NC 
 
 62O 
 P7 
 
 
 FFCC'S SHORTER COURSE 
 
 IN 
 
 STUDY AND DRAWING 
 
 r; ,S. FI-KK.V 
 
 TH; O EDUCATIONAL COMPANY 
 
 OKK 3 - IUCA . 
 
TE 
 
 ACHER'S MANUAL 
 
 FOR 
 
 PRANG'S SHORTER COURSE 
 
 IN 
 
 FORM STUDY AND DRAWING 
 
 JOHN S. CLARK, MARY DANA HICKS, WALTER S. PERRY 
 
 THE PRANG EDUCATIONAL COMPANY 
 BOSTON, NEW YORK, CHICAGO 
 
77 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1888, BY 
 THE PRANG EDUCATIONAL COMPANY. 
 
AUTHORS' PREFACE, 
 
 THIS course of instruction presents, not Form Study alone, 
 not Drawing alone, but Form Study and Drawing as comple- 
 menting each other, and as together furnishing a means of men- 
 tal development second to no other study, and indispensable 
 in the education of every child. 
 
 FORM STUDY AND DRAWING IN MENTAL DEVELOPMENT. 
 
 Recognizing that the development of the mental powers in 
 their natural order, leading to thought, requires not only Percep- 
 tion, but also Expression, the authors have arranged the work of 
 this Course so that pupils shall first observe and study the form 
 of models and objects, and shall then express by Drawing what 
 they have observed in the forms of the models and objects 
 studied. By the presentation of models of type forms, supple- 
 mented by familiar objects, the senses are addressed, the atten- 
 tion is awakened, the powers of observation are incited, the mind 
 is stirred to action, thought ensues ; Drawing is then introduced, 
 not simply as a means of training the eye and hand, but as a 
 language, by which the pupil not only expresses but impresses 
 his thought ; still farther, in the " Making " required in the study 
 of the models and objects, the ability to use the hands is trained 
 and encouraged, the creative faculties are -developed, and thus 
 Manual Training, with all its healthful influences, is begun. 
 Pupils going through this course will not only be led, through 
 
 iii 
 
iv AUTHORS' PREFACE. 
 
 the cultivation of their observing powers, to take a lively interest 
 in the forms of objects around them, but will also become con- 
 scious of the power of expressing their ideas of such forms by 
 drawing, whether with regard to their facts as seen in working- 
 drawings, to their appearance as seen in pictures, or to their 
 decoration ; at the same time while the eye has been trained to 
 observe, and the hand to draw, the mind has been constantly 
 unfolding through perception, thought, and expression. 
 
 DRAWING IN CONNECTION WITH OTHER STUDIES. 
 
 It is the hope of the authors that the work in this course 
 may lead teachers and pupils to a free use of Drawing as an aid 
 in other studies, and that through the constant connection, both 
 in the Manual and in the Drawing-books, between type forms 
 and objects familiar to all, teachers and pupils may learn to 
 look upon Drawing not as subsisting in and for itself alone, 
 but as a very important and ready means of awakening and con- 
 veying thought in the other subjects of the school curriculum. 
 Drawing should be as much at the command of every teacher 
 and every pupil as writing and speaking, and should be as freely 
 used. 
 
 It is hoped, therefore, that teachers will seek every oppor- 
 tunity to carry the drawing out in broad applications in other 
 studies, and will encourage pupils to use it as a means of ex- 
 pression generally in their school work. 
 
 JOHN S. CLARK. 
 MARY DANA HICKS. 
 WALTER S. PERRY. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PLAN OF THE SERIES vii 
 
 GENERAL DIRECTIONS x 
 
 BOOK I. 
 
 Drill Exercises: Sphere, its Outline, Circle: Four Views of a Cube, 
 Square ; Two Views of a Hemisphere ; Five Views of a Circular Tablet ; 
 Apple, from the Object; Fan, from the Object; Shield; Decorative 
 Design, Borders; Quatrefoil, Repetition about .a Centre; Greek 
 Cross, Trisection ; Cube, Pattern; Object based on a Cube; Leaf 
 from Nature; Optional Color Exercise 
 
 BOOK II. 
 
 Drill Exercises : Three Views of a Horizontal Cylinder ; Square Prism, 
 Two Views; Oblong Tablet, Five Views; Square Prism, Pattern; 
 Envelope, from the Object ; Natural Objects ; Bowl ; Optional Color 
 Exercise ; Ornamental Form ; Ornament derived from Natural Form ; 
 Decorative Design, Units, Arrangement around a Centre; Boxes, 
 Two Views, Reviewed ; Vase Form ; Leaf from Nature ... 29 
 
 BOOK III. 
 
 Drill Exercises: Ellipsoid, Two Views; Ovoid, Three Views; Tri- 
 angular Prism, Pattern : Triangular Prism, Three Views ; Fruit, 
 from Nature; Appearance of a Cylinder below the Level of the Eye; 
 Covered Box, its Appearance below the Level of the Eye ; Optional 
 Color Exercise; Ornament, Rosette; Ornament; Decorative Design, 
 Units, Arrangement about a Centre; Toy House, Three Views; 
 Group of Objects ; Decorative Design, Rosette from a Flower Form 55 
 
VI CONTENTS. 
 
 BOOK IV. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Drill Exercises: Cube, Cylinder, and Cone, Two Views; Three Views of 
 a Book, from a Book; Constructive Design, Vase Form; Tumbler, 
 Flower-Pot, Facts and Appearance ; Rectangular Object in front of and 
 below the Level of the Eye ; Book Opened, In front of and below the 
 Level of the Eye ; Optional Color Exercises ; Border of Reversed and 
 Spiral Curves; Conventionalized Ivy Leaf, Twelfth Century Ornament ; 
 Decorative Design from the Bunchberry; Cylinder and Square Prism 
 combined, Drawing the Facts, Three Views; Cylinder and Square 
 Prism, Appearance below the Level of the Eye; Natural Growth, 
 From Nature 89 
 
 BOOK V. 
 
 Drill Exercises: Cube facing, Cube turned, Square Pyramid Turned; 
 Writing-Desk, Three Views, Dimension Lines; Hexagonal Prism, 
 Three Views ; Square Prism and Cube turned at an angle of 45 Degrees, 
 Appearance below the Level of the Eye ; Square Plinth turned at an angle 
 of 45, Appearance below the Level of the Eye ; Rectangular Object 
 turned, Appearance below the Level of the Eye ; Optional Color Exer- 
 cises ; Ornament, Fleur-de-lis ; Decorative Design, Modification of 
 Units; Decorative Design, Border; Working-Drawing, Common Ob- 
 ject; Group of Objects, Appearance; Decorative Design, From 
 Natural Form . . . , . . . . . 119 
 
 APPENDIX. COLOR 141 
 
PLAN OF THE SERIES. 
 
 THIS series comprises five drawing-books, accompanied by a manual, 
 which covers the work of the five books. Each book contains 
 
 DRILL PAGES FOR EXECUTION. 
 
 PRACTICE PAGES FOR DRAWING EXERCISES. 
 DRAWING EXERCISES. 
 
 PAGES FOR FOLDING, CUTTING, AND MAKING. 
 
 The books are planned with the idea of presenting in a most compact form 
 a drawing-book with paper for practice-drawing, folding, and making, all 
 under one cover. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 Each drawing exercise or page is accompanied by a practice page 
 facing it. The practice pages are lettered ; the drawing pages are num- 
 bered. Of necessity the practice page sometimes precedes and some- 
 times follows the drawing page ; for example, Ex. I. on page i of the 
 drawing-book is preceded by the practice page D; Ex. II. on page 2 is 
 followed^ the practice page E. In either case the practice page faces 
 the drawing page, and is of course to be used before the drawing page 
 to which it belongs. 
 
 The practice pages are perforated near the inner edge, so that after 
 being used as practice pages they may be readily detached, leaving in 
 the book only the better work of the drawing pages. 
 
 ADVANTAGES. 
 
 The advantages of the arrangement of the books are noted as fol- 
 lows : 
 
Vlll PLAN OF THE SERIES. 
 
 1. Practice pages and drawing pages being within one cover, the trouble in 
 the use and the care of two books is obviated. 
 
 2. The practice page, being arranged to face the drawing page to which it 
 belongs, is always ready for use at the proper time. 
 
 3. The practice pages, being perforated near the inner edge, can, after every 
 use is made of them which the Manual requires, be readily removed, leaving 
 the drawing-book to show the result of the pupil's practice and study. 
 
 4. Inasmuch as the pupils know that the practice pages are to be removed, 
 and are not to form part of the drawing-book proper, they will be more inclined 
 to work freely and to express their own thoughts. Pupils should never be 
 encouraged to work carelessly, but freedom of movement is of the greatest 
 importance, and the timid child is not inclined to work freely upon the page of 
 his drawing-book if he does not feel very sure of what he is to express and the 
 manner of expressing it. This confidence is to be gained by working upon 
 the practice pages of this series of books. 
 
 5. "Making" in connection with Form Study and Drawing is of the greatest 
 importance. Many of the perforated pages are to be used for making the 
 various forms suggested, while upon some of the pages patterns are printed 
 for the pupils to cut out and fold to make familiar forms. In these exer- 
 cises a beginning is made in Manual Training. The forms thus made are 
 to be used as objects of study and as models for drawing. 
 
 6. At the beginning of the book and elsewhere, certain pages are given to 
 drill exercises, which while taking but little time are of the greatest impor- 
 tance in producing freedom of movement and confidence on the part of the 
 pupil. 
 
 NATURE OF THE WORK. 
 
 The exercises require, 
 
 DRAWING FROM MODELS AND OBJECTS. 
 FROM DICTATION. 
 
 FROM WELL-CHOSEN COPIES. 
 FROM MEMORY. 
 
 ORIGINAL DESIGN. 
 
 MAKING MODELS AND OBJECTS. 
 
 Throughout the series the work is based upon the study of models, 
 common objects, and natural forms. From the first pupils learn to 
 draw from real objects and not from copies of objects. As the sense 
 
PLAN OF THE SERIES. IX 
 
 of touch furnishes one of the readiest means of ascertaining the form of 
 an object, the lessons are so planned as to require handling of the 
 models and objects by the pupils. 
 
 The work is strictly educational, it deals with the mind ; through 
 the study of concrete objects, thoughts are awakened which the hand 
 and eye are trained to express. 
 
 CHARACTER OF LINE IN DRAWING. 
 
 Particular attention is requested to the character of the lines in the 
 drawing-books. They are broad, soft, gray lines, like pencil lines. 
 They furnish to pupils models of the lines desired from them, lines 
 showing freedom of movement, ready handling and varying expression. 
 Such lines require a soft pencil, one not harder than an M grade. 
 
GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 
 
 IN acquiring a knowledge of Form, there are three stages : Percep- 
 tion, Thought, Expression. Observation of Form requires both Per- 
 ception and Thought. Expression of Form must of necessity be 
 preceded by Observation. These general directions will therefore be 
 classed under the two heads: Observation of Form and Expression 
 of Form. 
 
 OBSERVATION OF FORM. 
 
 Models and Objects. The term Form will be used in this manual as in- 
 cluding three dimensions, while Figure or Shape will be used as referring 
 to only two dimensions. Both Form and Shape should be observed first 
 in concrete objects. Hence the exercises in this series of books are based 
 on the use of models and objects. The models are of the simple type 
 forms, and are in both teacher's and pupils' sizes. 
 
 For the complete list see description at the end of the book.* The objects 
 chosen are based on type forms, and are such as can be procured with 
 very little trouble. 
 
 Every drawing exercise should begin with Observation of the models or 
 objects by the pupils. The directions under this head in each exercise 
 are given to indicate to the teacher the manner in w*hich the pupils should 
 be led to observe (that is, to perceive and to think about) the form of 
 Models and Objects. 
 
 Technical terms, which must of course be given by the teacher, should always 
 follow, not precede, the observation of the form or figure to which the 
 term applies. 
 
 * Where it is practicable, it will be of great advantage to have the pupils well supplied with models, 
 BO that each pupil mafy observe the model for himself through the hand by handling, placing, moving, 
 etc., as well as by the eye. 
 X 
 
GENERAL DIRECTIONS. XI 
 
 Judgment of Size and Proportion. The ability to judge correctly of size 
 and proportion is of great importance, and should be carefully cultivated 
 throughout all form study. An inch (generally expressed i") should be 
 made the standard at first, later a foot (generally expressed i') may be 
 introduced, and dimensions may be given in feet and inches. The teacher 
 should in some way introduce into every exercise, whether from an object 
 or from a copy, questions leading to judgment of definite length in inches, 
 and also to judgment of the proportion of models, objects, and figures, by 
 the consideration of the relative length of edges, of diameters, of profiles, 
 and of lines. 
 
 EXPRESSION OF FORM. 
 
 Value and Method. Expression of form is doubly valuable, on the one 
 hand to the pupil, as a means of completing the study of the form; on 
 the other hand to the teacher, as showing to what degree the pupil has 
 received the idea of a form. There are three ways by which ideas of 
 form can be expressed : by Making, by Drawing, by Language. 
 
 Making. Pupils can express their ideas of the form of a model or object 
 most completely by making the model or object; therefore, throughout this 
 series, frequent exercises are given in making objects as a part of the 
 regular work. . Modeling in clay is an admirable means of expression, and 
 is not difficult as a class exercise. Directions for the management of clay 
 can be found in the Primary Manual, called " The Use of Models," pub- 
 lished by The Prang Educational Company. Teachers should encourage 
 children in " making " simple objects in clay, paper, cloth, cardboard, wood, 
 etc. 
 
 Cutting. This exercise has been successfully introduced into many schools. 
 Its object is, that children may learn to observe figures, not lines ; to give 
 skill in using something besides a pencil; to learn by doing; when colored 
 paper is used, to aid in the study of color; to open new lines of thought; 
 to create interest ; in short, to more fully educate the child. In some of 
 the exercises it is directed that figures or designs cut from paper be pasted 
 upon the page of the drawing-book. This gives variety to the work. TQ 
 carry it out, the teacher has simply to pass about the room with a mucilage, 
 brush and touch each book in one place, near the centre of the space the 
 figure or design is to occupy; the pupil will then lay the design upon the 
 page and press it down. In no case should a design or a piece of papei 
 be pasted all over the back. 
 
xii GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 
 
 Drawing. Training in position, pencil-holding, movement, and drawing, as 
 indicated in the following directions, must be systematically pursued. 
 
 FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT. The importance of freedom of movement 
 in drawing cannot be overestimated. It produces lightness of touch, 
 quickness in execution, begets confidence in one's ability to draw, and 
 when acquired by a class of pupils, materially lessens the work of the 
 teacher. Experience among thousands of pupils shows conclusively, that 
 too much stress cannot be laid on the necessity for the early develop- 
 ment of freedom of movement. The ability to sketch rapidly and easily 
 an illustration of a thought awakened in the mind cannot be attained 
 without it. 
 
 A set of drawing-books, finished as draughtsmen would finish them, 
 rarely indicate the best teaching. It is of far more: importance that the 
 child should have opportunity to work for freedom of movement than 
 for straightness of line. 
 
 POSITION. The children should sit on the left half of the seat facing 
 the desk. They should sit erect, feet flat on the floor, the eyes never 
 nearer the paper than is necessary for a clear view of the lines. They 
 should not bend forward unnecessarily, and should learn to work at a 
 distance. 
 
 BOOK. The book should be directly in front of pupil, pushed back on the 
 desk, the long edges parallel to the long, edges of the desk. NEVER 
 TURN THE BOOK. To guard against undue rubbing or offsetting of the 
 lines, and also to protect the page from any moisture of the hand, pupils 
 should use a piece of cotton cloth the size of the page. While neatness 
 in work should always be insisted on, bold freehand work should never be 
 sacrificed for immaculate pages in the books. 
 
 PENCIL. The pencil should be of medium grade (Prang's School Pencil M 
 is the proper grade) for all freehand work. It should be sharpened to 
 a round but quite blunt point, and used for drawing only. When the 
 pencil is worn away it should be lengthened by a pencil-holder. Short 
 pencils should not be used. 
 
 The pencil should be held lightly three or four 
 inches from the point, so that it will have the sup- 
 port of the middle finger and be held by the thumb 
 and forefinger. Pencil-holding should be practiced 
 by itself before beginning to draw. 
 
GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 
 
 Xlll 
 
 PENCIL. The pencil should always be held at right angles to the line 
 to be drawn when drawing straight lines, and at an angle of about 30 
 to the paper. 
 
 Fig. i. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 3- 
 
 Fig. 4- 
 
 DRAWING. Vertical lines should be drawn from top to bottom ; hori- 
 zontal lines from left to right; oblique lines, as a rule, from top to 
 bottom. 
 
 Lines at the left and top should be drawn, first as a rule ; though all 
 parallel lines should be drawn in succession when practicable. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 Circles and vertical ellipses should be drawn from the lower end of the 
 imaginary vertical diameter, holding the pencil from left to rignt all 
 the time. In drawing horizontal ellipses the pencil should be held 
 as for a horizontal line. Circles, ellipses, and ovals should be sketched 
 with one sweep of the pencil. 
 
 Lines should "be drawn continuously, without stopping or retracing. 
 
 All curved lines, no matter how short, should be practiced over tha 
 printed copy before drawing. 
 
XIV GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 
 
 ERASING. All figures should be sketched with free movement without the 
 use of the eraser. Pupils should erase together as a class, and should not 
 be allowed to use the eraser when lining-in. 
 
 BLACKBOARD. Every opportunity possible for blackboard work should 
 be given to the pupils. 
 
 Color. The use of color in the study of form will be found of great value. 
 Color exercises are therefore suggested for each book. The primary, 
 secondary, and tertiary pigment colors and their combinations are pre- 
 sented in their order and with reference to their relative values. 
 
BOOK I. 
 
 Models. 
 
 SOLIDS : Sphere, Hemisphere, Cube. 
 TABLETS: Circle, Semicircle, Square. 
 NATURAL FORMS : Apple, Plantain Leaf. 
 OBJECTS : Fan, Shield, Box. 
 
 Decorative Forms. 
 
 QUATREFOIL, GREEK CROSS, ORIGINAL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 Making. 
 
 TABLET-LAYING : Borders. 
 STICK-LAYING : Angles, Borders. 
 
 FBOM A PATTERN: j Sphere Cube, Bo*. 
 
 1 Circle, Square, Cross. 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 PENCIL-HOLDING, MOVEMENT, LIGHT LINES, ERASING, BROAD 
 
 GRAY LINES. 
 
 Language. 
 
 (See page 28.) 
 
 NAMES OF MODELS AND DECORATIVE FORMS AND THEIR DETAILS. 
 TERMS OF LOCATION, DIRECTION, POSITION, SEEING, 
 LENGTH, DIVISION, ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 Color. 
 
 THE THREE PRIMARY PIGMENT COLORS- 
 
, . r , ,TEA CJI&KS MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK r. 
 
 DRILL EXERCISES. 
 
 Drawing-Book, page A. 
 
 OBJECT. Practice for proper position of pupil and of paper; proper pencil-holding; 
 free arm movement from left to right, from top to bottom, and from corner to corner. 
 
 Directions to the Teacher. Before beginning work in the book, 
 show pupils how to hold their pencils for free movement and draw^ 
 ing. Give practice in movement with the pencil from left to right, and 
 see \h& each pupil holds the pencil properly (see Fig. i, p. xiii), the 
 same for movement from top to bottom (see Fig. 2, p. xiii), and 
 from corner to corner (see Figs. 3 and 4, p. xiii). For movement and 
 for drawing count i, 2, 3, to keep the children together. 
 
 Practice. Open your book at page A, and" place it well back on the desk. Find 
 and read the points at tke left of the page (o, a, b, c, d, e, /).^Hbw far apart 
 are they? ;(I4.<iecessaT-^i|M^ teacher gives the distance, one iftjk.) <$ 
 
 Sit up straight, and with peiicr^m'hand, held properly, begin at point a, and move the 
 harfd acrq^s the *pa"ge (without drawing and with the whole arm movement) at 
 least three times ; the^n*^|rjjw lightly across the page with one continuous 
 movement. Repeat the-4>Jprnent and drawing, remembering to hold the pencil 
 properly and to practice- the movement before drawing. No erasing. 
 
 Read the points at the top of the page (o, /, 2, 3, etc.]. How far apart are 
 they ? Draw from these points down the page, remembering pencil-holding and 
 movement. Draw also from the upper left to the lower right corner, and from 
 the upper right to the lower left corner, with proper pencil-holding and move- 
 ment. Draw each line with one continuous movement. No erasing. 
 
BOOK I.] 
 
 DRILL EXERCISES. 
 
 Drawing-Book, page B. 
 
 OBJECT. Practice in direction from left to right, from top to bottom; drawing from 
 point to point with free arm movement. 
 
 Practice. On the left half of the page draw lines from left to right, on the right half, 
 from top to bottom, connecting the points given. Practice first pencil-holding, 
 then movement, then drawing, as for page A. No erasing. 
 
 Drawing-Boo^, page C. 
 OBJECT. Free arm movement, and drawing round and round. 
 
 To the Teacher. Give directions for holding the pencil for 
 movement round and round (see Fig. 5, p. xiii). The pencil must be 
 held the same throughout the ma&ernent. Count i, 2, 3, 4, etc. 
 
 
 D. B., page A, completed. 
 
 D. B., page C, completed. 
 
 
 Practice. Practice movement with proper pencil-holding over the first printed 
 circle without touching it, in the order i, 2, 3, 4, then draw round and round 
 on the printed circle. Repeat with the other circles. No erasing. 
 
TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK i. 
 
 EXERCISE I. Sphere. Its Outline. Circle. 
 
 MODELS : Sphere, Circle. 
 OBJECT. To study the form of a sphere, to see its outline, and to draw its outline. 
 
 Study of the Model by Pupils. Handle and grasp the model; 
 how does it feel ? (The teacher gives the name sphere.) 
 
 How much of the sphere can you see without turning it? Show 
 with the fingers, and tell what part can be^een, and what part cannot 
 be seen. (The part toward you, and the part aw^y. from you.) 
 
 Trace with the fingers on- the . sphere the Outline of the part that 
 can be seen ; trace the outline v ni the air. All pupils trace the outline 
 in the air ; what is the shape of the outline ? {Round. ) (The teacher 
 gives the name circle.) 
 
 Find a tablet having the shape of a circle, among several tablets 
 of different shapes. 
 
 D. B., 
 
 Practice page for Ex. I. 
 
 Practice. Draw with free arm 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 D. B., page D, completed. 
 
 movement, a line from c across the page, and 
 lines from 3 and 6 down the page, dividing it 
 into six parts. 
 
 In the upper left-hand space, beginning at i, and 
 moving in the direction i, 2, 3, 4, i, 2, etc. 
 (see D. B., page i), practice the movement for 
 a circle, as large as the space will allow, then 
 draw a circle with one sweep ; repeat in the 
 other spaces. Pay special attention to pencil- 
 holding, always pointing the pencil toward the 
 left. No erasing. 
 
BOOK 1.] 
 
 SPHERE. ITS OUTLINE. CIRCLE. 
 
 D. B., page 1. Drawing the outline of a Sphere. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What do the pictures in 
 the drawing-book represent ? How are the objects represented like 
 the sphere ? How are they unlike the sphere ? How large is the 
 picture of the sphere ? of the ball ? of the orange ? 
 
 Can you mention other objects spherical in form, objects in the 
 room, objects in your pockets, objects that you can remember? 
 Can any one make a sphere at home ? 
 
 Drawing. Outline of a sphere represented in the drawing-book by Fig. i. Draw 
 lightly an outline of a sphere, at the right, of the same size. 
 
 In drawing the outline, practice movement first on the printed copy, then over 
 the given points ; then draw lightly the circle at one sweep. Correct the circle, 
 erase errors, and complete the outline with a clear, soft, broad, gray line. 
 
TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK i. 
 
 EXERCISE II. Four Views of a Cube. Outlines of Different 
 Faces. Square. 
 
 MODELS : Sphere, Cube, Square. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the general form of a cube, its faces, edges, and corners ; to see and 
 to draw the outlines of different faces. 
 
 Study of the Models by the Pupils. What would you call the 
 new model ? (A block) Hold the sphere in one hand, and the block in 
 the other; how does the block feel? (Sharp, pointed) What do you 
 feel ? (Corners, edges.) (The teacher gives the name cube.) 
 
 Hold the cube in the right hand, strike it gently in the palm of the 
 left, and vice versa. Pass the fingers over the top of the cube, showing 
 how far it extends ; pass the fingers over the front, showing how far it 
 extends. (The teacher gives the name face.) 
 
 How many faces has a cube ? how many edges ? how many corners ? 
 How many faces of the cube can you see without turning the cube ? 
 Hold the cube so as to see but one face ; but two faces, three faces. 
 
 i ) 
 
 Find upright faces, called vertical faces. Find level faces, called 
 horizontal faces. Find horizontal and vertical faces and edges. Are 
 
BOOK I.] 
 
 FOUR VIEWS OF A CUBE, ETC. 
 
 the edges of the same length ? (The edges are equal} How long are 
 they ? 
 
 Hold the model so as to see but one face ; what is the shape of the 
 face? (Square.) Find a tablet of this shape. 
 
 Observe the front face of the cube, move the fingers on the left and 
 right edges ; what is the direction ? (From top to bottom, vertical} All 
 trace the direction in the air. Observe and trace the horizontal edges. 
 
 D. B., page E. Practice page for Ex. II. 
 
 OBJECT. To obtain the pupil's idea of the front face of a cube. 
 
 Practice. Draw upon this page an outline of the front face of the cube, without 
 further direction, making a large drawing. No erasing. What have you drawn ? 
 
 D. B. t page 2. Drawing the outlines of different faces of a Cube. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What is the name of the 
 model? Open the books. What do the pictures represent? 
 
 Mention objects like a cube ? Can any one make a cube, or an 
 object like a cube ? Point out the front face of the cube ; what is its 
 shape ? the left face, its shape ? the top and right faces, their shape ? 
 
 Drawing. The front face of a cube is given in the drawing-book. Draw the left, 
 (top, and right faces, using the angles given. In all figures draw by parallels 
 
 when possible. Therefore the general order 
 
 in drawing a square is, left side, right side, 
 
 upper side, lower side. 
 This order can be followed readily in drawing 
 
 the left face, as the angles are all given. Be- 
 fore beginning to draw the top and right 
 
 faces, place a point for the upper right hand 
 
 corner of each square. 
 
 D. B., page 2, completed. 
 
8 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK i. 
 
 EXERCISE III. Two Views of a Hemisphere. Top View, Front View. 
 
 MODELS : Sphere, Cube, Hemisphere, Semicircle. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the form of a hemisphere ; to see and to draw the outline of its top 
 view, of its front view. 
 
 Study of the Hemisphere by Pupils. How many faces has 
 this model? (Two.) How do they differ? (One is rounding; one is 
 flat?) (The teacher gives the word plane, the 
 carpenter's plane, and the surface which it 
 makes, being used as illustrations.) What is 
 the model like? (Half a sphere.) (The 
 teacher gives the name hemisphere.) 
 (View from the window noticed ; beautiful view recalled ; out-door 
 views mentioned.) What view have you in the school-room ? (Indoor 
 view, schoolroom view) Place the plane face of the hemisphere on a 
 book, and look directly down upon it. W T hat part of the hemisphere is 
 in view ? (The top) W 7 hat view of the hemisphere have you ? (Top 
 view.) What is the shape of the top view? (Circle) (Front view, 
 and its shape semicircle, brought out in the same way.) Find a 
 tablet having the shape of the front view. 
 
 (Curved and straight edge brought out through movement on the 
 edges of the hemisphere and cube and of the semicircle.) Draw the 
 top view and the front view of the hemisphere on the blackboard. 
 See illustration, p. u. What figures have you made? What kinds 
 of lines are there in the front view? (Curved and straight.) 
 
BOOK i.j TWO VIEWS OF A HEMISPHERE. 9 
 
 D. B., page F, left h alf. Practice for Ex. III. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. The top view of a hemi- 
 sphere is given, the front view is required below. How wide is the top 
 view? (Three inches^) How wide is the front view? (As wide as the 
 top view.) How high? (Half as high as wide.) How many inches? 
 
 Bisecting. Turn to a blank page in the middle of the drawing- 
 book. Fold the left edge over to meet the perforations. Crease the 
 fold firmly, and detach carefully on the fold. (The teacher gives the 
 term bisect, to divide into two equal parts.) Bisect the edges of 
 the part detached in the same way until the term is well understood. 
 
 Practice. Point i is given below the top view; place a point at 
 
 the right to show the width of the front view ; practice the f >. 
 movement and draw a horizontal for the base of the semicircle. 1 1 \ 
 
 Place a point in the middle of the horizontal (bisect it) ; then place a point as far 
 above the point of bisection as half the length of the line for the altitude of 
 the curve. Beginning at i, practice movement for a semicircle, and draw it. 
 No erasing. 
 
 See page n for the illustrations of D. B., pp. p and 3 completed. 
 
 D. B., page 3. Drawing the outline of the front view of the Hemi- 
 sphere. 
 
 Observation of Sphere, Cube, and Hemisphere by Pupils. 
 
 What are the names of the models ? What do the pictures in the draw- 
 ing-book represent ? Can you mention objects like a hemisphere ? Can 
 any one make and bring to school an object like a hemisphere ? Look 
 down on the model to get a top view; what is its shape? Observe 
 the front view in the same manner. 
 
 Drawing. Draw the top view through the given points, first practicing for move- 
 ment; draw the front view below the top view, using the given points. 
 
10 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 EXERCISE IV. Circular Tablet. Five Views. 
 
 MODEL : Circular Tablet. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the shape of a circular tablet to cut it out to see and to draw its 
 face view, its edge view. 
 
 Making and Studying the Model by the Pupils. Fold page 
 F vertically through the middle, and detach carefully the left half of the 
 page. Cut out the circle printed on the part detached.* 
 
 Find the face of the paper tablet, find its edge. Hold the tablet facing 
 you ; what is its shape ? What would you draw for the outline ? 
 
 * If the pupils do not have scissors in school, this part of the exercise should be done previous to the 
 lesson, the cutting being done at home. 
 
BOOK I.] 
 
 CIRCULAR TABLET. FIVE VIEWS. 
 
 II 
 
 Look at the edge in various parts to see if the paper is thick or thin, 
 if it has the same thickness everywhere ; hold it so as to look at the 
 edge from the top, from the bottom, from the left, from the right ; 
 draw on the board the face view of the tablet, and its top, bottom, left, 
 and right edge views. All this work is intended for pupils. 
 
 Fold the nearer edge of the circle over to the farther edge and crease 
 the fold; unfold, where is the crease? (From one side to the other, 
 through the middled) (The teacher gives the names diameter , the meas- 
 ure through, and centre.) 
 
 D. B., page F, completed. 
 
 D. B., page 3, completed. 
 
 Turn the circle around and fold so that the nearer end of the diameter 
 just touches the farther end ; crease, unfold. What have you ? (A circh 
 and two diameters, as on page F of the drawing-book^) How long are the 
 diameters ? (Three inchest) 
 
 D. B., page F. Practice page for Ex. IV. 
 
 Practice. The face view of a circular tablet is printed, and points are given for the 
 top and left-edge views. How long should the bottom and right edge views be ? 
 Draw the top, bottom, left, and right edge views. No erasing. 
 
 D, B., page 3. Drawing the edge views of a Circular Tablet. 
 
 Cutting the Tablet. Before drawing the edge views, cut a circle 
 of paper (blue if possible) at home or at school, and paste it in the 
 drawing-book to cover the printed circle. 
 
 Drawing. Draw the top view, bottom view, left edge view, right edge view, using 
 the points given. 
 
12 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK i. 
 
 EXERCISE V.- Apple, from the Object. 
 
 MODELS: Sphere, apple; each pupil brings an apple, irregular in form. 
 
 OBJECT. To study a familiar object of spherical form ; to see and to draw the outlines 
 of an apple; to line in the outlines. 
 
 Study of the Models by Pupils. Span the sphere from top 
 to bottom and from left to right ; are the distances the same ? How 
 do they compare ? Span the apple from top to bottom, from left 
 to right. How do the distances compare ? Hold the apple on a level 
 with the eyes and trace the outline on the apple with the fingers, 
 following the depression at the stem and at the blossom. 
 
 Place a pencil on the sphere (the pencil touches at but one point). 
 Place a pencil across the top of the apple; notice where it touches 
 and whether it slants; observe the bottom and the sides in a similar 
 way. 
 
BOOK i.] APPLE, FROM THE OBJECT. 13 
 
 D. B., page G> Practice page for Ex. V. 
 
 Practice. Make on the left half of the page a full size drawing of the apple 
 just studied, blocking it in, as in Figs. 2-5. Span the apple for height and 
 width; draw light lines to show height, as in i, 2, Fig. 2, then light lines to 
 show the width, as 3, 4, greater or less than the height as the case may be. 
 
 Draw straight lines for the shoulders (see Fig. 3), slant the sides if necessary and 
 draw straight lines for the lower part of the sides. Draw straight lines for the 
 stem and the depression (see Fig. 4), always drawing two lines to show the width 
 of the stem. Draw the curves of the apple over the straight lines. (See Fig. 5.) 
 
 Place the apple on a book, held slightly below the level the eye, and look at the far- 
 ther edge of the book ; how much of it can you see ? Imagine that you can see 
 the whole of the edge ; how much of the apple would appear below the edge ? 
 Draw a line for the edge as you see it. This is called the table line. No 
 erasing. 
 
 On the right half, block in the same apple again. Erase wrong and unnecessary 
 lines, and finish with broad, soft, gray lines, studying the curves of the apple 
 and drawing with a free movement. 
 
 Table linear V / Farther edge of the table. 
 
 Fig. i. 
 
 oo 
 
 Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. Fig. 5. 
 
 D. B., page 4. Drawing the outline of an Apple. 
 
 Observation. Study the apple carefully again in the manner 
 given above. 
 
 Drawing. Draw its outlines as above, striving to improve on the last drawing. 
 Finish the outlines with broad, soft, gray lines. 
 
14 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK i 
 
 EXERCISE VI Fan from the Object. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the form of an object based on a circle, to see and to draw it 
 outlines, to practice trisection. 
 
 Study of the Fan by Pupils. Look at the fan. Follow with 
 your finger the shape of the fan ; what is the shape like ? (Some- 
 what like a circle^ Trace the shape again in the air ; where is it 
 not like a circle ? 
 
 Point to the centre of the fan ; look now at these distances, 
 from the top to the centre, from the centre to the upper end of the 
 handle, from the upper end of the handle to the lower end ; how 
 do the distances compare ? 
 
 Point to the middle of the top of the fan, and then move your finger 
 straight down to the bottom of the handle. Suppose such a line were 
 drawn on the fan, how would the part at the left of the line and the 
 part at the right compare in size and shape? (They would be alike, or 
 equal.) Describe the line. (// divides the fan into two equal parts.) 
 The teacher gives the name axis for such an imaginary line. 
 
 Trisection. Turn to the half page in the middle of the book; 
 detach it. Look at the upper edge, and think how to divide it into 
 three equal parts, to trisect it. Use the fore- 
 fingers of both hands to trisect the edge, and 
 look at the distances carefully. Then fold the 
 paper to get three equal parts ; crease the folds 
 and detach the parts. 
 
 Place one of the parts vertically on the desk 
 and trisect the left edge, first with the fingers, then by folding. 
 
 D. B., page H. Practice page for Ex. VI. Dictation. 
 
 Practice. The teacher dictates step by step, the class working together. Trisect the 
 upper edge of the page, and mark the points lightly. From the first point at 
 the left draw a vertical line down the page, with a free movement. 
 
BOOK I.] 
 
 FAN FROM THE OBJECT. 
 
 Bisect the left edge of the page. From the point of bisection draw a horizontal to 
 meet the vertical, with free movement. In each of the two spaces at the left, 
 thus made, draw a circle, practicing circular 
 movement over the paper first. 
 
 Find the second point of trisection on the upper 
 edge of the page. Make a slight point, half 
 an inch below, and mark it I. From i 
 draw a vertical with a free movement, stop- 
 ping half an inch from the lower edge of the 
 page. 
 
 Trisect the vertical and mark the points of tri- 
 section 2, 3. Use the part of the vertical 
 from i to 3 as a vertical diameter for a D> B " pa e e H completed.* 
 
 circle. 2 will be the centre of the circle. Place points at the left and right of 
 2 for a horizontal diameter, and draw it with a free movement. Draw a circle on 
 the diameters, practicing the movement first. No erasing.^ 
 
 D. B., page 5. Drawing the outline of the Fan. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What are Figs, i, 2,3? 
 In Fig. 3, which is the axis ? There is a curve across the lower part of 
 the circle in Fig. 3.; what kind of a curve is it? (Circular.) Any part 
 of a curve is called an arc. How is the point where this arc crosses 
 the axis found ? (By trisecting the middle third of the axis.) How are 
 the places found for the ribs of the frame ? What is the character 
 of the line in the arc and the ribs ? 
 
 Drawing. Connect points given by a vertical. Follow the order of drawing 
 given for p. 12. In the upper part of the circle draw the curve for the uppei 
 part of the fan. Draw the handle Add other details. Finish in soft gray lines, 
 noticing the character of the lines in Fig. i. 
 
 Strive to make the drawing like the outline of the fan, which is presented as an object. 
 Perhaps this fan may not be just like the printed fan, but in any case 
 Fig. 3 will suggest the way to study the details. 
 
 * By mistake, points, figures, and letters were printed on this page in the first edition of the drawing- 
 book. The page should be blank. 
 
 t Cutting. Where pupils have scissors, this fan can now be cut out, adding the necessary width 
 for the handle each side of the vertical and shaping the upper part like Fig. i, D. B., page 5. 
 
1 6 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK i. 
 
 EXERCISE VII. -Shield. 
 
 OBJECT. To learn one form of a shield, to study its proportion and shape, to draw 
 its outline. 
 
 Study of the Figure by Pupils. Open your drawing-book at 
 p. 6. What can you tell about the shape of the figure ? (It is higher 
 than it is wide, the two sides are alike.) 
 
 Move your finger down the copy showing the height of the 
 figure ; through what part of the figure have you moved ? (Through 
 the middle of the figure) What is the name of the line traced by 
 the movement ? (The axis of the figure^ Sketch the axis on the copy. 
 
 Where is the widest part of the figure ? (At the upper horizontal^} 
 Trace this horizontal with your finger, and note where you cross the 
 axis. Is the width of the figure greater or less than the height ? 
 
 What is the shape of the figure? (The teacher gives the name 
 shield.) What can you tell about the outline of the shield ? (// is 
 made of curved lines, it is not as wide at the top as at the upper hori- 
 zontal line, it has three points at the top and one at the bottom) Where 
 are the points at the top placed? (One is in the middle, the two out- 
 side points are in a straight line with the middle point, they are not quite 
 as far from the axis as the ends of the horizontal are) 
 
 Trace the upper curve on the left with your finger, on the 
 right. Repeat several times. Of what does the movement make 
 you think ? Trace the long curve at the left side, at the right. 
 Repeat. Of what does the movement make you think ? 
 
 In ancient warfare a shield was borne on the left arm, to screen the 
 body from the darts of the enemy. Shields were of different mate- 
 rials and of different forms. The arms which distinguish a family or a 
 state are now generally displayed on the figure of a shield. In the 
 great seal of the United States, the American eagle is represented 
 with one foot planted on a shield, having the upper part blue with 
 stars upon it, the lower part bearing thirteen stripes, red and white 
 alternating, to represent the. thirteen original states. This shield is 
 illustrated on the opposite page, also a simple French shield. 
 
BOOK I.] 
 
 SHIELD. 
 
 Under what point 
 
 D. B., page I. Practice page for Ex. VII. 
 
 Practice. From a draw a light horizontal four inches long, 
 should the right end of the line be ? Bisect 
 the line. Draw a light vertical downward 
 from 2, extending as far below the horizon- 
 tal as the length of the horizontal. Oppo- 
 site what point should the lower end be? 
 
 Practice the movement for the upper left curve 
 on the copy on page 6. Beginning a little 
 at the right of o on page I, practice the D. B., page I, completed, 
 
 same movement. Draw freely and lightly. Repeat on the right. 
 
 Practice and draw the side curves in a similar manner. Draw the second horizon- 
 tal half an inch below the upper. No erasing. 
 
 Repeat on the right half of the page, beginning an inch below 5. 
 
 D. B., page 6. Drawing the outline of a Shield. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. How many inches wide are 
 the shields you drew on page I ? how many inches high ? What is the 
 proportion of the width to the height ? (Four inches to Jive inches, four 
 to five.) How long is the vertical from the upper horizontal down? 
 from the upper horizontal up ? 
 
 Drawing. Connect the points given at the right by a light horizontal. Bisect the 
 horizontal, and bisect its left half, that, is, quadrisect the horizontal. Through the 
 middle of the horizontal draw a vertical for the axis of the shield, first deciding 
 where to begin and where to end. Draw the shield, studying Fig. 2 for details. 
 
i8 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK L 
 
 DRILL EXERCISES. 
 
 D. B. t page J. Square, Diameters, and Diagonals. 
 
 Practice. Folding. Fold the leaf at a; detach and make two squares. Place one 
 square in front of you, an edge toward you ; fold the nearer edge to meet the far- 
 ther edge. Unfold and fold the other two edges together. Unfold ; what can you 
 tell about the creases ? (They go from the middle of one side to the middle of the 
 opposite side ; there can be only two in a square ; they are equal, they are as long as 
 the sides of the square.) See Fig. i. (The teacher gives the name diameter.) 
 
 Place the other square in front of you, a corner toward you ; fold the nearer corner to 
 meet the farther corner; unfold. Fold the other two corners together. Unfold; 
 what can you tell about the creases ? ( They go from one corner to the opposite 
 corner, they cross in the centre, there can be only two in a square, they are equal, 
 they are longer than the diameters.) See Fig. 2. (The teacher gives the name 
 diagonal.) Keep this square. 
 
 Fig. i. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig- 3- 
 
 Fig- 4. 
 
 Drawing. A square resting on its side is printed. Bisect its sides and draw its 
 diameters lightly, practicing movement first. Draw lines to connect the ends of 
 the diameters, in the order i, 2, 3, 4. See Fig. 3. Compare the two squares. 
 
 D. B., page K. Angles, right, acute, and obtuse. 
 
 Practice. Folding. Use the paper square with diagonals, made for page J Fold 
 one diameter. Fold from one corner to the middle. See Fig. 4. Hold with long 
 edge at the top. Compare the direction of edges by movement on the edges 
 (two horizontal, one vertical, one slanting.) (The teacher gives the word oblique.) 
 Stick-Laying. Look at the corners of the folded square, compare and describe 
 (square, sharp, bhint). Lay these corners with sticks, one square corner, one 
 
 sharp, one blunt. Turn the folded square and lay 
 
 <^ f again three corners. (The teacher gives terms 
 
 ^"^ / right angle, acute angle, obtuse angle.) 
 
 Drawing. Draw on page K two right, two acute, 
 
 L\^^ \ and two obtuse angles, from the arrangements 
 
 ,^--* > \ made with sticks. The illustration of the page 
 
 completed shows one arrangement. There are 
 D, B., page K, completed. many others which can be made. No erasing. 
 
BOOK I.J 
 
 DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 EXERCISE VIII. Decorative Design. Borders. 
 
 MODELS : Squares and Sticks for Arrangement. 
 OBJECT. To learn what is meant by a border, how to arrange a border, and how to draw it. 
 
 Study of Borders by Pupils. (The teacher shows borders about 
 the room, on wall-paper, on books, on aprons, on handkerchiefs ; the 
 pupils find other borders.) Why do we have borders? What figures 
 do you find in the borders ? Do you find figures repeated ? Do you 
 find any borders that have not figures repeated ? Borders are usually 
 made by the repetition of figures, called repetition in a straight line. 
 
 What kinds of angles do you find on page L? (Fig. i is a rig/it 
 angle ; Fig. 2, right ; Fig. 3, acute ; Fig. 4, obtuse.) What kinds of figures? 
 (Fig. 5 is a square on its side ; Fig. 6, a square on its corner?) 
 
 D. B., page L. Practice page for Ex. VIII. 
 
 Z/Z> /\/\ 
 
 Practice. Lay with sticks (two and three inches long), borders of right, acute, or 
 obtuse angles. Draw two of these border;; on page L, connecting the points given. 
 Illustrations of borders are given here as suggestions to teachers. Arrange 
 tablets or square pieces of paper for another border, placing the squares either 
 on the sides or on the corners. Draw this border in the last space. No erasing. 
 
 Cut squares of colored paper neatly of the right size for the lower border for page 7. 
 Remember that whether the square is on its side or on its corner, it must not be 
 higher from top to bottom than the space between the points. 
 
 D. B., page 7. Making Borders. 
 
 Drawing. Draw in the upper space one of the two upper borders on page L. 
 Arranging. Paste in the lower space the colored squares to make a border like the 
 lower border on page L. 
 
2O TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK i. 
 
 EXERCISE IX. -Quatref oil. -Repetition about a Centre. 
 
 TABLETS : Square, Four Semicircles. 
 OBJECT. To learn the shape of the quatref oil ; to see and to draw its outline in a square. 
 
 Study of the Figure. Open your books at page 8. What do 
 you see in Fig. i ? (A square on its side, and in it a figure having 
 the outline of four semicircles) What do you see in Fig. 2 ? (A- square 
 on its side, and in it the same figure of four semicircles^) In Fig. 3? 
 (A circle, and in it the same figure of four semicircles'.} This figure is 
 called a quatref oil, meaning four-leaved.) What is Fig. 5 ? (A quat re- 
 foil in a square^} How should you think it was made ? (By draining 
 a square and drawing a semicircle on each side.) Where is the square ? 
 (/;/ the centre.) And the semicircles ? {Around the square in the centre?)* 
 
 Look at the lower border on page 7 ; how are squares placed to make 
 the borders ? (In a straight line, one after the other, not touching?) How 
 are the semicircles placed in the quatrefoil ? (Around the middle square, 
 and touching it all along the sides.) This arrangement of figures is called 
 repetition about a centre. 
 
 What is a semicircle ? {Half a circle) How does its altitude com- 
 pare with its base ? (77/6' altitude of a semicircle is half its base.) 
 
 D. JB., page M. Practice page for Ex. IX. 
 
 Practice. Draw with free arm movement, practicing direction before drawing 
 from 3, a vertical down the page from b and 
 d, horizontals across the page a semicircle 
 in each of the three spaces at the left. Make 
 points on the upper horizontal, directly below 
 points 5 and 7. From each of the points thus 
 made draw a vertical downward to the lower 
 horizontal, thus making a square. Upon 
 each side of the square draw semicircles 
 curving outward, first on the upper and lower 
 sides of the square, then on the left and right D> ?>) page M ' completed. 
 
 sides. No erasing. What figure have you drawn ? 
 
 * This lesson can be given to great advantage by providing pupils with tablets or paper squares and 
 semicircles, to arrange for Fig. 5. 
 
BOOK i.] QUATREFOIL. REPETITION ABOUT A CENTRE. 21 
 
 D. B., page 8. Drawing the outline of a Quatrefoil in a Square. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What can you tell about 
 Figs, i, 2, and 3 ? Look for a quatrefoil in the schoolroom, on the wall- 
 
 paper, in the platform carpet ; in iron-work, as stove, registers, desk- 
 standards, etc. ; on dresses, aprons, neck-ties, etc. ; try to remember any 
 quatrefoil that you may have seen in decoration, or in buildings. 
 
 Out of school, try to find a picture having a quatrefoil in it, in 
 a newspaper. Bring the paper to school, and show the picture, or, if 
 you can be allowed, cut the picture out. Then, having detached page 
 M, the picture can be pasted to the margin which remains in the 
 book as an illustration of the way in which a quatrefoil is used. 
 
 Drawing. Points are given for the diameters of a square. Draw the diameters and 
 the square lightly, in the order given for page M. Place a point in the centre 
 of each small square. Draw the inner square lightly. Draw the semicircles freely 
 and lightly. Erase the diameters and the inner square and finish the outer square 
 and quatrefoil with broad, soft gray lines. 
 
 Cutting a Quatrefoil. Cut a square. Draw the diameters. Mark the points for 
 the inner square. Cut the semicircles freely without drawing. 
 
22 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK i. 
 
 EXERCISE X. Greek Cross. Trisection. 
 
 MODELS: Cross cut from colored paper, Square, having the same dimen- 
 sions as the cross, cut from manila paper. 
 
 OBJECT. To learn the shape of the Greek cross, to see and to draw its outline. 
 
 Study of the Paper Cross. What is the model? (A cross.) 
 Can you draw at the board a cross that is different from this, and 
 tell how it differs ? (The first is alike on all four sides ; the second 
 is like the first at the top, at the left, and at the right, but it is longer 
 at the bottom.} 
 
 Greek Cross. 
 
 Latin Cross. 
 
 Maltese Cross. 
 
 (The teacher gives the names Greek cross, having four equal arms ; 
 Latin cross, having the three upper arms equal, and the fourth, the shaft, 
 longer than the other three} 
 
 Compare the width of this Greek cross with its height ; how do 
 they compare ? (They are equal} What figures do you know that 
 are just as wide as they are high ? (Circle, square, 
 quatrefoil} Which will help you to draw the outline 
 of the Greek cross ? (The square.) 
 
 (The teacher places the cross on the manila square? 
 and leads the pupils to tell how the Greek cross could 
 be made with tablets or paper squares, as in the case 
 of the quatrefoil, see p. 20 ; and also that the sides of the square 
 are divided into three equal parts, trisected, by the tablets.) 
 
BOOK I.] 
 
 GREEK CROSS. 
 
 D. B., page N. Practice page for Ex. X. 
 
 Practice. Free movement and proper pencil-holding. Draw a square of suitable 
 size for the page, by drawing first two indefinite horizontals, then the verticals. 
 
 Trisect the left side. Draw horizontals across the square. Trisect the upper side. 
 Draw verticals down the square. No erasing, 
 
 Complete the outline of the cross in broad, soft gray lines. 
 
 D.B., page 9. Drawing the outline of the Cross. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What can you tell about 
 Fig. i ? Can you find the figure of a Greek cross in the school- 
 room ? 
 
 Try to remember any Greek or Latin cross that you may have 
 seen elsewhere.* 
 
 Drawing. Two corners of a square are printed. Draw the square. Trisect 
 the left and upper sides and draw horizontals and verticals, as in Fig. 3. 
 Finish as in Fig. i. 
 
 Cue a square of red paper of the size of Fig. i. Upon the back of the 
 square trisect the sides and draw horizontals and verticals as in Fig. 3. 
 Cut out the cross and paste it in the drawing-book below Fig. i, the upper 
 edge of the upper arm of -the cross being placed just on the printed 
 horizontal. Or, draw very lightly a Greek cross of the size of Fig. i, using 
 the printed horizontal as the upper line of the upper arm, and color it red.t 
 
 * Pupils may be led, if circumstances are favorable, to observe that churches are frequently built 
 on the plan of a cross. 
 
 t For exercises in Dimension and Color, giving practice in the use of each of the three primary 
 pigment colors, and also the relative amount of each used in composition of color, see D. B., page R, 
 for directions, see page 27. 
 
24 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK I. 
 
 EXERCISE XI, Cube. Drawing the Pattern, 
 
 MODEL: Cube. 
 
 OBJECT. To work out the pattern of a cube, to make a hollow cube, to draw the 
 pattern. 
 
 Working out the Pattern from the Model. What is a 
 pattern ? Can you mention something made from a pattern ? 
 (Iron castings, anything made of cast metal.) Such things are made 
 from solid patterns ; the cube might be a pattern for iron-casting. Can 
 you mention something made from flat patterns ? (Dresses, clothing, 
 anything made of cloth or leather ; dippers, basins, anything made of sheet 
 metal, tin, iron, etc.; boxes, card-board houses, anything made of pasteboard 
 or paper^} What are patterns for ? 
 
 We want to make a hollow paper cube of this size \ what must we 
 have so as to get the right form and size ? (A pattern^) Must it 
 be a solid or a flat pattern ? (Flat) Let us try to find out what 
 the shape of the pattern will be. Turn the cube over in your hand ; 
 how many faces has it, and what is their shape ? (Six square faces.) 
 What must your pattern have, then ? (Six squares) 
 
 Detach the middle page of the drawing-book, and place the cube on 
 it half-way down the page, a little to the left of the centre. Crease the 
 paper around the bottom face ; take up the cube. What have you 
 creased in the paper ? (A square, the pattern of the bottom face) Put 
 the cube back on the square, fold the paper over it, and crease the 
 other faces, 
 
 D, B., page O. Practice page for Ex. XI. 
 
 Practice. From points 3 and 5 draw verticals down the page, and from 
 ' points b and d draw horizontals across the page. 
 
 The square formed by the crossing of these lines may be taken for the 
 pattern of the bottom face of the cube. How can the pattern for the 
 back face be completed ? (By drawing a vertical for its left edge an inch 
 from 6.) Draw it. No erasing. 
 
 (The back and front faces, the right and top faces, developed in a similar way.) 
 
 How could the drawing of the pattern have been made with long lines ? 
 
BOOK I.] 
 
 CUBS. - DRA WING THE PA TTERN. 
 
 D. B., page O, completed. 
 
 D. B. t page S. Making a hollow Cube. 
 
 What is printed on the page ? (The pattern of a cube.} What be- 
 sides ? Figs. 2 and 3 are patterns to be put together to make a 
 ball-cover. 
 
 (The teacher speaks of the laps on the pattern of the cube and 
 their use in making a cube, to be pasted so as to hold the faces 
 of the cube together.) 
 
 Cut out the pattern, Fig. i, taking care not to cut off the laps; 
 fold it so as to make a cube, and paste it together. 
 
 Cut out the patterns Figs. 2 and 3, take them home and use 
 them as patterns for the cover of a ball. 
 
 D. B., page 10. Drawing the pattern of a Cube. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What are Figs, i, 2, and 
 3 ? Turn the book sideways ; what is the shape of Fig. i ? (The 
 shape of the Latin sross.) Suppose that you wished to make a hol- 
 low cube open at the top, without any top face, what would be 
 the shape of the pattern ? (A Greek cross.) 
 
 Drawing. The printed square shows the place of the bottom face in the pat- 
 tern to be drawn. 
 
 Draw the pattern as in Fig. i, using the point given at the left and that given 
 above. Draw the long horizontals indefinitely, then the verticals, finishing 
 with the shorter verticals and horizontals. Finish the outline of the pattern 
 in broad, soft gray lines. 
 
26 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK I. 
 
 EXERCISE XII. Box made by the Pupil. Drawing the outline off 
 its front or its side face. 
 
 MODEL : Box made "by the pupil. 
 
 OBJECT. To study an object based on a cube ; to see and to draw the outlines of one 
 face. 
 
 Making the Model, D. B.,page P. Cut out the pattern printed, 
 cutting along each dark line ; fold along each light 
 line. Paste the laps of 2 on the inside of 4 and 5 ; 
 
 1***A^x. JL t*kJVX^ VAAVs J.(~t|kS_> V/X ft VS^l (rAJX* IA10JAAV \J J. L CL11U K * 
 
 paste the laps of 3 on the inside of 4 and 5 ; fold 
 the cover 6 at the front corners; lap and paste, 
 to make the model. What is the form of the box? 
 (Like a cube, cubic?) The shape of its faces? (Square) The height 
 of the cover compared with the height of the box? (One-fourth the 
 height of the box.) 
 
 D. B., page 11. Drawing the outlines of the Box. 
 
 Observation. What do the pictures represent? (Fig. i, a box shut, 
 placed so that you can see the' top of it, the corner toward you; Fig. 2, a box 
 open, placed so that you can see into it, the corner toward you.) Place your 
 box to look as in Fig. i ; as in Fig. 2. Hold it up so that you can 
 see only the front face. In drawing the front face, what would you 
 draw first ? (A square.) What would you do next ? (Bisect the left 
 edge, Insect the upper half for the height of the cover, then draw a horizon- 
 tal for the lower edge of the covert) Turn the box and look at the 
 side face. How would you draw the side face ? 
 
 Drawing. Draw the front face of the box which you have made, making your 
 drawing twice as high and twice as wide as the box. Follow the order of 
 work given above. Finish in broad, soft gray lines. 
 
BOOK i.] LEAF FROM NATURE. 2J 
 
 EXERCISE XIII. Leaf from Nature. 
 
 MODEL : Plantain leaf about the size of the copy, brought by each child. 
 OBJECT, To study a natural leaf, to see and to draw its outline. 
 
 Study of the Leaf by Pupils-. Pass your thumb, and fingers 
 along the stem of your leaf and out to the point ; 
 what do you feel ? Turn the leaf over ; what do 
 you see running out to the point or apex of 
 the leaf? (Ridges ribs a midrib.) 
 
 Lay the leaf upon the desk. Beginning at the 
 apex of the leaf with each forefinger, trace around 
 the edge or margin of the leaf and down the 
 stem. Trace the margin again, but trace with long straight lines. 
 Trace the midrib in the same way. How does it look near the apex 
 of the leaf? How far down the stem does it go? 
 
 D. B., page Q. Practice page for Ex. XIII. 
 
 Practice. Place the leaf on the left half of the page. Draw the midrib in straight 
 lines, making it as Long as the midrib of the leaf. Draw each margin with three 
 straight lines. Draw the curve for each margin and for the midrib over the 
 straight lines, at one sweep, getting the curve by movement. No erasing. 
 
 D. B., page 12. Drawing the outline of a Leaf. 
 
 Drawing. At the right draw your leaf, as on page Q (not the copy), and finish. 
 
 OPTIONAL EXERCISE IN DIMENSION AND COLOR. 
 
 D. B., page R. 
 
 Dictation. From a, &, c, d, e,f draw light horizontals across the page; from i and 
 
 8 draw verticals down the page. Beginning 
 
 i inch to the right of rt, draw a straight line r 
 figure 3 half-inches long and i inch high ; i 
 
 inch below, a figure 5 half-inches long and i ' ' * ' 
 
 inch high ; i inch below, a figure 8 half-inches . . 
 
 long and i inch high. Draw the same figures I 1 1 \ 
 
 in inverse order on the right. See illustration. 
 
 Color the figures of 3 half-inches yellow, those ' j i j j 
 
 of five half-inches red, those of 8 half-inches , L ' * 
 
 blue D. B., page R, completed. 
 
28 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK L 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 The answers italicized in the text for each exercise are generally 
 abbreviated; and are intended only as suggestions, and not as models 
 ot the form of answers to be required from pupils. But teachers 
 should give pupils frequent opportunities of applying the following 
 terms and names, and should require complete sentences. 
 
 Terms of Location, Direction, Position, Seeing, Length, and Division. 
 
 LOCATION. Left, right, top, bottom ; left edge, right edge, upper edge, lower 
 
 edge ; upper left corner, upper right corner, lower left corner, lower right 
 
 corner. 
 DIRECTION AND POSITION. From left to right, from top to bottom, from 
 
 corner to corner; circular, curved, straight; vertical, horizontal, oblique. 
 SEEING. The part toward you, the part away from you ; top view, front 
 
 view. 
 
 LENGTH. Long, short, equal; one inch, two inches, three inches, etc. 
 DIVISION. Bisect, trisect. 
 
 Names of Models, Objects, Arrangements, and Details. 
 
 SPHERE, CUBE, HEMISPHERE; face, edge, corner. 
 
 CIRCLE, SEMICIRCLE, ARC; centre, diameter. 
 
 SQUARE; diameter, diagonal; on its side, on its corner. 
 
 ANGLE; right, acute, obtuse. 
 
 REPETITION; on an axis, in a straight line, around a centre; border, shield, 
 
 cross, quatrefoil. 
 APPLE; stem, blossom. 
 
 LEAF; plantain leaf; rib, midrib, apex, margin. 
 COLOR; yellow, red, blue. 
 
BOOK II. 
 
 Models. 
 
 SOLIDS : Cylinder, Square Prism, Vase Form. 
 TABLETS : Circle, Square, Oblong-. 
 NATURAL FORMS : Vegetables, Leaves. 
 OBJECTS : Envelope, Tumbler, Bowl, Boxes. 
 
 Decorative Forms. 
 
 SQUARE-LEAVED QUATREFOIL, LEAF FORM, ORIGINAL DESIGN. 
 
 Making. 
 
 ( Square Prism, Envelope. 
 FROM A PATTERN:^ 
 
 ( Round, Square, and Oblong- Boxes. 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 PENCIL-HOLDING, MOVEMENT, LIGHT LINES, ERASING, BROAD 
 
 GRAY LINES. 
 
 Language. 
 
 (See page 54.) 
 
 NAMES OF MODELS AND DECORATIVE FORMS, AND THEIR DETAILS. 
 TERMS OF RELATION, PROPORTION, VIEWS, ARRANGEMENT. 
 
 Color. 
 
 THE THREE SECONDARY PIGMENT COLORS. 
 
30 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK IL 
 
 DRILL EXERCISES. 
 
 Drawing-Book, page A. 
 
 OBJECT. Practice for proper position of pupil and of paper; proper pencil-holding; 
 free arm movement from left to right, from top to bottom, and from corner to corner. 
 
 Directions to the Teacher. Before beginning work in the book, 
 show pupils how to hold their pencils for free movement and draw- 
 ing. Give practice in movement with the pencil from left to right, and 
 see \hn\. each pupil holds the pencil properly (see Fig. i, p. xiii), the 
 same for movement from top to bottom (see Fig. 2, p. xiii), and' 
 from corner to corner (see Figs. 3 and 4, p. xiii). For movement and 
 for drawing count i, 2, 3, to keep the children together. 
 
 Practice. Open your book at page A, and place it well back on the desk. Read 
 the points at the left of the page (o, a, b, c, d, e, /). How far apart are they? 
 
 Sit up straight, and with pencil in hand, held properly, begin at point a, and move the 
 hand across the page (without drawing and with the whole arm movement) at 
 least three times ; then draw lightly across the page with one continuous 
 movement. Repeat the movement and drawing, remembering to hold the pencil 
 properly and to practice the movement before drawing. No erasing. 
 
 Read the points at the top of the page. How far apart are they ? Draw from these 
 points down the page, remembering pencil-holding and movement. 
 
BOOK II.] 
 
 DRILL EXERCISES. 
 
 Draw also from the upper left to the lower right corner, and from the upper right to 
 the lower left corner, with proper pencil-holding and movement. No erasing. 
 
 D. B., page A, completed. 
 
 'O 
 
 Q, 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 d 
 
 o 
 
 D. B., page B, completed. 
 
 Drawing-Book, page B. 
 OBJECT. Free arm movement, and drawing round and round. 
 
 To the Teacher. Give directions for holding the pencil for 
 movement round and round (see Fig. 5, p. xiii). The pencil must be 
 held the same throughout the movement. Count i, 2, 3, 4, etc. 
 
 Practice. Draw with free arm movement, a line from c across the page, and lines 
 
 from 3 and 6 down the page, dividing it into six parts. 
 In the upper left-hand space, beginning at i, and moving in the direction i, 2, 3, 4, r, 2, 
 
 etc. (see Fig. 5, page xiii), practice the movement for a circle, as large as the 
 
 space will allow, then draw a circle with one sweep, always pointing the pencil 
 
 toward the left ; repeat in the other spaces. No erasing. 
 
 Drawing-Book, page C. 
 OBJECT. Practice in drawing circles on their diameters with free arm movement. 
 
 Practice. Practice movement 1,2,3,4 over the printed circle, holding the pencil 
 long as shown in the illustrations, pp. xii and 
 30, and in the direction indicated by the illus- 
 tration, Fig. 5, page xiii. Practice a similar 
 movement on the next two diameters given, 
 then draw a circle with one sweep of the 
 pencil. Repeat on the next two diameters. 
 Practice movement now for a larger circle, 
 on the two diameters at the left, below, and 
 draw the circle with one sweep of the pencil. 
 Repeat on the other diameters. No erasing. 
 
 D. B., page C, completed. 
 
32 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK n. 
 
 EXERCISE I. Three Views of a Horizontal Cylinder. 
 
 MODELS : Sphere, Cube, Cylinder, Circle, Oblong. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the general form of a cylinder; to see the shape of its various 
 views, to draw the views. 
 
 Study of the Model by Pupils. What would you call this 
 new model ? (A roller.) Take the sphere in one hand and the roller 
 in the other. Pass the fingers around the sphere and along the roller. 
 What do you discover ? (The sphere is round in every direction, the 
 roller is round in only one direction) (The teacher gives the terms, 
 round face for the sphere, curved face for the roller.) 
 
 What kind of faces has the cube? (Plane faces.) What faces has 
 the roller besides the curved face ? (Two plane faces.) Roll the sphere ; 
 roll the roller. How do they roll ? (The sphere rolls in any direction, 
 the roller in but one.) How will they stand best ? (The teacher gives 
 the name cylinder) What is the height of the cylinder? the width? 
 the proportion of the height to the width? 
 
 Hold the cylinder upright opposite your eyes; how much of the 
 curved face can you see? (The part towards me.) Trace the outline 
 of that part in the air, begin at the bottom of the left side, move 
 up to the top, straight across the plane face, down the right side, 
 and across the bottom to the place where you started. Find a 
 tablet having the shape of this outline. What is the shape of the 
 tablet ? (Higher than it is wide.) (The teacher gives the name oblong.) 
 
 D. B., page D. Practice page for Ex. I. 
 
 Study of the Model by Pupils. Hold the cylinder upright 
 opposite your eyes ; what view of the cylinder have you ? (Front 
 view) What is the position of the cylinder? (Upright or vertical?) 
 What is the shape of the front view? (Oblong) Look down on the 
 top of the cylinder ; what view have you ? (Top view) What is 
 its shape ? (Circular.) What tablet has the shape of the front 
 view? (The oblong.) Of the top view? (The circle) Can you draw 
 these two views on the board ? Draw first the top view. Where will 
 
BOOK II.j 
 
 HORIZCNTAL CYLINDER. 
 
 33 
 
 you place the front view? Observe a horizontal cylinder in a sim- 
 ilar way to obtain the left end, front and top views. 
 
 Practice. The top view of a vertical cylinder is given. Draw the front view. 
 
 How wide should the front view be? (As wide as the top view.) Draw the sides 
 of the front view, obtaining their place by movement downward from the 
 ends of the horizontal diameter of the top view. Using the angle given, draw 
 horizontals, first practicing movement. 
 
 The front view of a horizontal cylinder is given. Draw its left end and top views, 
 practicing movement first. Get the length of the top view by movement 
 upward from the verticals of the front view. No erasing. 
 
 D. B., page 1. Drawing the left end and top views of a Horizontal 
 Cylinder. 
 
 Observation Exercises for the Pupils. What does the picture 
 in the drawing-book represent ? How. large is the picture ? 
 
 Mention objects cylindric (like a cylinder) in form, objects in the 
 room, objects that you can remember. Can any one make a cylin- 
 der at home? 
 
 Drawing. The front view of a horizontal cylinder is given. Draw its left 
 end and top views, according to the directions given for practice above, 
 using the points given. Erase the diameters in the left end view and finish 
 the left and top views. 
 
 P. B., page D, completed. 
 
 P. B., page i, completed. 
 
TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK IL 
 
 EXERCISE II. Square Prism. Two Views. 
 
 MODELS: Cylinder, Cube. Square Prism, Square, Oblong. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the form of a square prism, to see the shape and proportion of 
 some of its views, to draw these views. 
 
 Study of the Model by Pupils. How does this model com- 
 pare with the cylinder ? with the cube ? How many faces has it ? 
 What kind of faces? (Plane faces.) What is the shape of the faces? 
 '(Some are square, some oblong?) How many square faces has it? how 
 many oblong? (The teacher gives the name square prism, and 
 brings out parallel faces, everywhere the same distance apart.) 
 
 How high is the model ? how wide ? What is the proportion of 
 the width to the height ? (/ to 2.) What is the shape of the front 
 view of the vertical prism ? of the top view ? Place the prism hori- 
 zontally and observe it in a similar way as to its end and front views. 
 
 D. B., page E. Practice for Ex. II. 
 
 Practice. The front view of a square prism is given. Below it, draw the bot- 
 tom view, using the angle given, first indefinite verticals, by vertical move- 
 ment from the sides of the front view, then horizontals. 
 
 At the right of the front view, at the top of the page, an angle is given. 
 Draw the end and front views of a horizontal square prism, first indefi- 
 nite horizontals long enough for both views, then verticals. No erasing. 
 
 D. B,, page 2, Drawing two views of a Square Prism, 
 
 Drawing. The top view of a square prism is given. Draw the front view, ver 
 ticals first, by movement from the sides of the top view, then horizontals. 
 
BOOK II.] 
 
 OBLONG TABLET. 
 
 35 
 
 EXERCISE III. Oblong Tablet. Five Views. 
 
 MODEL: Oblong Tablet. 
 
 Making and Study of the Model by Pupils. Detach page 
 D and cut out the printed oblong. How many faces has this tablet 
 that you have cut out ? how many edges ? Hold the tablet vertical and 
 facing you : what is its shape ? how high is it ? how wide ? what is 
 the proportion of the height to width ? (2 to i.) (The teacher develops 
 parallel and perpendicular edges.) Hold it facing you with its long 
 edges horizontal ; how high is it ? how wide ? the proportion of height 
 to width ? (i to 2.) Which sides are parallel to each other ? which 
 perpendicular ? 
 
 Turn it backward until you see only the edge ; what will you draw 
 for the edge view? (A straight line.) How long? Turn the end 
 toward you ; how long is the edge view ? Can you draw on the 
 board the face view of such a tablet, and its four edge views? 
 
 D. B., page E. Practice for Ex. III. 
 
 .Practice. The face view of an oblong tablet is printed, and points are given 
 at which to begin 'the drawing of the top and left edge views. Draw the 
 top, bottom, left, and right edge views. No erasing. 
 
 D. B., page 2. Drawing the edge views of an Oblong Tablet. 
 
 Colored Oblong. Cut an oblong of paper (purple if possible) at 
 home or at school and paste it in the drawing-book to cover the 
 printed oblong, or, mixing blue and red, color the printed oblong 
 purple. 
 
 Drawing. Draw the top view, bottom view, left and right edge views. 
 
 
 D. B., page E, completed. 
 
 D. B., page 2, completed. 
 
36 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK ir. 
 
 EXERCISE IV. Square Prism. Drawing the Pattern. 
 
 MODELS: Square Prism, Square and Oblong:. 
 
 OBJECT. To work out the pattern for a square prism, to make a hollow square prism, 
 to draw the pattern. 
 
 Making the Pattern. (The teacher recalls or develops the idea 
 of a pattern, as suggested in the manual text for Ex. XL, Book I., 
 p. 24, then takes up the square prism.) 
 
 How many faces has the square prism? What is the shape of 
 the faces ? In what respects are a square and oblong alike ? How 
 do they differ? What kind of angles has a square? an oblong? 
 What is a square ? (A square is a figure having four equal sides 
 and four right angles?) What is an oblong ? (An oblong is a figure 
 having four sides, two longer, two shorter, and four right angles?) 
 
 Of what figures would you make the pattern for a square prism? 
 (Of four oblongs and two squares?) 
 
 Detach one of the two middle pages of the drawing-book, place the 
 square prism on the page on an oblong face. Turn up the paper 
 around the oblong face of the prism and crease it, to get the shape 
 of the faces in the paper. 
 
 D. B., page F. Practice page for Ex. IV. 
 
 Practice. Draw upon this page the pattern for a square prism as seen in Fig. i, 
 page 3. Bisect the distances between a and b and between d and e. From these 
 points draw horizontals across the page. Bisect the distance between 5 and 6. 
 From the point of bisection and from point 4 draw verticals down the page. The 
 oblong made by the crossing of the horizontals and verticals may be taken for 
 the second oblong face seen in Fig. i, page 3. Complete the drawing of the 
 pattern, drawing first all verticals, then all horizontals. Long pencil-holding 
 and free arm movement. No erasing. 
 
 D. B., page Q. Making a hollow Square Prism. 
 
 What is printed on this page ? (The pattern for a square prism?) 
 Fold the page on the line a b, crease firmly and detach the part 
 containing the pattern. Cut out the pattern, taking care not to cut off 
 the laps. Write your name neatly on an oblong face. Fold the 
 pattern so as to make a square prism, and paste it together. 
 
BUUK ii.] PATTERN OF A SQUARE PRISM. 37 
 
 D. B., page 3. Drawing the pattern of a Square Prism. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What is Fig. i? Fig. 2? 
 Fig. 3 ? If Fig. 3 were unfolded, would it be like Fig. i ? Having an 
 oblong given as one face of a square prism, how would you draw the 
 pattern of the prism ? 
 
 Drawing. The printed oblong corresponds to the second face in Fig. i. Draw 
 the pattern as in Fig. i, using the point given at the left, first the long horizon- 
 tals indefinitely, then the verticals, finishing with the short horizontals. 
 
 Making a Box. An illustration is given below of the pattern of 
 an envelope, Fig. i, and of the same envelope folded, Fig. 2. It will 
 be seen that the tongue seen on Fig. i, at the left, serves to fasten 
 the envelope when closed, as in Fig. 2. The envelope is pasted 
 across the bottom and up the vertical line to the notch. This device 
 has been patented, and the envelope is used largely by manufacturers 
 and merchants in sending out samples by mail. A box can be made 
 from stiff paper, having the form of a square prism, and a cover like 
 that in Ex. XII., Book I., which can be fastened with a similar 
 device. 
 
 Fig. i 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
38 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK n. 
 
 EXERCISE V. Envelope. 
 
 MODEL : Envelope. 
 
 OBJECT. To study an object based on an oblong ; to determine its proportion ; to draw 
 its outlines. 
 
 Making the Model by Pupils. Turn to page K, detach 
 the page, cut out the printed pattern ; fold and paste to make an 
 envelope. 
 
 Study of the Model by Pupils. Hold your envelope verti- 
 cal, the plain front side facing you; what is its shape? (Oblong?) 
 Its size ? (Four inches and a half high, two and a half wide, four and 
 a half by two and a half?) Its proportion ? (About 4 to 2, we cannot 
 tell exactly?) How can you draw the envelope of the right propor- 
 tion ? (By judgment; we know that the drawing should be a little more 
 than half as wide as high ; we shall have to judge the rest?) 
 
 Turn your envelope, so that the lapped side, the back, will face 
 you as in Fig. 2, page G. Where is the point of the flap? (About 
 in the middle of the oblong?) If you should draw a horizontal through 
 the middle of the oblong, what would you call that line? (The hor- 
 izontal diameter of the oblong?) Where would the oblique laps that 
 start in the right-han'd corners meet ? (On the horizontal diameter?) 
 Draw the horizontal diameter of Fig. 2 ; trisect the left half-diameter, 
 note that the oblique edges, if continued, would meet at about the 
 second point of trisection. (The teacher gives the term semi diameter.) 
 
 D. B. t page G. Practice page for Ex. V. 
 
 Practice. Required on this page two drawings of a vertical envelope, one of 
 the front, the other of the back. 
 
 FRONT. Two angles are given at the right of Figs, i and 2. Draw a vertical con- 
 necting the lines. This vertical is for the left edge of the envelope. Determine 
 the width necessary for a drawing that will have the proportion of the model, 
 and draw the vertical for the right edge. Draw the horizontals. 
 
 BACK. One angle is given. Draw an oblong as for the front. Draw its diameter. 
 Trisect the semidiameters. Draw the oblique lines, noting whether they are 
 straight from the corner or whether they are curved or bent. No erasing. 
 
HOOK II.] 
 
 ENVELOPE. 
 
 39 
 
 D. B., page 4. Drawing an Envelope. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What is Fig. i ? What 
 do the broken horizontals represent? (The address^ What is the spe- 
 cial purpose of each line of the address? What is the vertical ob- 
 long in the corner? What is the actual size of a postage-stamp? 
 Why is it not made of that size in Fig. i ? On what part of an 
 envelope should the postage-stamp be placed ? Why ? 
 
 What is Fig. 2 ? If you were going to draw such a figure, what 
 line would you draw, to help you in placing ' the point of the flap 
 and the point of the lower part that is turned up ? (A vertical as 
 a centre line.) 
 
 Write your name and address on the envelope that you made from 
 page K, or on another envelope which you may prefer as a model.* 
 
 Drawing. Two short printed horizontals show the height of the envelope. Begin- 
 ning near the left margin of the page, draw two indefinite horizontals through the 
 short horizontals. Determine the width necessary to make the drawing of the 
 same proportion as the envelope you have for a model. Draw the left and 
 right verticals. Finish now either as a front view as in Fig. i, or as a back view 
 as in Fig. 2. If the latter is chosen, draw an indefinite vertical downward through 
 the points beginning just below the title of the exercise, for the centre line of the 
 drawing. Place points on this line where the oblique lines meet it. 
 
 * The illustrations show the most common shapes of envelopes. They can be drawn upon the 
 board and pupils questioned, without attempt to influence their choice as to which is the most pleasing 
 
 Fig. i. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 shape. This will serve as an exercise in experimental aesthetics, for learning the most pleasing propor- 
 tion. By collating the results obtained in large numbers of classes, the average preference can be 
 obtained. For this reason the authors will regard it as a favor, if teachers will record the number of 
 pupils in a class preferring eadi shape, and send the record to "The authors of Prang's Shorter 
 Course," 7 Park Street, Boston 
 
40 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [OOK n. 
 
 EXERCISE VI. Natural Form. 
 
 MODEL : Each child brings a Potato, or some other vegetable. 
 
 OBJECT. To study a natural form, to see its proportion and outline, to draw its 
 outline. 
 
 Study of the Model. Place the object on a book. With the 
 left hand, lift the book nearly to the level of the eye. With the 
 right hand, measure the height of the object, on the pencil, placing 
 the pencil against the object vertically. Hold the pencil point up 
 ward, so that the lower end seems just to cover the lower line 
 of the object, and move the thumb until it seems just to cover 
 the upper line of the object. Compare this with the width. How 
 do the distances compare ? About how many inches is the object 
 from top to bottom? from left to right? 
 
 Hold the object at arm's length on a level with the eyes and trace 
 its outline with your finger on the object. Lay your pencil across 
 the top ; is the pencil horizontal or oblique ? Lay your pencil on 
 the sides ; is the general direction vertical or oblique ? This study 
 will give the direction of the blocking -in lines. 
 
 D. B., page H. Practice page for Ex. VI. 
 
 Study of Margins. Open your reader; what is the space around 
 the printing called? (The margin?) Find other margins. You are 
 to make a drawing on page H, full size of the object, if you can do 
 so and leave sufficient margin. On a page of the size of page H how 
 much margin should you allow? (Usually not less than an inch?) 
 
BOOK ii.] NATURAL FORM. 41 
 
 How should the left and right margins compare in width ? (They 
 should be equal.) If in a drawing the top and bottom margins are 
 made unequal, which should be the wider? (The top margin^) 
 
 The illustrations show Fig. i as a completed drawing, with the stages 
 of drawing it, Figs. 2, 3, and 4. A potato has been selected, because 
 every child can bring one. 
 
 Farther edge of the table. 
 
 Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. 
 
 Practice. Make a large drawing on this page, full size of the object if possible. 
 Draw light indefinite lines to show the height and width, studying the ob- 
 ject carefully for the general proportion and for the direction of the blocking- 
 in lines for the first stage. Add other straight lines necessary to complete 
 the blocking-in. Draw the curves over the straight lines. Add details and 
 the table line. 
 
 D. B., page 5. Drawing the outlines. 
 
 Study of Details by Pupils. What is Fig. i, on page 5? Fig. 
 2 ? What details do you notice in Fig. i ? (The eyes of the potato^) 
 In Fig. 2 ? (The stem and elongated end.) 
 
 Pass your fingers over the surface of your object, over a 
 rounded part of your desk ; what difference in the surface do you 
 notice ? (One is smooth and even or regulai^ the other irregular?} 
 Compare the lines in the illustrations on this page with those on 
 p. 4; what difference do you notice? 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions given for practice. Finish in broad, soft, gray 
 lines, breaking the outlines somewhat to indicate irregularity of. surface. 
 
42 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [HOOK n. 
 
 EXERCISE VII. -Bowl. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the purpose of a bowl, and also the several forms of bowls ; to 
 draw a bowl of a pleasing form, and suited to its purpose. 
 
 Observation of Form of Objects as suited to their Purpose. 
 What do you like to drink? From what do you drink? Are tin 
 drinking-cups usually higher than they are wide, or wider than they are 
 high ? How is it with tumblers ? How do you take hold of a tumbler 
 when you drink? of a tin cup? 
 
 Can you think of a tumbler of the same width all the way down ? 
 What is the direction of . its sides? {Vertical?) Of what model 
 does it make you think? (A cylinder.) What would you draw for 
 the front view of a cylinder? Can you draw upon the board the front 
 view of a tumbler that is the same width all the way down, and 
 make it of good proportion, that is, so that it will look well and 
 so that you think it would be convenient to drink from? All look 
 at the drawing; what do you think about it? 
 
 (The teacher develops the idea of a tumbler wider at the top 
 than at the bottom in a similar way.) 
 
 D. B., pSLge I. Practice page for Ex. VII. 
 
 Practice. Two drawings of front views of tumblers are to be made on this 
 page. Draw an indefinite vertical centre line for each. On the left centre 
 line draw the front view of a tumbler with vertical sides, making the 
 drawing of the size and proportion that you think pleasing and suitable for a 
 tumbler of the kind. 
 
 On the right centre line make a drawing of a tumbler wider at the top than 
 at the bottom, of suitable and pleasing proportion. No erasing. 
 
 Observation of Form of Bowls as suited to their Purpose. 
 
 From what do you eat bread and milk? Are bowls usually 
 higher than they are wide or wider than they are high? (Wider 
 than they are high?) Why? Are all bowls alike? Can you draw 
 on the board the front view of the bowl from which you eat? 
 Can you 1 Can you f 
 
BOOK ii.] BOWL. 43 
 
 (The teacher should obtain from pupils if possible as many as 
 six drawings ; some will perhaps be like the illustrations below.) 
 
 Has the bowl from which you eat a sharp edge? Did you ever see 
 a bowl with a sharp edge? Why do not bowls have sharp edges? 
 
 Which do you like better, a bowl with straight sides or curved 
 sides ? Should it be narrow or broad at the bottom ? 
 
 Find a bowl that you like at home. Make a drawing of it and 
 bring it to school. 
 
 D. B., page J. Second practice page for Ex. VII. 
 
 Drawing. Only one drawing is to be made on this page. Draw an indefinite 
 vertical through the middle of the ,page. On this as a centre line make a 
 drawing of the front view of a bowl of pleasing and suitable size and pro- 
 portions, such a bowl as you would like to see and to use. 
 
 D. B., page 6. Drawing a Bowl. 
 
 Drawing. Draw through the middle of the space at the right an indefinite vertical 
 downward. On this as a centre line draw the front view of a bowl. Make the draw- 
 ing as large as the space will allow. How wide a margin should you have at the 
 left and right of the drawing ? Make the bowl of such a form (with either 
 straight sides or curved) as you think will be pleasing and suitable, such a 
 bowl as you would like to have. 
 
44 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK IL 
 
 OPTIONAL EXERCISE IN DIMENSION AND IN COLOR. 
 
 D. B. Middle blank page. 
 
 Dimension. This Exercise affords practice in drawing oblongs 
 of different dimensions. The six oblongs required are to be i inch 
 high, and in length 3 half-inches, 5 half-inches, 8 half-inches, 13 half- 
 inches, ii half-inches, 8 half-inches, respectively. They are not to 
 be drawn by measuring, but by judgment. This would seem perhaps 
 to be a very difficult exercise to give at this stage ; but if taken in 
 the right way, it can be easily done, as will be seen from the direc- 
 tions given in Dictation below. 
 
 It is well that pupils should learn how to take advantage of the 
 circumstances in which they are placed. They have no rule to 
 measure with, but by studying the oblong, made by the marginal 
 lines, 6 inches high and 9 inches wide, in D. B., page 6, they can 
 readily place on a blank page of the same size, points for the corners 
 of an oblong, that will approximate very closely to 6" by 9". Bisect- 
 ing and trisecting will give the other points required. 
 
 Dictation. i. Look at the oblong made by the marginal lines on page 6. How high 
 
 is it? (Six inches.} How wide is it ? (Nine inches.} Notice how far the corners 
 
 are from the corners and edges of the page. Place 
 
 n p . . . 1 points on the blank page for the corners of such 
 I I an oblong, and imagine the oblong. Bisect the 
 
 imaginary left vertical. How long is each half ? 
 Trisect each half. Into how many parts have you 
 divided the imaginary vertical ? How long is each 
 
 1 r- 1 part? Bisect each inch, and from each -point of bi- 
 
 1 . I I I section just made . draw a light horizontal to the 
 
 c J imaginary right vertical. Trisect the upper hori- 
 
 Arrangement of Oblongs. ZO ntal. Trisect each third. How long is each 
 part? Number the inches i, 2, 3, 4, etc. 
 
 2. Set off 3 half-inches (how many inches ?) from the left end of the upper horizontal, 
 
 and draw a vertical to the next horizontal, making an oblong i inch high and 
 3 half-inches long. One inch below make an oblong i inch high and 5 half- 
 inches long ; one inch below this, an oblong i inch high and 8 half-inches long. 
 
 3. On the right of the page, draw oblongs i inch high and 13 half-inches, n half- 
 
 inches, and 8 half-inches long, respectively, laying out the oblongs from the right 
 vertical. 
 

 BOOK ii.J DIMENSION AND COLOR. 45 
 
 Color. If this is to be used as a color as well as a dimension 
 exercise, the relative values of the primary pigment colors, yellow, 
 red, and blue, can first be recalled as given in the optional exercise 
 for page R, Book I. in the Manual, p. 27; that is, yellow 3, red 5, 
 blue 8. 
 
 Questions can then be asked about the primary colors necessary to 
 make the secondary colors, orange, green, and purple. These colors 
 are called secondary because they are made by mixing two primary 
 colors. What colors would you use to make orange ? ( Yellow and 
 red.) The relative values of yellow and red ? (j and 5.) If yellow 
 and red are mixed to form orange, what number will express the 
 value of orange ? (<.) In a similar way the value of green may be 
 developed, yellow 3, and blue 8, make green n; also of purple, 
 red 5, blue 8, make purple 13. 
 
 The arrangement of the page can then be laid out according to 
 the Dictation on p.. 44, anH ^ , colored iccording to their 
 
 extent. Emphasize the . - yellow 3, red 5, blue 8, 
 
 purple 13, green u, orange 8. 
 
 This lesson can be carried still further if desired, and used to show 
 complementary colors. Each primary color has its complementary, 
 made up of the other two primaries. Thus trie complementary of 
 yellow is purple, which is made of the other two- primaries. The 
 page when colored shows the complementary of each primary, in a 
 horizontal line with the primary. 
 
 YELLOW, Primary; PURPLE, its Complementary. 
 
 RED, Primary ; GREEN, its Complementary. 
 
 BLUE, Primary; ORANGE, its Complementary. 
 
 If the values of any primary and its complementary are added, the 
 resultant value is always the same, 16.' 
 
 In mixing colors which require red, use carmine or lake ; vermilion 
 is not a good mixing color. 
 
 If colors and a brush cannot be used, the page can be carried out 
 by cutting oblongs from colored paper. 
 
 For fuller treatment of color, see Appendix on Color, p. 
 
4 6 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [HOOK II. 
 
 EXERCISE VIII. Ornament. Square-leaved Quatrefoil. 
 
 From a. Copy. 
 
 OBJECT. To study a simple ornament based on a square ; to draw it enlarged. 
 D. B., page 7. Drawing a square-leaved Quatrefoil. 
 
 Study of the Copy by Pupils. What is the general shape of 
 Fig. i ? What are Figs. 2 and 3 ? (Stages in drawing Fig. I.) De- 
 scribe Fig. 2. (// is a square with diameters and diagonals?) How do 
 the diameters divide the square ? (Into four small squares?) 
 
 Find the upper left square in Fig. 3 ; what figure do you see in it ? 
 {Something like a leaf with a midrib, running to the corner of the 
 square?) How many of these figures do you find in the square? 
 (Four?) How are they placed? (Around the centre of the square, 
 pointing to the corners?) Where do these leaf-shaped figures meet? 
 (On the semidiameters?) Do they meet in the middle of the semi- 
 diameters ? (No, a little nearer to the outside?) Are the lines that 
 make the leaf-shaped figure straight or curved ? Look at the upper 
 side of the square, where the curves of the leaf-shaped figures meet : 
 what shape do the two curves together make? (A deep curve, a 
 swing, a loop?) 
 
 This flat ornament is from the dog-tooth moulding, used in early 
 English architecture ; three forms are illustrated below. 
 
 Drawing. Draw the square, its diagonals and diameters, using the angles given. 
 Place a point on each semidiameter somewhat nearer to the side than to the 
 centre of the square. Practice movement for each curve, first oa Fig. i, then 
 through the point placed for it on the semidiameter, and draw it. Erase 
 diameters and the central part of each side of the square between the leaf- 
 shaped figures. Finish the ornament as in Fig. i.* 
 
 * This ornament furnishes a very good exercise in cutting, as it is so very easily laid out. 
 
liOOK II.] 
 
 ORNAMENT FROM A NATURAL FORM. 
 
 47 
 
 EXERCISE IX. Ornament derived from a Natural Form. 
 
 From a Copy. 
 
 OBJECT. To study an ornament derived from a natural form, to draw it enlarged. 
 D. B., page 8. Drawing an Ornament. 
 
 Study of the page by Pupils. What is Fig. 2 ? (The picture 
 vf a morning-glory^} How do you recognize it ? (By the flower?) 
 Do you know the shape of the leaf? How many leaves are there 
 in the picture ? Look at the lower one on the left ; what is the shape ? 
 (Heart-shaped?} And what is the shape of the upper leaf on the left ? 
 What is Fig. i like in general shape? Compare Fig. i and the leaf?* 
 
 Draw the axis of the copy. How does an axis divide a figure ? 
 (Info two equal parts?} It is therefore called an axis of symmetry. 
 Notice the beauty of the curves; practice them on the copy with both 
 hands. Can you draw the figure on the board with both hands? 
 
 Drawing. Draw upon the copy a vertical as a centre line and a horizontal 
 through the greatest width. In the space at the right draw a vertical 
 connecting the points given. Draw an indefinite horizontal to show where 
 the greatest width of the figure should be. Practice movement for the left 
 curve and draw with free movement, repeat for the right curve, the same 
 for the curves of the stem. Erase construction lines and finish freely. 
 
 * The border, Fig. 3, made by repetition, is very suitable and effective for outline embroidery 
 Encourage all efforts at hand work by the children. 
 
4 8 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [!100K II. 
 
 EXERCISE X. Decorative Design. Units. Arrangement around 
 
 a Center. 
 
 OBJECT. To study a unit, and ways of modifying it; to arrange units around a 
 centre, and, complete the design by a central figure ; to draw the arrangement. 
 
 Study by Pupils. What original arrangements did you make in 
 Book I.? {Original arrangements were made for borders) How did 
 you make them ? (By repeating a figure horizontally) In what other 
 way can you repeat a figure ? (Around a centred) A figure used for 
 repetition in decoration is called a unit of design, 
 
 Open your books at page M. A very simple unit of design on its 
 construction lines is given. How could you make a different unit 
 on the same construction lines without changing the number of lines 
 in the outline ? (By changing straight lines to curves?) If you change 
 a straight line to a curved line on one side of the axis of symmetry, 
 what is necessary in order to make a symmetric unit? (The opposite 
 side should be changed in the same, way) 
 
 D. B., page M. Practice page for Ex. X. 
 
 Practice. On the construction lines given, a symmetric unit differing in outline 
 from the printed unit is required. Modify the outline by substituting curved 
 lines wholly or in part for the straight lines of the printed unit. The lines 
 may curve in or out, although they should curve but little. Practice movement 
 for the curves before drawing. No erasing. 
 
 D. B., page N . Second practice page for Ex. X. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. Look again at the unit 
 on page M. What part of the axis is above the horizontal and what 
 part below ? (One third above and two thirds below.} How could 
 
JBOOK II.] 
 
 DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 49 
 
 you obtain the point where the horizontal crosses the axis ? (By 
 trisecting the axis?) How long is the horizontal compared with the 
 axis ? (Two thirds as long as the axis.) 
 
 Practice. Two verticals are given for the axes of two units. Trisect each axis, and 
 through the upper points of trisection draw horizontals two thirds as long as the 
 axis. Upon these construction lines draw two other modifications of the unit on 
 page M, by substituting carved lines for straight. No erasing. 
 
 D. B., page 9. Arranging units for a design and drawing it. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What is .the shape of Fig. 
 i? (The shape of a quatrefoil?) What do you see within the quatre- 
 foil? (Units arranged about a centre; the unit, Fig. 2 ; there is also 
 a circle in the centred) The figure in the centre of a design, that 
 seems to hold the units together, is called a centra/ figure. 
 
 Arrangement. How long is the axis of Fig. 2? (Two inches?) 
 Select one of the units you drew on pages M and N, and cut out 
 of colored paper four, such units, having an axis of two inches. Draw 
 the diameters of the quatrefoil, Fig. 5. Arrange the units to meet 
 at the centre of Fig. 5, and paste them only at the centre. What 
 does the design need to look well ? (A central figure of suitable size?) 
 Cut one like Fig. 3 or Fig. 4 and paste on the design. 
 
 Drawing. Draw the diameters of Fig. 6. On these diameters draw the design 
 arranged in Fig. 5. Draw the units by opposites. Erase diameters and 
 lines within the central figure. Finish. This design may be colored orange. 
 Orange is made by mixing red and yellow together. 
 
TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK ii. 
 
 EXERCISE XI. Boxes. Two Views Reviewed. 
 
 MODELS : Cylinder, Square Prism, Boxes mado by Pupils. 
 OBJECT. To recall top and front views by objects made by the pupils. 
 
 Review Exercise for Pupils. What is a vertical cylinder? (A 
 cylinder standing on one of its plane faces.) What would you draw for 
 its top view? (A circle.) For its front view? (An oblong.) What is 
 a horizontal cylinder? (A cylinder lying on its curved face, i, from 
 front to back; 2, from left to right; 3, obliquely?) What would you draw 
 for the front view of a horizontal cylinder, lying from left to right ? 
 (An oblong.) For the end view ? (A circle^ Observe in the same 
 way a horizontal square prism, lying from left to right. 
 
 D. B., page O. Practice page for Ex. XI. 
 
 Practice. The front view of a cylinder, horizontal from left to right, is given. 
 Draw the end view. Continue the horizontals of the front view, draw a ver- 
 tical diameter through the centre given, draw the horizontal diameter, 
 practice movement for the circle and draw it. 
 
 Draw the front and right end views of a horizontal square prism of the same 
 dimensions as the cylinder, lying from left to right. Where should these views 
 be placed to make the page look well? First draw horizontals across the 
 page, then verticals, for the front and end views. No erasing. 
 
 D. B., page 10. Drawing the top and front views of Two Boxes. 
 Making. Cut out the patterns given on page S, and make the 
 three boxes. Decide on the two that you prefer. 
 
 Drawing. The front view of one of these boxes is given. Above it draw 
 the top view of one of those that you prefer. At the right, draw the front 
 and top views of the other box chosen. 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 D. B., page O, completed 
 
 D. B., page 10, completed. 
 
BOOK II.] 
 
 VASE FORM. 
 
 EXERCISE XII. Vase Form. 
 
 From a Model or Copy. 
 OBJECT. To study a vase form; to practice reversed curves, to draw a vase form. 
 
 Study by Pupils. What is the figure on page 1 1 ? (A vase 
 form.) What can you say of the curves of the sides ? (They curve 
 first one way, then another.) Such curves are called reversed .curves ; 
 the sides of the form are called profiles. What is the height of the 
 figure ? And the width at top and bottom ? The proportion of width 
 to height? (i to 2.) Trace the profiles on the copy with both hands. 
 Can you draw the vase on the board with both hands ? 
 
 D. B., page P. Practice page for Ex. XII. 
 
 Observation Exercises by Pupils. What is the purpose of 
 the verticals on the vase form on page P? (The central line is the 
 axis, the two outside verticals show the general proportion and are con- 
 struction lines for the profiles?) Of the short horizontals ? (To show 
 the altitude of the curves.) Is the vase sharp at the lip? 
 
 Practice. Connect the given points by verticals. Bisect each vertical, and bi- 
 sect each half; that is, quadrisect each ver- 
 tical. On the verticals at the left, curves 
 like the left profile of the vase are to be 
 drawn ; on the verticals at the right, curves 
 like the right profile of the vase. Draw the 
 altitudes of the curves. Trace the move- 
 ment for each curve on the printed copy, 
 then over the printed vertical, then draw 
 the curve with unbroken motion. No erasing. D. B., page P, completed. 
 
 D. B., page i?. Drawing the Vase Form. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What does the printed 
 horizontal show? (The width of the vase?} What should you draw 
 first? (The axis) And then? (The side verticals; the lower hori- 
 zontals; quadrisect the verticals ; draw the altitudes of the curves. 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions given above. Practice movement for each curve, 
 and draw with unbroken motion. Erase construction lines and finish. 
 
52 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK II. 
 
 EXERCISE XIII. Leaf from Nature. 
 
 MODEL : Leaf brought by each Pupil. 
 
 NOTE. The leaves brought by pupils for this exercise should be not less than 
 three inches from apex to base, simple in form, and not deeply divided. It would be 
 well for each pupil to bring two or three leaves of a kind, so as to study the character- 
 istics of a leaf in more than one example. 
 
 OBJECT. To study a natural leaf, to see and draw its outline. 
 
 Study of Leaves by Pupils. A leaf, perfectly developed, has 
 three parts, the blade, which is broad and thin ; the petiole, or leaf- 
 stalk ; and the stipules, leaf-like parts, often found at the base of the 
 stalk. Find the blade of your leaf ; find the petiole or leaf-stalks ; has 
 it any stipules? A good illustration of the parts of a leaf, and also 
 of the principal toothed margins, serrate, dentate, crenate, undulate, will 
 be found in the large plate "Margins and Parts of Leaves," belong- 
 ing to Prang's Natural History Series. 
 
 Where is the apex of the leaf? The end of the stem next the 
 leaf-stalk is called the base. What is the shape of your leaf? Is it 
 broadest at the apex, the base, or in the middle ? 
 
 Where is the midrib ? In the plantain leaf, given in Book I., there 
 are strong ribs; in most leaves the ribs are smaller and are called veins. 
 Look at the principal veins in your leaf ; do they start from the base of 
 the leaf or from the midrib ? 
 
 Find the best leaf that you have, and lay it on the desk. Beginning 
 at the apex of the leaf with the forefinger of each hand trace around the 
 margin of the leaf and down the stalk in sweeping curves. Trace the 
 midrib in straight lines. Trace the margin again, but this time trace 
 with long straight lines, not more than four on a side, fewer if possible. 
 Trace the principal veins in straight lines. 
 
 D. B., page Q. Practice page for Ex. XIII. 
 
 Practice. Place your leaf on page 12. Draw on page Q, the midrib in two straight 
 lines. Block in the leaf ; that is, draw it in straight lines, first the left side, then 
 the right side, adding the leaf-stalk and a very few of the principal veins, not 
 more than three on a side, in straight lines. 
 
BOOK II. J 
 
 LEAF FROM NATURE. 
 
 53 
 
 D. B., page 12. Drawing the outline of a Leaf. 
 
 Observation by Pupils. What is Fig. i ? A linden leaf. Has 
 any one such a leaf? Is the margin cf the leaf unbroken, that is, 
 entire ; or is it notched or toothed ? Which way do the teeth point, 
 toward the apex, toward the base, or outward ? 
 
 The margin of a linden leaf is toothed; in the real leaf, the little teeth 
 are quite close together. In making the picture of a leaf, the teeth are 
 only indicated now and then, as in Fig. i ; but although the teeth should 
 be only suggested in a drawing, great care should be taken to retain 
 the characteristic shape and direction of the teeth, whether curved or 
 pointed, whether pointing upward, outward, or downward. If the teeth 
 were all represented in the picture, the attention would be drawn 
 from the beauty of the general shape, and of the strong curvature, 
 and would be fixed on the details of the margin. So also if all the 
 veins were carefully drawn in, the effect of the leaf as a beautiful 
 figure would be lost. 
 
 Fig. x. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 3- 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
 The several stages of drawing a leaf are given here : Fig. i, shape 
 blocked in; Fig. 2, the veins added in straight lines; Fig. 3, the 
 curves drawn; Fig. 4, the leaf completed. 
 
 Drawing. Place your leaf over Fig. i in the drawing-book. Block it in as on the 
 practice page. Draw the curves over the blocking-in lines. Erase the blocking- 
 in, and finish in broad, soft lines, indicating a tooth now and then, or colrr 't. 
 
54 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK ir. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Teachers should continue to give pupils practice in the use of the 
 terms and names on page 28 as well as of those given below, always 
 requiring complete sentences. 
 
 Terms of Relation, Proportion, Views. 
 
 RELATION. Parallel, perpendicular. 
 
 PROPORTION. i to 2, 2 to i, 4 to 2, etc. 
 
 VIEWS. Left end view, right end view, bottom view. 
 
 Names of Models, Objects, Arrangements, and Details. 
 
 SPHERE; round face. 
 CYLINDER; curved face, plane face. 
 SQUARE PRISM ; parallel faces, perpendicular faces. 
 VASE FORM; profiles. 
 
 OBLONG ; diameter, diagonal, semidiameter, semidiagonal. 
 CURVES; altitude, reversed curves. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT ; axis of symmetry, unit of design, central figure ; square- 
 leaved quatrefoil. 
 POTATO, SQUASH; eyes, ribs. 
 
 LEAF; blade, petiole, stipule; base, veins; entire margin. 
 COLOR; orange, green, purple. 
 
BOOK III. 
 
 IN Books I. and II. the exercises are arranged for the study of the 
 facts, appearance, and decoration of form, but without specified refer- 
 ence to these three divisions. In Books III. to V. the exercises are 
 arranged specifically under the three heads, Construction, Representa- 
 tion, and Decoration ; and the exercises given under these three heads 
 lead to Working-Drawings and Constructive Design, to Pictorial Draw- 
 ing and Composition, to the Drawing of Ornament and Decorative 
 Design. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION (SOLIDS: Ellipsoid, Ovoid, Equi. Tri. Prism. 
 
 -j TABLETS : Ellipse, Oval, Triang-les. 
 Facts of Form. 
 
 ( MAKING : Cylinder, Equi. Tri. Prism, Toy House. 
 
 REPRESENTATION. j FRUIT, CYLINDER, COVERED BOX. 
 Appearance of Form. ( COMPOSITION. Groups of Fruit and Objects. 
 
 DECORATION (ROSETTES; MOORISH ORNAMENT. 
 
 \ DECORATIVE DESIGN. Surface Covering, Mod- 
 Ornamentation of Form. J 
 
 I iflcation of Units, Flower Form. 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 Language. (See page 88.) 
 
 Color. (See pages 74, 75.) 
 
 55 
 
56 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK in. 
 
 THE THREE SUBJECT DIVISIONS OF FORM 
 STUDY AND DRAWING. 
 
 THE study of Form and Drawing includes three distinct yet corre- 
 lated subjects; 
 
 CONSTRUCTION, the science and art of making diagrams or working-drawings, 
 which give the facts of objects, and from which objects may be con- 
 structed. 
 
 REPRESENTATION, the science and art of delineating or representing objects 
 as they appear to the eye. 
 
 DECORATION, the science and art of producing beauty in ornament. 
 
 These subjects require the study of objects and examples, and Draw- 
 ing is used as a means of expressing ideas gained by such study. 
 
 It frequently happens that instruction in Drawing is confined to 
 one or perhaps two of these subjects. 
 
 Pupils are sometimes given only the study of the facts of form; 
 such pupils become, through this one-sided study, almost insensible 
 to the appearance of form and also remain wholly uncultivated in the 
 recognition and appreciation of beauty in farm and ornament. 
 
 In other cases, pupils are given only the study of the appearance of 
 objects, without any foundational knowledge of the facts of form ; they 
 are left completely ignorant of the broad uses of drawing in industry ; 
 and know nothing of the elements of beauty in ornament. 
 
 In still other cases, the instruction in drawing tends wholly to deco- 
 rative design, leaving out of consideration entirely the study of objects 
 either as to their facts or their appearance. 
 
 Any course of Drawing, therefore, which does not give well-balanced 
 and closely connected instruction in the three subjects, Construction, 
 Representation, Decoration, and which does not also lead to the appre- 
 ciation of beautiful form in each of the three subjects, can produce 
 only very imperfect and one-sided results. 
 
BOOK in J CONSTRUCTION. 57 
 
 CONSTRUCTION ; 
 
 OE, DRAWING AS APPLIED IN CONVEYING IDEAS OF THE PACTS OF OBJECTS, 
 
 Of the three subjects Construct/on, Representation, and Decora- 
 tion, Construction is the one upon which the others should be built. It 
 deals with the facts of form, and shows the use which is made of the 
 drawing of these facts, in the world of industry. Its importance, both 
 educationally and practically, cannot be too strongly emphasized. 
 
 Construction is the science and art of making drawings which give 
 the facts of objects and from which objects may be constructed. 
 These are called working-drawings, and are necessary to guide the 
 
 workman in nearly every branch of manufacture. 
 
 
 
 A Working- Drawing. A working-drawing is a drawing which gives all the facts of 
 form, size, and structure of an object. Its purpose is to show a workman with 
 accuracy all the facts of an object which is to be made. This object may be one 
 already made or it may exist only in the brain of the inventor or designer. 
 
 A working-drawing is, therefore, composed of as many different geometric views of 
 an object as are necessary to the complete understanding of the object. 
 
 A geometric view shows an object under the simplest possible conditions; that 
 is, as seen with but two dimensions. For such a view, the object is supposed 
 to be placed directly in front of the eye in such a way that two dimensions only 
 are visible ; for example, a cube may be presented in such a way that the front 
 face alone a square is seen with its two dimensions, height and width. 
 
 The different views required in a working-drawing are named from the part repre- 
 sented in the view ; thus the front view represents the view obtained by looking 
 directly at the front of the object ; the top view represents the view obtained by 
 looking directly down upon the object ; and so on with the other views. 
 
 In Books I. and II. the facts of form of models and objects as shown 
 in various views, are studied as a means of gaining a complete knowl- 
 edge of type forms and as leading to observation of form in general. 
 The study of the facts of form is continued in Books III., IV., and 
 V., but the study is further developed so that pupils completing Book V. 
 will be able to make working-drawings from simple objects ; and also 
 to read, and to design simple working-drawings. 
 
58 TEACHERS MANUAL. [BOOK in. 
 
 DRILL EXERCISES. 
 
 Drawing-Book, page A. 
 (Use Manual Text for Book I. page D.) 
 
 Drawing-Book, page B. 
 OBJECT. Practice in drawing oblique lines from point to point with free arm movement. 
 
 Practice. Draw an oblique line from i to c, draw lines parallel to this from 2, 3, 4^ 
 
 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 to/, g and the successive points 
 at the bottom of the page. 
 
 Draw an oblique line from c tog, draw lines parallel 
 to this from o, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 to the succes- 
 sive points at the bottom of the page and from 
 8 to 10. 
 
 Practice movement for each line before drawing. 
 Draw with one movement. The object is to 
 
 secure free movement. 
 D. B., page B, completed. 
 
 EXERCISE I. Ellipsoid. Two Views. 
 
 MODELS : Sphere, Ellipsoid, Circle, Ellipse. 
 OBJECT. To study the form of an ellipsoid, to see and to draw two views. 
 
 Study of the Model by Pupils. (The sphere and ellipsoid 
 presented.) Take the two models ; in what way does the new model 
 resemble the sphere ? In what way does it differ ? This model is 
 called an ellipsoid. 
 
 Hold the ellipsoid vertical ; how much of its face can you see ? 
 Trace on the model the outline of the part that you see. Find or 
 cut a tablet having the shape of the outline. Hold the tablet ver- 
 tical, facing you; how do its two diameters compare? (The vertical 
 diameter is longer than the horizontal diameter.) Compare the curve 
 of the outline at the ends of the vertical diameter with the curve of 
 the outline at the ends of the horizontal diameter; can you describe 
 the curve ? This figure is called an ellipse. 
 
BOOK III.] 
 
 CONSTRUCTION. TWO VIEWS. 
 
 59 
 
 Hold the ellipsoid vertical ; what would you draw for the front view ? 
 (An ellipse?) For the left and right views ? (Ellipses.) Look down upon 
 the ellipsoid ; what would you draw for the top view ? (A circle.) 
 
 D. B., page C. Practice page for Ex. I. 
 
 Practice. The front view of an ellipsoid is given; the left, top, and right views are 
 required. Draw first the top view. Its centre is given; to fix the width of the top 
 view and the place of its vertical diameter, draw 
 three indefinite verticals, practicing movement up- 
 ward from the front view and drawing downward. 
 Draw the horizontal diameter and fix the length of 
 the vertical diameter. Practice movement for a 
 circle and -draw the top view at one sweep. 
 The diameters are printed for the left side view. Draw 
 the diameters lor the right side view, using the point 
 D. B., page C, completed. given v and obtaining all the points possible by move- 
 
 ment from the front view. Practice the movement for an ellipse on the front- 
 view, and over the given diameters, then draw the left side view, the same 
 for the right side view. No erasing. 
 
 D. B., page 1. Drawing two Views of an Ellipsoid. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What does the illustration 
 in the drawing-book represent? Can you mention something else 
 like an ellipsoid ? 
 
 Drawing. The diameters of the front view of an ellipsoid and the centre of its 
 top view are given. Draw the two views according to the directions for prac- 
 tice, page C, and finish the circle and ellipse in broad, gray lines. 
 
6o 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 ("HOOK in. 
 
 EXERCISE II. Ovoid. Three Views. 
 
 MODELS: Ellipsoid, Ovoid, Ellipse, Oval. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the form of an ellipsoid; to see and to draw three views of the 
 ellipsoid. 
 
 Study of the Model by Pupils. (Ellipsoid and Ovoid used.) 
 Shut your eyes, take one model in one hand, and one in the other; 
 are they alike ? Can you name either one without looking at it ? 
 Hold up the ellipsoid ; how does the other model differ from the 
 ellipsoid? In what way is it like the ellipsoid? Hold the two models 
 vertical; what is the proportion of the width to the height of the 
 ellipsoid ? of the other model ? This new model is called an ovoid. 
 Which end should be at the top in the vertical ovoid ? (The larger 
 end^) Trace the outline of the vertical ovoid in the air. Notice the 
 beauty of the form, produced by the subtile changes in curvature and 
 by the contrast between the upper and lower part. 
 
 Find a tablet having the shape of the outline. Hold it vertical, 
 facing you. Look at the curves of the outline at the top and bot- 
 tom and at the sides ; can you describe the curves ? 
 
 This figure is called an oval. Where is the widest part of a vertical 
 ellipse ? of a vertical oval ? 
 
 D. B., page D. Practice page for Ex. II. 
 
 Practice. The front view of an ovoid is given; the left, top, and right views are 
 required. Draw first the top view. Its centre is given ; fix its width and the 
 place of its vertical diameter ; draw three indefinite verticals, practicing move \ 
 ment upward from the front view and drawing downward with free movement. 
 
 D. B., page D, completed. 
 
 D. B., page i, completed. 
 
BOOK III.] 
 
 CONS TR UC TION. THREE VIE WS. 
 
 6l 
 
 Draw the horizontal diameter and fix the length of the vertical diameter. .Practice 
 movement for a circle, and draw the top view at one sweep. Construction lines 
 are printed for the left side view. Draw similar lines for the right side view, 
 using the point given and obtaining all the points possible by movement from 
 the front view. Practice the movement for an oval on the front view and over 
 the given lines ; then draw the left side view, the same for the right side view. 
 No erasing. 
 
 D. B., page 1. Drawing two Views of the Ovoid. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What does the picture in 
 the drawing-book represent ? Do you know the story of Columbus 
 and the egg? Upon which end did he make the egg stand? 
 
 Can you think of any objects like an ovoid? 
 
 Drawing. The front view of a vertical ovoid is given, also a point for the centre 
 of the top view, and for the diameter of the right side view. Draw the top and 
 right side views, getting dimensions as far as possible by movement from the 
 front view, and finish the circle and oval in broad lines. 
 
62 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK in. 
 
 EXERCISE III. Equilateral Triangular Prism. Drawing the 
 
 Pattern. 
 
 MODELS: Square and Equi. Tri. Prisms, Square, and Equilateral Triangle. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the form of an equilateral triangular prism, to learn the shape of 
 an equilateral triangle, to make the model, and to draw the pattern of an equilateral tri- 
 angular prism. 
 
 Study of the Model by Pupils. Place the square prism and 
 equi. tri. prism upright and facing you. How do these two models 
 resemble each other? (They are each twice as high as wide.) In what 
 other way do they resemble each other ? (In each model, the ends are 
 parallel to each other and just alike ; the faces between the ends are oblongs^} 
 (The teacher gives the name prism for both models.) 
 
 The prisms are standing upright ; upon what part does each stand ? 
 (On the end.) The part on which a solid rests is called its base ; as 
 a prism can stand upon one end as well as upon the other, each end 
 is called a base. (The teacher develops the name square prism from 
 the shape of its bases ; also triangle and triangular prism through 
 comparison of /the bases of the two prisms, and of the corresponding 
 tablets ; and equilateral triangle and equilateral triangular prism by 
 study of the tablet and the prism and other triangles cut from paper. 
 
 Illustrations are given here (for the teacher's use) of the three 
 kinds of triangles named from the relative length of their sides. 
 Fig. i, an equilateral triangle, the three sides being equal; Fig. 2, an 
 isosceles triangle, having two equal sides ; Fig. 3, a scalene triangle, 
 having no two of its sides equal. 
 
 Fig. i. Fig. . Fig. 3. 
 
 Making the Pattern. (The teacher recalls or develops the idea 
 of a pattern, as suggested on page 24.) How many faces has the 
 equi. tri. prism ? What is the shape of each face ? What is a tri- 
 angle ? (A triangle is a figure having three sides and three angles?) 
 
BOOK in.] CONSTRUCTION. PATTERN. 63 
 
 What is an equilateral triangle ? (A triangle having its sides and 
 angles equal.) Find two among the tablets ; how does the height com- 
 pare with the length of the sides ? What is an oblong ? (An oblong 
 is a figure having four straight sides and four right angles, with only its 
 opposite sides equal.) Of what figures would you make the pattern of 
 an equi. tri. prism ? (Of three oblongs and two equilateral triangles?) 
 
 JD. B., page E. Practice page for Ex. III. 
 
 Practice. From 2 and 6 draw verticals 6 inches long. Trisect the left vertical. 
 From the upper end of the vertical, from the points of trisection and from 
 the lower end of the vertical, draw horizontals to meet the second vertical, 
 making three oblong faces. Use the middle third of each vertical as the base 
 of an equilateral triangle pointing outward, and draw its sides equal in length 
 to the base. No erasing. 
 
 D. B., page S. Making a hollow Equilateral Triangular Prism. 
 
 What is printed on this page ? (The pattern of an equi. tri. prism.) 
 Detach the page and cut out the pattern, taking care not to cut off 
 the laps. Write your name neatly on an oblong face. Fold the pat- 
 tern so as to make an equi. tri. prism and paste it together. 
 
 -D. J3., page 2. Drawing the Pattern. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What is Fig. i ? Fig. 2 ? 
 Fig. 3 ? Having the length of an oblong face of an equi. tri. prism, 
 twice as high as wide, given, how would you draw the pattern ? 
 
 Drawing. The two printed angles show the length of an oblong face. Draw a 
 horizontal to connect the angles. Draw an indefinite vertical from each ena 
 of the horizontal. Bisect the horizontal. Point off on the left vertical three 
 distances equal to half the horizontal, and from the points draw horizontals. 
 Complete as above, finishing the triangles and oblongs in broad lines. 
 
64 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK in. 
 
 EXERCISE IV. Equilateral Triangular Prism. Three Views. 
 
 MODEL : Equi. Tri. Prism. 
 
 OBJECT. To study three views of the horizontal equi. tri. prism, to draw the end, 
 front, and top views. 
 
 Study of the Model by Pupils. Place the equi. tri. prism on 
 the desk, horizontal from left to right ; what would you draw for the 
 left end view ? (An equilateral triangle?) What would you draw for the 
 front view ? (An oblong?) How long should the oblong be ? (Twice as 
 long as the width of the left end view at the base.) How high should it 
 be ? (As high as the left end view?) 
 
 Look down on the prism ; how many long edges can you see ? 
 (Three?) How wide does the top view look from left to right com- 
 pared with the front view? how wide from front to back? What 
 would you draw for the top view? (An oblong with its long diameter?) 
 How long should this oblong be ? (As long as the front view?) How 
 high should it be ? (As high as the base line of the left end view is 
 long?) Compare the top and front views ; how do they differ ? 
 
 D. B., page F. Practice page for Ex. IV. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. Stand the equi. tri. tablet 
 facing you; on what part does it rest? (On an edge, on the base?) 
 Can you think of a name for the top of the triangle ? (The point, 
 the apex?) This is also called vertex. How far is 
 the vertex from the ends of the base ? (As far as 
 the length of the base?) What is the height of the 
 triangle called? (Its altitude?) 
 
 Can you draw an equilateral triangle on the board ? 
 How should the sides of an equilateral triangle com- 
 pare in length ? Draw a horizontal for the base of 
 the triangle and bisect it. Draw an indefinite vertical to the point 
 of bisection. On this vertical place a point for the vertex, as far 
 from the ends of the base as the length of the base, and draw the 
 two sides. 
 
HOOK III.] 
 
 CONSTR UCTION. THREE VIE WS. 
 
 Practice. The left end, front and top views of an equi. tri. prism, placed hori- 
 zontal from left to right, are required. A horizontal is printed for the base 
 of the left end view. Draw the left end view according to the directions just 
 given. 
 
 From the vertex and the base draw indefinite horizontals, to the right. Draw the 
 verticals for the front view, using the given angle and judging the proper 
 length of the oblong. 
 
 Draw the verticals for the top view, using the given angle. Judge the proper 
 height of the oblong, and draw the three horizontals needed. 
 
 D. B., page 3. Drawing Three Views of an Equilateral Triangular 
 Prism. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What does the picture 
 n the drawing-book represent ? What can you see or mention that 
 s like an equi. tri. prism ? 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions for the practice page. Complete with a broad, 
 soft, gray line. 
 
 D 
 
66 [BOOK IIL 
 
 REPRESENTATION; 
 
 OB, DRAWING AS APPLIED IN REPRESENTING THE APPEARANCE OF OBJECTS. 
 
 Representation is the science and art of delineating or represent 
 ing objects as they appear to the eye. The study of the facts of form 
 of objects in Construction prepares the pupil for the study of the ap- 
 pearance of objects in Representation. Representation is the comple- 
 ment to Construction, and follows it legitimately. 
 
 The principles of the two subjects are, however, widely different. 
 For Construction requires two or more geometric views, each from a 
 different stand-point, while Representation requires one pictorial view: 
 from a single stand-point. 
 
 Before attempting exercises in Representation with pupils, it is 
 necessary to make plain to them that the appearance of the form of an 
 object, seen from one stand-point, may be very different from the facts] 
 of its form. The fact must be recognized that instruction in drawing; 
 the appearance of objects must relate primarily to instruction in seeingX 
 and that pupils fail in drawing the appearance of objects more from] 
 inability to see than from inability to draw. In general all persons] 
 not trained to habits of correct seeing are predisposed toward drawing! 
 or representing the appearance of objects according to the idea of] 
 the facts of the form which the sense of touch has fixed in the mind. 
 
 Nearly all the principles in this subject can be learned by th( 
 study of the appearance of type forms, the simplest geometric solid; 
 They are : 
 
 I. Cylindric forms. 2. Rectangular forms. 
 
 Why the Appearance of Objects differs from their Facts. 
 The appearance of an object depends on two conditions : . 
 
 i. Its position in regard to the observer ; 2. Its distance from the observer. 
 
BOOK in.] REPRESENTATION. 6/ 
 
 Position affects the apparent FORM of an object; distance affects the 
 
 apparent SIZE. 
 The apparent form of any object, except a perfect sphere, varies with 
 
 every position in which it is placed in regard to the observer. 
 
 Hold a cube so that you can see but one face ; what is the shape ? 
 Hold it so that you can see two faces; what is the shape of the cube 
 as you see it? 
 
 The apparent size of an object decreases as its distance from the observer 
 increases. 
 
 The effect of distance on the apparent size of an object is a matter of 
 common observation. Take a vertical measurement on the pencil 
 (see p. 72) of an object at a distance of three feet, and again at a dis- 
 tance of ten feet. 
 
 As a preliminary to the exercises in Representation, practice can be 
 given in Measurement on the pencil, as given in the Manual text for 
 Exercise 711. p. 72, and as illustrated on the second page of the cover 
 of the DrL.A^ing-Book. 
 
 The object of the Exercises in Representation in Book III. is to 
 lead pupils to see, and to express orally and by drawing; 
 
 /. That a face view of a circle is always a circle. 
 
 2. That an edge -view of a circle is always a straight line. 
 
 j. That an obliqtie view of a circle is always an ellipse. 
 
 4. That the more oblique the view is, the more nearly the ellipse approaches a straight 
 
 line, 
 j. That the less oblique the view is, the more nearly the ellipse approaches a circle. 
 
68 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK in. 
 
 EXERCISE V. Group of Fruit. 
 
 From natural Fruit. 
 OBJECT. To arrange a group of fruit ; to study its appearance ; to draw its appearance. 
 
 Arrangement of a Group by Pupils. Let three pupils stand 
 in a row; let three others stand in a group. What is the difference 
 between the row and the group ? 
 
 Arrange a group of fruit, of two, or at the most three, very simple 
 forms, so that the effect will be pleasing. Remember that the effect 
 desired in a group is very different from the regularity allowed, and 
 to a certain extent demanded, in decoration. 
 
 (i) Choose one for the principal object, and, generally, place it 
 centrally but not exactly in the centre ; (2), do not place the other 
 objects in a straight line with the principal object; (3), try the 
 effect of placing the objects so that if the centres of their bases were 
 connected an irregular figure would be made ; (4), place them as if 
 they were good friends and belonged together, and (5), so that they 
 will appear at rest. But remember (6), that the objects should not 
 have the same positions, that is, their axes should not be all upright 
 or all horizontal ; they should not be parallel or at right angles to 
 each other ; and they should not present exactly the same faces ; 
 and (7) one of the objects should be partially hidden behind another, 
 even if there are no- more than two objects in the group. Look now 
 (8), to see if in the group that you have made, the objects will 
 appear of the same height when drawn. If so, change them, for the 
 effect will not be pleasing. 
 
BOOK III.] 
 
 REPKESENTA TION. GROUP. 
 
 6 9 
 
 D. B., page G. Practice page for Ex. V. 
 
 Practice. Having arranged a group, obtain the proportion of the width to the 
 height of the group, ' by measurement on the pencil, as illustrated on page 
 40. Indicate by light verticals and horizontals the space to be occupied 
 by the group, making it of a suitable size for the page and of the proper 
 proportion. Block in first the principal object in the group and then the 
 others. Draw the table line, studying to place it well. Draw the curves over 
 the blocking-in lines. Do not erase or finish, 
 
 D. B., page 4. Drawing the Outlines of a Group. 
 
 Observation by Pupils. Study the groups in the drawing- 
 book. If you connected the bases of the objects in Fig. i, what 
 kind of a figure would you have ? In Fig. 2 ? Describe the position 
 of the axes of the objects with relation to each other in each group. 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions given for page G. Correct, erase wrong lines 
 and finish. 
 
70 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK in. 
 
 EXERCISE VI. Appearance of a Cylinder below the Level of 
 
 the Eye. 
 
 MODEL : Cylinder made by the Pupils. 
 
 OBJECT. To make a hollow cylinder, to study its appearance below the eye, to draw 
 the appearance. 
 
 Making the Model. Detach page H and cut it on the printed 
 line. Roll into a cylinder, lap the ends half an inch and paste them 
 together. 
 
 Study of the Model by Pupils. What is the shape of the top 
 view of a cylinder? of the front view? Remember that these terms, 
 top view, front view, etc., refer always to the facts of an object, to the 
 object as it is when measured, and not to its appearance. The cylinder 
 is to be studied in this Exercise as it appears. Hold the cylinder just 
 made at arm's length, vertical, with the top (i), on a level with the eye ; 
 (2), two inches below the level of the eye ; (3), four inches below. 
 Repeat. 
 
 Hold it now four inches below the eye, and look at the top ; what 
 is the shape of the top as it appears to you ? (The shape of an 
 ellipse?) Raise the cylinder two inches ; does the appearance of the 
 top change? (The top appears narrower from front to back^} 
 
 Hold the cylinder vertical, at arm's length, somewhat below the eye ; 
 how much of the lower edge can you see? (One half.) What is the 
 appearance of the lower edge ? (// appears to curve downward^) Is 
 the curve that of a circle or that of an ellipse ? If you could see the 
 whole of the appearance, what figure would it be like ? Compare the 
 front half of the upper edge and that part of the lower edge which is 
 visible ; which appears to curve the more ? (The lower.) What is the 
 proportion of the height to the width of the cylinder? 
 
 D. B,, page I. Practice page for Ex. VI. 
 
 Practice. Hold the cylinder vertical at arm's length, two inches below the level 
 of the eye; and study its appearance and proportion. On the upper part of 
 the page or on the desk, lay a pencil or a strip of paper to represent the level of 
 your eys. Considering this as the level of the eye, draw the cylinder as it 
 appears to you, making a large drawing in the centre of the page. 
 
BOOK TIL] REPRESENTATION. CYLINDER. *J\ 
 
 D. B., page J. Practice page for Ex. VI. 
 
 Practice. Three ellipses differing in proportion are printed. Practice move- 
 ment, see Fig. 6, page xiii, on the upper ellipse, moving in the order i, 2, 3, 4. 
 Repeat the movement over the first printed diameters, and draw an ellipse 
 with one sweep of the pencil. Following the same order, draw ellipses on 
 all the printed diameters. No erasing. 
 
 D. JB., page 5. Drawing the Appearance of the Cylinder. 
 
 Observation Exercises for the Pupils. Look carefully at 
 the printed copy ; hold your cylinder vertical at arm's length, raising 
 or lowering it until the top appears to you like the ellipse on the 
 printed copy ; observe also the curve at the bottom. Note where the 
 profile lines meet the ellipses ; do they seem to cut the curve or to 
 touch it? When a line meets a curved line so that it touches it, 
 but if continued would not cut it, there is said to be a tangential 
 union. 
 
 Drawing. On the printed copy draw a central vertical, complete the lower 
 ellipse, and draw the diameters of the ellipses. 
 
 Connect the points given at the right, for the central line of the drawing to be 
 made. Indicate the width of the cylinder by indefinite verticals, and draw 
 lines for the long diameters of the ellipses. Determine the width of the 
 ellipses on the central line, and draw the appearance of the cylinder, finish- 
 ing it in broad lines. 
 
72 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK in. 
 
 EXERCISE VII. Covered Box. - Appearance below the Level 
 
 off the Eye. 
 
 From an Object, if possible. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the appearance of horizontal circles below the eye as seen in a 
 cylindric object: to draw the appearance. 
 
 Measurement on the Pencil by Pupils. (The teacher draws 
 upon the board vertical oblongs of different proportions. If the 
 schoolroom is wide, it will be better to have several such oblongs, 
 some at the left, some in the middle, and some at the right end of 
 the board. The teacher gives the following directions, and sees that 
 each is intelligently carried out before proceeding to the next, ex- 
 plaining that the measurement to be taken first is the width of the 
 oblong, next the height of the oblong. See illustration on the second 
 page of the drawing-book cover.) 
 
 Position, and Practice in Holding the Pencil for Measurement. Sit well 
 back in the chair, with head erect and shoulders resting firmly against the back 
 of the chair. 
 
 Grasp the pencil in the middle with the fingers, leaving the thumb, and, as occasion 
 demands, the forefinger, free to move along the pencil (see illustrations, page 40). 
 
 Hold the pencil horizontal and parallel to the line of the eyes, at arm's length, with 
 the point to the right. Drop the hand to rest. Hold the pencil vertical (not 
 inclining either backward or forward, either to the right or the left), at arm's 
 length, with the point downward. 
 
 Measuring Horizontally. Sit back in the chair, close one eye, and hold the pencil 
 horizontal, at arm's length, with the point to the right, and so that the left end 
 appears to be just at the left side of the form or figure to be measured ; move 
 the thumb until it appears to be just at the right side of the form or figure 
 (Fig. i, second page of the drawing-book cover). 
 
 Measuring Vertically. Hold the pencil vertical, at arm's length, with the point 
 downward, at such a height that the upper end of the pencil appears to be exactly 
 on a line with the upper side of the form or figure to be measured; move the 
 thumb up or down the pencil until the thumb appears to be on a line with the 
 lower side of the form or figure. 
 
BOOK III.] 
 
 RE PR ESEN TA TION. CO VERED B OX. 
 
 73 
 
 Comparing two Measurements. Remember always to take the same position 
 (back in the chair, pencil .at arm's length) for any two measurements that you 
 wish to compare ; and that the measurements give proportion only, not size. Take 
 the shorter measurement on the pencil, keep it by holding the thumb fixed ; turn 
 the pencil and compare this measurement with the longer, by seeing how many 
 times the shorter measurement can be repeated in the longer. 
 
 Find the proportion of width to height in the various oblongs. (The 
 teacher places the waste-paper basket where all can see it.) Measure 
 the height of the basket and its width at the top ; which is greater ? 
 
 Study by Pupils of a Cylindric Object a Covered Box. 
 Measure the height and width of the appearance on your pencil ; how 
 does the height of the appearance compare with the width ? What 
 is the appearance of the top ? Measure the width of the top from 
 front to back, and its width from left to right on your pencil; how 
 do they compare ? What is the appearance of the lower edge of the 
 cover ? Of the lower edge of the box ? 
 
 D. B., page K. Practice page for Ex. VII. 
 
 Practice. Obtain the proportion of the height to the width of the box by 
 measurement on the pencil. Draw according to the directions given for 
 drawing the cylinder. Make a large drawing. 
 
 D. B., page 6. Drawing the appearance of the Box. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What kind of a box is 
 represented in the drawing-book ? What is the actual shape of its top 
 view ? (A circled) What is the appearance of the top in the picture ? 
 (Like an ellipse?) Why was it not made the actual shape ? 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions for the practice page. Make a large drawing 
 and finish it in broad, soft lines, drawn with continuous movement. 
 
74 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK in. 
 
 OPTIONAL EXERCISES IN DIMENSION AND IN COLOR. 
 
 The two blank pages facing each other in the middle of the book are to be used for 
 these exercises, They may be exercises in Dimension only, or in Dimension and 
 Color combined. 
 
 Dimension. These exercises afford practice in drawing oblongs 
 of different dimensions. The six oblongs required on the left page 
 are to be i inch high, and in length 3, 5, 8, 13, n, and 8 thirds of an 
 inch, respectively. The three oblongs required on the right page are 
 to be i inch high, and 19, 21, and 24 thirds of an inch, respectively. 
 
 Dictation. Left page: Follow 1]" i, in " Dictation," page 44. Draw verticals from 
 i and 8 to the lower side of the imaginary oblong, On the upper horizontal, mark 
 a point 3 thirds of an inch (how many inches ? ) to the right of the vertical from i 
 and from that point draw a vertical to the next horizontal below, thus making an 
 oblong i" high and 3 thirds of an inch long. One inch below this, make an 
 oblong i" high and 5 thirds of an inch long. One inch below this, make an 
 oblong i" high and 8 thirds of an inch long. 
 
 In making the oblongs at the right of the page, begin at the vertical drawn from 8. 
 On the upper horizontal, mark a point 13 thirds of an inch (how many inches?) 
 to the left of the vertical from 8, and from that point draw a vertical to the 
 horizontal below, making an oblong i" high and 13 thirds of an inch long. 
 One inch below, make an oblong i" high and n thirds of an inch long; 
 one inch below this, an oblong i" high and 8 thirds of an inch long. 
 
 Right page: Follow 1 i, in "Dictation," page 44. Then set off 19 thirds of an inch 
 (how many inches ? ) from the left end of the upper horizontal, and draw a ver- 
 tical to the next horizontal below, thus drawing an oblong i" high and 19 
 thirds of an inch long. One inch below, make an oblong i" high and 21 
 thirds of an inch long; one inch below this, an oblong i" high and 24 
 thirds of an inch long. 
 
 n T 
 
 L J 4. J 
 
 The Laying Out and Arrangement of Oblongs on the Blank Pages. 
 
BOOK in.] DIMENSION AND COLOR. 75 
 
 Color. If these are used as color as well as dimension exercises, 
 the relative values of the Primary and Secondary pigment colors, yel- 
 low, red, blue, orange, green, purple, can first be recalled as given on 
 page 45 ; that is, yellow 3, red 5, blue 8, purple 13, green n, orange 8, 
 and also their arrangement in half-inches. 
 
 It is now desired to have two pages in which the oblongs for the 
 Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary colors shall be laid out in thirds of 
 an inch. Tertiaries are made by mixing Secondaries. Oblongs for 
 the two pages can now be drawn as shown on the opposite page. 
 The left page is laid, out for Primaries and Secondaries. This can be 
 colored as directed on page 45. 
 
 The right page is laid out for Tertiaries. The upper oblong being 
 opposite the purple should be colored with a mixture of the two other 
 Secondaries, orange and green, making the Tertiary known as citrine, 
 or orange-green. The second oblong being opposite the green should 
 be colored with a mixture of the two other Secondaries, purple and 
 orange, making the Tertiary color known as russet or orange-purple. 
 The third oblong being opposite the orange, should be colored with a 
 mixture of the two remaining Secondaries, green and purple, making 
 the Tertiary known as olive or purple-green. 
 
 Below each oblong the name of the color should be written. Pupils 
 having obtained through these exercises the color sensations of the 
 'Primaries, Secondaries, and Tertiaries, are ready to find and to recall 
 objects having these various colors, thus fixing the color sensations 
 and at the same time educating the color sense. If previously pupils 
 could have practice in finding and matching colors according to the 
 Color Chart of Dr. Jeffries, they would be much better prepared for 
 this exercise. 
 
 Various exercises should also be given to fix the order of this page in 
 the minds of the pupils, so that in using a Secondary and a Tertiary color 
 together, they may always select those complementary to each other, 
 
 ORANGE, Secondary, harmonizes with. . OLIVE or PURPLE-GREEN, Tertiary. 
 GREEN, Secondary, harmonizes with . . RUSSET or ORANGE-PURPLE, Tertiary. 
 PURPLE, Secondary, harmonizes with . . CITRINE or ORANGE-GREEN, Tertiary. 
 
7 6 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK HI. 
 
 DECORATION ; 
 
 OR, DRAWING AS APPLIED IN ORNAMENT, 
 
 Decoration is the science and art of producing beauty in ornament. 
 The study of the facts of form of objects in Construction, and of their 
 appearance in Representation, is now properly followed by the study of 
 Decoration, or the means of enhancing the beauty of objects. 
 
 Ornament, the product of purely decorative art, is always employed 
 to beautify objects created for some purpose, independent of their 
 decoration. It produces its legitimate effect when, without concen- 
 tration upon itself, it makes the object to which it is applied more 
 pleasing than 'if unadorned. 
 
 Fitness to its purpose is the underlying principle, the very corner 
 stone of all good ornament. From this principle of fitness for its pur- 
 pose there arises the fundamental law of ornament, Subordination. 
 This law requires, THAT ALL ORNAMENT SHALL BE MODEST AND MOD- 
 ERATE. Strong contrasts and striking effects violate it. Illustrations 
 of this requirement in matters of good taste in general are familiar 
 to all. A loud voice in conversation is not excusable ; a forward, self- 
 asserting manner is a mark of ill-breeding; gaudy colors in dress are 
 shunned ; showiness, or any other attempt to attract attention, is 
 condemned. This requirement holds good in all ornament, whether 
 architectural, domestic, or personal. He is not well dressed whose 
 dress is conspicuous ; that house is not well furnished where the 
 furniture is obtrusive ; that building is not well ornamented whose 
 decoration is not subordinate to the idea of the building. 
 
 The Sources of Ornament. The sources of ornament are Ge- 
 ometry and Nature ; and it is difficult at times to distinguish between 
 these two sources ; for a thoughtful consideration of nature will show 
 geometric plans and forms and modes of arrangement in nature's 
 handiwork. Order, symmetry, and proportion are all exemplified in 
 nature in varying degrees. 
 
BOOK in.] DECORATION. 77 
 
 Materials of Ornament. The materials of ornament are : 
 
 1. Geometric plans, enclosing figures and units. 
 
 2. Conventionalized units derived from natural forms as motives. 
 
 3. Historic ornament. 
 
 But, in order to use these materials effectively, it is necessary to 
 study 
 
 (a. ) Geometric construction and symmetric arrangement. 
 ( b. ) The proper use of plant forms as motives. 
 ( c. ) Well-selected examples of historic ornament. 
 
 Symmetric Arrangement. The principal forms of arrangement 
 (all requiring more or less of geometric construction) are : 
 
 1. A surface design, to cover a surface. 
 
 2. A border, to limit a surface. 
 
 3. A single arrangement, complete in itself. 
 
 Proper Use of Plant Forms. "Flowers must be something 
 more than flowers to the designer ; he must seek out the plan of de- 
 velopment, and then adhere closely to natural laws." Lead pupils as 
 deeply as possible into the study of nature, in order that they may see 
 for themselves the spirit of the plant which they are studying, as well as 
 the more formal matter of arrangement. Then let them conventionalize 
 plant forms for use in ornament, by keeping the characteristics of 
 growth, curvature, and proportion while simplifying outlines and omit- 
 ting details. 
 
 Historic Ornament. In this course no attempt is made to teach 
 styles of ornament. A few simple and characteristic examples have 
 been selected from different styles, in order to lead pupils to consider 
 beauty in ornament. The study of the characteristics of each style is 
 left for more advanced work. 
 
TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK in 
 
 EXERCISE VIII. Ornament. Rosette. 
 
 From a Copy. 
 OBJECT. To study a rosette ; to draw the rosette. 
 
 Study of the Copy by Pupils. What kind of repetition dp yoi 
 see on this page? (In Fig. I, repetition around a centre; in Fig. 
 horizontal repetition?) What is Fig. 4 ? (A border?) What does Fig. i 
 look like? (Something like a flower?) It is called a rosette, from its 
 resemblance to a rose.) What is the general shape of this rosette ? 
 (That of a circle?) How many units are there in it? (Eight?) What* 
 are the units like ? (Like triangles with the corners rounded?) 
 
 D. B., page L. Practice page for Ex. VIII. Dictation. 
 
 Practice. Free movement, free drawing. Draw an oblong, using the angles given. 
 Bisect the left side; fiom the point of bisection, draw a horizontal across the 
 oblong. Trisect the upper side ; from the points of trisection, draw verticals down 
 the oblong. Complete according to the directions on p. 4, for D. B. I. page D, and 
 the illustration below. This very simple design to cover a surface can be made the | 
 basis of arrangement for a more elaborate design for a surface covering. As, for j 
 instance, the rosette of page 7 could be drawn in each circle. 
 
 D. B., page 7. Drawing the Rosette. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. Can you think of any 
 place where such an ornament would be suitable ? Have you ever 
 seen any rosettes as ornaments ? Study Figs. 2 and 3 and give the 
 steps for drawing the rosette. 
 
 Drawing. Follow the steps brought out in the study of the stages. Erase unneces- 
 sary lines, and finish the rosette. 
 
 D. B., page L, completed. 
 
 Design for a Surface Covering. 
 
BOOK in.] DECORATION. MOORISH ORNAMENT. 79 
 
 EXERCISE IX. -Moorish Ornament. 
 
 From a Copy. 
 OBJECT. To study a historic ornament; to draw its outline. 
 
 Study of the Copy by Pupils. The Moors were a people of 
 dark complexion who lived in the northern part of Africa, and also 
 in Spain. They were highly educated and produced a great deal of 
 beautiful decoration. But as the Mohammedan religion forbade the 
 imitation of animal or plant forms, their ornament was geometric in 
 general character. The ornament given in this exercise was a favorite 
 form in Mohammedan art and can be traced in various modifications 
 all through Arabic and Moorish decoration. An example is given 
 in the drawing-book of its use in an Arabic border. 
 
 D. B. t page 8. Drawing the Ornament. 
 
 Drawing. On the copy, sketch a vertical as an axis of symmetry ; also horizontals 
 to connect the ends of opposite curves. 
 
 Draw the figure in the space at the right, enlarging it to fill the space. First 
 draw- the axis of symmetry and two horizontals to correspond to those drawn 
 on the copy. For each curve, practice first, movement on the copy, then over 
 the space at the right, then draw with one sweep. Erase construction lines 
 and errors, and complete the figure in broad, soft lines. 
 
 The illustrations below are historic variations of the copy. A purely 
 original figure is not always necessary in ornament ; in historic orna- 
 ment, there will be found many modifications of a favorite figure. 
 
 What is history ? (The story of the past.) When can we call an orna- 
 ment historic ? ( When the ornament is recognized as having belonged to 
 the decorative art of some nation or people m the past.) 
 
So 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 TBOOK n 
 
 EXERCISE X. Decorative Design. Units Modified. Arrai 
 ment about a Centre. 
 
 OBJECT. To study a unit and ways of modifying it, to modify units for arrangement 
 about the centre of an oblong quatrefoil ; to draw the arrangement. 
 
 Study of D. B., page 9, by Pupils. Look at the large printed 
 outlines, Figs. 5 and 6 ; what is the general shape ? (Oblong?) What 
 is there on each side of the oblong? (A semicircle) Do you remem- 
 ber any figure made of four semicircles ? (A quatrefoil) (The teacher 
 gives the name oblong quatrefoil.) 
 
 In Fig. i, you see a design in an oblong quatrefoil; how many 
 units are there in the design ? (Four) How do they compare with 
 each other? (Two are larger and two smaller; they look alike in out~.~ 
 line, but they are not of the same proportion) 
 
 How did you modify a unit in Book II. ? (In outline ; by drawing 
 curved lines instead of straight) How else can a unit be modified H 
 (In its proportion) 
 
 D. B., page M. Practice page for Ex. X. 
 
 Practice. Fig. i is a unit of design. Construction lines like those of Fig. I are 
 given for Fig. 2. On these construction lines, a symmetric unit differing in outline 
 from Fig. i is required. Modify the outline by substituting curved lines, wholly 
 or in part for the straight lines of Fig. i. In Fig. i, the upper part is-divided into 
 three parts, and the points of division fall on the construction line. In the modi- 
 fication, the points of division may or may not be on the horizontal construction 
 line. The curves should not be deep. 
 
 Construction lines for a unit differing in proportion are given at Fig. 3. On these 
 lines draw a unit similar to the one drawn at Fig. 2. 
 
 Practice movement for the curves before drawing. No erasing. 
 
Dh JRATJON. DECORATIVE DESIGN. 
 
 81 
 
 .D. B., page N. Second practice page for Ex. X. 
 
 Observation Exercise for Pupils. What is the proportion of 
 height to width in Fig. i, page M ? (j to 2.) If you had the 
 height given, how could you get the width? (Trisect the height and 
 make the width equal to two-thirds of this height?) 
 
 Practice. At Fig. i, points are given for the axis of symmetry of a unit like Fig. I, 
 page M. Draw the axis, trisect it, and through the upper point of trisection draw 
 a horizontal equal to two-thirds the vertical. On these construction lines draw a 
 new modification of Fig. i, page M. 
 
 At Fig. 2, points are given for the construction lines of a unit differing in proportion 
 from the one just drawn. Draw these lines and on them draw a unit similar in 
 outline. No erasing. 
 
 D. B., page 9, Arranging Units to make a Design and Drawing the 
 Design. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. A design is required for 
 an oblong quatrefoil, Fig. 5 ; how much space should there be between 
 the units and the outline, or enclosing figure? (About a quarter of 
 an inch for this figure?) Fig. 2 is a leaf ; this may suggest to you a 
 modification of a unit. 
 
 Arrangement. Decide on a unit. Cut from colored paper two units to be placed 
 on the vertical diameter of the quatrefoil, and two of proper proportions for the 
 horizontal diameter. Draw the diameters of the quatrefoil, Fig. 5 ; arrange the 
 units to meet at the centre, and paste them at the centre. Cut a central figure 
 like Fig. 3 or Fig. 4 and paste on the design. 
 
 Drawing. Draw the diameters of Fig. 6. On these diameters draw the design 
 arranged in Fig. 5. Draw the units by opposites. Erase diameters and lines 
 within the central figure. Finish the design with broad, soft lines. 
 
S2 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK II 
 
 EXERCISE XI. Toy House. Three Views. 
 
 MODEL : Toy House made by the pupil. 
 
 OBJECT. To make a model of a house, to study its end, side, and top views, and t 
 draw them. 
 
 D. B., pzgQ O. The Pattern for the Model. 
 
 Study of the Pattern. What is Fig. i ? Fig. 2 ? How man 
 parts has Fig. i ? Which parts are alike ? Can you tell what part 
 of the house they are ? What is the shape of the side of the house 
 the proportion of height to width? What is the shape of the end 
 (A square with a right-angled triangle on the upper side.) What is th 
 proportion of height to width? 
 
 Fig. i. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 
 
 Illustrations are given (for the teacher's use) of triangles named from 
 their angles. 
 
 Fig. i, a right-angled triangle, having but one right angle; Fig. 2, ai 
 acute-angled triangle, having all its angles acute ; Fig. 3, an obtuse 
 angled triangle, having one obtuse angle. 
 
 Making the Model. Detach the page. Cut out Fig. i, folc 
 firmly along the light lines and paste it. Cut out Fig. 2 and past 
 it on as a roof. 
 
 D. B., page 10. Drawing three Views. 
 
 Study of the Model by Pupils. Hold the model at arm' 
 length, on a level with the eyes, end toward you. How does the 
 end view differ from the end of the house as printed in the pattern 
 (The roof is seen overhanging the sides^) Can you draw the end vie\ 
 on the board ? 
 
 Hold the model with the side toward you. How wide is the side 
 of the house ? (The width of the side is equal to the whole height oj 
 
BOOK III.] 
 
 RE VIE W. CONS TR UC TION. 
 
 the house?) How high is the side view ? (As high as the end view.) 
 What part of the house does the roof hide in the side view? Can 
 you draw the side view on the board, carrying the various heights 
 across from the end view ? 
 
 Look down on the model. How wide is the top view from left to 
 right ? (As wide as the roof in the side view.) From front to back ? 
 {As wide as the roof in the end view) Can you draw the top view on 
 the board? 
 
 Drawing. A printed line is given for the base of the end view, and an angle for the 
 
 lower left corner of the side view. On the 
 
 printed line, as a base, draw a square lightly. 
 
 Draw a light vertical diameter, extending it 
 
 indefinitely upward. On this line fix the 
 
 height of the end view, and draw the roof, re- 
 membering to make it overhang. 
 Draw the side view, carrying indefinite horizontals 
 
 from the end view. Make the length of the 
 
 side of the house equal to the height of the 
 
 house and add a sufficient length for the roof. 
 Draw the top view, making it as long as the roof in the side view and as wide as the 
 
 roof in the end view. 
 
 D. B,, page 10, completed. 
 
 Making. Make at home such a house, but change the dimensions, 
 making the ends 3 inches wide and the sides 4 inches wide. 
 
 Draw first the three views of the house, the end view, the side view, 
 and the top view ; then draw the pattern. The house can be made of 
 pasteboard or of wood. A door, windows, and chimney might be added, 
 so that the house when made would be a model of the little house illus- 
 trated on the page of the drawing-book. 
 
 The pattern of the chimney furnishes quite a problem ; most pupils, 
 however, will work it out for themselves. The pattern is given below. 
 
84 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK in. 
 
 EXERCISE XII. Group. 
 
 From Objects. 
 
 OBJECT. To arrange a pleasing group containing a cylindric form; to study the ap- 
 pearance of the group, to draw the appearance. 
 
 Study by Pupils of the Arrangement of a Group. In 
 
 studying the arrangement of a group, consider, 
 
 1. The place of the principal object. 
 
 2. The place of the secondary objects. 
 
 3. The figure made by the group on the table. 
 
 4. Unity of the group distance between objects. 
 
 5. Repose of the objects. 
 
 6. Variety in the positions of the axes and in the faces visible. 
 
 7. Partial view of some .of the objects. 
 
 8. Upper line of the group. 
 
 (The teacher will recall these topics to the pupils by arranging a 
 group where all can see, and calling not only for opinions as to the 
 arrangement whether it is pleasing or not, but also for changes that 
 should be made and the reasons for them. The topics are stated 
 more in detail on page 68.) 
 
 (The teacher can also vary this exercise to advantage by asking 
 pupils to bring in pictures of groups of objects, of animals, or of 
 people, see page 69, to be studied with reference to these points by the 
 class.) 
 
 Arrangement of a Group by Pupils. Arrange a group of two, 
 or at the most three, very simple forms, comprising a cylindric object 
 and fruit or vegetables. As you arrange the group, study it with 
 reference to each of the points mentioned. The aim should be to 
 make the group as pleasing as possible in general effect. 
 
BOOK 
 
 KE VIE W. REPRESENTA TION. 
 
 D. B., page R. Practice page for Ex. XII. 
 
 Practice. Having arranged a group, obtain the proportion of the width to the 
 height of the group, by measurement on the pencil, as illustrated on the second 
 page of the cover of Drawing Book III. Indicate by light verticals and hor- 
 izontals the space to be occupied by the group, making it of a suitable size for 
 the page and of the proper proportion. Block in first the principal object in 
 the group and then the others. Draw the table line, studying to place it well. 
 Draw the curves over the blocking-in lines. Do not erase or finish. 
 
 D, B., page 11. Drawing the outlines of a Group. 
 
 Observation by Pupils. Describe the illustrations in the draw- 
 ing-book, with reference to the points mentioned. Improve the arrange- 
 ment of your own group if you can. 
 
 The group of models given above may suggest an arrangement of 
 objects similar in form. 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions given for practice, 
 finish. 
 
 Correct, erase wrong lines, and 
 
86 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK IIL 
 
 EXERCISE XIII. Decoration. Rosette. - Top View of a Flower. 
 
 MODEL: Five- pe tailed Flower. 
 
 OBJECT. To study arrangement in the top view of a flower ; to draw a rosette from 
 the top view. 
 
 Study of. Buttercups by the Pupils (each having one if pos- 
 sible). What is the color of your flower? Look at the inside and 
 at the outside of the flower; what do you notice? (There is a circle 
 of yellow leaves and outside of them there is a circle of green leaves) 
 The inner circle of flower leaves is called a corolla, or a little crown ; 
 the outer circle is called a calyx, or cup. 
 
 How many leaves has the corolla of the buttercup ? (Five) The 
 leaves of a corolla are called petals. What is the general shape of 
 the centre ? The centre is filled with threadlike parts, stamens and 
 pistil, too small to be studied now. How many petals has the but- 
 tercup ? Do you know any other five-petalled flowers? 
 
 Open your drawing-books at page 12. What is Fig. i? Fig. 3? 
 How could you use such a rosette or such a border in decoration ? 
 
 D. B., p&ge Q. Practice page for Ex. XIII. 
 
 Study of Fig. I. What is Fig. i ? (A circle) How is it divided ? 
 (It is divided into five equal parts by lines starting from the centre) ( The 
 teacher gives the terms, radius, plural radii, and circumference.) 
 
 Practice. Fig. i. Draw in this circle a rosette from the buttercup; first draw the 
 petals lightly, using each radius as an axis for a petal. Add a central circle of 
 proper proportion to the rosette. 
 
 D. B., page Q, completed. 
 
 Fig. 2. Divide the circumference into five equal parts and draw five radii. Repeat in 
 this circle the rosette just drawn. 
 
BOOK: in.] 
 
 RE VIE W. DECORA TION. 
 
 D. B., page 12. Drawing a Rosette. 
 
 Studying the Model. (Each pupil should have a five-petalled 
 flower, not a buttercup, if. possible.) What is the shape of the petals 
 of your flower, as seen in the top view? What is the name of your 
 flower ? 
 
 Study carefully the beauty of the flower, in the whole arrangement 
 and proportion, in the shape of the petals, in the grace of the curves. 
 These are the elements which will make the beauty of the decorative 
 figure. 
 
 Can you think of an object which you can make and decorate with 
 a rosette, used either simply, or repeated for a border, or for a .surface 
 covering ? 
 
 (The teacher should encourage the pupils to use -the rosettes drawn, 
 in decorating some object, by drawing, by cutting, by embroidery, by 
 carving, or by painting.) 
 
 Drawing." A circle is printed. Within the circle draw a rosette from your flower, 
 making the rosette a little smaller than the circle, following the order given for 
 the practice page. To limit the size of the rosette, make a point on each radius 
 about i" from the circumference. Finish the rosette in broad, gray lines, or color 
 the rosette, using one tertiary and one primary color. 
 
88 TEACHER'S MANUAL. {BOOK ill. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 Teachers should continue to give pupils practice in the use of the 
 terms and "names on pages 28 and 54, as well as in the use of those 
 given below, always requiring complete sentences. 
 
 Names of Models, Objects, and Details. 
 
 ELLIPSOID, OVOID, EQUI. TRI. PRISM. 
 ELLIPSE, OVAL; long diameter, short diameter. 
 TRIANGLE ; equilateral, right-angled ; vertex, altitude, base. 
 CIRCLE; radius, radii, circumference. 
 LINES; tangential union. 
 FLOWER; corolla, calyx, petals. 
 
 COLOR ; olive or purple-green ; russet or orange-purple ; citrine or orange* 
 green. 
 
 Terms of Construction. 
 
 FACTS ; top view, front view, left side view, right side view, end view. 
 
 Terms of Representation. 
 
 APPEARANCE; the level of the eye, below the level of the eye. 
 ARRANGEMENT OF A GROUP; Unity, Variety, Repose. 
 
 Terms of Decoration. 
 
 ORNAMENT; geometric, historic. 
 
 REPETITION ; horizontal, around a centre : border, rosette, surface covering, 
 
 DETAILS ; enclosing figure, central figure ; oblong quatrefoil. 
 
 UNITS ; their modification in outline, and in proportion. 
 
 BEAUTY; arrangement, proportion, shape, grace of curves. 
 
BOOK IV. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION. 
 Facts of Form. 
 
 r SOLIDS : Cube, Cylinder, Cone, Square Prism. 
 j OBJECTS : Books, Boxes, Slate. 
 I MAKING: Cones, Lamp Shade. 
 I CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN : Vase Forms. 
 
 REPRESENTA TION. 
 Appearance of Form. 
 
 fCONE, TUMBLER, FLOWER POT. 
 I BOOK CLOSED, BOOK OPEN. 
 ] NATURAL BRANCH. 
 I COMPOSITION: Group of Models. 
 
 rSPIRAL BORDER; GOTHIC LEAF. 
 
 DECORATION. \ DECORATIVE DESIGN : Natural Growth, Con- 
 
 Orn.sj2iento.tion of Form, j ventionalization, Rosette. 
 
 I NATURAL GROWTH: Braack. 
 
TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK iv. 
 
 DRILL EXERCISES. 
 
 Drawing-Book, page A. 
 
 OBJECT. Practice for proper position, pencil-holding, and free arm movement, hori- 
 zontal, vertical, oblique. 
 
 Directions to the Teacher. Before beginning work in the book, 
 be sure that pupils know how to hold their pencils for free movement 
 and drawing. Give practice in movement \vith 
 the pencil from left to right, and see that each 
 pupil holds the pencil properly (see Fig. i, p. 
 xiii), the same for movement from top to bot- 
 tom (see Fig. 2, p. xiii), and from corner to corner (see Figs. 3 
 and 4, p. xiii). 
 
 Practice. Draw horizontals from a, b, c, d, e, ending these lines directly below 9. 
 Draw verticals from i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ending these lines directly opposite f. 
 Bisect the space between the verticals from 4 and 5, at top and bottom, mark 
 the points of bisection, g and h. Find the horizontal from c, and mark its right 
 end i. Place a point for a lower right-hand corner opposite f, and mark it/. 
 
 Draw c g,fg, and h /, draw c 7z, oy, g i. 
 
 Practice arm movement for each line before drawing. No erasing. 
 
 X 
 
 
 D. B., page A, completed. 
 
 D. B., page B, completed. 
 
 Drawing-Book, page B. 
 
 OBJECT. Practice in laying out a page, proper position, pencil-holding, free arm 
 movement, horizontal, vertical, circular, oblique, giving a suggestion of surf ace covering. 
 
 Study of the Oblong. Turn to D. B., page i, and study the 
 oblong made by the marginal lines. What are the dimensions of this 
 oblong ? How wide is the margin of the page at the top and bottom ? 
 at the left and right ? 
 
BOOK IV.] 
 
 DRILL EXERCISES. 
 
 Practice. Free movement, free drawing. Draw an oblong, 6" high by 9" wide, using 
 the angle given as the upper left hand corner. Bisect the left side ; frpm the 
 point of bisection draw a horizontal across the oblong. Trisect the upper side ; 
 from the points of trisection draw verticals down the oblong, making 6 squares. 
 In each square draw a circle about 2" in diameter. Finish as in the illustration 
 of the page completed, by drawing at each intersection of the dividing lines a 
 square on its corner, having a diagonal of i" (the point of intersection being 
 the centre of the square), a half square at each end of each dividing line, and 
 a quarter square at each corner of the oblong. 
 
 Drawing-Book, page C. 
 OBJECT. Practice in drawing reversed curves continuously with free arm movement. 
 
 Study of Curves by Pupils. Books opened at page C. What 
 kind of curves do you see on this page ? {Reversed curves?) Look at 
 the reversed curve, Fig. i, and see whether the two curves of which 
 it is composed are circular, or elliptic, or ovoid. Describe these two 
 curves. (They are ovoid, but although similar in general character, they 
 are not exactly alike, the lower curve has the greater altitude?) How is 
 the central line divided ? Compare the place of the altitude of the two 
 curves. Study Figs. 2, 3, and 4 in the same way. 
 
 Practice. Fig. i. Practice continuous movement over the printed curve until its 
 character is felt, then practice a corresponding continuous movement for a 
 balancing curve on the same central line. Draw the balancing curve with one 
 sweep of the pencil. Repeat for Figs. 2, 3, and 4. No erasing. 
 
 D. 6., page C, completed. 
 
92 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK iv. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 EXERCISE I. Cube, Cylinder, and Cone. Two Views. 
 
 MODELS: Cube, Cylinder, Cone, Triangular Tablets. 
 
 OBJECT. To recall the form of a cube and of a cylinder, to study the form of a cone, 
 to study and to draw the facts of the three solids. 
 
 Study of the Model by Pupils. Here is a group of three 
 models ; name the two which you know. Compare the other model 
 with the cylinder; tell how they are alike, how they differ. (The 
 teacher gives the name cone.) What is the proportion between the 
 altitude and base of the cylinder and of the cone ? How should an 
 object be held in order to obtain a front view? (// should be held so that 
 only its height and its width from left to right are visible?) How should it 
 be held in order to obtain a top view ? (It should be held so that only 
 its width from left to right and from front to back are visible?) What 
 would you draw for the top view of a cube ? of a cylinder ? of a cone ? 
 
 Making the Model. Turn to page S, cut out the pattern, roll 
 and paste to make a hollow cone. 
 
 On the cone trace the outline of the front view, beginning at the 
 vertex, moving down the left side, straight across the bottom and up 
 the right side. Trace this outline in the air. Find the tablet having 
 the shape of this outline. How do the two sides of the tablet compare 
 in length? (They are equal?) (The teacher gives the name isosceles 
 triangle, having two sides equal?) See Fig. 2, p. 62. 
 
 What would you draw for the front view of a cube ? of a cylinder ? of 
 a cone ? Draw the front and top views of a cylinder and of a cone 
 upon the board. How should they be placed ? (The top view should 
 be directly above the front view?) The easiest way to place two views 
 on a line with each other, either vertically or horizontally, is to draw 
 first a light centre line for both views. This line generally extends a 
 little above and below the views to show that it does not represent 
 any part of the object. The lines by which dimensions are carried 
 from one view to another are called working lines. 
 
BOOK iv.] CONSTRUCTION. CUBE, CYLINDER, AND CONE. 
 
 93 
 
 D. B., page D, completed. 
 Draw the front and top views, 
 
 D. B,, page D. Practice page for Ex. I. 
 
 Practice. Cube. The front view of a cube is printed, draw the top view, about J" 
 above the front view. Move upward from the left vertical, and fix a point for 
 the upper left corner of the top view. Fix a 
 point in a^ similar manner for the right corner. 
 Draw the left and right verticals, the upper and 
 lower horizontals. 
 
 Cylinder. The base line of the front view is given. 
 Bisect it and draw a light, indefinite centre line. 
 Draw the front and top views, obtaining the 
 place of the top view and its width by move- 
 ment up from the front view. 
 
 Cone. The base line of the front view is given. 
 Bisect it and draw a light, indefinite centre line. 
 placing the top view of the cone on a line with the top view of the cylinder, and 
 obtaining the place of the top view and its width by movement up, from the front 
 view of the cone and across, from the top view of the cylinder. 
 
 D. B. t page 1. Drawing the facts of the Cube, Cylinder, and Cone. 
 
 Observation Exercises by Pupils. What did you draw on 
 page D ? Such drawings show the facts of the cube, they are the 
 basis of working-drawings from which objects are manufactured. If 
 the dimensions required were marked upon these drawings, they would 
 be working-drawings. In the illustration in the drawing-book the ap- 
 pearance of these solids is given, that is, they are represented as they 
 appear to the eye in certain positions. Hold the cube so that you 
 have the top view, the front view. Hold it so that it appears to you 
 as represented in the illustration on page i. Repeat with the cylin- 
 der and the cone. Can you mention objects like the cone ? 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions given for Practice. Finish the different views in 
 soft, gray lines. 
 
 Making. On D. B., page S, three small patterns for cones of different proportions 
 are printed. With these as guides, patterns may be cut for larger cones, which 
 can be rolled and pasted. If the top of one of these paper cones could be cut 
 off parallel to the base, the part remaining would serve for a lamp or candle 
 shade ; and if that part could be unrolled, it would show the pattern of a lamp 
 shade. Such a pattern is printed on page R as a model ; the pattern itself cannot 
 be cut out, until after page Q has been used as a practice page for Exercise XII. 
 
94 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK iv. 
 
 EXERCISE II -Three Views off a Book. 
 
 From a Book. 
 
 OBJECT. To study a book as to the facts of its form, to draw the facts of its form 
 in three views. 
 
 Study of a Book by Pupils. Take the thickest book that you 
 have. How many dimensions has it ? in how many ways should you 
 measure it if you wished to give the size ? 
 
 Hold it upright so that you get a back view, a side view, a top 
 view. Remember that these terms refer to the facts of objects, and 
 that in each case the book must be held so that but two dimensions are 
 visible. Views giving the facts of form geometric views show 
 but two dimensions. What is the general shape of the back view? 
 the side view? the top view? What is the proportion of the width 
 to the height in -the back view ? in the side view ? Compare the 
 thickness in the back, front, and top views. 
 
 Four Views of a Book. 
 
 What is there to be seen within the outline of the back view ? 
 title-piece.} Describe its place on the back. 
 
 (The 
 
BOOK iv.] CONSTRUCTION. THREE VIEWS OF A BOOK. 95 
 
 In the side view, what do you see beside the flat side cover? (That 
 the cover curves out in the back, and thus adds width to the side view ; also 
 half the title-piece foreshortened.) In the top view, what do you see t 
 ( The curving out of the cover at the back, the corresponding curving in of the 
 leaves in front, and the thickness of the cover?) 
 
 There is no definite rule for the distance in a drawing between any 
 "tyo geometric views of an object ; it is generally proportioned somewhat 
 to the size of the views, and to the space to be filled. The views should 
 not, however, be so near together as not to be readily distinguished from 
 each other, nor so far apart as to appear as if they did not belong to 
 each other. 
 
 D. B., page E. Practice page for Ex. II. 
 
 Practice. Determine the proportion of width to height in the side view, and draw 
 it, using the angles given for the left vertical. At the left of the side view, draw 
 the back view, determining the proportion of width to height, and obtaining the 
 height by movement and by drawing light working lines from the side view. 
 Above the side view, draw the top view,' by the aid of working lines, obtaining 
 the two dimensions from the side and back views. 
 
 D. B., page 2. Drawing three views of a Book. 
 
 Observation Exercises by Pupils. What do Figs, i and 2 
 show? (The facts as seen in two views.) How many dimensions do 
 the two views taken together show ? What does Fig. 3 show ? . (The 
 appearance of the book when lying turned and somewhat below the eye.) 
 
 Hold your book so that it will appear like Fig. 3. Your book may 
 not be of the same proportion as that in Fig. 3, but you can hold it 
 turned and somewhat below the eye, so that the general appearance 
 will be the same. 
 
 Drawing. Draw three views of the book, 'showing the facts of its form. Follow 
 the order given for practice on page E. Finish the three views in soft, gray 
 lines. 
 
TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK IT. 
 
 . EXERCISE III. Constructive Design. Vase Form. 
 
 MODELS : Vases of simple outline, differing in proportion and profile. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the proportion and profile curves of vases, to design a vase of 
 pleasing form and proportion. 
 
 Study of the Form of a Vase by Pupils. What is the pur- 
 pose of a vase ? What is the proportion of the height to the width of 
 this vase ? Is the vase of pleasing proportion ? Would it look better 
 if it were higher ? if it were wider ? Compare it with the other vases 
 as to proportion. Look at the profile curves of the vase. What is 
 the general character ? Suppose a vertical passing through one of the 
 profile curves, how would it be divided by the curve? Study the 
 profile curves of the other vases. Which are the most pleasing? 
 
 Open your books at page 3. How are the verticals of Figs, i, 2, 3, 4 
 divided by the curves? (The verticals are bisected by the curves^) The 
 verticals of Figs. 5 and 6 ? (The curves cross the verticals one-third from 
 the top.) The verticals of 7 and 8 ? 
 
 (The front views of two vase forms are given, as suggestions to 
 teachers for work upon the board.) 
 
BOOK IV.] 
 
 CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN, VASE FORM. 
 
 97 
 
 D. B., page F. Practice page for Ex. III. 
 
 Practice. Connect the points given by light verticals. Trisect the verticals. 
 Through the ends of each vertical draw a light horizontal, one-third the length 
 of the vertical, extending equally to the left and right of the vertical. Con- 
 nect the ends by light verticals. You have now construction lines for drawings 
 for two vase forms. Select a profile curve from page 3, which is pleasing to you 
 for each vase form. Study the two curves selected. Divide the outer verticals of 
 each figure as the curves require. Practice movement for the left curve of the 
 vase form at the left, and draw with one continuous sweep, the same for the 
 balancing curve. Draw the right vase form in a similar way. 
 
 D. B., page 3. Drawing the Vase Form. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. Study carefully the two 
 drawings for vase forms that you made on page F. Are they pleasing 
 in general appearance ? Could you improve upon them ? 
 
 Cutting vase forms is a pleasant exercise in designing. Having 
 drawn the construction lines and divided the outer verticals, fold the 
 paper along the central line, keeping the construction lines visible, and 
 cut a curve which seems pleasing. Unfold the paper, note the effect 
 and try again. This method is that of some eminent designers of vase 
 forms. 
 
 Drawing. In the middle of the space, draw a light vertical. Upon this as a central 
 line make a drawing for a vase form, either one of those drawn on page F or 
 another, but. keep the same proportion. Follow the order given for the prac- 
 tice page. Correct, erase wrong lines, and finish with broad, soft gray lines. 
 
9 8 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK iv. 
 
 REPRESENTATION. 
 
 EXERCISE IV. -Tumbler. Flower-pot. -Facts and Appearance. 
 
 MODELS : Cylinder, Cone, Flower-pot. 
 OBJECT. To study the appearance of conical objects, to draw their appearance. 
 
 Study of the Models by Pupils. Hold the cone so that the 
 vertex is on a level with the eye, lower it four inches ; what is the 
 appearance of the edge of the base ? (// appears to curve downward?) 
 Does it appear like a circular curve ? (// appears like an elliptic cttrve.) 
 
 Hold a cylinder in the same position ; compare the curves of the 
 bases of the models. Can you see any more of the curve in one 
 model than in the other ? How do the profile lines join the curve in 
 the cylinder? in the cone? (Tangentially in both; but in the cylinder 
 the profile lines seem to meet the curve at the ends of its long diameter, 
 in the cone, they seem to. meet the cun>e beyond the ends of its long diameter.) 
 
 Study of the Cone Inverted. If the top of the cone is cut off, 
 parallel to the base, the part remaining is called a frustum. Many 
 common objects are like the inverted frustum of a cone. Can you 
 mention any? 
 
 Study the appearance of a large object based on an inverted cone, 
 like a waste-basket or a flower-pot. How do the curves at the top 
 and bottom compare ? (The curve at the bottom appears deeper in propor- 
 tion to its long diameter than that at the top.) If the curve at the bottom 
 is not readily seen, place the basket on a dictionary and the flower-pot 
 
BOOK iv.] REPRESENTA TION. TUMBLER. FLOWER-PO T. 
 
 99 
 
 upon a smaller book. The straight edges of the books will contrast 
 sharply with the curves at the bottom of the objects. 
 
 D. B., page G. Practice page for Ex. IV. 
 
 Practice. On the left half of the page, draw the appearance of an upright cone 
 somewhat below the level of the eye. Determine the proportion of width to 
 height by measurement on the pencil (see second page of Drawing-Book 
 cover). Draw a central vertical. Determine the place for the diameter of the 
 ellipse at the base and draw it. Draw a complete ellipse for the base. Draw 
 the profile lines of the cone tangent to (see page 71), not cutting, the ellipse. 
 On the right half, draw the appearance of an object based on an inverted cone. 
 Begin by drawing a central vertical. No erasing. 
 
 D. B., page 4. Drawing the appearance of a Flower-pot. 
 
 Observation Exercises by Pupils. Place a flower-pot below 
 the level of the eye. Study the appearance of its 
 thickness at the top.. Where does the thickness ap- 
 pear the greatest ? (At the left and right.) Where 
 the least ? (At the back.) 
 
 Figs, i and 2 show the facts and the appearance of 
 a tumbler. What does Fig. 3 show ? 
 
 Drawing. Draw in the space at the right the appearance of a flower-pot, making a 
 large drawing of a suitable size for the space. Follow the order given for prac- 
 tice page G. Correct errors, erase, and finish with broad, soft gray lines. 
 
IOO 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK iv. 
 
 EXERCISE V. Rectangular Object in front of. and below the 
 Level of, the Eye Its Appearance. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the appearance of a rectangular object in front of, and below the 
 level of, the eye ; to draw the appearance. 
 
 Study of the Object by Pupils. Select the thickest book you 
 have. Lay it well back on the desk, the back of the book toward you. 
 Place a pencil vertically at each end of the back. Close one eye and 
 incline the pencils toward each other until they appear to cover the 
 left and right edges of the book. What is the apparent direction 
 of the left and right edges? (Toward each other.) Which appears 
 longer, the nearer or the farther edge? (The nearer edge.) 
 
 Slip a piece of string three or four feet long under the upper cover 
 of the book, as far as the binding. Sit opposite the middle of the 
 book, and holding the strings with one hand, move them until they 
 hide the left and right edges of the book-cover. In doing this, incline 
 the strings toward each other as the case may require, but do not 
 incline them backward or forward. See Fig. i, p. 101. Do they meet 
 above, below, or on the level of your eye ? If you hold the strings 
 so that the left and right edges of the book are covered, the strings 
 will meet exactly on a level with your eye.* 
 
 Hold the strings with the left hand ; and compare by measurement 
 on the pencil, the length of the book, and the distance between the 
 book and the point where the strings meet. 
 
 * This exercise serves to bring out not only that the left and right edges appear to converge, but also 
 that they appear to converge toward a point on a level with the eye, two extremely important points. 
 The exercise was presented by Mr. Perry at his Saratoga summer classes in 1885, 1886, and 1887 to the 
 great satisfaction of the teachers who were members of the class and who have since used it in their 
 own teaching. It has been carried out very pleasantly by the use of a rubber band in place of the string. 
 
BOOK iv.] REPRESENTATION. RECTANGULAR OBJECT. 
 
 TOI 
 
 Changing the strings to the right hand, place a ruler against them so 
 that the lower edge of the ruler just hides the farther edge of the cover. 
 Look now at the shape of the cover as inclosed between the strings and 
 the ruler; describe it. (A four-sided figure having the front and back 
 parallel, but the left and right sides converging.) Compare the two parallel 
 sides as to length. Compare the distance between them with the length 
 of the nearer side. 
 
 Fig. i. Fig. 2. 
 
 Put away the string and ruler; measure on your pencil held vertically 
 the distance between the nearer and the farther edge and compare it 
 with the length of the nearer edge. Look now at the ends of the 
 book and at the bands of the title-piece ; do they appear to curve ; if so, 
 which way do they seem to curve ? 
 
 D. B., page H . Practice page for Ex. V. 
 
 Practice. Make a large drawing of the book as you see it, drawing first the back ; 
 then draw a horizontal for the level of the eye, placing it as far above the drawing in 
 proportion to its size as the eye is above the object itself ; on this line, place a point 
 directly above the middle of the drawing of the back ; draw the top of the book, 
 making the left and right sides converge toward the point just made. 
 
 D. B., page 5. Drawing the appearance of a Book. 
 
 Drawing. Draw the appearance of a book, slate, or rectangular box, following the 
 order given for practice on page H. Finish in soft, gray lines. 
 
1 32 .TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK iv. 
 
 EXERCISE VI. Book Opened. Appearance in front off, and 
 below the Level off, the Eye. 
 
 From, an open Book. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the appearance of an open book in front of, and below the level of, 
 the eye; to draw the appearance. 
 
 Study of the Object by Pupils. Open the book which you 
 used in the last exercise, as in Fig. i, Fig. 2, or Fig. 3, D. B., page 6, 
 and place it back on the desk, in front of you. What is the general 
 shape of the book as it lies open? (An oblong, lying from left to right.) 
 What is its thickness now, compared with its thickness when closed ? 
 
 Slip a string under the front ends of the book and study the direction 
 of the receding edges (edges running from front to back), as in the 
 last exercise. How many receding horizontal edges are there ? Hold 
 the ends of the string so as to hide the left and right edges of the 
 'cover. Having adjusted these, hold them with the left hand; with 
 the right hold a ruler vertical, with the edge toward you, so that it 
 will hide the middle of the book from you. Where does the ruler 
 meet the strings ? If it does not reach them, where would it meet, if 
 it were prolonged ? (On the level of the eye.) 
 
 Imagine the left and right edges of the leaves continued ; what is 
 their apparent direction ? (Toward the point where the ruler and strings 
 meet.) What is the actual relative direction of the edges ? (Parallel^)- 
 What general conclusion do you make from the study of the appear- 
 ance of these edges? (That all parallel horizontal edges, receding directly 
 from the eye, appear to converge to a point on the level of the eye.) Still 
 holding the strings, place the ruler across, as in Ex. V., so as just to 
 hide the farther edges ; what is the general shape of the appearance ? 
 
 D. B., page I . Practice page for Ex. VI. 
 
 Study by Pupils to place the Drawing well. What is the 
 proportion of the whole height of the appearance of the book to its 
 width ? How wide a drawing can you make on the page, to look 
 well ? How wide a margin should you have at the left and right ? 
 
BOOK iv.j REPRESENTATION, BOOK OPENED. 103 
 
 (Not less than an inch on a page of this size.) At the bottom ? (Not 
 less than three-quarters of an inch.) If you make your drawing seven 
 inches wide, about how high should the whole drawing be? Deter- 
 mine, then, how much space you will leave above and how much 
 below the drawing, making the space below less than that above. 
 
 Practice. Draw a light horizontal for the lower line of the drawing, of a suitable 
 length for the page, and as far above the lower edge as determined in the study 
 to place the drawing. Draw a horizontal for the level of the eye ; if necessary, 
 slip a piece of paper under the upper edge of the page upon which to draw this 
 line called (L. of E.). Place a point on L. of E. directly above the centre of 
 the lower horizontal. Draw all horizontal receding edges toward this point. 
 Complete. 
 
 D. B., page 6. Drawing the appearance of an open Book. 
 
 Observation Exercises by Pupils. Look out of the window. 
 Which do you see more distinctly, the objects near to you or the objects 
 far away ? Can you think how a distant hill and trees look ? What can 
 you say about the relative clearness of outline of near and distant 
 objects ? (The outlines of near objects are distinct, but those of distant 
 objects are somewhat vague and indistinct^} In drawing, the effect of 
 distance is increased by making those parts farther from the eye, less 
 distinct than the parts nearer the eye. 
 
 Drawing. Draw according to the directions for the practice page. Finish in broad, 
 soft gray lines, varying in thickness, making the lines on the farther edges less 
 distinct than those on the nearer edges, and making the receding edges a little 
 fainter as they go farther from the eye. 
 
104 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK iv. 
 
 OPTIONAL EXERCISES IN DIMENSION AND IN COLOR. 
 
 The two blank pages facing each other in the middle of the book are to be used for 
 these exercises. They may be exercises in Dimension only, or in Dimension and 
 Color combined. 
 
 Dimension. These exercises afford practice in drawing vertical 
 oblongs of different dimensions. 
 
 The two oblongs required on the left page are to be 6 inches high, 
 and 3 and 5 half -inches wide respectively. 
 
 The oblong required on the right page is to be 6 inches high, and 
 8 half-inches wide. 
 
 Left page, completed. 
 
 Right page, completed. 
 
 Dictation. Left page : Lay out an imaginary oblong, 6" by 9"; see "Dictation, 
 page 44. Divide the imaginary upper horizontal into inches by trisection. Num- 
 ber the inches i, 2, 3, 4, etc. Bisect the second inch. Using the point of bisec- 
 tion just made, as the upper left corner, draw a vertical oblong, 3 half-inches 
 wide and 6 inches high. Using the point 5, as the upper left corner, draw 
 another vertical oblong 5 half-inches wide and 6 inches high. 
 
 Right page : Lay out the oblong as for the left page, dividing the imaginary upper 
 horizontal into inches and numbering them i, 2, 3, 4, etc. Bisect the third inch. 
 Using the point of bisection as the upper left corner, draw an oblong 8 half-inches 
 wide and 6 inches high. 
 
BOOK iv.J DIMENSION AND COLOR. 
 
 105 
 
 Color. If these are to be Color as well as Dimension Exercises s 
 the relative values of the Primary pigment colors should be recalled ; 
 yellow 3, red 5, blue 8. The purpose is, not so much to keep before 
 the pupils the numerical ratio of the color values as to fix in their minds 
 that, in order to produce a harmonious and satisfactory result in the 
 use of these three colors in composition (unless working to a partic- 
 ular scale of color), there should be less yellow than red, and less 
 red than blue. To continue this impression, the relative values of 
 the colors are adhered to in this exercise. 
 
 Questions may be given to recall the Secondaries and the Tertiaries ; 
 and also the harmony of Secondaries and Tertiaries, see page 75. 
 
 In the Color Exercises in previous books, the Primary, Secondary, 
 and Tertiary colors have been learned in laying on f/af washes. In 
 the exercises for this book, graded washes are introduced. In mak- 
 ing a graded wash, work should be begun at the top with a brush 
 full of wet color; more water should then be taken in the brush, 
 to float the color down in gradually decreasing strength, and this 
 should be repeated, thus making a wash graded from full down to pale 
 color. The surface on which the work is done should slant a little. 
 Oblongs for the two pages can be drawn as dictated above. The first 
 oblong can be colored with a graded wash of yellow ; the second, 
 with a graded wash of red ; the third, with a graded wash of blue. 
 
io6 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK iv. 
 
 DECORATION. 
 
 DRILL EXERCISES. 
 
 Drawing-Book, page J. Equable Spiral. 
 
 Study of the Copy by Pupils. Describe the direction of the 
 line in this figure. The figure is called a 
 spiral. As the line goes round and round, 
 how do the distances between the parts com- 
 pare at different points ? (They are equal?) 
 Therefore, the spiral is called an equable 
 spiral. One revolution of the line is called 
 a spire. Can you mention any object that 
 resembles this figure ? 
 
 Practice. Draw a vertical and a horizontal through the 
 points given on the right half of the page. Begin- 
 ning at the centre of the copy, move over the 
 printed spiral. Repeat through the points given, 
 then draw with continuous motion. 
 
 Drawing-Book, page K. Variable Spiral. 
 
 Study of the Copy by Pupils. Compare this spiral with that 
 on page J. How do they differ? What can you say of the dis- 
 tance between the spires at different points ? (// is constantly in- 
 creasing?) Therefore, this figure is called a variable spiral. 
 Practice. Follow the directions for drawing the equable spiral. 
 
 EXERCISE VII. Border of Reversed and Spiral Curves. 
 
 OBJECT. To study and to draw a border of reversed and spiral curves. 
 
 Study of the Copy by Pupils. With pencil in hand, move over 
 the long curve which passes through the border ; what kind of a curve 
 is it ? (A reversed curved) A reversed curve repeated forms what is 
 called a wave line. W 7 hat other curves are there in the border? 
 (Spiral curves?) Begin movement again over the reversed curve, but 
 
BOOK IV.] 
 
 DECORA TION. BORDER. 
 
 107 
 
 pass around over the first spiral ; repeat. How does the curve of the 
 spiral unite with the reversed curve ? (Tangentiatty^ Describe the 
 movement. (// is continuous, unbroken?) Repeat over the reversed 
 curve and the other spirals ; notice that the second movement is 
 simply the reverse of the first. Alternation of effect is produced by 
 this reversal of the repeat. How many repeats are there in the 
 border? 
 
 This border combines the graceful curvature and the tangential 
 union of lines found in Greek ornament ; and it is the basis of 
 the scroll, which was developed and elaborated from the simple wave 
 line into one of the most perfect decorative forms ever employed. 
 
 D. B., page L. Practice page for Ex. VII. 
 
 Study of Construction Lines. In the first repeat of the border 
 on page 7 there are light lines ; what is their purpose ? (To assist in 
 laying out the figured) What are they called ? (Construction lines.) On 
 page L construction lines are given for the border, the outer marginal 
 lines being omitted. Compare the construction lines on this page with 
 those in the first repeat on page 7, and determine through what points 
 the reversed curve should pass, also the spiral curves. 
 
 Practice. Practice movement over the reversed curve on page 7, then over the 
 construction lines of page L, then draw the curve continuously. Repeat for the 
 spirals, beginning movement on the reversed curve and carrying it around over 
 the spirals. Repeat this practice on the construction lines below. 
 
 D. B., page 7. Drawing the Border. 
 
 Drawing. Light enclosing lines for a border are printed. Draw lightly the inner 
 marginal lines. Trisect the inner lines and bisect the left vertical. Draw the 
 construction lines through the whole length of the border. Practice movement 
 and draw as above. Erase construction lines and finish in soft, gray lines. 
 
 Egyptian "Wave Scroll. 
 
IO8 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK iv. 
 
 EXERCISE VIII. Ivy Leaf. Twelfth Century. 
 
 Three and five lobed ivy leaves brought in by pupils. 
 OBJECT. To study a Gothic ivy leaf, to compare it with natural leaves, to draw it. 
 
 Study of the Copy by Pupils. Look first at the ivy leaves which 
 you have ; how many parts or lobes have your leaves ? (Some have 
 three, some Jive.) How many lobes has the copy 'given in the drawing 
 book ? Look at its centre lobe ; has any one an ivy leaf having such 
 curves in the centre lobe as those of the copy ? Study the other 
 curves of the copy in the same way. 
 
 The leaf given in the drawing-book is from a leaf found in early 
 Gothic ornament, ornament of the twelfth century. Certain charac- 
 teristics and leading curves of the ivy leaf were studied and reproduced, 
 all minor details being omitted ; and a conventionalized ivy leaf and 
 tendril in the simple, strong, early Gothic style was produced. 
 
 Study the blocking-in given in Fig. 2. What is the general shape of 
 the blocking-in ? What is the proportion ? 
 
 D. B. f page M . Practice page for Ex. VIII. 
 
 Practice. Block in an oblong of the proportion shown in Fig. 2, p. 8, and of suitable 
 size for the page, first indicating its height and width by light lines, then drawing 
 the oblong. Draw the oblique lines as further aids in obtaining the shape of the 
 leaf. Block in the midrib and lobes, and the tendril and draw the curves over 
 the blocking-in lines. Do not erase. 
 
 D. B., page 8. Drawing the Leaf. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. This leaf (Fig. i) looks 
 strong and vigorous ; it is apparently holding itself erect ; how is this 
 effect produced ? (By the strength in the drawing of the stem and 
 midrib^) This strength is seen (i) in the directness of the line of 
 growth, the general direction of this line being easily expressed in 
 but two straight lines; (2) in the breadth of the stem. 
 
 The figure looks well-balanced also. But if a central vertical were 
 drawn, it would not divide the drawing into two corresponding parts ; 
 the effect of balance in the figure is not produced by repetition on 
 an axis. Can you tell how this effect is produced ? 
 
BOOK iv.] DECORA TION. IVY LEAF. TWELFTH CENTUR Y. I OQ 
 
 9 
 
 Study the copy to discover why it looks well-balanced. Apparently 
 the leaf-stalk and tendril first shot outward to the right, but the life and 
 vigor within carried the leaf upward ; the growth upward apparently 
 counteracted and to a certain extent conquered the outward tendency ; 
 the two balance each other. This is all expressed by the direction of 
 the leaf-stalk and midrib, holding up the leaf. The end of the leaf-stalk 
 is left open, unfinished, to indicate that the whole form is not given ; the 
 curvature also indicates that the leaf is still receiving strength from the 
 main branch, which adds to the impression of balance, and stability. 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions for the practice page. Study to produce the 
 effect of strength and balance in the drawing. Erase the blocking-in and finish 
 in broad gray lines. 
 
110 TEACHERS MANUAL. [BOOK iv. 
 
 EXERCISE IX. Decorative Design from the Buncbberry. 
 
 OBJECT. To draw a design for a rosette, using a plant-form as a motive. 
 
 Study for the Unit of the Rosette. The design required is a 
 rosette, having a square on its diagonals as the enclosing figure, the 
 motive for the design to be taken from the bunchberry. Draw on the 
 board two lines, a horizontal and a vertical, 2 feet long, crossing each 
 other in the centre. Connect the ends of these lines by straight lines, 
 drawing them by opposites. The figure is a square on its corner, the 
 horizontal and vertical being its diagonals. As, in drawing a square 
 on its corner, the diagonals are drawn first, it is also called a square 
 on Us diagonals. 
 
 (In the study for the unit, the teacher should endeavor to lead the 
 pupils to the following conclusions, by asking for opinions and reasons.) 
 
 This rosette should have but four units. The number of units should always be 
 either equal or be a multiple of the number of sides of the enclosing figure. For 
 the sake of simplicity (a very great beauty in decorative design, as it generally 
 adds to the effect of repose) the smallest number of units is generally chosen. 
 The units of this rosette should be placed vertically and horizontally ; if placed 
 obliquely, the ground of the design would not be well filled. The rosette 
 should occupy about two-thirds of the ground. 
 
 The field of each unit should be considered, in order to determine the shape and 
 proportion of the unit. In this case, by drawing the diameters of the square on 
 the board, the fields for the units are shown to be squares on their diagonals. As 
 the field of the unit is a square, the unit should be rather wide in proportion 
 to its height. 
 
 The motive of a design may be geometric, historic, or from plant- 
 form. In this exercise the motive is a plant-form, the dwarf cornel or 
 bunchberry. As this is a wild flower, growing in the woods and not 
 accessible to all, an illustration is given in the drawing-book. In 
 some respects, it is a curious plant. The flowers are very small, of 
 a greenish color and clustered in a head, the cluster being surrounded 
 by a four-leaved white involucre looking like a white corolla. The 
 illustration shows a difference in shape and proportion between the 
 leaves of the involucre and the leaves of the plant lower down on 
 the stem. The varying curves and their subtile beauty should be 
 studied 
 
BOOK iv.] DECORATIVE DESIGN. FROM THE BUNCHBERRY. Ill 
 
 D. B., page N. Practice page for Ex. IX. 
 
 Practice. Two verticals are printed as the axes of two units. On the first draw, 
 from the leaf of the plant, a unit, open at the base ; on the second, draw from the 
 leaf of the involucre, a unit, open at the base. 
 
 D. B., page N, completed. D. B., page 9, completed. 
 
 D. B., page 9. Drawing the Rosette. 
 
 Study for the Design. (The teacher should lead pupils to look 
 for the whole effect, as to proper filling of the space, as to simplicity, 
 as to adherence to the motive, as to beauty of curvature, as to contrast 
 and variety by proper balancing of curved and straight, rounded and an- 
 gular, as to stability by union at the centre, as to harmony by the agree- 
 ment of the parts and as to repose by the union of all these qualities.) 
 
 Drawing. Draw a square on its diagonals in the space at the right, using the points 
 given as the ends of the vertical diagonal. Add the diameters to make the fields 
 for the units. Study the upper field ; draw on the vertical, printed under the 
 illustration, a unit from that leaf in the illustration that you think best fitted 
 to fill the field. In drawing this unit, think not only of the beauty of curva- 
 ture, but also of the character of curvature that seems to belong to the plant. 
 
 Draw four such units around the centre of the square, drawing them by opposites. 
 Study the effect of the units and consider whether by changing the shape and 
 proportion slightly, the effect wouM be improved. Remember that too many 
 sharp points make an unpleasant figure, that where the enclosing figure has a 
 pointed effect, it is very seldom desirable that the unit should be of such a shape 
 as to add to that effect. 
 
 Decide on and draw a central figure of suitable size to give the effect of stability ; 
 add to the harmony of the design, by making the central figure either a circle, or a 
 figure having the same number of sides as the enclosing figure ; add to the variety 
 in the figure by change in line from the enclosing figure. Change the design 
 where the effect seems to require it. Erase construction lines and finish in 
 broad, gray lines. 
 
112 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK iv 
 
 EXERCISE X. Cylinder and Square Prism combined. Drawing 
 the Facts. Three Views. 
 
 OBJECT. To study and to draw the different views of two models combined. 
 
 Study of the Models by Pupils. Place on a book the cylin- 
 der and square prism arranged as in the illustration in the drawing- 
 book. What is the proportion of the cylinder ? / to 2. Of the square 
 prism? (i to 2.) How do the two models compare in size? 
 
 Lift the book until the top ot the square prism is on a level with 
 the eye and study the front view. What would you draw for the front 
 view ? (A horizontal oblong, I to 2, its middle half hidden by a vertical 
 oblong of the same size and on the same base.) 
 
 Turn the left end of the book toward you ; what would you draw 
 for the left side view of the models ? (A vertical oblong, with a square of 
 half its height touching it at the left and on a line with it at the base.) 
 
 Turn the book as at first and then lower it so as to get the top view 
 of the models. What would you draw for the top view ? (A horizontal 
 oblong with a circle below it, touching the middle of the base of the oblong 
 and having a diameter equal *to half the base.) 
 
 D, B., page O. Practice page for Ex. X. 
 
 Practice. A horizontal is given at the right for the base of the front view of the 
 models. Quadrisect it, that is, bisect it and bisect each half. On the middle 
 half draw the front view of the cylinder first drawing an 
 indefinite vertical as a centre line; add that part of the 
 ( ^\ square prism seen. An angle is given at the left for the 
 left end of the base of the side view. Obtain the height 
 of the two models by movement from the front view and 
 draw light horizontals. Add the verticals necessary for 
 the side view. 
 
 A quarter of an inch above the front view draw the 
 top view, obtaining its width from left to right, by move 
 
 D. B., page 1 O completed. 
 
 ment up from the front view. 
 
 D. B., page 1O. Drawing the Three Views. 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions given for practice. Finish in soft, gray lines* 
 
BOOK iv.] REVIEW. REPRESENTATION. Uj 
 
 EXERCISE XI. Cylinder and Square Prism. Appearance below 
 the Level of the Eye. 
 
 From Models. 
 
 OBJECT. To read a drawing of three views of two models, to place models in a corre- 
 sponding position, below the eye ; to study and to draw their appearance. 
 
 Study of the Drawing and the Models. Read the drawing 
 on page n of the drawing-book and tell what Figs, i, 2, and 3 are. 
 Place the models as indicated in Fig. 2 and below the eye. What is 
 the proportion of the apparent height of the group to the apparent 
 width? Which appears longer, the square prism from left to right, 
 or the cylinder from top to bottom ? Which appears longer, the 
 nearer or the further edge of the top of the square prism ? How 
 does the apparent width of the top of the cylinder from front to back, 
 compare with the top of the square prism ? Con- 
 sider what the apparent width from front to back, 
 of the invisible horizontal faces of the two models 
 would be, compared with each other and also with 
 the width of the top faces. A knowledge of the 
 invisible faces as here illustrated, is necessary in 
 order to place the drawings correctly with regard 
 to each other. 
 
 D. B., p. P completed. 
 
 D, B., page P, Practice page for Ex. XI. 
 
 Practice. Study the models carefully, taking measurement on the pencil (see 
 second page of Drawing Book cover). Determine about the space to be occupied 
 by the drawing on the page, by light indefinite horizontals and verticals. Draw 
 the appearance of the cylinder, drawing a complete ellipse for the base. Draw 
 the appearance of the square prism. Draw the table line, as seen on page 10, 
 remembering that it should be above the further line of the base of the square 
 prism, otherwise the group will appear as if projecting over the edge of the table 
 and will give the impression of being insecurely placed. 
 
 D. B., page 1 1. Drawing the Appearance. 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions f^r practice and finish the drawing in soft gray 
 gray lines, making the farther lir s a little fainter than the nearer ones. 
 
114 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK iv. 
 
 EXERCISE XII. Natural Growth. From Nature. 
 
 Each pupil should "bring a branch of leaves. 
 OBJECT. To study plant-form and growth from a natural branch. 
 
 Study of a Natural Branch by Pupils. Notice the general 
 character of your branch ; is it sturdy, showing vigorous growth, or 
 is it delicate ? What is the general direction of the stem ? Is it 
 straight up, or straight forward ? Or does it bend ? Could you ex- 
 press its direction by one straight line, or would two or three straight 
 lines be necessary in order to show changes in direction ? 
 
 Study the Leaf Arrangement. Are the leaves opposite each 
 other or are they alternate ? If they are opposite, see if all the 
 leaves point either to the left and right, or if some point toward 
 you and some point away from you. If they are alternate, notice in 
 what direction they point. 
 
 Compare the distances between the leaves or between the pairs of 
 leaves in various parts of the stem. Where is the distance the 
 greatest ? the least ? 
 
 Notice the upper end of the branch ; are there two leaves at the 
 end or only one ? Study also the terminal bud. 
 
 Stand a book on its end on the back part of your desk and stand 
 the branch up between the leaves of the book at the top. Take pains 
 to place the branch so that you nave the most pleasing view. Look 
 at the proportion of the width to the height of the whole mass. 
 
 You have learned that when you look at the top face of a cube 
 or of any object, it does not appear as wide from front to back as 
 it really is. This appearance is called foreshortening. Do any of 
 the leaves on your branch appear foreshortened? 
 
 D. B., page Q. Practice page for Ex. XII. 
 
 Practice. Plan for a large drawing of your branch. Block in the stem by one or 
 more straight lines. Indicate the shape of the whole mass by a few light lines. 
 Block in the midribs of the leaves and the leaves themselves. Draw the curves 
 of the stem and leaves over the blocking-in lines. Do not erase the blocking-in. 
 
BOOK iv.] DECORATION. US 
 
 D. B., page 12. Drawing the Branch. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. Compare your drawing on 
 the practice page with the natural branch. Does the branch in your 
 drawing look as though the leaves had been growing? If vigor 
 seems to be wanting in the drawing, study the natural branch again 
 to find out what it is that you have failed to see. 
 
 From which side does the light fall on your natural branch ? Which 
 is the dark side of the branch ? Look at the illustration in the drawing- 
 book ; on which side did the light fall? How is this shown in the 
 illustration ? 
 
 Notice that you cannot in your natural branch see all the edge of 
 each leaf distinctly. This can be expressed in your drawing, as in 
 the illustration, by broken lines and lines of varying thickness. If 
 your leaves are toothed, do not try to draw every tooth, merely 
 indicate a tooth now and then. 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions for practice. Erase the biocking-in lines where 
 necessary. Finish in gray lines varying in thickness, making them darker on 
 the side away from the light. 
 
Il6 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK iv. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 TEACHERS should continue to give pupils practice in the use of the 
 terms and names on pages 28, 54, and 88, as well as in the use of 
 those given below, always requiring complete sentences. 
 
 Names of Models, Objects, and Details. 
 
 CONE ; vertex, base, altitude ; frustum. 
 
 TRIANGLE; isosceles; vertex, base, altitude. 
 
 SQUARE; on its diagonals. 
 
 SPIRAL; equable, variable; spire. 
 
 CURVE; reversed. 
 
 BOOK; title piece. 
 
 LEAF; opposite, alternate; lobe. 
 
 COLOR; flat wash, graded wash. 
 
 Terms of Construction. 
 
 FACTS; geometric view, dimension, foreshortening. 
 
 LINES; centre line, working line. 
 
 CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN; proportion, profile curves. 
 
 Terms of Representation, 
 
 APPEARANCE; converge, foreshortening. 
 EDGES ; receding. 
 
 Terms of Decoration. 
 
 BORDER; wave line, scroll. 
 
 ARRANGEMENT; repeat; alternation. 
 
 EFFECT; Balance, Stability, Simplicity, Contrast. 
 
 ORNAMENT ; Egyptian Wave Scroll ; Gothic, Twelfth Century. 
 
BOOK V. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Facts of Form. 
 
 Working-Drawings . 
 
 f SOLIDS: Cube, Square Pyramid, Square Plinth, 
 
 Square, Equi. Tri., and Hexagonal Prisms. 
 I OBJECTS : "Writing 1 Desk, Common Object. 
 1 CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN : Common Object. 
 
 MAKING: Square Pyramid, Hexagonal Prism, 
 I Common Object. 
 
 REPRESENTATION. f SQUARE PRISM, CUBE, SQUARE PLINTH. 
 
 BOOKS, BOXES. 
 Appearance of Form. 1 NATURAL gpRAY QR BRANCH . 
 
 Picture-Drawings. [ COMPOSITION: Group of Models and Objects. 
 
 DECORATION. 
 
 Ornamentation of Form. 
 
 Original Design. 
 
 fHISTORIC ORNAMENT; Fleur-de-lis. 
 J NATURAL GROWTH : Spray or Branch. 
 ] DECORATIVE DESIGN : Modification of Units, 
 
 I Borders, Panels. 
 
 117 
 
120 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK v. 
 
 DRILL EXERCISES. 
 
 Drawing-Book, page A. 
 
 OBJECT. Practice for proper position, pencil-holding, and free arm movement, hori- 
 zontal, vertical, oblique. 
 
 Directions to the Teacher. Before beginning work in the book, 
 be sure that pupils know how to hold their pencils for free movement 
 and drawing. Give practice in movement with 
 the pencil in each direction, and see that each 
 pupil holds the pencil properly (see Figs, i, 
 2, 3, 4, p. xiii). 
 
 Practice. Draw horizontals from a, b, c, d, pending these lines directly below 9. 
 Draw verticals from i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, ending these lines directly opposite f. 
 
 Draw an oblique line from i to a and lines parallel to it, from 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc., as in 
 page A, completed. 
 
 Draw an oblique from e to the lower end of the vertical drawn from i and lines par- 
 allel to it from d, f, b, a, o, i, 2, 3, 4, etc., as in page A, completed. 
 
 Practice arm movement for each line before drawing. No erasing: 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 x 
 
 x 
 
 X 
 
 x 
 
 x 
 
 x 
 
 x, 
 
 x 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
 x 
 
 X 
 
 X 
 
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 [X 
 
 X 
 
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 K 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 ^ 
 
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 k 
 
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 o v 
 
 O C 
 
 D. B., page A, completed. D, B., page B, completed. 
 
 Drawing-Book, page B. 
 
 OBJECT. Practice in laying out a page, giving a suggestion of surface covering, 
 proper position, pencil-holding, free arm movement, horizontal, vertical, circular. 
 
 Study of the Oblong. Turn to D. B., page i, and study the 
 oblong made by the marginal lines. What are the dimensions of this 
 obloi:g ? How wide is the margin of the page at the ,top and bottom ? 
 at the left and right ? 
 
BOOK V.] 
 
 DRILL EXERCISES. 
 
 121 
 
 Practice. Free movement, free drawing. Lay out the page according to the 
 directions for Practice at the top of page 91. In each square draw a circle 
 2" in diameter. Finish, as in the illustration, p. 120, page B, completed, by 
 drawing circles i" in diameter, semicircles, and quadrants; or, if you prefer, as 
 in illustration, p. 90, page B, completed. 
 
 Drawing-Book, page C. 
 
 OBJECT. To give a slight review of previous work in Construction ; the top views of 
 familiar models and their names being given, to draw the front view. 
 
 Study of the Page by Pupils. Name the figures on the page. 
 (Circle, square, equilateral triangle, square on its diagonals^] These fig- 
 ures are top views of geometric solids, well known to you ; the solids 
 are all of the same height. Fig. i is the top view of a cylinder; the 
 proportion of width to height of the cylinder is i to 2 ; what would you 
 draw for the front view ? (An upright oblong of the proportion of i to 2.) 
 Fig. 2 is the top -view of a square prism. What would you draw for 
 the front view? (The same as for the cylinder^} Fig. 3 is the top view 
 of an equi. tri. prism; how many vertical edges would you see in the 
 front view ? What would you draw for the front view ? (An upright ob- 
 long with a vertical line through the centred) Fig. 4 is the top view of a 
 square prism, turned at an angle of 45; how many vertical edges would 
 you see in the front view? What would you draw for the front view? 
 
 A centre dot-and-dash line is printed for the two views of the cylinder. 
 Centre lines are frequently made dot-and-dash lines, to distinguish 
 them from working lines and from the details of the object. 
 
 Practice. As these solids are all of the same height, two horizontals across the 
 page will serve to give an upper and a lower 
 line for all the front views. Begin \" below the 
 lower corner of the square on its diagonals, 
 move horizontally to the left edge of the page, 
 then draw a horizontal across the page. 
 
 Lay out the front views, by drawing centre 
 lines, and light verticals downward from the 
 top views. Finish the front views in gray lines. 
 
 V 
 
 D. B., page C, completed. 
 
122 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK v. 
 
 CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 EXERCISE I Cube facing. Cube turned. Square Pyramid 
 
 turned. 
 
 MODELS. Cube, Cone, Squire Pyramid. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the form of a square pyramid; to study and to draw the facts of 
 a square pyramid facing, and of a cube and a square pyramid turned at 45 D . 
 
 Study of the Model by Pupils. Here is a group of three 
 models ; name them if you can. Does the new model resemble more 
 the cube or the cone ? In what respect is it like and in what unlike 
 the cone ? It is called a pyramid. In what respect is it like a cube ? 
 (// has a square base.) Hence it is called a square pyramid. 
 
 Making the Model. Turn to page S, cut out the pattern, fold and 
 paste to make a hollow pyramid. 
 
 Place the pyramid upright and facing you. Look directly down 
 on it ; what do you see ? (A square) What else ? (A point and 
 oblique edges.) Where shall the point be made ? (In the centre of the 
 squared) Find 'one of these edges on the model, and trace its whole 
 length with your finger. From what point in the top view does it 
 start ? ( The centre) Where does it end ? (At a corner of the base.) 
 In this way study the whole of the top view. What should be drawn 
 for the top view ? (A square and its diagonals?) 
 
 What is the shape of the front view ? (An isosceles triangle) The 
 altitude of the pyramid, that is, the distance from the vertex to the 
 centre of the base, gives the height of the fropt view. Stand the 
 model on the desk, rest a book horizontally on the vertex, and measure 
 the vertical distance from the book to the desk. Compare this distance 
 with the slant-height of the pyramid, that is, the distance from the ver- 
 tex to the centre of one of the edges of the base, and also with the 
 length of an oblique edge of a triangular face. 
 
 Study the pyramid turned, in the same way. 
 D. B., page D. Practice page for Ex. I. 
 Practice. Pyramid facing. A horizontal is printed for the base of the front view 
 
BOOK V.] 
 
 CONSTRUCTION. CUBE, PYRAMID TURNED. 
 
 123 
 
 of the pyramid. A centre line is also printed. Fix a point on the centre line 
 for the vertex of the front view, making the altitude of the pyramid twice its 
 width, and draw the sides. From each end of the base, move upward nearly to 
 the top of the page, and draw a light vertical downward to the base. 
 
 Above the front view, draw the top view of ihe pyramid facing, placing the centre of 
 the view on a level with the cross printed at the right. 
 
 Pyramid turned at 45. Draw an indefinite centre line through the given point, 
 the centre of the cross. Using the given point as centre, draw the top view, 
 a square on its diagonals, making the diagonals equal to the diagonals of the 
 top view of the pyramid facing. Draw indefinite verticals downward from the 
 left, lower and right corners of the top view, and draw the front view, making its 
 height equal that of the front view of the pyramid facing. 
 
 X 
 
 D. B., page D, completed. 
 
 D. B., page 1 , completed. 
 
 D. B., page 1 . Drawing two views of Cube and Pyramid turned. 
 
 Observation Exercises. Turn your models at angles of 45. 
 Did you ever see any object in which there was a cube or a pyramid 
 turned ? What would you draw for the top view of the cube turned at 
 45? (A square on its diagonals) Of the pyramid turned? (7/ie 
 same, with its diagonals) How many edges are visible in the front 
 view of the cube turned ? (Seven) Of the pyramid turned ? (five.) 
 Drawing. The front and top two views of a cube are given, to show the size of 
 
 the drawings to be made. 
 Cube turned. A centre line and the centre of the top view are given. Follow 
 
 the directions given above for the top view of the square pyramid turned. Draw 
 
 light verticals down from the left, lower and right corners, and complete the 
 
 front view. 
 Pyramid turned. The centre of the top view is given. Draw according to directions 
 
 given for practice. 
 Finish the top and front views in gray lines. 
 
124 TEACHER'S MA-NUAL. [BOOK v. 
 
 EXERCISE II. Writing-Desk.- Three Views. Dimension Lines. 
 
 MODELS: A brick or a block of the same size and proportion; a small 
 writing- desk, if practicable. 
 
 OBJECT. To make three views of a writing-desk, giving not only the facts of its form, 
 but also its size ; to make a "figured" drawing. 
 
 Study of the Brick by Pupils. Here is a brick, resting on its 
 long, broad face, the long, narrow face in front of you. You wish to 
 make in your drawing-book a drawing, from which a carpenter could 
 make a block, having the same form. What are its dimensions ? (2'^ 
 thick, or high, 8" from left to right, 4" from front to back?) How many 
 inches wide is your drawing-book ? Is it wide enough to make the left 
 end and front views full size ? What can you do then ? (Make t/u views 
 of the same proportions as in the object, and mark the size?) What is the 
 shape and proportion of the front view? (A horizontal oblong, of the pro- 
 portion of i to 4.) Of the left end view ? Of the top view ? 
 
 Open your books at page E and see how the dimensions are marked 
 there. The dotted lines with a dimension marked in the centre are 
 called dimension lines, the arrow-heads show the limits of the dimen- 
 sion. Such a drawing is called a "figured" drawing, because the 
 dimensions are given in figures. Note the short dotted lines extending 
 from each view, for the purpose of carrying the dimensions out a little 
 from the view. Note also that the top view is as wide from front to 
 back as the end view is from left to right. A drawing which shows, 
 as this does, the facts of form and size of an object is called a working- 
 drawing. 
 
 Study for laying out the page. On this page you wish to 
 make a large drawing of the three views. How many inches would 
 you have horizontally, if you should leave margins like those on page 2 ? 
 How can you plan for a left side view, and for a front view twice as 
 wide as the side view ? (Make the margin at lefi and right, y narrower 
 so as to make the width of the space for the drawing, 9^"; make the end 
 view 3" and the front view 6", leaving J" space between these two views.} 
 
 * In the finished work of draughtsmen the working-lines in a working-drawing are frequently dotted, as 
 shown in this exercise. 
 
BOOKV.] CONSTRUCTION. WRITING-DESK. 12$ 
 
 D. 33., page E. Practice page for Ex. II. 
 
 Practice. Draw a horizontal across the page, " above the lower edge of the page. 
 
 Place points on it for left and right margins and for left end, and front views. 
 
 Determine the proper height of these views and draw another horizontal across 
 
 the page. 
 From the points made on the lower horizontal for the left end view, move upward to 
 
 the upper horizontal, and draw verticals downward to the lower horizontal, thus 
 
 completing the left end view. 
 
 Complete the front view in the same way by verticals. 
 From each end of the front view move upward nearly to the title, and draw verticals 
 
 to the verticals of the front view. Draw a horizontal for the base line of the top 
 
 view \" above the front view, determine the proportion of the top view and draw 
 
 the upper horizontal. Add the dimension lines and figures. 
 
 D. B., page 2, Drawing three views of a Desk, figured. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. What object does the 
 working-drawing on this page represent ? Read the drawing, that is, 
 tell what it means. (The drawing shows the front, left and top views of 
 a writing-desk, 6" high, 12" from back to front, 18" from left to right. 
 The front view shows that the upper part of the desk is 2" high at the front 
 and the lower part 4" high. The left end view shows that the upper and 
 lower parts are each 3" high at the back ; and that the desk when opened, 
 would slant from /' high at the back to 2" high at the front.} 
 
 Can you make a desk from this drawing ? If you try, remember that 
 the piece for the bottom should not be as large as that for the top 
 allowance should be made for the thickness of the sides. For the same 
 reason, the pieces for the ends should not be as long as the end view in 
 the drawing. 
 
 Drawing. Lay out the views according to the directions given for Practice. Finish 
 the views in broad lines; add the dimension lines and figures. 
 
126 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK v. 
 
 EXERCISE III. Hexagonal Prism. Three Views. 
 
 MODELS: Square Prism, Hexagonal Prism, 
 
 OBJECT. To study and to draw the facts of the form of a hexagonal prism, and also 
 the construction of the plane figure derived from it, the hexagon. 
 
 Study of the two Models. What name, common to both, have 
 these two solids ? (Prism.) How many oblong faces has each? (The 
 square prism has four, the other has six.) How many sides has the base 
 of the square prism ? How many has the base of the other prism ? 
 How many angles ? The base is called a hexagon because it has six 
 sides and angles, and as all the sides and angles are equal it is called 
 a regular hexagon. As prisms are named from their bases, this prism 
 is called a hexagonal prism. 
 
 Draw a horizontal on the board ; quadrisect it, and beginning some 
 distance above the horizontals, draw indefinite verticals through the 
 two outer points. On the left vertical place a point as far from the 
 left end of the diagonal as the distance between the verticals, 
 repeat below. On the right vertical place points on a level with those 
 on the left. Draw ,the hexagon. 1 Describe the diameter of a circle ; 
 of a square : the diagonal of a square. Where would the diagonal of 
 a hexagon run ? (From one angle to an opposite angle?) 
 
 Making the Model. Detach page K, cut out the pattern, fold 
 and paste to make a hexagonal prism. What would you draw for the 
 top view of the upright prism ? (A regular hexagon?) How many ver- 
 tical edges are there in the front view ? (Four) Draw the front view 
 on the board, first verticals from the four lower angles of the hexagon- 
 then horizontals for the top and base lines of the front view. How 
 high should it be? (Twice as high as the diagonal of the hexagon.) 
 
 1 If you have preserved page C of your drawing-book, cut out the- printed circle, fold it through the 
 middle and crease it. Keeping it folded as a semicircle, fold it from the centre so as to make three equal 
 parts and crease the folds. Opening the circle, you will find three diameters. Fold over the curved edge 
 from the end of one diameter to the end of the next, repeat five times. You will have then a 
 regular hexagon with three diagonals. Fold the end of one diagonal over to the centre of the figure 
 and crease, fold the other end of the same diagonal to the centre and crease. Open the hexagon, 
 tlie folds just made divide the semidiagonal in the middle and end just at the ends of the diagonals on 
 either side. Open your drawing-book at page F, and you will see there the folds illustrated. 
 
BOOK V.] 
 
 CONSTRUCTION, HEX A GONAL PRISM. 
 
 127 
 
 D. J5., page F. Practice page for Ex. III. 
 
 Practice. Hexagon. Points are given for a horizontal. Draw the horizontal 
 
 and complete the hexagon, as above. 
 Hexagonal Prism. The top view is printed. Draw the front view, as above. 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 D. B., page F, completed. 
 
 D. B., page 3, completed. 
 
 D. B., page 3. Drawing three views of the Hexagonal Prism. 
 
 Observation Exercises for Pupils. Read the illustration. (Three 
 mews of an upright hexagonal prism, with the edge toward you.) Look at 
 the top view ; how many angles in the front half? How many vertical 
 edges in the front view ? in the right side view ? How wide is the 
 front view ? (As wide as the length of the diameter of the top view?) How 
 wide is the side view ? (As wide as the length of the diagonal of the top 
 view.) 
 
 Place the prism horizontally from left to right. What would you draw 
 for the end view ? for the front view? for the top view ? 
 
 Drawing. End View. Points are given for a horizontal diagonal for a hexagon. 
 Draw the diagonal and complete the hexagon according to the directions above. 
 
 Front View. From the three angles on the right half of the hexagon draw indefinite 
 horizontals.* On the centre horizontal fix points for the length of the front 
 view. From each point move upward to the upper horizontal and draw down- 
 ward a vertical to the lowest horizontal. 
 
 Top Viezv. From each end of the front view move upward nearly to the title and 
 draw verticals downward to the verticals of the front view. On the left vertical 
 fix points for the left end of the top view, making it equal to the diagonal of the 
 end view ; fix points also for the width of the other two faces seen in the top 
 view; draw four horizontals to complete the top view. 
 
 Finish the three views in broad, gray lines. 
 
128 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK v. 
 
 REPRESENTATION. 
 
 EXERCISE IV. Square Prism and Cube turned at an angle off 
 
 45. Appearance. 
 
 MODELS: Square Prism, Cube. 
 
 Previous to this lesson each pupil should make from pasteboard or thick paper, a model of a square 
 prism and a cube the base of each 4" on a side the altitude of the square prism 8". 
 
 OBJECT. To study and to draw the appearance of a prism ,and a cube turned at 45^. 
 
 Study of the Models by Pupils. Square Prism. Place the 
 prism turned at an angle of 45 on a pile of books, so that the middle 
 of the prism will be on a level with the eye. Fold some rather stiff 
 paper to make two strips about J" wide and 5" or 6" long. 1 Hold the 
 strips in one hand so that one strip can be kept vertical and the other 
 easily moved up or down like the handle of a pump. Hold the strips 
 at arms' length, so that the inner point of intersection will be between 
 the eye and the nearest upper corner of the model and so that the 
 edge of the vertical strip will cover the nearest vertical edge of the 
 model ; then move the other strip up or down until it inclines as 
 much as the horizontal edge appears to incline. Keep the strips 
 parallel to the plane of your face. Study the other receding edges in 
 the same way. 
 
 Compare now the apparent length of the vertical edges by measure- 
 ment on the pencil ; also the height and the width of the appearance. 
 
 Cube. Place the cube so that the top is on a level with the eye and 
 study it in the same way. How do the lower receding edges appear ? 
 (Slanting upward toward the level of the eye.) Which appears longer, the 
 nearer or the farther vertical edges ? 
 
 Study edges both above and below the eye, the edges of an open 
 door, pictures on a side wall, books, boxes, tables, etc., all turned at 
 an angle, and note that all retreating horizontal edges above or below 
 the eye, appear to slant, those above the eye appearing to slant 
 downward, and those below the eye appearing to slant upward. 
 
 1 The blank pages in the middle of the diawing-book are intended for any use that the teachers may 
 require. The strips can be taken from one of the blank pages. 
 
BOOK v.] REPRESENTATION. SQUARE PRISM. CUBE TURNED. 1 29 
 
 (The illustrations show the use of a pencil in discovering the apparent 
 direction of receding edges and of the strips of paper.) 
 
 D. B., page G. Practice page for Ex. IV. 
 
 Practice. Upon the left of the page, make a large drawing of the appearance 
 of the square prism, placed so that the middle is on a level with the eye, on 
 the right of the page, a large drawing of the appearance of a cube, standing on 
 a level with the square prism, having the top on a level with the eye. 
 
 Square Prism. Indicate the height a'nd width of the drawing by light lines, noting 
 the horizontal printed for the level of the eye. Draw the vertical for the nearest 
 edge. Draw upper edges, then lower, slanting as much as they appeared to, when 
 the strips of paper were used then left and right verticals. Draw a table line. 
 
 Cube. Draw the cube according to the directions for the square prism. Draw a 
 table line. 
 
 D. B., Page 4, completed. 
 
 D. B., Page 5, completed. 
 
 Observation Exercises by Pupils. Read the drawings, Figs. 
 i, 2, and 3. Study again the square prism and the cube as above. 
 
 D. B., page 4. Drawing the appearance of the Prism and the Cube. 
 Drawing. Follow the directions for Practice. Finish in broad, soft, gray lines. 
 
130 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK v. 
 
 EXERCISE V. Square Plinth turned at an angle of 45 Appear- 
 ance below the level of the eye. 
 
 MODELS : Square plinth, "base Q" , side 2", made by the pupil. 
 
 OBJECT. To study and to draw the appearance of a square plinth below the level of 
 the eye, turned at 45. 
 
 Study of the Model by Pupils. Place the square plinth 
 turned at 45 so that its base will be as far below the eye as the base 
 of the cube in the preceding exercise. Study its appearance by the 
 methods suggested in Ex. IV. 
 
 L. of E. 
 
 (Lead pupils to state during the study of the model that 
 
 1. All retreating horizontal edges appear to incline toward the level of the eye, 
 
 and must be so drawn. 
 
 2. All parallel horizontal edges retreating from the eye appear to converge to a point 
 
 on the level of the eye, and must be drawn so that, if produced, they will meet in 
 a point on the Level of the Eye (L. of E.) 
 
 3. Parallel horizontal edges retreating to the left appear to converge to a point on 
 
 the level of the eye at the left of the object ; those retreating to the right appear 
 to converge to the right ot the object. These points are called respectively Van- 
 ishing Point i (V. P. i) and Vanishing Point 2 (V. P. 2). 
 
 4. For rectangular objects standing at an angle of 45, V. P. i and V. P. 2 are eqi- 
 
 distant from the object. 
 
 5. The farther vertical edges appear shorter than the nearer, and must be so drawn.) 
 
 D. B., page H. Practice page for Ex. V. 
 
 Practice. Draw the appearance of the square plinth turned. Remember th? 
 level of the eye. Follow the directions for the square prism, Ex. IV. 
 
BOOKV.] REPRESENTATION. RECTANGULAR OBJECT TURNED. l$\ 
 D. B., page 5. Drawing the appearance of the Square Plinth. 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions for the square prism, placing the drawing so that 
 it will be on a line with the drawing on page 4. 
 
 EXERCISE VI. Rectangular Object turned. Appearance below 
 the level off the eye. 
 
 MODEL : Book or Oblong Box. 
 
 OBJECT. To study and to draw the appearance of a rectangular object below the level 
 of the eye turned at an angle of 45. 
 
 Study of the Object by Pupils. Place a book or a box in the 
 position required and study the appearance as in previous exercises. 
 Draw the book, first as if it were a block with vertical edges then add 
 the curving out of the back and the curving in of the leaves. 
 
 D. B., page 1 , Practice page for Ex. VI. 
 
 Practice. Make a large drawing of the appearance of a book or a box, placed as 
 required. Consider first the level of the eye. Follow the directions in Ex. IV. 
 
 D. B., page 6 t Drawing the appearance of a rectangular Object 
 turned. 
 
 Observation Exercises for pupils. Are the edges of your 
 book a little broken or bent anywhere ? If so, break your lines a little 
 in the drawing. 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions for Practice. Finish the drawing in broad, soft 
 gray lines, breaking them occasionally, if the edges of the book are worn. 
 
132 
 
 TEACHER'S MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK v. 
 
 DECORATION. 
 
 EXERCISE VII Fleur-de-lis. 
 
 OBJECT. To study and to draw an example of good historic ornament. 
 
 Study of the Copy by Pupils. What is the name given in the 
 drawing-book to Fig. i ? to Fig. 2 ? to Fig. 3 ? Have you ever seen 
 the flower called Fleur-de-lis ? Do you remember how some of its 
 petals curve and curl ? It is not known that the ornament called the 
 Fleur-de-lis was taken from this flower ; but the curves at the left and 
 right sides of the ornament are like the curves of the curling petals of 
 the flower. 
 
 This ornament has been, like most favorite ornaments, variously 
 modified, in different ages and countries, but it is readily recognized 
 under the various modifications, having always the broad, erect blade 
 in the middle, the gracefully curving sides, generally a band or a sem- 
 blance of it, and a spreading base as in Figs. 2 and 3. The tipper 
 part only of a Florentine Fleur-de-lis is given in the the drawing-book. 
 The complete figure is here illustrated ; also a surface covering in which 
 a different Fleur-de-lis is used, from the walls of Ste. Chapelle, Paris. 
 
BOOK v.] DECORA TION. FLE UR-DE-LIS. 1 3 3 
 
 D. B., page J. Practice page for Ex. VII. 
 
 Practice. Draw blocking-in lines on Fig. i, p. 7. On the left half of page J, draw 
 simply the centre line, connecting the points given and two horizontals, one 
 for the greatest width of the figure, and one for the base, then the blocking-in 
 lines, studying carefully the various proportions. 
 
 On the right half of the page, one-half of the fleur-de-lis is given. Draw its blocking 
 in lines. Repeat them to balance on the right. Draw the curves on the right, 
 first practicing movement on the printed copy. 
 
 D. B., page 7. Drawing the Fleur-de-lis ornament. 
 
 Observation Exercises by Pupils. What is the proportion of 
 Fig. i ? About how high can you make your drawing in the space at 
 the right, leaving a suitable margin at the top and bottom ? 
 
 Drawing. Draw Fig. i, enlarged to fill the space at the right. First draw a light 
 centre line, then blocking-in lines. Before drawing each curve, practice movement 
 to get the feeling of the curve. Erase the centre and blocking-in lines and finish 
 the Fleur-de-lis, in broad, gray lines. 
 
134 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK v. 
 
 EXERCISE VIII. Unit of Design Modification of Unit. 
 
 OBJECT. To study and to draw modifications of a familiar unit. 
 
 Study by Pupils. Open your drawing-books at p. 8. Fig. 2 is 
 a unit which is already familiar to you by its use in previous books ; 
 its base is simply a point. A vertical figure resting on a very sharp 
 point gives an unpleasant impression of being insecurely placed. How 
 is this unit modified in Fig. 3 ? (Its shape is made more pleasing by the 
 substitution of curved lines for straight ; and it is broadened at the base 
 giving the impression of greater stability^) Do you remember the form of 
 a tree, the strong trunk, the broad branching at .the top, and the 
 spreading roots at the base? 
 
 How is this unit modified in Fig. 4 ? (By division in the upper part 
 and at the base.) The divisions of Fig. 4, a partially divided figure, are 
 held together by the strong undivided stem, as the trunk of a tree 
 holds the branches together. If the divisions are carried too low, 
 there will be an apparent tendency to split, and thus the strength of 
 the unit will be lost. If the trunk or stem is made too slender, the unit 
 becomes painfully weak. In a tree, the trunk is generally very slender 
 in proportion to the width of the branching, but in a tree the strength 
 comes from the growing life. In a figure, strength must be expressed 
 in the trunk or stem by a greater proportional width. Note the pro- 
 portional width of parts in the unit. 
 
 How is this unit modified in Fig. 5 ? (The unit is wholly divided, and 
 the stability is obtained by holding the ^arts together by a band.) The band 
 should be placed at the narrowest part of the unit. What would be 
 the effect if there were no band ? 
 
 D. B,, page M . Practice page for Ex. VIII. 
 
 Practice. Construction lines are given for two units. On the figure, at the left, 
 draw Fig. i, page 8, on that at the right an original modification of it. Be 
 careful about breaking the outline too much, and making too many sharp points 
 which are unpleasantly suggestive of thorns and briars. 
 
BOOK v. ] DECORA TION. MODIFICA TION OF UNIT. 1 3 5 
 
 D. B., page 8. Drawing a Modification of the Unit. 
 
 Drawing. Draw Fig. I, lightly in the space at the right. Modify the shape of the 
 unit by changing the general lines or by rounding angles. Avoid irregularities 
 and many sharp points. Erase construction lines and finish the modification in 
 broad, gray lines. 
 
 EXERCISE IX. Decorative Design. Border. 
 
 OBJECT. To study the modification of units for borders ; to design and to draw a border. 
 
 Study of the Modification of Units. Open your drawing-books 
 at page 9. What is Fig. i ? (A border made by the repetition of circles?) 
 Fig. 2 ? (A border made by the repetition of Fig. I, p. 8, modified?) How 
 is the the unit -changed? (The lower part is cut of, giving the effect of 
 greater stability.) Describe Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6, Do the units of Figs. 
 2 and 5 and of Figs. 3 and 6 resemble each other ? (The units of 
 Figs. 2 and 5 show the blocking-in of the units of j and 6?) 
 
 D. B., page N . Practice page for Ex. IX. 
 
 Practice. Draw on the first centre line, one of the units which you drew for Ex. 
 VIII, modifying it for a border, first blocking it in. Repeat the unit on the 
 second centre line. 
 
 D. B., page 9 Drawing a Border. 
 
 * 
 
 Drawing. Through the points given, draw long horizontals as marginal lines for a 
 border, extending as far to the left and right as the borders above. Trisect the 
 third horizontal from the top and bisect each division. Beginning a little below 
 the second horizontal, draw to each point of bisection a vertical as a centre line 
 for a unit. On these lines, repeat the unit, drawn in the border on page N, 
 blocking-in first. Erase the centre and blocking-in lines and finish in broad, sofy 
 gray lines. 
 
136 TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK v. 
 
 EXERCISE X. Working-Drawing. 
 
 OBJECT. To study and to draw the facts of form with the dimensions, of a common 
 object that is; to make a working-drawing of the object. 
 
 Study by Pupils. Decide on a simple object that you desire 
 to make, a box, a toy sled, a footstool, a tray, a toy house, book shelves, 
 a picture-frame, a mallet, a toy trunk, or something similar. Think of 
 the proportions and the form that you wish the object to have, and 
 determine the size. If the object is to be suited to, a particular pur- 
 pose, remember to adapt the form to the purpose ; if the object is to 
 answer a general purpose, do not decide at random on any form that 
 occurs to you, but try to think of a form that will be pleasing, strive 
 for beauty of form. 
 
 Make sketches of the shape of three views of the object as you have 
 conceived it, add the details, and "figure " the drawing. 
 
 D. B., page O. Practice page for Ex. X". 
 
 Practice. Study the space and lay out the page for as large a drawing of the three 
 views as the space will allow. Draw the three views from your sketches, adding 
 " figured " dimension lines. 
 
 D. B., paga'lO. Making a Working-Drawing. 
 
 Drawing. Draw and finish the three views drawn on page O. 
 Making. Make the object from the drawing. 
 
 EXERCISE XI. -Group of Objects. 
 
 OBJECT. To arrange a pleasing group; to study the appearance of the group, to draw 
 the appearance. 
 
 Arrangement of a group by Pupils. Arrange a pile of books 
 or a group of three simple objects, studying to make the group as pleas- 
 ing as possible in general effect. A pile of books can be arranged so 
 as to have a very good and picturesque effect, if you arrange them 
 so that there will be Unity, Variety and Repose in the whole. 
 
BOOK V.] 
 
 KEPRESENTA TION. RE VIE W. 
 
 137 
 
 In arranging a group (see p. 68), remember to consider : 
 
 1. The place of the principal object. 
 
 2. The place of the secondary objects. 
 
 3. The figure made by the group on the table. 
 
 4. Partial view of some of the objects. 
 
 5. Upper line of the group. 
 
 6. Unity, Variety and Repose of the group. 
 
 D. B., page P. Practice page for Ex. XL 
 
 Practice. Having arranged a group, obtain the proportion of the width to the 
 height of the group, by measurement on the pencil. Indicate by light lines 
 the space to be occupied by the group, of a suitable size for the page and of the 
 proper proportion. Consider and represent the level of the eye. Block in first 
 the principal object, and then the others. Draw the table line, studying to place 
 it well. Draw the curves over the blocking-in lines. Do not erase or finish. 
 
 D. B., page 11. Drawing the Outlines of a Group. 
 
 Observation by Pupils. Describe the illustrations in the draw- 
 ing-book with reference to the points mentioned. Improve the arrange- 
 ment of your group if you can. 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions given for practice. Correct, erase wrong lines, and 
 finish in broad, soft, gray lines, varying in thickness and clearness according to the 
 character of the edges and profiles, and according to the distance of the edges 
 from the eye, making the nearer parts the stronger. 
 
138 
 
 TEACHERS MANUAL. 
 
 [BOOK v. 
 
 EXERCISE XII. Decorative Design. Panel. 
 
 OBJECT. To study and to draw a spray or branch of leaves or flowers from nature 
 to draw a unit and a border for a panel, using the leaves and flowers as motives. 
 
 Study of a Spray or Branch. Place the spray or branch in a 
 book, as described p. 114. Notice the general character of your 
 branch ; is it sturdy, showing vigorous growth, or is it delicate ? What 
 is its general direction ? Notice how the leaves and flowers are placed 
 on the stem, how they spring from the stem, and in what order they 
 appear. Notice any foreshortening. Study the light and dark side. 
 
 Study for the Unit in the Panel. The unit for the panel 
 can be made, either by modifying the unit already given, by the use of 
 curves selected from the spray, or by showing the character of the 
 plant in a unit made by conventionalizing the spray. The unit may 
 be cut off at the base, as in the border, Ex. IX., to express stability. 
 
 Fig- i. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4. ' 
 
 Figs i and 2 are modified by curves selected from the lilac leaf; 
 Fig, 3. shows a unit modified from a spray of lilacs, showing its sturdy 
 growth ; Fig. 4, a unit from violet leaves conventionalized, retaining the 
 delicate growth of the plant. 
 
 D. B., page Q, Practice page for Ex. XII. 
 
 Practice. Branch. Plan for a large drawing on the left half of the page. Block 
 in the stem and the shape of the whole mass by a few light lines. Block in 
 the midribs and outlines of the leaves. Draw the curves of the stem and leaves 
 over the blocking-in lines. Do not erase the blocking-in. 
 
BOOK V.l 
 
 OPTIONAL COLOR EXERCISE. 
 
 139 
 
 Unit and Rosette. On the upper part of the right half draw a unit, suitable for the 
 upright oblong on p. 12, modified by some of the curves found in the leaves of 
 the branch or spray; below it, draw a rosette, using the flower as a motive. 
 
 D. B., page 12. Drawing the Branch or Spray and the Panel. 
 
 Study for Character of Lines by Pupils. 
 
 Notice that you cannot in your natural branch 
 see all the edge of each leaf distinctly. This 
 can be expressed in your drawing, as in the 
 illustration, by broken lines and lines of various 
 thickness. If your leaves are toothed, do not try 
 to draw every tooth, merely indicate a tooth 
 now and then. 
 
 Drawing. Follow the directions for Pracitce. Erase the 
 blocking-in lines where necessary. Finish the branch 
 in gray lines varying in thickness, making them darker 
 on the side away from the light. Finish the panel and 
 design in broad, gray lines. 
 
 Suggested for a Panel. 
 
 OPTIONAL COLOR EXERCISE. 
 
 The primary, secondary, and tertiary colors have been given and their 
 use in flat washes. Practice in the use of the primary colors in graded 
 washes have been given. In these graded washes, tints of the pri- 
 maries were brought out, a tint of any color being a tone of the color 
 lighter than the standard. 
 
 It is now proposed to introduce shades of color, a shade of any 
 color being a tone of any color darker than the standard, and being 
 produced by the mixture of black with that color. 
 
 The term tone of color is applied either to a tint or to a shade. 
 
 D. J3., page R. Drawing and Coloring a Design. 
 
 Drawing and Coloring. Draw the panel which you drew on page 12. Color the 
 panel with a tertiary color using three shades. 
 
I4O TEACHER'S MANUAL. [BOOK v. 
 
 LANGUAGE. 
 
 TEACHERS should continue to give pupils practice in the use of the 
 terms and names on pages 28, 54, 88, and 118 as well as in the use 
 of those given below, always requiring complete sentences 
 
 Names of Models, Objects, and Details. 
 
 SQUARE PYRAMID; vertex, base, altitude; slant height. 
 HEXAGONAL PRISM ; base, hexagon, regular hexagon. 
 COLOR; tint, shade; tone. 
 
 Terms of Construction. 
 
 WORKING-DRAWING; to read a working-drawing. 
 LINES; dot-and-dash lines, figured dimension lines. 
 CONSTRUCTIVE DESIGN; fitness to purpose, beauty of form 
 
 Terms of Representation. 
 
 LEVEL OF THE EYE; L. of E. 
 VANISHING POINT ; V. P. i ; V. P. 2. 
 SHADE; light, dark. 
 EFFECT; picturesque. 
 
 Terms of Decoration. 
 
 ORNAMENT ; Fleur-de-lis. 
 MODIFICATION OF UNITS; division, band. 
 ARRANGEMENT; panel; unit and rosette. 
 EFFECT; Harmony. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 COLOR. 
 
 Color having been accepted by leading educators as an important 
 means of acquainting a child with his surroundings and of promoting 
 his mental development, some provision should be made in all schools 
 for its study. It is a subject, however, which is in its infancy in general 
 education; all knowledge of color now possessed has been gained in 
 the main either incidentally or by special study, and not from direct 
 instruction in the school-room as a part of regular work. For the present, 
 therefore, color-work in schools must be considered as experimental 
 and tentative. The suggestions offered here, as an aid to such experimental 
 work, are based 'on the most advanced scientific knowledge of the 
 subject and upon artistic methods of work. 
 
 Lessons in color should be given not only for the sake of the 
 knowledge of color to be gained and the pleasure and profit to be derived 
 therefrom, but also as a means to be used in developing ideas of form; 
 for color adds greatly to the attractiveness of form, and is therefore a great 
 aid in leading to an appreciation of form, especially among children. 
 Hence, a slight provision for the introduction of color has been made 
 in the Books and Manual of this course in Form study and Drawing. The 
 suggestions added in this Appendix are for the benefit of those who wish 
 and are able to give more time to the development of color-work. 
 
 Color-lessons should not be given at random. They should have an 
 orderly succession and should have a two-fold purpose: i. The develop- 
 ment of the color-sense ; 2. The development of the power of expressing 
 with brushes and paints, or other color materials, the color-impressions made 
 upon the brain. 
 
 The ability to receive color-impressions and the ability to express them, 
 are so nearly related that 'it is hardly possible to dissociate them in 
 teaching color ; but these two, Cultivation of the color-sense and Expres- 
 sion of ideas by color, should be considered separately in devising a plan 
 
 for color-lessons. 
 
 141 
 
142 ^ APPENDIX. 
 
 The Color-Sense. In all schemes for color-lessons, the color-sense 
 should be made the starting point. Care should be taken that a color, 
 impression or sensation should always precede the name of the color. 
 To this end, exercises in matching colors of objects should be given 
 before color-names are given. Provision has been made for such exercises 
 in the Color Chart and Cards for the Primary Education of the Color-Sense 
 by Dr. Hugo Magnus and Dr. B. Joy Jeffries ; published by the Prang 
 Educational Company. 
 
 In the Manual for this chart Dr. Jeffries says : " The systematic 
 education of the color-sense has therefore in view the teaching of children 
 by direct observation and the awakening in them a perception of the 
 principal colors, as also their relation to light and shade." 
 
 In an article on Color names, Color-Blindness, and the Education of the 
 Color-Sense in our Schools, published in Education, March, 1872, Dr. 
 Jeffries further says : 
 
 " Colors must be taught, and not simply the color-names of colored objects. A 
 blind child will give the name of the color of grass, trees, apples, bananas, bricks, 
 its companion's clothes, and perhaps even hundreds of objects the color-name of 
 which it has learned. So also the color-blind boy will do the same. It is one 
 thing to learn the color-name connected with a remembered object, and a very 
 different thing to connect the right name with the sensation a green color arouses. 
 Here has been the mistake, which object-teaching has rather fostered than 
 corrected." 
 
 " Any method must be systematic and thorough, commencing at the very bottom. 
 How little was accomplished in educating the ear, the voice, and the sense of 
 form for the eye, till correct principles were understood and acted on. Nothing 
 can be accomplished in color-teaching till the mistakes of the past are understood, 
 admitted, and corrected. The very means adopted have but helped to blind the 
 teacher and the educator in the belief that colors were being taught, when, in 
 reality, nothing but names associated with certain objects were being remembered. 
 The color-blind boy can, as I have seen, point out the colors in the charts hereto- 
 fore used, as well as the normal-eyed. A certain spot in a certain position on a 
 large card has a name attached to it which he remembers, and this is all he 
 has learned. It is very true that many a teacher, disgusted with the charts, 
 blocks, etc., placed in her hands, has discarded them all, and gathered together 
 larger or smaller collections of colored paper, worsted, ribbons, etc. ; but no 
 exercise with these has revealed the characteristic mistakes of the color-blind boys 
 she has taught. I have detected color-blindness among the best-taught classes* 
 
COLOR. 143 
 
 I have witnessed the best color-teaching, and there was really nothing in it which 
 would inevitably detect a defect of the color-sense. It would not have rtatonished 
 me at all to have found, on trial, one of the exhibited boys color-blind. I found 
 in a factory a color-blind man engaged in cutting up colored board into cards. 
 His fellow-workmen would not, of course, admit his defect, but his employer had 
 experienced a 'destruction of stock,' and could appreciate the characteristic 
 mistakes he showed with Holmgren's test, etc. It is not expected that this 
 idea of the need of connecting a name with a sensation will be received at once, 
 as it seems so to militate against every-day knowledge. It will, however, gradually 
 show itself in the systematic color-teaching which is here argued for. Practical 
 illustrations in our schools would much more readily prove this statement." 
 
 The Names of Colors. Only those names which are in common use 
 should be given to primary children. Yellow, red, blue, orange, green, 
 violet, purple, brown, gray, crimson, are quite sufficient for them. 
 
 The colored objects, whether colored cards, paper, worsted, or any other 
 material, from which these color-names are learned, should be those which 
 are known as standard colors. Great care should be taken, therefore, in 
 selecting material for these lessons. 
 
 Tints, Shades, Tones, Scales. The children can also learn the 
 tints and shades of these colors, and can learn to arrange them in scales 
 of color. 
 
 Tints are those tones of a color lighter then standard color. 
 
 Shades are those tones of a color darker than the standard color, obtained 
 by mixing black with the standard color. 
 
 A scale of any color is made by arranging its tints, standard, and shades 
 in successive order from light to dark or from dark to light. 
 
 A dulled scale is made in mixing gray with all the tones of the scale. 
 
 Paints. While the children are receiving color-sensations, and learning 
 color-names by the study of colored objects, they can also begin to produce 
 color-effects by the use of paints. 
 
 Beginning with yellow, red, and blue, they can learn, by mixing these colors, 
 the results produced. 
 
 YELLOW and RED, mixed, make ORANGE. 
 YELLOW and BLUE, " " GREEN. 
 
 RED and BLUE, " PURPLE. 
 
 The three mixed in varying quantities produce browns and grays. 
 
144 APPENDIX. 
 
 
 
 At the same time, the children may try to make with the paints, colored 
 pictures of colored objects, learning in the process not only color, but also 
 something of the appearance of form. The objects given for this purpose 
 should be carefully selected as to simplicity of form and color. 
 
 As the children learn to perceive different tints and shades of color in 
 scales of color presented to them, they will also begin to discern the tints 
 and shades of color produced on an object by light and shade, and will 
 represent them in their color-work. 
 
 How to use Colors and Brushes. The following directions for 
 working with water-colors are taken from Prang's Color Boxes, and are 
 given here for the guidance of teachers. 
 
 As to Colors. With a brush full of clean water obtain the full strength of 
 color from the cake, and then transfer it to the spaces in the cover of the box as 
 to a palette. Add color or water as strength or delicacy of tint is required. 
 
 Rarely mix more than three colors, and do the mixing upon the palette and not 
 upon the cakes. This is best practice at first, thojigh after obtaining a good 
 knowledge of color, and skill in handling, it is sometimes better to work directly 
 from the cake, mixing in the brush. 
 
 As to Brushes. Be careful to use clean water, that is, water not charged 
 with much color by previous mixing; and always put the brushes and box away 
 quite clean. 
 
 A hollow sponge held in the left hand is useful to remove superfluous color 
 from the brush, thus keeping the water clean. 
 
 Do not leave brushes in the water or put them in the mouth. When ready to 
 put the brush away, wash it thoroughly in clean water, and give it a quick shake ; 
 this removes the water, while bringing the brush to a point and preserving its 
 shape. 
 
 As to Working. Work from the left to the right, and from the top 
 downward. Do not let the surface of the paper lie flat, but slope the lower part 
 toward you. 
 
 Keep the brush full of color, and work generally with the side of the brush, 
 using the point only for lines. Surplus color can be removed, if taken up quickly, 
 by using a nearly dry brush, blotting-paper, or a soft rag. 
 
 Classification of Color. As study in color progresses, a color 
 nomenclature, based on the classification of color, becomes necessary. The 
 scientist bases his classification on the study of the spectrum; the artist, 
 on color effects produced by pigments. 
 
COLOR. ^ 145 
 
 Spectrum Colors. A beam of light, passing through a glass prism, 
 is refracted and decomposed, and when projected on a white screen is seen 
 as a beautiful band of rainbow colors. This band is called the solar spectrum. 
 The colors are so beautifully blended that it is hardly possible to determine 
 where one ends and another begins. But the principal colors in the spec- 
 t, am are generally spoken of as seven: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, 
 i.idigo, and violet. The latest researches of science show that red, green, 
 and violet are the Primary colors in the spectrum, that is to say, they 
 are the colors by the combination of which the other colors of the spec- 
 trum may be produced. 1 
 
 In speaking of the colors of the spectrum, then, red, green, and violet, 
 must be considered as Primary colors. 
 
 Pigment Colors. But, in -the use of such pigment colors as are now 
 attainable, the mixing of colors does not produce the results reached by 
 the combinations of the colors of the spectrum. The classification of the 
 pigment-colors therefore for the present at least, must differ from that 
 adopted for the spectrum-colors. In pigment colors, yellow, red, and blue 
 are considered as Primary colors. By the combination of these Primary 
 colors the Secondary colors, orange, green, and purple are produced, as has 
 been already stated. 
 
 By the combination of Secondaries, Tertitaies are Producted. Each Tertiary 
 contains all the Primary colors, with a double portion of one of them. 
 
 Secondaries. Tertiaries. 
 
 ORANGE ) ( Citrine or Orange-green, named the Yellow Tertiary, as it 
 
 and > make < 
 GREEN j f contains red, blue, and a double portion of Yellow. 
 
 ORANGE ) ( Russet or Orange-purple, named the Red Tertiary, as it 
 
 and > make < . . . ,. . r ~ , 
 
 PURPLE j r contams yellow, blue, and a double portion of Red. 
 
 PURPLE ^ ( Olive or Purple-green, named the Blue Tertiary, as it con- 
 
 GREEN ) * \ tains y ellow > red ' and a d uble portion of Blue. 
 
 There is in infinite variety of colors compounded from those mentioned, 
 of which some are named and some unnamed. These must be left for more 
 advanced study. 
 
 1 Those desirous of investigating the subject for themselves will find some simple, but very 
 interesting experiments in the combinations of the primary spectrum colors in No. i of Appleton's 
 Experimental Science Series for Beginners, Light, by Alfred M. Mayer and Charles Barnard. 
 
146 APPENDIX. 
 
 Harmony of Color. The theories of the harmony of color, at 
 present accepted, are based on the classification given above of pigment 
 colors. 
 
 Each Primary harmonizes with its Complementary, which is that Secondary 
 which contains the other two Primaries. 
 
 Primary. Secondary. The other two Primaries. 
 
 YELLOW harmonizes with PURPLE made of RED and BLUE. 
 RED " " GREEN " " YELLOW and BLUE. 
 
 BLUE " " ORANGE " " YELLOW and RED. 
 
 The Secondaries and Tertiaries harmonize after the same law. 
 
 If a Tertiary-color is desired, harmonizing with a given Secondary, orange 
 for example, recall the Primary with which orange harmonizes, which is blue : 
 then the blue Tertiary, purple-green, will harmonize with orange. As red 
 harmonizes with green, the red Tertiary, russet or orange-purple, will 
 harmonize with green. As yellow harmonizes with purple, the yellow 
 Tertiary, citrine or orange-green, will harmonize with purple. 
 
 The above may be summed up as follows : 
 
 Yellow, Red, Blue, Primaries. 
 Purple, Green, Orange, Secondaries. 
 Citrine, Russet, Olive, Tertiaries. 
 
 f Strong contrast with Yellow. 
 
 PURPLE -j Subdued " " Citrine. 
 
 [ In harmony with both. 
 
 f Strong contrast with Red. 
 
 GREEN -j Subdued " " Russet. 
 
 [ In harmony with both. 
 
 f Strong contrast with Blue. 
 ORANGE ... ....-{ Subdued " " Olive. 
 
 [ In harmony with both. 
 
 It will be seen that harmony between Secondaries and Tertiaries is 
 more subtle and delicate than between Primaries and Secondaries ; as, for 
 example, Green and Russet in combination are more pleasing to the eye 
 and less crude in effect then Red and Green. Soft and delicate Grays add 
 to the harmony of a picture ; and tints of the Primaries in combination are 
 more pleasing than the colors in their full strength. 
 
COLOR. 147 
 
 A few simple Rules. The most pleasing harmonies include the 
 three Primary colors. (In these harmonies, unless the aim is for a scale 
 of color, there is the least of yellow, more of red, and the most of blue. 
 See pp. 27, 45, 75, 105.) 
 
 Better effects are produced, therefore, by the use of a Primary and a 
 Tertiary than by the use of two primaries. 
 
 If combinations of a primary and a secondary are attempted, better 
 results are generally reached by the use of tints and shades, or dulled colors 
 (that is, mixed with gray) than with the standards. 
 
 These are the general principles on which the harmony of color is based. 
 But in complete harmony, not only the colors themselves, but also the 
 amount, balance, and quality of color must be taken into account. Into this 
 broader field we cannot enter now. 
 
 Color Combinations. Practical Points in School Work. The 
 
 subject of Decoration calls especially for a knowledge of harmony of color. 
 The study of Decoration begins in the primary schools with the attempt to 
 make pleasing arrangements with solids, tablets, and colored paper. As 
 soon as the element of color enters, training in the harmony of color 
 should begin. The training at this early stage should be rather negative 
 than positive ; statements as to harmony of the different Primaries, Secondaries, 
 and Tertiaries are not necessary. 
 
 But inharmonious combinations should be made impossible by the 
 observance of the following rules by the teacher. 
 
 In choosing colored papers for use in the school-room, be careful first 
 to get Standard colors ; if you can, add to these, tints and shades of the 
 various colors, so that scales of colors can be made. 
 
 At first, call for arrangements in standard colors, only one color to be 
 used in any one arrangement then for arrangements in tints, only one 
 tint to be used in any one arrangement then for arrangements in shades, 
 only one shade to be used in any one arrangement. 
 
 Latter, when combinations are made, let them be 
 
 f Of two tints of the same color. 
 ' I- ' { Of two shades " " 
 
 f Of a standard with a neutral gray. 
 (2.) \ Of a tint " " " 
 
 [ Of a shade " " 
 
148 APPENDIX. 
 
 Do not call for or allow any combinations of (i) standard Primaries, 
 (2) of Secondaries, (3) of Primaries and Secondaries. 
 
 If an object is represented by colored papers, do not allow any combina- 
 tion of two colors that would not be pleasing and suitable in the object. 
 
 If these rules are followed, the children will receive an unconscious 
 training in the harmony of color; discords of color will seem glaring to 
 them. In imitation, they will carry out harmony in their work with, the 
 brush. 
 
 To more advanced pupils, harmony of color can be taught on the 
 classification given above,. 
 
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