 5, .
390
ii. 15, .
107
4,18,
166
11. I, 2, .
254
iv. I, .
275
4,20,
272
I, 25,
75
4,25,
254
2, 7, .
305
Hiero.
5, II,
6, 4, .
273
94
2, 13,
3, II,
353
X. 3, •
297
6, 18,
400
3, 16, .
380
Oeconomicus.
ii. 1, 4, .
255
3, 22,
334
261
I, 21,
256
lii. I, 28,
306
ii. 9, . . .
2,9,.
114, 405
2, 31,
353
23, •
13
2, 22,
83
3, 9, •
260
iii. 5, • . .
59
3, 13,
339
3, 19,
168
vii. 3, .
^
4,2,.
321
5, 10,
265
viii. 8, •
4,7,.
147
iv. I, 33,
207
X. I, .
41
4, 23,
. 366
I, 41,
S8
in. I, 15,
305
2, 3, .
373
Symposium.
1,37,
378
4, 5, •
353
ii. 3, . . .
367
1,41.
^o^
5, 5, •
303
ill. 5, • • •
297
2, 3, •
85
8, 4, • .
13
iv. 5, . . .
353
2,37,
136
8, 16,
256
6, . . 277
, 405
* Misprinf, viii
6. +
On 272,
read Ap. for An.
EDINBURGH : T. AND A. CONSTABLE, PRINTERS TO HER MAJESTY.
^
U]>
Thi
14 DAY USE
RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED
LOAN DEPT.
This book is due on the last date stamped below, or
on the date to which renewed.
Renewed books are subject to immediate recall.
RENEWALS ONLr - Tel. No. 642-3406
Nov2:
REC-
JlOi^gT-gKI
s ^
DEC <
r subie|Y|°^;ip^cKS
3»L 2gffi 7n,^jj
4^iJiz
vasii^
'BOC} Wff end of FALt. Qua4r nrn , -, -
3!^tS »ub|6a to recal l alter- ^ t^ t^l ^ 7l
LD 21-1001
BtCDLD Dtt^
m^"^^
^'
JftN9 70
DLJlAaBTO^llAM
6 1972 7 9
.-iC
-/
^gL— ^ ^al^V o ;/^
LD 21A-I0m-1,'68
(H7452sl0)476B
irfr
University c
BerkeK
67 5
lili«;BiBK."="»i£!
L03lfl01qpu
"■