TIKIS A book designed for use in Commercial Colleges and Technical Schools, and for private learners. by RUDOLPH 0, STOLL anl S, ESIIL SVANBECK, STOLL'S COLLEGE, EAU CLAIRE, WIS. FIRST EDITION. R. O. STOLL, PUBLISHER. EAU CLAIRE, WIS. EAU CLAIRE BOOK & STATIONERY CO. 1893. Copyrighted 1893 by R. O. STOLL AND S. E. SWANBECK. All rights reserved. Infringements will be prosecuted to the full extent of the law. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION 1. Condensed Review of the Importance of the Knowledge of Wares. 2. Their Classifications. Plant Forms. Animal Forms. Mineral Forms. Breakage and Fracture. Cohesion. 3. Their Characteristics Specific Weight. Optical Properties. Transparency. Senses of Taste and Smell. The Adaptability of Microscope. Chemical Properties. 4. Manner of Preserving Wares. PA.RT FIRST. PRODUCTS FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM. Chapter I. Cereals and their Products. Chapter II. Flowers. Chapter III. Leaves. Chapter IV. Barks Chapter V. Roots. Chapter VI. Sugars. Chapter VII. Spirituous Liquors. Chapter VIII. Dye Stuffs. Chapter IX. Resin and Balsams. Chapter X. Natural Balsams. Chapter XI. Ethereal Oils. Chapter XII. Resinous Gums. Chapter XlII. Gums. Chapter XIV. Caoutchouc and Gutta Percha. Chapter XV. Vegetable Fats. Chapter XVI. Vevetable Textiles. Chapter XVII. Trees and their Products. Chapter XVIII. Lichens, Seagrass, Fungas. Chapter XIX. Vegetable Salts and Acids. SECOND. ANIMAL PRODUCTS. Chapter I. Products from Vertebrates. A. Furs and Skins. B. Hairs, Wools, Bristles, Etc. C. Horn, Whale Bone. D. Hartshorn, Bone, Ivory, Etc. E. Feather, Down, Quill, Plumage. F. Gelatine, Glue, Etc. G. Fats. H. Victuals. I. Special Products. J. Drugs for Dyeing. Chapter II. Products from Molusca. Chapter III. Products from Articulata. A. Products from Insects B. Products from Crustacean. Chapter IV. Products from Radiata. Chapter V. Products from Protozoa. PRODUCTS FROM THE MINERAL KINGDOM. Chapter 1. Precious Stones. Chapter II. Ornamental and Building Material. Chapter III. Grinding and Polishing Stones. Chapter IV.--Inflamable and Combustable Material. Chapter V. Writing and Drawing Materials and Coloring Materials. Chapter VI. Mineral Acids. Chapter VII. Mineral Salts. A. Sulphates. B. Nitrates. C. Chlorides. D. Chloride Acid Salts. E. Corate. F. Chromate. G. Carbonate. Chapter VIII. Earthen and Glassware. Chapter IX. Metals and Metallic Substances. PREFACE. The immensity of commercial activity and voluminous production and consumption of wares in this country very naturally leads us to conclude that manner of production, preparation, and falsification as well as the knowledge of the regions, favorable to the production of the most staple and serviceable articles of trade, properly belongs to the most useful and practical knowledge obtainable. With the present tendency In the direction of broadening the scope of the course of study in our practical training schools, the important bear- ing, which a general knowledge of wares has in qualifying persons for mercantile life, appears to make it both timely and appropriate that the subject receive merited attention by the more practically in- clined institutions of learning of this country. It is due to the lack of a text-book, treating upon the knowledge of wares, that we may properly ascribe our deficiency in matters pertaining to the origin and quality of wares, and it is in this particular especially that we display our inferiority to the foreign merchant and consumer who has recourse to text-books upon the subject, and in addition the valuable special training afforded by the practical institutions of learning in Europe. The design of this book is to furnish the material by which a sys- tematic course of class lectures may be given to students; while the latter may use the work as a book of reference. In connection with the lectures, a cabinet of wares, containing the articles mentioned in the work, may easily be prepared, with a view to furnish enter- taining and instructive object lessons. The introduction should be studied most carefully and exhaus- tively, as in it are embodied the essentials upon which a true knowl- edge of wares is based. The auxiliary sciences, namely Physics and Chemistry, may be pursued preparatorily to the study of wares, though a more detailed knowledge of these sciences, than is herein contained, is not absolutely necessary. This being the first attempt at the production of a book upon this subject in America, we hope that the work may be kindly received by the practical educators throughout the country, and that they may bestow upon' it such friendly criticism as they may deem ex- pedient for its improvement and perfection in future editions. RUDOLPH O. STOLL, ' S. EMIL SWANBECK. INTRODUCTION. WARES. IMPORTANCE OF THE KNOWLEDGE. A knowledge of wares (articles of trade) is not only needed by the merchant, but also by all those who are occupied with the collecting, improving, and manufacturing of the several wares, and, not least, by the consumer. To the merchant, whose busi- ness it is to deal in a variety of articles, familiarity with the goods he handles is necessary, not only as to their exterior qualities, but also as to their origin, regions favorable to their production, distinguishing features of quality, manner of preserving, imitating, use, etc. All this is embodied in a general knowledge of -wares. THEIR CLASSIFICATION. All wares can be classified into two principal classes, namely, raw materials, or natural products, and artificial products, or manufactured raw mate- rials. As here applied, by raw materials we mean the products that come into the market in their natural condition; these are comparatively few, as the greater portion before being sent out into trade are subjected to more or less labor in order to add to 8 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. their durability ; e. g., salting, drying, reduction by boiling, cleaning, assorting, etc. Semi-manufactures, though they have undergone a degree of preparation, are still to be considered raw materials. Artificial products are such original raw materials as, by handiwork or machinery, have become so changed as to appear in a new or con- siderably altered form when compared with the original raw materials; these products can be divided into manufactures (mechanical products), chemicals (drugs), fabrics (mechanical-chemical prod- ucts). To continue this classification in describing wares is very difficult, almost impossible, as new manu- factures with names originated by the manufacturer constantly appear, and because of the great variety of ingredients that enter into the composition of wares. For these reasons, this general knowledge of wares is classified in accordance with the natural kingdoms from which the different wares are obtained, namely, the vegetable, animal, and min- eral kingdoms. This classification, being more natural, is preferably employed, as the teachings of the natural kingdoms disclosed in botany, zoology, and mineralogy constitute auxiliary sciences to the real basis of a true knowledge of wares. THEIR CHARACTERISTICS. The characteristics peculiar to the raw materials are form, surface, cohesion, specific weight, luster, color, transparency, odor and taste, in addition to their microscopic and chemical properties. PLANT FORMS. The forms of the productions of the vegetable king- dom are various, and only the important parts of THE KNOWLEDGE OF WAKES. 9 the matured plant are here considered, to the extent requisite to the knowledge of wares. The root-stem is that part of the plant by which it is fastened to the soil ; attached to it are the root- lets, i. e., tiny fibers, by which the plants absorb nourishment. The root-stem may continue to live a year or more, and is therefore known as annual, biennial, or perennial ; its form, thickness, and ten- dency may vary. What is commonly known as root- stem is not to be confounded with the real root, as it is a part of the stem, and the tiny fibers alone con- stitute the root proper. The stem is that part of the plant, \vhich, contrary to the root, develops upward and from which leaves, flowers, and fruits grow; like the root, it may have various forms and tendencies. The following defini- tions will serve to distinguish between the various kinds of stems: The leaf-stalk ( trunk ) is wood}', with well defined marrow, wood, and bark layers; it attains a con- siderable height before it spreads out into branches; e. g., our common trees. The leaf-stalk is thickest at the root. The palm-stalk is an arborescent, uniformly thick stem, which has no delineated marrow, wood, or bark layers, and generally has its leaves and flow- ers at the top; e. g., the palm and fern of tropical countries. The straw is the name applied to the stem of the grass variety. Besides these we have three principal forms of stems, which are commonly, though wrongly, termed root ; they are the onion, the tuber, and the root-stalk. The onion is nothing but a stem, shrunk together 10 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. and closely covered with leaves ; its real roots are the tiny fibers which proceed from its base. The tuber is an annual, thickened portion of a subterranean stem, provided with latent buds called eyes, from which new plants ensue the succeeding year; e. g., potatoes. The root-stock is a fleshy, rooting stem, either wholly or partially subterranean, often scaly with a basis of developed leaves or marked with the scars of former leaves, and yearly producing new shoots and roots; e. g., ginger. Leaf-stalk consists of five different parts, lying one above the other; e. g., bark, bast, sap-wood, pith, marrow. Bark is the partly dried exterior enveloping the trunks of trees, which by degrees peels off, at least the first layer, as it serves onl}' for an exterior pro- tection. It can often be cut away without injuring the tree, which is the case with the cork-tree. Next to the dry bark is a softer layer of bark, usu- ally of a green color, which is often rich in sap. This layer frequently contains aromatic and other ingredients which make it available partly as spice, partly as medicine; e. g., cinnamon and china-rind. Bast, which is made up of a cellular texture filled with sap, is most important to the life of the tree. The sweet saps, which we obtain by tapping birch or maple, come from the bast. If the bast is peeled off, the tree dies. Sap-wood and pith lie next to the bast. The sap- wood, which encloses the pith, is the newest part of the tree ; it is spongier than the pith and decom- poses more readily, owing to the more abundant presence of sap in it. The pith is denser and firmer than the sap-wood, and is therefore of a greater value. Each year a new layer of sap-wood forms THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 11 upon the last one, which by degrees reduces to pith, thus forming yearly rings which reveal the age of the tree. The marrow includes the entire inner portion of the tree and frequently disappears entirely in old trees; e. g., hollow trees. The leaves, which generally have a flat, extended form, are important organs in nourishing the plant. Their form and size vary considerably. Leaves are frequently much valued for the ingredients they con- tain. Some contain tannin, some ethereal evapo- rating oils, enclosed in separate cells, which emit odor. All leaves contain a coloring principle, known as leaf-green, or chlorophyll. The flowers constitute the highest development of the plant and contain the organs of reproduction of plant life. On most of the complete flowers, the following parts may be discerned : calyx, corolla, stamen, and pistil. The calyx, the exterior protection of the corolla, is generally of a green color and constitutes, as long as the flower is budding, its visible part. The caper and the clove are examples of the calyx with enclosed buds. A flower is generally of a variety of colors and forms. Usually both stamens and pistils are found in the center of a flower, though either may occur independently of the other. The stamen, or the male organ, consists of the fila- ment, anther, and pollen. The filament is the thread-like support of the anther. The anther is the oblong body at the summit of the filament. Within the cells of the anther the pollen is produced, a substance essential to the fertility of the flower. The pistil, or the female organ, also consists of three parts ; the lowest part is the germ, the middle 12 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. the style, and the upper the stigma, which receives the pollen and lets it down through the style to the germ. Many flowers appear in trade as medicinal herbs, others contain chemicals for dyeing and aromatic ingredients; e. g., the sunflower, saffron. The fruit, which is developed after the conception of the germ, is only a repository to the seed, from which the new plant, at the germination, is formed. In fact no germ is bare, but all are provided with a covering, though it be only a thin membrane. A seed thus thinly covered is called a naked seed, but its proper name is caryopsis; e. g., the grain and fruit of the grasses. A single seed, enveloped by a hard, indehiscent shell, is termed nut; e. g., hazelnut, acorn. If the nut is enveloped by a sappy and fleshy substance, it is termed stone-fruit; e. g., plum, cherry. If a sappy pulp imbeds several seeds, it is termed a berry. The podlike fruits of many seeds, which, when ripe, usually burst into two valves, are termed legume and silique ; in the former, the seeds are in one row, e.g., the bean and pea, and in the latter in two rows, e. g., shepherd's purse. Most of the remaining fruits are termed "capsule," and may contain one, two, or more cells. An apple is a many celled capsule enveloped by sappy flesh. ANIMAL FORMS. The structure of the bodies of animals, as well as the parts of their bodies, are of a vast variety, and to acquire a knowledge of animal forms and parts is not only very complicated, but unnecessary to a knowledge of wares, as the products of the animal kingdom are too commonly known and are fewer than those of the other kingdoms. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 13 MINERAL FORMS. Mineral bodies and many chemical products are obtained and frequently occur in regular outlined figures limited by smooth surfaces; such a body is termed "crystallized" and its parts crystals. The forms of these crystals may be very dissimilar, as a hexahedron, tetrahedron, octahedron, pillar, prism, etc. All these crystals possess the quality of splitting in a certain direction, a circumstance that has important bearing upon the elaboration of gem stones. Minerals having irregular outlines are termed crystalline, \vhich has the opposite significance of crystallized; e. g., spar. Such minerals have fre- quently an interior structure of crystals. If the connected cr3'stals, both in natural and artificial prod- ucts, are so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye, but the whole mass appears homo- geneous, the body is termed solid. But if the micro- scope and other expedients fail to reveal the slightest crystalline breakage in any of its parts, the body is termed shapeless; e. g., gum, resin. BREAKAGE OR FRACTURE. When a body is broken in a direction in which it does not naturally split, the surfaces thus formed are termed fractures. The apparentness of the fracture is dependent upon the irregularity of the texture of the body fractured. Color, luster, and structure often appear quite different upon a fractured surface than upon an outer surface. This is more particularly the case with minerals, chemicals and art products; it is therefore important that a new surface should be produced when examining the peculiarities of such 14 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. bodies. In order to properly distinguish between fractures, the following varieties are named and defined : Shell-like fracture, one having elevations and depressions in form like one-half of a bivalve shell ; e. g., flint, glass, rock candy. Rugged fracture, one having upon its surface sharp, irregular points; e. g., granite, loaf sugar, copper ore. Smooth- fracture, one which shows no or but slight elevations upon its surface ; e. g., asphalt. Splinty fracture, one having upon its surface small splinters which still adhere at their thicker end;e. g., raw wax, Venitian chalk. Earthy and hooked fractures. Examples of such fractures occur in common chalk and ductile metals respectively. SCRATCHED. Many bodies, when reduced to a powder, reflect an entirely different color from the original solid, and this difference may assist in enabling us to ascer- tain the variety to which the ware belongs. In order to apply this test, a body should be filed or scratched ; the powder thus obtained and the mark will be found to be of the same color. When pliable bodies are scratched, though no powder is obtained, the mark itself frequently appears lustrous and at times peculiarly colored; e. g., when indigo is scratched, the mark appears copper colored. Bodies that will produce white or colored marks when applied to objects, are known as writing materials ; e. g., graphite, slate, etc. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 15 COHESION. (PHYSICS.) Cohesion is that form of attraction by which the particles ot a body are united throughout the mass, whether like or unlike. A body is solid, \vhen its particles cannot, without difficulty, be displaced, and liquid, when its particles readily move among themselves. The condition of a body between these can properly be defined as intermediate. Liquids are either fluid, i. e., forming small drops at the edge when poured from a vessel, or viscid, i. e., having a ropy or glutinous consistency. Solids possess a vast variety of qualities and but few of their peculiarities can here be named; some of these are found united in the same body. The most frequently occurring qualities in bodies are hardness, softness, brittleness, flexibility, malleabil- ity, and elasticity. SPECIFIC WEIGHT. Bodies of equal volume do not always possess the same \veight. The difference in weight between two bodies of the same volume is designated as specific weight or specific gravity. As a means of comparing the specific weight of bodies, a common standard is adopted, the weight of which is usually expressed by 1. The commonly accepted standard for solids and liquids is pure distilled water. The specific weight of silver is 10.5, that of coal oil 0.84. A specific weight is a characteristic feature of many bodies, and is therefore of importance in deter- mining their genuineness. As bodies expand and contract under the influence of heat and cold, so they vary in weight according to their temperature. 16 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. In trade 63.50 Fahrenheit is commonly accepted as a basis of calculation. The specific weight may be determined in various ways. The most preferable method, and one which can be employed irrespective of the condition of the HYDROSTATIC BALANCE. HYDROMETER. body (whether solid, powdered, or liquid,) is by the use of the hydrostatic balance. The hydrometer is an instrument, designed especially for determining the specific gravity of liquids, and thence the strength of spirituous liquors, saline solutions, etc. It is usually made of glass THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 17 with a graduated stem and indicates the specific gravity of a liquid to the depth to which it sinks in it, the zero point of the scale marking the depth to which it sinks in the pure water. OPTICAL PROPERTIES. Optical properties are those which derive their origin from the peculiar characteristics of light and the faculty of vision. Luster, color, and transpar- ency are the most conspicuous of the optical prop- erties. Luster is the quality possessed by a body to reflect the rays of light. Luster is dependent upon the hardness and smoothness of a body. The principal kinds of luster are: Metallic, adamantine, vitrious (glassy), resinous, greasy, pearly, and silky. With respect to intensity, luster is characterized as splendent, shining, glistening, and dull. Color is the property depending on the relations of light to the eye by which individual and specific differences are noticeable in the hues and tints of bodies. The metallic colors are : Copper, golden, leaden, brazen, silvery, and steely. There are six principal colors (others being shades and tints); they are: Gray, red, brown, blue, yellow, and green. When all the colors are combined, white results (i. e., the color of snow); the opposite of this is black (i. e., the absence of color). GRAY. Ash-gray, color of ash. Pearl-gray, a delicate blue-gray. Steely, color of steel. 18 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. WHITE. Flake, the purest white lead. Paris; e. g., purified chalk. Milky, a bluish tint. RED. Scarlet, a deep bright red tinged with orange or yellow. Vermilion, a deeper red than scarlet. (Also applied to a coloring pigment.) Crimson, a deep red tinged with blue. Flesh tint, a light red color tinged with gray and yellow. Pink, a red tinged more or less with white ; e. g., rose. Purple, a deep red or red and blue. Sanguine, having the color of blood (red). Turkey, a brilliant red. Cherry, a very dark red, tinged with much blue and some black and brown (the color of ripe cher- ries). BLUE. Indigo, the color of indigo. Sapphire, brightest blue (the color of a gem). Violet, dark blue, having a color of red and blue combined. Azure, the color of the sky. Lavender, a pale purplish color more delicate than lilac; e. g., lavender flowers. Ultramarine, a bright blue with a slight tinge of red. GREEN. Emerald, the purest green. Verdigris, clear bluish green ; e. g., verdigris. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 19 Olive, composed of olive and green mixed in equal proportions; e. g., the olive. YELLOW. Lemon, pure bright yellow. Orange, reddish yellow. Straw, a delicate yellow. Isabel, a faint yellow tinged with red and brown. Wax, a dull yellow resembling the color of bees- wax. Amber, a clear light yellow. BROWN. Chestnut, purest brown; e. g., a chestnut. Hazel, of a light brown ; e. g., a hazel nut. Auburn, a reddish brown. Tan, a yellowish brown. The foregoing, although by no means a complete list of all shades and colors, is designed to serve as a means in describing the real color of a ware. A more accurate description being impossible ,it may be said that a certain color is of a darker or lighter, fainter or stronger shade, as it is approximate to a certain color. TRANSPARENCY. Transparency is the peculiarity of bodies to let the rays of light through with but slight obstruction so that bodies may be distinctly seen through it; e. g., glass, mica, gelatine. Translucency is the quality of bodies to let some light pass, but not enough to enable us to distin- guish the color and outlines of objects through it; e. g , ground glass, writing paper, etc. 20 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. *Opacity is the quality of a body which apparently renders it impervious to the light; e. g., the metals. SENSES OF TASTE AND SMELL. Taste is the sense by which certain properties of bodies (called their taste, savor, and flavor) are ascertained by contact with the organs of taste, and is of special value in determining the variety and quality of wares. 'All more or less soluble bodies have taste, and therefore this sense admits of a vast variety; e. g., slimy (as of gum), fad (as of flour), sweet, sour, salty, oily, bitter, burning (as of pepper), alcoholic, aromatic (as of vanilla), narcotic (as of tobacco), etc. Moreover the camphoric, garlic, and bitter- almond tastes occur in both vegetable and animal substances. In regard to minerals, it should be observed that only those which are soluble have taste. Smell is the sense or faculty by which certain qual- ities of bodies are perceived through the instru- mentality of the olfactory nerves, and these qualities are termed odors. The odor of a ware frequently enables its to deter- mine the variety to which it belongs. Hence the sense of smell serves as an important factor in detect- ing the identity of wares. Wares, in the process of decomposition, frequently give forth odors varying in intensity, as heat, damp- ness, and other conditions prevalent, hasten the progress. *No object is perfectly transparent or entirely op .que. Glass obstructs some light, while gojd-leaf is translucent and horn may be scraped thin enough to be semi transparent. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 21 In a general way, odors may be divided into two classes, nameh r , fragrant and noxious, though the sense of smell is not alike developed in all individuals, as what appears to be fragrant to the organs of smell of one person ma\ r be decidedly noxious to another. THE ADAPTABILITY OF THE MICROSCOPE. The microscope is a very helpful, but as yet rarely employed expedient in examining wares. While the simple loupe is found to be very service- able in the examination of -wares, the compound microscope is of still greater use. The value of an instrument, which enlarges an object from 100 to 300 fold, is very evident, when it is considered, how much more prominent all the tiny parts become by thus reinforcing the eye, and how easily similarities and differences may thereby be discerned upon objects, which the naked eye fails to reveal. Examining of cotton, wool, and linen fibers can easily and accurately be accomplished by means of the microscope. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES. In order to test the purity and strength of wares, chemistry is employed, when all of the foregoing expe- dients are in sufficient. The enumeration and defining of the elements embodied in chemistry can only be attempted in a \vork exclusively devoted to this science. The most important applications of chemistry to a knowledge of wares are: The chem- ical changes of vegetable coloring matter in bodies, the solubility of bodies in chemical fluids, the influ- ence of heat upon bodies. Chemical changes in the coloring matter in bodies 22 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. are produced by three compounds, namely, acids, bases, neutrals. Acids are compounds possessed of a sour taste, and are generally soluble in water, reddening vegeta- ble blue or violet colors. Insolubles, lacking a sour taste, do not possess this quality, as tumeric, etc. Bases are compounds possessed of an alkaline taste, turning blue vegetable colors into green, restoring vegetable colors, which turned red by con- tact with acids, to their original blue. If a base is combined with an acid, it neutralizes the latter and forms salt ; indissoluble bases do not change vegetable colors and are tasteless. Substances such as soda, potash, ammonia, etc., whose distinguishing peculiarities are solubility in alcohol and water, uniting with oils and fats in the production of soap, and turning reddened litmus to blue are termed alkalies. Neutrals are compounds which have neither acid nor basic properties; being unable to turn red lit- mus blue or blue litmus red ; e. g., neutral salts ( salt sulphate of iron or red vitriol ). In order to determine the presence of acids or alka- lies in wares, litmus paper is used. The latter is an unsized paper saturated with blue litmus ( vegetable color extracted from lichens). The litmus paper is cut into small strips, and, in order to make the test, the ware is touched to the paper ; in case the latter turns red, it is said that the body reacts sour; if brown, it reacts alkaline. A characteristic of minor importance is noting the effect on a body, resulting from its treatment with certain fluids. This test may be applied by immersing a ware in alcohol, acid, water, or gas which will result in dissolving it partially or entirely. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 23 The dissolution of substances is generally quiet, but sometimes accompanied by bubbling of the liquid known as effervescence, i e., the disengage- ment of gases, which may occur with or without a peculiar odor. Fire is frequently used as an expedient in testing wares. The test may be made by means of a com- mon spirit lamp, a furnace, or a like apparatus. In this manner a ware may be melted, it may be charred, be reduced to ashes, or be discolored accord- ing to its nature. The foregoing tests, which are those of quantitative analysis (i. e., determining upon the condition of bodies and their ingredients,) are insufficient; as in some cases it is necessary to make a qualitative analysis, an analysis \vhich determines the amount or quality of each ingredient of a substance by weight or by volume. MANNER OF PRESERVING WARES. The manner of storing or keeping of wares and properly protecting them from exposure to various destructive agencies of nature is a very important element in a knowledge of wares, as is also the man- ner of arresting decay or restoring wares to their original quality. One of the most destructive influences upon organic bodies is rot, which is decomposition by natural influences. The decayed parts of a body are softer than those in a sound condition. Animal and vegetable matter pass into the first stages of decomposition very rapidly; while the former does so directly, the latter passes through a preliminary stage of fermentation. 24 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. The conditions favorable to decay in lifeless organic bodies are a degree of heat, moisture, and the action of the air. The presence of moisture in bodies hastens decomposition. It is important that dry bodies be kept in places where there is no likelihood that moisture can be absorbed by them, thus preventing rot and the gathering of mould. Through the action of heat upon bodies, contain- ing moisture, they are covered with a fine dust, which gathers into threads and finally forms a gray- ish or greenish mould which gives rise to a musty odor. Mould gradually penetrates a body in all directions and finally renders it entirely useless. When mould begins to form on a ware, the latter should be cleaned and moved into a dr}', well ven- tilated place. The manner of preserving the several wares will be considered in connection with their description on the following pages. PART FIRST. Products of the Vegetable Kingdom. CHAPTER I. Cereals and their Products. a. CEREALS. Cereals are the edible seeds obtained from grassy plants. WHEAT. German, Weizen; French, Froment; Scandinavian,. Hvete-. Wheat is a grain produced by a cereal grass (Trit- icum vulgare) which furnishes a white flour, and next to rice it is the grain most largely used as an. article of food. The varieties of this grain are numerous, as red wheat, white wheat, bald wheat, bearded wheat, winter wheat, summer wheat, and the like. The United States is the leading wheat producing country in the world, and furnishes fully one- The first word under each title is German, the second French, and the third Scandinavian. 25 26 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. quarter of the world's supply (upward of 500,000,- 000 bushels). The rich soil and rigorous climate of the northern half, particularly the north central part, of the United States provides the best con- ditions for the production of wheat. The Dakotas, Minnesota, and Illinois are the leading states in raising this grain, the average production per acre being from fifteen to twenty bushels, while in Russia and India, that rank next to the United States in the amount of their production, the yield per acre is barely one-half as great. Test of Quality. There are five grades of hard wheat, namely, No. 1 Hard, No. 1 Northern, No. 2 Northern, No. 3 Northern, and Rejected. The quality of wheat depends largely on the quantity of fine flour which it yields ; No. 1 Hard yielding from 76 to 80 per cent. The characteristics of the latter are hardness, brittleness, and uniformity in the size of its kernels; the filament which covers it is of a lustrous golden color. Continuous production of wheat upon the same area has a tendency to impair the quality of the product. For this reason the grade No. 1 Hard can be raised only in the newer wheat producing regions, while the best grade in the older regions is No. 1 Northern, which has a kernel of lesser degree of hardness and a duller color and is lighter in weight. Numbers 2 and 3 respectively weigh still less, and are inferior in the characteristics which constitute grades No. 1 Hard and No. 1 Northern, being mixed with other seeds, smut and blighted grains. Wheat is graded as Rejected when dampness hascaused it to sprout and rendered it unfit for grinding into flour. The standard weight of wheat is sixty pounds to the bushel. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 27 RYE. Roggen, Seigle, Rog. Rye is a grain yielded by a hardy cereal grass (Secale cereale) closely allied to wheat. Its form is that of a roundish quadrangular spike. Its culti- vation does not extend as far north as that of bar- ley ; but it grows in regions too cold for wheat and on soil too poor for other grains. Rye is largely used as breadstuff especially in Europe. Test of Quality. The varieties of rye are numer- ous, though much less so than those of other important cereals. Winter rye is most extensively cultivated. The grains of the latter are oblong, heavy, smooth, hard, brittle, and of a light brown color. The weight of this grain is usually placed at fifty-six pounds to the bushel. BARLEY. Gerste, Orge, Kora. Barley is a grain, grown on a grass belonging to the genus Hordeum. This grain is capable of being cultivated over a wider climatic range than any other grain. Barley is used, most largely, for malt in the production of beer. Test of Quality. The grains of barley of a good quality should be oblong, tapering at the ends, and be furrowed, and of a lustrous light straw color. Its standard weight is forty-eight pounds. OATS. Hafer, Avoine, Hafre. The specie of oats which is cultivated as a corn plant has comparatively large spikelets and seeds. It is a grain better suited to moist than to dry and to cold than to warm climates, although it does not 28 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. extend so far north as the coarse kinds of barley. The grain is either used in form of groats or made into meal. The varieties of oats are very numerous and some highlv esteemed varieties are of recent and well known origin. It is doubtful if they belong to more than one specie ; but the following are very gener- ally distinguished as species: Common, Hungarian, Siberian, Naked, Chinese, Short Oats. Upwards of 500,000,000 bushels of this grain are produced in the United States annually. DISEASES OF CEREALS. The diseases to which cereals are subject are of two classes, those which owe their origin to para- sitic fungi, and those which are caused by the pres- ence of animalculae. The principal diseases of the first class are, bunt, rust, mildew, ergot, and smut, and those of the second class are Hessian fly, wheat-fly, corn-moth, and wireworm. MANNER OF PRESERVING CEREALS. Cereals should be stored in dry, airy places, and spread out thinly, or, when heaped, they should be frequently turned, especially when heat and mois- ture tend to injure their quality by germination. b. PRODUCTS OF CEREALS. MALT. Malt is prepared from barley and other grains by steeping them in water and drying in a kiln, thus forcing germination until the saccharine principle has been developed. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 29 Test of Quality. A desirable quality of malt con- sists of a moderately developed, thoroughly dry, amber colored germ, having a sweet taste, and a strong, pleasant odor. In storing malt, care should be had that the store- room be dry, as malt readily absorbs moisture and thereby becomes lumpy and musty. GROATS AND GRITS. Groats is dried grain which is hulled and then broken or crushed. In high milling the term is used to designate cracked fragments larger than grits. An example of groats commonly known is pearl barley. Pearl barley is kernels of barley, ground so as to form small, round grains. Of the various kinds of grits, those most frequently used are crushed wheat, crushed barley, oat meal, farina, buckwheat grits, and the like. MEAL AND BRAN. Meal is grain that is coarsely ground and unbolted ( unsifted ) ; e. g., corn meal, wheat meal, rye meal. Bran is the crushed coat of the seeds of cereal grains, separated from the flour or meal by sifting. FLOUR. Flour is the finely ground meal of cereals, especially the finer part of meal, separated by bolting. Flour is of various degrees of fineness. Wheat flour comes on the market in four grades, namely, patent, straight grade, and two inferior grades. The fineness of flour and the extent to which it is bolted determines its grade. The unbolted grade is known as graham. 30 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Test of Quality. Wheat flour, of the best grades, is of a white, slightly tinged with yellow color; its taste is perceptibly sweet, and it is of a uniform fineness, free from bran. When the color is grayish or when mixed with particles of different colors, the flour is of an inferior quality. When wheat flour is adulterated with chalk or lime, its condition can easily be determined by burning a quantity of it in a metal spoon and observing whether there are unburned remains. Rye flour is produced both bolted and unbolted ; its color is a very delicate yellowish brown when bolted. Barley flour comes into the market in various grades of fineness, and is almost white in color ; it should be free from black or colored particles. Its taste must not be sweet. Buckwheat flour is of a grayish tint, and has a slightly bitter taste. Manner of Storing. Flour should be stored in dry, airy rooms so as to effectually avert destruc- tion by mould or insects. EXPORTATION. The exportation of cereals from the United States in 1892 was as follows: Wheat, 157,280,351 bush- els; rye, 12,040,716 bushels; corn, 75,451,849 bushels; barley, 2,800,075 bushels. The exportation of flour for the same year is as follows: Oatmeal, 20,907,662 pounds; rye flour, 4,543 barrels; wheat flour, 15,196,769 barrels; corn meal, 287,607 barrels. MACARONI, VERMICELLI. Vermicelli is made of the flour of hard and small- grained wheat, formed into dough, and forced THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 31 through small cylinders or pipes till it takes on a slender, worm like form ; hence its Italian name. When paste is made in larger tubes, it is called maca- roni. Safflower, or the yolk of the egg, is used in coloring the paste. This article of food is produced in vari- ous forms and shapes ; when long, slender shaped, it is l^nown as macaroni a canna ; when flat, as tagliarini ; when worm-like, as vermicelli ; when spiral, as macaroni a concha; when ribbon-shaped, as lasagnette. A preparation similar to macaroni is made in Germany and France, and is known by the name of nudels. The best quality of macaroni is translucent. Naples, Genoa, Bologna, and Milan are noted for the production of fine qualities of macaroni and ver- micelli. PEAS. Erbsen, Pois, Arter. Peas, the seeds of the genus Pisum, are of many varieties, and much cultivated for food. The peas cultivated for the market are of three colors, gray, green, and yellow. LENTILS. Lfnsea, Leatilles, Lias. Lentils are the seeds of the genus Arvum; it is native in England and France, and is much culti- vated as an article of food in Europe, but it is not commonly known in this country. BEANS. Bohnea, Feves, Honor. Beans are the names given to genera Faba Phase- olus. Among true beans are the black-eyed and 32 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. China bean ; furthermore, black Egyptian, common haricot, kidney string, pole, and the lower bush bean. The lima bean is a variety much sought after for its excellency as an article of food ; it is an uncommonly large, white bean. Test of Quality. Beans should have a smooth, shin- ing surface, and be well filled. Beans will not retain their good quality longer than one year. RICE. Reis, Ris, Ris. Rice are the peeled and dried seeds of the rice plant, which is a grassy growth that attains a height of several feet, and is cultivated in the warmer regions of Africa, Asia, America, and to a very limited extent in Europe. The production of rice is practicable only in damp, swampy regions, which are capable of being inun- dated. After having ripened, the plant is cut down, and the kernels are threshed out by treading. The kernels are of an oval shape, covered by a brownish hull. The dried kernels, when hulless, are white and translucent. Of the several varieties of rice which appear in trade, the following are most conspicuous: The Egyptian, having large white kernels; the Carolina rice. especially that of South Carolina, which is commonly regarded as the best in quality, closely resembles the former variety ; the East India rice, the better quality of which approaches the Carolina rice, while the inferior grades are yellow, unclean and dusty ; the Italian rice has a shorter and thicker berry than that of the Carolina, and is of an excel- lent quality. Broken rice and ground rice (rice meal) also appear on the market. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 33 Rice, as is commonh' known, is a superior article of diet and is particularly prized in Asia and Africa. Test of Qualit}'. Good rice must befreefrom odor, dust, and dampness, must be nearly tasteless and purely \vhite. Rice is sometimes adulterated by mixing it with pebbles, mineral salt, and chalk, though this is easily discovered by careful examination. Old and discol- ored rice is often restored to its original whiteness by pouring chalk water over it. The value of rice exported from this country dur- ing 1891 amounted to $33,000; while the value of the product imported amounted to $4,559,000 for the same year. MILLET. Hirse, Millet, Hirs. Millet is the product of several cereal and forage grasses which bear an abundance of small roundish grains, covered with a gray or yellow shell. The kernel has a sweetish mealy taste. Millet is a palatable and nourishing food, though it is rarely used in this country. MAIZE, OR INDIAN CORN. Mais, Mais, Mais. Maize are the seeds which grow on the cobs of a large specie of American grass. Maize, or Indian corn, is the leading food-crop of the United States and, with the manufactures from it, is of great commercial value. This cereal requires a warmer climate than wheat, and is therefore raised chiefly in the states south of the wheat grow- ing belt. Corn is the chief food supply of the people of Central and South America, as well as the United 34 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. States. Corn enters into the manufacture of alco- hol and alcoholic liquors, starch, and glucose. Cornstarch is a very common article in the United States, and is extensively exported. The greater part of the world's supply of Indian corn is raised in the United States. The total pro- duction of corn in this country has reached the enormous quantity of 1,500,000,000 bushels. Grades and Varieties. Indian corn is of several kinds: yellow corn, white or Southern corn, sweet corn, and pop corn. Yellow corn grows chiefly in the Northern states, and is yellow when ripe. White corn grows in the Southern states; it has long white kernels. Sweet corn comprises a number of sweet and ten- der varieties, grown chiefly in the north, some of which have kernels which wrinkle when ripe and dry. Pop corn is a small variety used for popping. STARCH. Starch is a widely diffused vegetable substance, found especially in seeds, bulbs, and tubers, and extracted ( as from potatoes, corn, rice, arrow root, etc.,) as a white glistening granular or powdery sub- stance without taste or smell and giving a very peculiar creaking sound when rubbed between the fingers. Starch is contained in the cells of plants, and is easily extracted therefrom by washing it out in water. Among those domestic vegetable products which are particularly rich in starch, we may mention wheat, which contains from 55 to 65 per cent, rye 55 to 60 per cent, corn 65 to 70 per cent, rice 70 to 75 per cent, potatoes 20 to 25 per cent. Of the for- eign plants which yield starch, the most useful are THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 35 the sago palm, the manioc plant, and the arrow root. The starch of these plants is used exclusively as an article of diet, while the wheat, potato, and rice starch is better adapted to manufacturing pur- poses. The process of producing starch from potatoes is very simple, and consists chiefly in washing the pota- toes and filtering the mash through sieves and sepa- rating the starch therefrom by a continued flow of water, until the latter is no longer milky. A sediment forms at the bottom of the vessel, in which the milky water is contained, \vhen undis- turbed; this sediment is spread out upon linen, and dried at a temperature of from 100 to 120 F., and thus fully developes into starch, ready for the mar- ket. A similar process is employed in extracting starch from wheat, maize, and rice. Corn starch is most largely used in the United States, and is an excellent article of diet. The Kingsford factory of Oswego, New York, produces 25,000,000 pounds of this variety of starch annu- ally. Rice starch is manufactured chiefly in Holland and England, and is used to starch fine materials, as laces. Potato starch may be distinguished from wheat starch by the size of its granules; those of potato starch being larger than the granules of wheat starch; while the granules of arrow root and rice starch cannot be distinguished, unless exam- ined by means of the microscope. Arrow root is a starch, produced from a root which grows in Jamaica and Bermuda, and islargely used as an article of diet for children. The quality of the arrow root, produced in the West Indies is superior to the East India arrow root. 36 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. SAGO. Sago is a dry, granulated starch, imported from the East Indies, much used in making puddings, and as an article of diet for the sick; also as a starch for stiffening textile fabrics. It is prepared from the stems of several East Indian and Malayan palm trees, but chiefly from the Metroxylar sago. The preparation of sago is simple. When the tree is almost full grown, the whole stem is filled with a soft, spongy marrow, which, after splitting the tree, is taken out and stirred in water, until it forms a mass which may be separated from the vegetable fiber by filtering. The starch which is thus mixed with water, soon settles to the bottom of the vessel in which it is con- tained, and forms a paste from which crops are formed by straining through sieves, provided with round holes. It is then dried. A single trunk often yields 600 pounds of sago. The sago on the market is of two kinds, brown and white. The former is a cheaper quality, which receives its color by being tinted with burnt sugar. The white sago occurs in regular grains and clus- ters. An East Indian variety is pearl sago, which is manufactured in Singapore, and consists of small round grains. Test of Quality. Good sago must be very dry, free from dust and odor, and be tasteless. This ware is rarely entirely free from a musty odor. Tapioca and cassava are products similar to sago. They are produced from the root of the manioc plant. Tapioca is dried on hot iron plates, while cassava is dried in the air. Rio tapioca is white, and Bahia tapioca is of a brown color. The fine THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 37 tapioca is produced from potato-starch in exact imitation of the genuine article. COFFEE. Kaffe, Cute, Kaffe. Coffee is the kernel taken from the berry of the coffee tree (Coffea arabica), a growth of the family of the Rubiaceae. It is a small tree from twelve to thirty feet in height, with dark green leaves. The blos- soms, which are white, are clustered around a short stem. The fruit is a red berry, containing two seeds enveloped in a hull. The leaves and seed contain a poisonous matter called caffeine. The native country of the coffee tree is Upper Ethiopia, whence it was first taken to Arabia, East and West India, Bourbon, Mauritus, and finally to Brazil. It thrives best in a stony soil, and bears blossoms and fruit at the same time. The method of gathering this fruit is unlike in various countries where it is produced. In Arabia the berries are shaken , and in West India plucked , from the tree. The harvest takes place in May and December; a tree yields its principal product in May, namely, from two to four pounds of beans. The fruit is then dried and freed from its hull and sent out into trade. Dependent upon the condition of the soil and cli- mate, as well as the care had in its treatment when ripening, and manner of gathering the fruit, coffee varies in color, form, and sizes of its beans. Coffee is of various colors, principally brown, yellow, and green, and of all shades of these colors. Continued storage causes the green and blue varieties to become more or less bleached. 38 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Coffee is frequently artificially colored by means of ochre or by using coal dnst mixed with indigo. In order to enlarge the size of the bean, coffee is often steamed and then dried. The best test of quality is the pure odor and taste of coffee, as \vell as uniformity in the size of the beans; broken and black beans are evidences of inferiority in quality. Without regard to its out- ward appearance, the best manner of determining the good quality of coffee is by its odor when roast- ing, and also by the uniformity of its color when thoroughly roasted. Coffee should not be stored near articles which emit a strong odor, but requires no attention when kept in a dry place. Coffee is shipped in jute bags or matting of various materials, containing from 100 to 150 pounds, or in barrels which contain from 800 to 1,000 pounds. The following varieties appear on the market : 1. Mocha. This is the best variety; its odor and flavoris not reached by any other kind, and itis there- fore dearest. It is composed of small, hard, compact beans of a very light yellow color, slightly tinged with green. Mocha is exported in but very small quantities. 2. Bourbon coffee ( from Reunion ) is regarded as being next to Mocha in quality. Its beans are nearly the same as the latter in form and color. 3. After Mocha and Bourbon, the best varieties of coffee are produced in Java, Ceylon, and on the main land of India. Java produces brown, yellow, bluish-green, and light green varieties. The brown and light yellow beans are considered, as being possessed of the fin- est flavor. The best variety produced on Ceylon, is known as plantation coffee, while the inferior grades THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 39 are designated as Native. Menado coffee is the prod- uct of the island Celebes. It is usually of a yellow color and a strong aromatic flavor. 4. Of the South American and West Indian varie- ties, the best are: Laguayra, Puerto, Cabello, Mar- acaibo, Ecuador, Nicaragua, Mexico, Porto Rico, Hayti, Jamaica. Brazil produces coffee most largely. Of the various kinds produced in this country, Rio has a pure and palatable taste. It is most largely used in the United States. Next to this is the variety known as Lantos Campinos, which approaches the better grades of coffee. Bahia and Clara are inferior grades, grown in Brazil. The beans, which are separated from the various grades of coffee as inferior, are the pearl coffee, a small round variety, and Triage, black broken beans, \vhich are roasted and ground, and are sold in this form. The importation of coffee into the United States is 500,000,000 pounds per year, being larger than that of any other country. The total consumption of coffee in the United States is about nine pounds per capita. The total value of the imported product amounted to $128,041,000 in 1892. Coffee is not grown in this country. COCOA. Kacao, Caccao, Cacao. Cocoa is an evergreen tree of South America and the West Indies. It is of moderate size, with large undivided leaves, and clustered flowers. It generally rises to the height of from sixteen to twenty feet, although it is sometimes twice that height. Its 40 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. fruit is somewhat like a cucumber in shape, and is six or eight inches long. Its color is yellow, though it has a reddish hue on the side turned toward the sun; the rind is thick and warty, the pulp sweetish and pleasant to the taste; the seeds are num- erous, well compressed, and almost like almonds, with a thin, pale, reddish-brown, fragile skin or shell, covering a dark brown, oily, and aromatic, kernel, \vhich consists mostly of the wrinkled coty- ledons. These seeds are the cocoa beans of com- merce. The cocoa tree produces larger seeds in a cultivated than a wild state. The tree attains its- full vigor and productiveness in seven or eight years, and generally yields two principal crops in a year. When gathered, the fruit is subjected to five days' fer- mentation in earthen vessels or in heaps. It is then opened by hand, and the seeds dried in the sun, or by being buried for a time in the earth, until the pulp rots. The latter method is said to produce the best cocoa. Cocoa is very nutritious. The principal constit- uent of cocoa beans is the soft condensed oil, called cocoa butter, which forms more than 50 percent of the shelled bean, about 22 per cent being starch, gum, etc., and 17 per cent being gluten and albumen. It also contains a crystallized principle called "theo- bromine." The best variety is the Soconuso Cocoa (Guata- mala). It has a thin shell, a small gold-brown bean, and is very sweet, and of an excellent flavor. Oaxaca Cocoa (Mexico) is next in quality. Car- acas Cocoa, from Venezuela, has beans which are irregular in size and egg shaped in form, covered with a thick, rough skin of brown color, and has a pleasant though slightly bitter taste. The follow- ing varieties are produced in Brazil: Maranhan, THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 41 Para, and Bahia. The first two varieties are rich in fat, while the latter has a small, dark dry bean. Martinique and Trinidad furnish excellent cocoa; the same may be said of the cocoa furnished by Ceylon. Test of Quality. The best test is the odor and taste of cocoa. It should be observed that the beans are free from mildew and not too dark in color. Good chocolate must show a fine, shining grain when broken, be of a dark color though not black, and be possessed of an aroma. It must melt readily when heated. Chocolate is frequently adulterated by adding starch or flour. Chocolate is largely manufactured in the New England states, though large quantities are imported. ALMONDS. Mandeln, Amandes, Mandcl. Almonds are the fruits of the common almond tree. The latter bears great similarity to the peach tree and is rarely very large. Its blossoms issue from the buds separately. The fruit is of an oval shape, and has a felt-like covering. Its kernel is dry when ripe. There are two varieties of the almond tree, one producing the bitter, and the other the sweet almond. Sweet almonds usually appear on the market in an unshelled condition. They are brought from Spain, Italy, France, and Portugal. The best varie- ties are the Valencia and the Malaga. The Sicilian and Provincial are inferior varieties. The poor- est variety, called Barbarice, is produced in the Barbary States. A variety of soft and brittle shelled almonds come from Marseilles. These are most highly prized when large and very thin shelled. 42 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. The bitter almond is more pointed and somewhat smaller than the sweet varieties, and can be distin- guished from the latter by its bitter taste. When distilled with water, bitter almonds produce what is known as bitter almond oil, which is much used in manufacturing perfume. Both varieties of almonds are very rich in fatty oil, which is yielded by pressing it out of the fruit. RAISINS AND CURRANTS. RoKenen, Koriathen, Raisins, Russen. The dried berries of the grape vine are known in trade as raisins and currants; the latter are pro- duced from a dwarfed grape vine, which bears small fruit. These fruits areproduced in Southern Europe, Asia, and in California. They are either picked and dried or allowed to remain on the stalk until dry, and then brought on the market with or without stems. The colors of the numerous varieties of raisins are varied, including all shades from a deep black to violet, yellow and red. Several kinds have a num- ber of seeds, while others are entirely seedless. The quality of raisins is determined by their sweetness, dryness, and sizeofthe berry. They should be stored in a perfectly dry place, as raisins are naturally inclined to ferment when this precaution is not taken. Among the countries which produce raisins for the market, the following furnish the best varieties: Smyrna. The raisins produced in this country are of an excellent quality, being large, well developed, and possessing a light brown color. Damascus, or Sultania, raisins are small, sweet, and seedless. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 4-3 Sam os furnishes an inferior variety of a black color designated as Muscatel. Spain produces several fine varieties, particularly the Malaga and Valencia, which are noted for their fine flavor. These varieties are largely used in the United States. Currants, wineberries, and small raisins are pro- duced in Morea, the Grecian islands, and Sicely. FIGS. Feigen, Figves, Fikoa. Figs (as commonly known) are the dried fruits of the fig tree. In Europe their cultivation is confined principally to Italy, Southern France, Spain, and Greece. The ripe fruit contains countless small seeds. The excellence of figs is determined by their freshness, size, taste, softness, and color. Good figs should not be coated on the outside. The white coating, which appears on the outer surface of old figs, is grape sugar. The best figs are the product of Smyrna, they are large, yellow, round, pressed flat, placed in boxes, and covered with laurel leaves. The Grecian, Italian, and French (Marseilles) figs are among the best known varieties which appear on the markets of Europe and America. DATES. Dates are the single seeded fruit of the date palm, which is cultivated particularly in North Africa, Arabia, Assyria. The date is oval, and red, brown or black in color, has a leathery skin, and a very sugary fruit-flesh, and a long, round seed. The Alexandria date is 44 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. regarded as the best ; the inferior kinds are darker,, drier, and less sweet. PRUNES. Z\vetschen, Prune, Sviskoa. The name prunes is applied to several varieties of dried plums which appear on the market. Prunes are produced principally in Germany, France, Italy, California, Spain, and Turkey. The common Turkish variety is usually small, dry, and tin-uniform in color. They are brought on the market in hogsheads containing several hundred pounds or more. The French prunes area large, dark purple plum of oval shape, often one-sided. They are much used for preserving either dried or in syrup, and are packed into small boxes. The same description applies to the well assorted prunes which are pro- duced in other countries. Prunelles are the product of French prunes, which are peeled and cut into long round strips, and are then packed into boxes lined with paper. PISTACHIO NUTS. The nuts of the tree Pistacia vera contain a kernel of a pale greenish color, which has a pleasant taste, resembling that of the almond, and yields an oil of an agreeable flavor and odor. It is wholesome and nutritive. The tree grows in Arabia, Assyria, Persia, and Sicely. Pistachio nuts are used for the same purpose as the almond, namely, for confectionery. The oil, which can be pressed from the nut, is highly prized. The pistachio nut is but little known and used in this country. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 45 CHESTNUTS Ka.sta.nien, Chataigues, Ca.sta.nier, Are the product of the real chestnut tree, which grows wild in the higher regions in Greece, Italy, Spain, and Southern France, and is cultivated in the warmer regions of the United States. The trunk of the chestnut tree is thick and high. Its leaves are lance shaped, and have a glossy surface. The nut is covered by a thin shell of a brown color, flat on one side, and concave on the other, though there is an American variety which has two concave sides. The fruit falls in October. It is then gathered and dried in the sun, or immersed in hot water to prevent its germination, which otherwise takes place very soon after being gathered, and causes the nut to decay. Chestnuts of superior excellence come from Prov- ence, France; though they are most largely pro- duced in Tyrol, Northern France, and the Rhine regions. The most dangerous enemies of the chestnut are insects and rodents. NUTS Is the designation for a large variety of fruit kernels. The following are the most important varieties: The Brazil nut is an oily, three-sided nut which grows in Brazil. The filbert is an oval nut that has a mild, oily, and farinaceous taste agreeable to the palate. The American filberts (hazel-nuts) are of two species. One of these species grows wild in the forest. 46 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Walnuts are of seven or eight species, which grow in the north temperate zone. The English walnut is much prized for its excellent quality, while the North American hickory nut, a species of this variety, is regarded as the best. Pecans are smooth, oblong nuts which grow on a specie of the hickory, and are an inch or an inch and one half long, with a thin shell, and well flavored meat. The nut is produced chiefly in the Mississippi valley and Texas. Peanuts or earthnuts are the tubers of certain umbelliferous plants, which grow largely in the Southern states and in the warmer countries of Europe, and yield an excellent oil. The peanut is largely consumed in this country, and is especially pleasant to the taste when well roasted. COCOA NUTS, The well known fruit of a specie of the palm. The nuts or fruits are, when ripe, from four to eight inches in diameter and are covered with a thick, brown shell, possessing three scars, one of which can be easily pierced, and the milk, which the nut con- tains, can be readily poured from the opening. The shell is lined on the inside with a thick, white ker- nel, and the remaining space, within the nut, is filled with a sweet, milky fluid. Cocoa nuts are produced largely in Spain, South America, and Africa. The best of these fruits are yielded in Spain. This variety is considerably smaller than the South American product. These nuts are much used as an article of food, and the kernel appears in trade dried, and can thus be preserved a long time, for use by bakers and confec- tioners. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 47 DRIED FRUITS. Among the fruits which are dried and sent upon the market in this condition are apples, pears, peaches, cherries, and apricots. Apples are dried or evaporated by means of artifi- cial heat. To prepare apples for drying, the peel is removed, and the fruit is quartered or sliced and sometimes cored. The better qualities of evapo- rated apples are very carefully sliced and slowly dried, and appear \vhiter than the common varieties. They come into trade pressed into boxes. Pears are dried similarly to apples, though usually the fruit is neither peeled nor sliced, but dried whole. The imported "German Dried Pears" are preferred to other varieties. Peaches and apricots are largely dried in the United States, and appear on the market in varied forms and qualities. Strawberries, blackberries, and raspberries appear in trade in a dried form. MIXED PICKLES Belong to preserved fruits, and are a mixture mostly of unripe fruits and plants, as young corn cobs, small cucumbers, green beans, cauliflowers, aspara- gus, mushrooms, onions, etc. All -these ingredients, together with several spices, are preserved in strong vinegar. Mixed pickles are found in the market in small bottles. The common pickles are a small variety of cucumbers preserved in vinegar, and are brought into the market in barrels. CANNED GOODS Include a variety of fruits and parts of plants so preserved as to retain their original flavor and 48 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. freshness for a length of time. Canned goods are divided into two general classes, namely, canned vegetables and canned fruits. Among the commonest varieties of canned vege- tables are, canned beans, corn, peas, asparagus, sweet potatoes. The method of preservation is founded upon the idea of the entire exclusion of the air, so that the latter cannot have the least effect upon the article preserved. This is done by placing the fruit in tightly sealed tin or glass cans, and then immersing the latter in \vater, heated to the boiling point. Some vegetables must be scalded before being placed in cans. Nearly all kinds of fruits and berries are canned or preserved in sugar. The manner of preserving is by covering the fruit with a syrup prepared from sugar and water. LEMONS AND ORANGES. German, Zitronen and Orangcn; French, Citrons and Oranges. Lemons and oranges are the fruits of the Citrus medica and Citrus aurantium. The distinction between the two varieties is that the Citrus medica lias an oblong fruit and Citrus aurantium has a round fruit. From the mercantile standpoint, the lemons are the more important. They are, as commonly known, of a bright yellow color, being oval and pointed at one end. There are two varieties of lemons, namely, the citron and the real lemon. The citron comes into the market in a candied con- dition, having been cut into strips and dried. Toma- toes also belong to this variety of fruit, and are much used as an article of food in the United States. Oranges may be distinguished from lemons by their round form and orange-yellow peel. There THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 49 are two general varieties of this fruit, one possess- ing a bitter and the other a sweet taste. The peel on some kinds of oranges is thin and smooth, and on others it is thick and rough. The blood oranges possess a red juice and flesh of the same color. The peach belongs to an inferior variety of the orange specie. The lemons and oranges on the American market are produced in Florida, Louisiana, California, Italy, and Spain. The harvest takes place from October until December. The fruits, which are designed for shipment, must be plucked when still green, wrapped in tissue paper and placed into cases. The juicy, thin peeled oranges and lemons are most highly prized. In addition to the fresh fruits, the market affords lemon extract and dried lemon and orange peels. NUTMEG AND MACE. Mttscatniisse, Mucadis, \Iuskot. Both of these species are the product of the nut- meg tree which is cultivated on Sumatra, Penang, Mauritius, the Antilles, and Surinam. The fruit is a pear-shaped stone fruit of a yellow color which opens in two valves. Under the fleshy hull, there is a dark brown nut, which is enveloped in an orange colored slitted hull, known in trade by the name of mace (nutmeg blossom). The nut itself possesses a thin, brittle shell, an oval shape and a marble-like appearance. The nuts, after having been deprived of their hull, are dried, opened, and then immersed in a solution of lime and salt-water, to prevent their destruction Tjy insects, which accounts for the white coat which appears on the surface of the nutmeg when brought 50 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. into trade. Mace is immersed in salt-water to insure permanent softness. Nutmegs are sometimes imitated by being formed from clay or dough. The fraud can easily be detected by cutting one of the nuts and observing the absence of the regular veins which characterize the genuine article. Nutmegs and mace should be kept in tightly closed vessels or boxes. CARDAMOM. Cardamotnen, Cardamome, Kardemomen. The varieties of this specie are the ripe seed capsules of several related species of plants. The following varieties are distinguished in trade: 1, the round cardamom; 2, the small; 3, the long variety of cardemom. All these varieties are three-celled and contain numerous wrinkled seeds. The latter has a taste and odor resembling camphor. Cardamom is produced in East India, Sumatra, Cevlon, and Banda. Cardamom is used as a spice and in the preparation of medicine and ethereal oils. VANILLA, Vanille, Vanille, Vanilj, Is the pod-shaped dried seed capsules of the aro- matic vanilla, a growthof thefamily of theOrchidea, native in South and Central America, Southern Europe, Mexico, and Bourbon. The vanilla vine is a climbing growth which clings to trees and rocks. Its narrow, veiny leaves are erect alternately. The blossoms are of a greenish color and possess five petals. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 51 The fruit is cylindrical* pod-like, very long, and of a brown color, possessing an aromatic marrow and within this a number of very small seeds. From it originates a crystalline substance termed "vanillin" (vanilla-camphor). The vanilla harvest lasts from December until March. The pods are gathered before being fully ripe, and are then permitted to wither in the shade, and are finally carefully dried in the sun. After being assorted in bunches of fifty the pods are placed into tin boxes. The vanilla bean of the market consists of straight, lightly pressed, furrowed, tapering brown pods from five to eight inches in length. It is rather soft in texture and somewhat fatty. Its odor is aromatic and very pleasant. The taste is that of balsam with a trace of acid. The preferred variety is oneyielded by thecultureof the vanilla planifolia, long vanilla. It is this kind which, when enclosed in a vessel, is covered with crystals, and is therefore known as the crystallized vanilla. The second kind is the Cimarrona vanilla (wild vanilla). It is nearly like the former, but is smaller, drier, and less aromatic. The poorest of the three Mexican varieties is the broad vanilla. Its pods are twice as broad as those of the first kind, and its odor is strong, though not so pleasant as that of the foregoing varieties. The other important varieties are the Bourbon. Laguayra, Guyana, and Brazilian vanilla. Vanilla should be preserved in air-tight vessels. Vanilla is often adulterated by being mixed with inferior grades; or a poor article is treated with Peruvian balsam to impart to it the odor and fatti- ness of the genuine article. 52 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Vanilla is used preferably for flavoring chocolate,, ices, and perfumes. PEPPER. Pfeffer, Poivrc, Pcppar. There are several spices and drugs which occur in commerce, known by the name of pepper, namely, black pepper, white pepper, large pepper, Spanish pepper. Black and white pepper are the products of the pepper shrub, the former being the unripe, dried, and the latter the ripe berry of the shrub, which is a climbing growth, native in East India, Ceylon, Java, Sumatra, and Malacca. The plant, a bent stalk, that attaches itself to trees and shrubs, has leaves which are dark green on their upper side and lighter below. They are heart shaped, and covered with fine veins. The fruit is seedy and very dry; the berry is brown- ish-red and there are from twenty to forty on a single stalk, some being ripe, others green. In order to yield black pepper, the berries are picked when still unripe and dried in the sun, whereby the skin becomes wrinkled. The dried ber- ries possess a white, hollow kernel. Toward the rind they appear to be of a greenish-yellow tint. There are two kinds of black pepper in trade, the heavy and the light. Heavy pepper is produced in Aleppi and Malabar, and the lighter kinds in Penang, Singapore, Bombay, Madras, Batavia, and Jamaica. The white pepper is yielded by the berries when freed from the shell. After being gathered, the ber- ries are soaked in water, until the shells loosen. Its kernels are of the size of a small pea. White pepper is not as sharp as the black variety and is scarcer. THE KNOWLEDGE OK WARES. 53- Its use is not confined to the kitchen, but it is also- used as a drug. The so-called long pepper is the unripe fruit-ear of a related variety of the plant. Its use is very limited. It was formerly employed in the manufac- ture of medicine. An entirely different variety of those mentioned is the Spanish, Turkish, or Guinea pepper. This is the fruit of a growth which belongs to the genus of our potato plants. Its place of nativity was originally confined to South America, but it is now- produced in Spain, Hungaria, and Southern France^ The fruit is long and tubular; the interior is filled with a large number of flat, round seeds. The taste of the fruit is burning, and its dust is irritating. The powder should be preserved in sealed glass ves- sels. It is often brought into trade mixed with, brick dust. Cayenne pepper is manufactured from the former variety. It is a preparation produced by a mixture of the flowers and powder of pepper and is both yellow and red in color. Cayenne pepper is also sent out into trade from South America, where it ia yielded by drying the berry of the Capsicum baccatum. This pepper is much used in our country in preparing mixed pickles. The adulteration of pepper is very common, and is accomplished by mixing rasped bark, dried crumbs, pepper shells, and sand, with a little good pepper in order to impart to the mixture the odor of the genuine article. SEVERAL OF THE LESS IMPORTANT DOMESTIC SPICES. Among the best known domestic spices are the fol- lowing: Carrawayseed is the seed of a genus of a well- known umbellated plant, as is also coriander, which 54 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. is produced in England and France; Anis, which is cultivated in Austria and Barbary, fennel and dill \vhich grow in Germany and the United States. The foregoing are sometimes employed in the production of medicine, but do not constitute important articles of trade. ALLSPICE. Also known as Pimento. The spice which occurs in trade under this name is a fruit of a specie of the myrtle tree, namely, the pimento tree, the home of which is in West India, especially Jamaica and the Barbadoes. The fruit is of the size of peas and has two cells, each con- taining a brown seed. The fruit is gathered before it is ripe, and is then dried; which fact accounts for its wrinkled appear- ance. The taste of allspice is a mixture of the flavor of pepper and cloves, and originates from an ethereal oil contained in the dried flesh of the berry. Allspice is exported in large quantities from Jamaica and a few other West India Islands. It is sent in bags of from 100 to 150 pounds. Spanish allspice is a large, thick shelled variety which has an inferior odor. It is cultivated in Cen- tral America. ST. JOHN'S BREAD Johanaisbrot, Carouge, Johannisbrod, Is the dried fruit of the St. John's bread tree. The home of this tree is in Southern Europe, especially Spain, Sicily, Malta, Greece, and on the African coast. It is a small, hardy tree with feathery leaves, and long blossoms which ultimately form into a long, leathery pod, in the cells of which there is a THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 55 hard, shining seed. A tree yields about eighty pounds of these pods at a single harvest. When picked, the fruit is not fully ripe and is there- fore placed in the sun to develop wholly. On account of the sweet fleshy meat contained in the pods, the fruit is used as an article of diet in Sicily; though, in this country, St. John's bread is known only as a sweetmeat for children. TAMARIND Is the name of the marrow, contained in the pod- like fruit of the Indian tamarind tree. Though native in East India, this tree is also cultivated in West India and Egypt. East India produces the best. It is a dark brown mass of a very sour taste. Generally the mass is mixed with the seeds and fibers of the fruit. Tamarind is prepared in copper kettles, which accounts for the presence of slight traces of copper in it. Tamarind is used in the preparation of a cooling beverage and for mildly laxative medicines. MUSTARD. Senf, \foutarde, Senap. There are two varieties of mustard, black and white. The black mustard is the seed of Sinapis nigra, the white of Sinapis alba. These plants grow wild in nearly all parts of Europe and are cultivated in Europe and America. The seeds of the white mustard are threshed from the pods in the usual manner and have a yellowish tint, while the variety known as the black mustard has a brown color with a red tint. O6 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Both kinds are used for seasoning and as a med- icine, though the black variety is best suited on account of its greater sharpness. By distilling the latter in water, a very sharp ethereal oil is yielded, known as mustard oil. White mustard produces no oil. The fatty oil is removed from the seeds by pressing it out. The seeds can be best preserved when iree from oil. Large quantities of black mustard are produced in Holland and come into trade in sacks containing 200 pounds. Mustard appears on the market whole, ground, and prepared in vinegar. Prepared English mustard is highly prized for its excellent qualit\ f . Prepared mustard is kept in jars or glass bottles. SEEDS. Linseed, the seed of flax, is largely produced on the European continent, India, and North America. The seeds are smooth, shining, brown, oblong, containing a whitish kernel of a sweetish taste. Linseed is used in making linseed oil and oil-cake. Hemp seed is native in East India, though culti- vated in Europe and America. It is used largely as food for birds, and yields an oil. Rape seed is cultivated in the same regions which produce hemp seed, and is used for the same pur- pose. Madia seed is native in Mexico. The seeds are oblong and yield from 30 to 40 per cent fat oil, which is used in the preparation of soap and for lubricating oil. Clover seed is the seed of various kinds of clover as red, white, and alsike clover. Red clover seeds are round and of a wax-yellow color. White clover THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 57 seeds are smaller than those of the red variety, and of a yellow color. Alsike is of the same size as the white clover, but is of a yellowish green color. Timothy seed is the seed of timothy. The seeds, enclosed by a shell, are small, oblong, and grayish. The grasses yielded by the latter two varieties of seeds are used largely as fodder for animals. CHAPTER II. Flowers. CAPERS. Capers, the flowers of the caper bush, are pre- served in salt and vinegar. Capers are cultivated in the warmer regions of Europe and America. Capers grow oa a black shrub. The fruit resembles a berry-like pod with a stem. The capers' time for blossoming is in the summer. Before the blossom has fully opened, it is picked and placed in a shady spot and permitted to wither. Assorted according to their size, each kind is sepa- rately placed into vinegar. After several days the latter is poured off and replaced by fresh vinegar ; to which a little salt is occasionally added to make it more enduring. Finally the capers are packed into glass jars. In this condition they retain their original quality several years. They are also brought into trade preserved in oil. Capers are more highly valued the smaller and firmer they are, and the less developed the blossom is. The smallest variety of capers is known as the nonpareilles, then the surfines, capuzins, capottes, fines, mi-fines, and the cummunes follow in the order named. The best varieties are produced in Aix, Toulon, and Marseilles. Capers are largely used in making sauces. 58 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 59 CLOVES. Netken, Giraffes, Kryddneglikor. Cloves are the dried blossoms of the clove tree, a myrtle-like growth cultivated in Amboina, Bourbon, Mauritius, the Antilles, Guyana, etc. It is a handsome, thickly-branched tree, with bright green leaves, and beautiful red blossoms bearing a strikingly hand- some appearance. From October until December, the undeveloped blossoms of the tree are gathered and dried in the sun, and are then packed into hogsheads and sent out as spice. The outer color of cloves is dark, while their inte- rior is light brown. They are rich in ethereal oils. When properly constituted, cloves are not broken nor brittle, and are not reduced to powder when subjected to pressure. They are rather moist to the touch, and their taste is sharp and fiery. The best cloves are found in East India (Singapore and Penang), especially those from Amboina, one of the group known as the Spice Islands. The Zanzibar cloves are dark and thin and of little value; the same is true of the cloves produced in Cayenne and Bourbon. In addition to the blossoms, the unripe fruit of the cloves often finds its way into the market and is known as the mother of cloves. The stems of cloves also occur in trade. They are used in adulterating powdered cloves. SAFFRON. Safran, Safran, Saffran. Saffron consists of the dried stigma of the common yellow crocus, abundant in our gardens in early- spring. <>0 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. In order to yield saffron, the flowers are gathered, and the stigma is removed and dried in the sun or by artificial heat, and is then packed into a linen sack. Saffron is imported from France and Spain, Italy and Turkey. Saffron should be preserved in sealed vessels and protected irom the influence of the light. It is used not only as flavoring matter, but also as coloring material to color confectionery, bread, macaroni, cheese, and butter, and in small quantities as a med- icine. HOPS. Hopfeu, Houblon, Humle. Hops is the name applied to the flowers of the hop plant, which sometimes grows wild, but is also largely cultivated. They are formed irom many leathery scales, at the base of which are two small seeds sur- rounded by a yellow, aromatic dust. This dust con- tains the bitter stuff and the hop-oil to which the hop owes its most valuable principles. The cones are gathered before they are fully ripe, are then dried as rapidly as possible, and stored in a dry place. The influence of moisture, light, and air are likely to effect dry hops very injuriously. The best man- ner of preserving the cones is to press them by means of a hydraulic press into a compact mass. Treatment with the fumes of burning sulphur tends to make "them even more enduring. Both the fruits of the wild and cultivated hops are used. The former are larger, though of an inferior ilavor, and only the cultivated hops appear largely in trade. There are two varieties of hops, the August hops and the late fall hops. Hops are, as is commonly known, used to impart to beer its peculiar THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 61 flavor. The best varieties are used in preparing lager beer. Hops are largely cultivated in the northern states of this country and in Northern Europe. The New England states, Wisconsin and Oregon are among the leading hop producing states. The total expor- tation of hops from the United States amounted to 12,600,000 pounds in 1892. Test of Quality. Hops are to be judged according to the clamminess, color (preferably light), and par- ticularly by their odor and taste. TEASELS. Karden, Charclons, Kardborrar. The teasel is a biennial thistle, several feet high, with prickly stem and leaves, and cylindrical heads of pale or white flowers between \vhich are oblong, rigid bracts, hooked at the point. The heads are cut off when the plant is in flower, and are used in woolen factories, and by stocking-makers for rais- ing the nap on cloth. No mechanical contrivance has yet been found to equal teasel for this purpose, to which the hooked points, the rigidity, and the elas- ticity of the bracts are admirably adapted. The heads of the teasel are fixed on the circumference of a wheel or cylinder, which is made to revolve against the surface of the cloth. Teasels are cultivated in many parts of Europe and are exported from Holland and France. They are brought into trade attached to their stems and are packed into bundles. CINNAMON FLOWERS. Zimtblutc, Fleurs dc canellc. Cinnamon flowers are the unripe, dried fruits of the Laurus cassia. They possess a very agreeable taste, 62 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. though the odor and taste are not strongly developed. The flower contains much ethereal oil, which is used,, like cinnamon, as an article for flavoring. CHAPTER III. Leaves. BAY LEAVES. LorbeerblHtter. Fenilles de Laurier, Lagerblad. Bay leaves are the leaves of the sweet bay or laurel. They are large, lanceolate, leathery, reticu- lated with veins. They are bitter and agreeably- aromatic, and are therefore used in cookery. Bay leaves are sent into the market dried, attached to stems, and loosely packed. They are of a yellow- ish-brown when dried. Bay leaves come irom the regions of the Mediterranean. TOBACCO. Tabak, Tabac, Tobak. The tobaccos of commerce are the more or less prepared leaves of the tobacco plant, of which there are three varieties, the common or Virginian tobacco, with lancet shaped leaves and violet blossoms; the large leaved or Maryland tobacco, with oval shaped leaves and violet blossoms ; the Farmers' or violet tobacco, with wrinkled oval leaves and yellow blos- soms. The tobacco plant is a native of America, from where it was introduced into Europe in 1560. It is cultivated verv large ly in the United States. 63 64 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. The characteristic elements which enter into the composition of the tobacco leaf are nicotine, tobacco camphor, and tobacco acid. Nicotine, when pure, is a colorless oil having a stupefying odor and a burn- ingtaste. Even in small quantities, itacts as a deadly poison. Stripped and dried tobacco contains nicotine as follows: Virginia, 6.8; Kentucky, 6.1; Maryland, 2.3; Havana, less than 2 per cent. Tobacco camphor possesses the odor of camphor and a very bitter taste. The finest tobaccos con- tain the largest quantity of this element. In addi- tion to these ingredients, tobacco leaves contain wood fiber, albumen, gum, resin, and from 19 to 27 per cent of ashes. When the plant begins to develop flowers, the top or head is cut off, in order that its leaves may become more luxuriant. The lower, yellow, clammy leaves ripen first, and constitute the first crop (scrubs); then the middle and lastly the uppermost leaves are harvested. The picked leaves are heaped and allowed to sweat, and are then gathered into strings and hung under a shed to dry. The leaves are often subjected to a second fermentation which is continued until the following May. The object of this is to prevent the dry leaves from gathering moisture and to thereby prepare the leaves for packing and shipping. At the same time the fer- mentation destroys the albumen and the nicotine, these being particularly offensive to smokers. The quality of tobacco is much influenced by the condition of the climate, soil, and manner of treatment. Leaf tobacco is sent into trade in barrels, boxes, and packages. The varieties which occur in trade at present may be classified as follows: THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 65 WEST INDIAN TOBACCO. The best and dearest kind is the Havana, which comes into trade packed into balls of 100 pounds. Its use is confined nearly exclusively to the manu- facture of cigars, and the finer grades are used as cigar wrappers. Vuelta de Abajos, Partidos, Yuelta Arabia are names of a few grades of fine Havanas. Cuba tobacco is similar to Havana, though of an inferior quality. The packages are bound with a cane-like fiber and appear in trade with the folio wing names: Yara, Liguani, Santiago, Principe, Sagua, Gibara, Guiza, etc. Domingo appears in malatos of from four to five pounds, and is largely used in the manufacture of cigars, especially for \vrappers. Jamaica is similar to Cuba, and its quality is between that of Havana and Cuba. Porto Rico comes in leaves and is not packed into rolls. Its use is confined largely to the production of smoking tobacco . Its distinctive kinds are Guyara, Guanilla, Aquadilla, Bona, Cuba, Rossa. SOUTH AMERICAN TOBACCO. Brazil leaf tobacco, of which St. Felix is the finest and best product, comes assorted in 20 or 30 leaves, packed in linen in quantities up to 300 pounds. Its use is confined to the manufacture of cigars. Rio Grande is an inferior variety of Farmers tobacco. Frisco Brazil is a damp production which is spun in large balls and packed in hides. Esmeralda comes into the market in very small quantities. Its leaves are strongly veined or entirely unveined and usually spotted. Its use is confined to cigar wrappers. 6 66 THE KNOWLEDGE: OF WARES. Columbia is of manifold varieties, Ambalina, Car- men, Giron, Palmyra, etc. These tobaccos are packed into rolls, covered with raw leather, and occasionally with linen, and consist of small rolls wound in wood fiber or the unrolled, smooth leaves. This tobacco is devoted to the exclusive use of the cigar manufacturer. Varinas Canaster formerly came into trade packed into rolls, six of which were contained in a basket ofwoven reeds. Now it is customary to wrap a quantity of leaves separately and then pack them into a basket for shipment. The better qualities of this variety still retain their first rank as smoking tobacco. The production of tobacco in Varinas has decreased materially, owing to the numerous civil wars, and to the reduced price of the product. THE NORTH AMERICAN TOBACCO. The largest quantity which comes into market is of Maryland tobacco, and, similar to this, Ohio and Bay tobacco, all in tightly pressed bunches. It is used only for smoking tobacco. Maryland scrubs are the first ripened, lower leaves. Virginia is a heavy, fatty tobacco, adapted for the production of chewing and smoking tobaccos ; large quantities are used for the former purpose in the United States. Kentucky tobacco is used largely in the production of chewing tobacco in the United States and Europe as well as in the manufacture of cigars, smoking tobacco and snuff, according to its adaptation to these purposes. Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee produce small quantities of an inferior grade of Vir- ginia and Kentucky tobacco. Missouri, especially Mason county and Mayville, THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 67 produce a variety which is much used as wrappers for cigars. Seed leaf tobacco comes into trade from Connecti- cut, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and Florida, in boxes of from 300 to 400 pounds. ASIATIC TOBACCOS. Java, Sumatra, and Manilla send out large quan- tities of tobacco into trade, which are much esteemed by cigar manufacturers. The Java product has the following species: Blitar, Kedirie, Malang, Bezoekie, Loemadjang, Rembang, Samarang, Cadoe, Banjoe- mas, and Preanger, of Sumatra; Deli, Lankat, Padang, St. Cyr, Bodangau. The scrub varieties are designated by the name, Krossok. EUROPEAN TOBACCO. Grecian and Turkish tobacco is used largely in England. It has found its way into trade only in recent years. In addition to the varieties named, Hungary pro- duces several superior species of tobacco. Hunga- rian tobacco constitutes an important article of export from that country to all parts of Europe. Germany, Holland, France, Spain, and Italy are tobacco producing countries, though they export but little. Test of Quality. In order to determine the quality of tobacco, a leaf should be burnt, and the odor arising therefrom made the means of deciding upon the agreeableness. The flavor is arrived at by tasting the tobacco, though much experience is necessary to make such a test with a degree of certainty. 68 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. TOBACCO PRODUCTS. In order to produce smoking tobacco, the assorted leaves are freed from the thick ribs and treated with a solution of salts (common salt, saltpeter, sal ammoniac, citric, or oxalic potash), spices, and sugar. The leaves, after this treatment, are placed in a barrel to ferment, and are then hoarded and dried. The mineral salts serve to hasten or lessen the combustion of the tobacco ; the other ingredients add to it both flavor and durability. The best and most popular cigars are manufac- tured in Havana, though the production of these cigars is now carried on all over the civilized world. The consumption of this grade of cigars is growing continually. The manufacture of tobacco into cigars has become a very important industry in the United States. The high protective tariff, which has been placed upon the imported article, tends to exclude the latter from the market almost entirely. The finer grades of cigars have Manilla, Java, or Sumatra wrappers, while the filler is of Havana, Cuba, Felix, or Brazil tobacco. The inferior varieties have a Columbia, Domingo, or Missouri wrapper, and a filler of some ordinary American variety. The names of cigars originate from various sources. Those of the imported cigars are largely Spanish, as Imperiales, Regalia Conchas, Londres, etc. According to their color, cigars are named amarillo, colorados, claros, madura, oscuro, cor- responding with the English designations yellow, light brown, super fine brown, fine brown, brown. Cigars are marketed in bunches of 25, 50, and 100, and in cases containing 100, 250, or 500. They THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 69 should be kept in dry though not in warm places. The iermentation which continues during storage adds to the quality of the cigars. Cigarettes are produced by covering an inferior tobacco with thin rice paper. The cigarettes which come into trade are usually of a very inferior quality, the filler being treated with nicotine and sundry poisons to give them the semblance of tobacco. Laws have gone into effect in various states to prevent the sale of this article. Snuff is produced from the fattiest tobacco leaves. The leaves are treated with sal ammoniac and aro- matic substances, and permitted to ferment. They are thenrolled together and grated into powder. In order to make snuff durable, glycerine or a similar substance is added to it. Snuff is brought in to trade under various names as, Paris, St. Omar, Mops, Bernard, Spaniol, Natchetoches (American). Plug tobacco is manufactured Irorn leaf tobacco mixed with syrup and pressed into pound bars or small cakes. It is much used in England and the United States, \vhere it is largely manufactured. It comes into trade in butts containing about twenty- three pounds. Spearhead, Twist, Climax, Caven- dish are the names of common varieties of plug tobacco. The exportatian of leaf tobacco irom this country in 1892 amounted to 240,000,000 pounds; stems and trimmings to 14,000,000; valued at $20,000,- 000 and $366,000, respectively. While the total value of the product imported amounted to $10,000,000. TEA. Thee, Thi, The. Tea consists of the dried and rolled leaves of the tea plant (Thea viridis and Thea bohea), the home 70 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. of which is in China and Japan. The tea of the market is largely the product of China; a compara- tively small amount is produced in Japan, British India, Java, and Madura. The two varieties of the tea plant can scarcely be distinguished from each other. They are evergreen shrubs which grow to the height of from four to six feet, and possess elliptical, dark-green leaves. The blossom is similar to that of the wild rose. The fruit consists of three round capsules, containing one or two seeds. The leaves possess an alkaloid, simi- lar to that of coffee, known as thein, in quantity of about 4 per cent. The gathering of the leaves continues from April until September. The height of the season is in July and August, when many plantations yield from 6,000 to 8,000 pounds of leaves. Under favorable conditions, in East India, three gatherings take place each month. The iresh shoots are plucked with a part of the stem attached. Old and hard leaves are thrown away. The heavy, silvery white, or orange col- ored points of the leaves furnished the so-called "Flowery- Pekoe." The freshly plucked tea leaf has a bitter, but not astringent taste. It acts as a laxative upon foreign- ers in China, but loses this attribute when dried in the air or over a slow fire. In accordance with the manner of treatment in drying, the leaves obtain various colors, as green, black, and red. The largest product is that of the black tea. It is exported largely to America from Shanghai, Han-Kow, Foo-Chow, Canton, and Amboy. Japan and Java furnish only black and green tea. The name of the tea originates from the locality in which it is produced. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 71 About the manner of preparing tea for market, we Tcnow the following: In China the leaves are spread upon mats and placed into the sun to dry. The shrunken or rolled product is kneaded by men with their naked feet. The rolled leaves are then gathered into thin layers and stirred over a slow coal fire, until heated to a temperature of about 200 F. Then the mixing, sifting, and sorting takes place \vhich is concluded by again drying the mass over a fire in order to free it from the moisture which has been absorbed during the treatment. The pre- pared tea is packed into boxes lined with tinfoil and is then ready for transportation. The odorous blossoms of the Chloranthus, Lambar, Jasminum, Gardenia are employed in giving tea a perfume. Adulteration is practiced largely in Canton, hence the designation "Canton made" in contradistinction to "Country." The leaves of Salix alba are used in the adulteration and Prussian blue, indigo, curcuma, and white earth are employed to artificially color the leaves The red tea has a dark brown color, though the water in which it is cooked has a red appearance. The green varieties of the Chinese tea are known "by the following names in the market: Imperial, Gunpowder, Shanghai, Pins Head, Moyune, and Canton. Japanese: Gunpowder, Young Hyson. Java: Gunpowder. Of the black teas, Chinese : Foo-choo-foo, Hung- niuey, Oopack, Kaison, Oonam, Plain Orange, Scented Orange, and Flowery Pekoe, Souchong. Assam: Congo, Orange Pekoe, Souchong. Java: Congo, Imperial. The tea which is reduced to powder by handling is termed tea dust. 72 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Pure Pekoe has an excellent flavor which can only be retained by steeping the leaves in hot water a minute and using it without the addition of milk or sugar. There are a number of substitutes which are used for tea; among these Paraguay tea, cocoa shells (the shells of the cocoa bean), are best known and most largely used. The consumption of tea is increasing continually, and at present it is very commonly used. The United States is second only to England in the quantity consumed per head. In 1892 the total value of the imported product into this country amounted to more than $14,000,000. SENNA LEAVES. Sennesblatter, Folia Sennac, Sennetshlad. Senna leaves are the dried leaves of two species of the cassia bush. One of these bushes grows in Dongola and Nubia and the other in Yemen, Arabia,, and in Upper Egypt. The best variety is termed Alexandria ; they are of light yellow color, and have an unpleasant odor and a sharp, bitter taste. The East Indian senna leaves are also of an excel- lent quality. Senna leaves are largely used as a medicine. CHAPTER IV. Barks. CINNAMON. Zint, Cannelle, Canel. Genuine cinnamon is the inner rind of the cinnamon tree, a growth similar to the laurel tree, a native of Ceylon, cultivated also in Asia, the Sunday Islands, the West Indies, and South America. The most useful part of the tree is the bark of its young shoots. For this reason the tree is deprived of its branches when it is about four feet high ; its crown is also cut away in order that it may branch out more densely. The bark is peeled from the branches during the interval from April until August and from November until January. The br anches are not permitted to become older than two years. The bark is freed from its outer coating and the tubes, which the bark forms, are placed into each other, and dried in the air, which causes them to curl about each other very tightly. They are then assorted according to their qualities and packed into bundles of from sixty to ninety pounds. The cinnamon of commerce is either whole, broken, or powdered. The broken pieces of roots and leaves are used in distilling the cinnamon oil. Of the various grades of cinnamon of commerce, Ceylon cinnamon, of the bitter quality, is the finest. 73 74 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Its color is light-brown, and it possesses a pleasant, spicy, slightly sweet taste. Its bark is thin and very brittle. The Java cinnamon approaches the Ceylon variety very closely in quality, though darker in color, thicker, and less firmly rolled. These two varieties of cinnamon are tied up into the form of balls, in matting or otherwise. In addition to the genuine article, the barks of other trees of the genus of the laurel find their way into trade as cinnamon ; among these maybe mentioned : The cinnamon cassia, which may be distinguished from the Ceylon cinnamon by its felty, hairy branches. The tree is produced in China, Cochin China, in Mexico, and in South America. The former two countries yield the best cassia. The cassia of the market is thicker and darker than cinnamon. Its taste is less agreeable, and it is often covered with a part of the tree's outer skin. It is used most largely as a spice. The white cinnamon is the inner bark of the white cinnamon tree, a growth which is yielded largely in the West Indies. It is spicy, and its taste is sharp and bitter, resembling cloves. Clove cinnamon, or black cinnamon, is the bark of the clove myrtle. The bark is thick, dark brown, or black, and combines the odor of cinnamon and cloves, though the latter is more perceptible. CORK. Kork, Liege, Kork. Cork is the outer rind of the cork-oak, which grows preferably in Spain, Portugal, Southern France, Northern Africa and Asia. The bark of the tree is peeled off at intervals of THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 75 from four to eight years, which does not injure the tree, but tends to lengthen its life. The bark is soaked in warm water, and then pressed into cakes, and after having been dried, it is scorched on the outside, thus securing it from becoming worm eaten. Good cork is elastic and free from cuts, holes, and woody parts. It comes into trade partially cut into corks for flasks, soles, etc. The largest quantity and best cork comes from Spain, where the tree is peeled every four years. The French and Algerian cork is very good. The poorest variety comes from Sicily. Cork stoppers are cut from cork with a knife either free-hand or with a machine. The cutting utensil is coated with tallow when thus used. Corks of various sizes and forms appear in trade suited to the shapes and sizes of bottles. Cork soles are also extensively manufactured and used in footwear. Cork coal is used as a black coloring pigment (Spanish black). Kamptulikon is a mixture of gutta perch a, or thick linseed oil and bits of cork rolled out into sheets for covering floors. Linoleum is a waxed cork matting, produced from canvas coated with a mixture of linseed oil and cork pow- der finished in various colored patterns. CHAPTER V. Hoots. GINGER. Ingwer, Gingembre, Ingefara. Ginger is the dried root-stalk of the ginger plant, a growth \vhich is native in East India, and is culti- vated in China, West India, and Africa. The plant is biennial, and has tuber-like root stalks; its stalks grow to the height of more than three feet, and are covered with lance shaped leaves. In order to yield ginger the root stalks, at the age of a year, are taken from the soil, after having devel- oped blossoms, and freed from the fiber, cut into pieces and dried. The two year old tubers are woody and yield poor ginger. To protect the tubers from the worms, they are treated to a coating of clay or lye. Ginger comes into trade in flatly pressed pieces about half an inch in thickness. When broken, it has a horny appearance, and is filled with oil cells. Ginger is usually sold in a granulated form. We distinguish white from brown ginger. The former is freed from its outer rind and carefully dried, and is therefore preferred. Both varieties must ")e free from worms, difficult to break, and of a very spicy odor and taste. 76 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 77 The East Indian varieties come from Malabar and Bengal ; the West Indian from Jamaica and Barba- does, and have crowded the East Indian product from the market almost entirely. The other coun- tries which produce ginger are China, Cochin China, and Africa. No particular care need be taken in keeping this product. It is customary to fill the intervening space on transporting freight ships with balls containing ginger root. CHICORY. Zicborien, Chicorie, Cichorie. Chicory is the root of the common chicory, which is frequently used in producing a surrogate for coffee, and constitutes, in its prepared condition, an important article in trade. It does not contain the characteristic elements of coffee, and possesses nothing in common with the latter except its similarity of color when prepared. This is also true of other coffee surrogates, among which maybe mentioned the " Caramel Malt Coffee," a preparation yielded from malted barley, which has been placed on the market lately, and is possessed of a degree of excellence as a beverage. It contains none of the narcotic stimulating qualities of coffee. The chicory plant is cultivated largely in Europe. It is not commonly known in the United States, and the article found in trade here is imported from Germany and France. It is packed into paper pack- ages and is sometimes called "German Coffee." CHAPTER VI. Sugars. SUGAR. Zucker, Sucre, Socker. Sugar is the name of a sweet element of numerous plants 'which is distinguished by the fact that, when water and yeast are added, it will ferment in a mod- erate temperature, thus producing alcohol. Sugars are of three kinds, cane, grape (glucose), and fruit sugar. From a mercantile standpoint, cane sugar is most worthy of consideration. It is the sweetest of all the varieties of sugar, and dissolves in one-third cold or any quantity of hot water. It may be pre- served in closed vessels and is valuable in preserving articles; e. g., fruits. Sugar is contained in a number of plants, especially in the sugar cane, from which most of the product is yielded, also in the sap of the maple and palm trees and in the beet. It is contained in small quantities in the sap of the birch tree, in the carrot, maize, melons, bananas, etc. Sugar cane is a growth of the genus of grasses, a native of East India, cultivated in the West Indies and in many parts of America and Australia. The plant, of which there are several varieties, grows preferably in swampy regions. From a fibery 78 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 79 root, it develops into a tubular yellow, green, or violet stem, which attains a height of from twelve to sixteen feet, and a diameter of about four inches. Its leaves are long and ribbon-like. Before it blos- soms, or after fifteen months of vegetable growth, the stems are cut off near the root and tied into bundles; the sap is then yielded by crushing the cane between the rollers of a mill. Of the 90 per cent of sap which is contained in the cane, only about 60 per cent is yielded, owing to the inad- equateness of the manner of expressing. The expressed sweet sap, owing to its tendency to ferment, is rapidly converted into sugar by cooking it in lime water, thus purifying it, until it is suf- ficiently thick that crystallization can take place when cooled. In order that large crystals will not form the mass is sifted. After several weeks a dark brown fluid is poured from the mass which is known as molasses. The rem lining sugar is of a yellow color and composed of small granules. The sugars of the market are valued according to their whiteness and fineness. The various grades are brown, "C," "A," granu- lated, pulverized, cut loaf (cut into half inch cubes from pressed loaves). The manner of refining sugar in the sugar refineries is generally as follows : The sugar is dissolved in about 30 per cent water ; and the syrup is clarified by cooking it with from Vz to 2 per cent ox-blood and from 3 to 4 per cent powdered bone-coal, and cooked in a vacuum-pan, until enough water has evaporated to enable crys- tals to form. During the process of crystallization, the sugar is stirred in order that the granules will become fine. Thereupon the spigot is removed from the lower part 80 THK KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. of the vat that the "green syrup " may flow off ; a solution of clear concentrated sugar is poured over the mass, and the sugar is then removed to dry. The faint yellow tint of the sugar is obliterated by add- ing a small quantity of ultramarine before the crystals form. Out of the syrup obtained from the first product and the syrups of the various inferior products a number of grades of sugar are yielded. The removal of the syrup from cane sugar is accomplished by means of a centrifugal machine ; the latter throws it off. The raw sugar is of a light brown or yellow color, and of the consistency of bread crumbs. Rock candy is a crystallized sugar which is yielded by immersing strings in a solution of water and sugar and permitting the crystals to attach them- selves thereto. Next to the sugar cane, the beet yields the largest percentage of sugar (about 11 per cent). The man- ner of treating the beet for this purpose is various. Usually it is grated after being cleaned, and then the sap is extracted by hydraulic pressure or the green beets are cut into narrow strips and diffused in lukewarm water. The latter method is winning favor in Germany, owing to the fact that it yields the sugar in greater abundance and more rapidly than other methods. The production of sugar and syrup is developing wonderfully in the United States, and in consequence the importation of these articles is gradually declining. In 1892 the United States imported $104,000,000 \vorth of sugar and $2,800,000 of molasses; about twice the amount of molasses was imported in 1890. Maple sugar is yielded from the sap of the maple tree ; the sap is gathered and boiled to the proper consistency and is permitted to cool and crystallize. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 81 When syrup is desired the sap is subjected to less boiling. Its taste is very agreeable and its general excellence makes it much sought for. It is produced only in the United States and Canada. Vermont furnishes the best product of this kind which reaches the market. An instrument known as the saccharometer, is used to test the variety of sugar. Grape sugar, or glucose, is the crystallized sugar of various fruits and other articles. Apples contain 8 per cent, cherries 11 per cent, grapes from 14- to 15 per cent glucose, though it is not produced from these fruits but generally yielded by cooking starch with thin sulphuric acid. Its use is confined largely to the production of confectionery, liquor, and tobacco fabricates. Louisiana produces molasses of especial excellence, among which is the celebrated New Orleans molasses. HONEY. Honig, Afie/, Honing. Honey is the well known sweet sap, which the bees extract from the nectarine of the flowers and which they deposit in wax cells after having prepared it in their bodies. Honey is an article of trade both in combs and in its fluid state. Extracting honey from its combs is usually accomplished by a centrif- ugal machine. Pure honey is of a yellow tint ; its consistency is thick, taste sweet, odor slightly aromatic, and dif- fers according to the blossoms from which it is gath- ered. White clover and linden blossoms are regarded as capable of furnishing the best sap for honey. When fresh, honey is transparent and slightly sour; when it becomes older a sour reaction takes place, 82 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. and grape sugar begirus to develop, which appears white and forms in granules. Among the various countries which export honey Cuba, Domingo, Chili, Italy, and France are the most conspicuous. While in the United States enough honey is yielded for home consumption and in 1892 $78,000 of the product was exported. Honey is often adulterated by the use of glucose, syrup, starch, and dextrin. In addition to being an excellent article of food, honey has valuable medicinal properties. It is used also in producing a beverage known as mead. LICORICE. Lakritz, Liquiritiae, Lakrits. Licorice is the solidified sap of the sweetwood, which is yielded in Italy, Spain, France and Greece by cooking the crushed roots until the liquid has the proper consistency. It is then poured into barrels, or is formed into large round sticks by adding gum arabic or dextrin, and comes into trade packed into boxes with laurel leaves. The Calabre licorice, which is exported from Naples, is regarded as superior. It derives its name from the manufacturer. Good licorice has a clear, black color ; when marked the cut appears brown. Its taste is pure, and it is brittle. When immersed in water 25 per cent dis- solves. It is frequently adulterated by the use of carrot or beet sap, starch, detrin, and gelatine. Licorice is used in the treatment of lung troubles, and is often dissolved in sal ammonia. Pure licorice dissolved in sal ammonia or oil of anis is sometimes formed into little grains, known as cachous. CHAPTER VII. Spirituous Liquors Is the name applied to all liquids containing sugar, which through fermentation, yield alcohol in a greater or less degree. WINE. Wein, Via, Vin. Wine is the product of the spirituous fermentation of grape juice. The latter consists principally of sugar and water. After pressing the juice it is at once placed into casks and goes through a rapid preliminary fermentation. Through fermentation a large part of the sugar is converted into alcohol and carbonic acid ; the latter escapes. After six or eight weeks the \vine will be clear, having expelled all the yeast. It is then placed into new casks, where it undergoes an after fermen- tation by which tartar is ejected from the wine and carbonic acid created. Six or eight months after this fermentation takes place, the wine is again placed into fresh casks, where it undergoes a slight fermentation the coming summer. The grapes which contain a large percentage of sugar and are yielded during a hot year ferment repeatedly, during three or four years, before they become permanent. The ordi- nary wines are filled into small casks and the finer 83 84 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. qualities into bottles. Having been well corked, they are now fit for storing. White wines, yielded from the green grapes, are more or less yellow and often brown. Age tends to darken the color ; the same result is accomplished in young wine by adding burnt sugar. The red \vines obtain their color from the grape skins of the red or blue berry, which is originally blue but becomes red through the influence of acid. Through long storage, good wines develop a peculiar aroma known as bouquet. The presence of this aroma determines largely the worth of wine. The peculiar aromatic taste and flavor of wines is developed by fermentation. Sparkling or effervescent wines are produced when wine is filled into strong bottles before it is com- pletely fermented and stored away in the cellar. The carbonic acid, which the wine generates, is dissolved in the liquid. When the wine has given off its yeast, the cork is opened and the bottle inverted to permit the yeast to flow from it; the bottle is then tightly corked and sealed. The name champagne has been given this wine generally, and it is known by its "popping" when the bottles are opened, and its effervescence. The production of champagne in France amounts to 23,000,000 bottles yearly. About $5,600,000 worth of this product was imported into the United States in 1891. In our country, New York, Missouri, and Ohio are wine producing states. But the richest section in this particular is Middle and Southern California. The California wine is such that, in spite of the con- servatism of trade and of the opposition of inter- ested importers, it must eventually supplant the various European products in our market. Sherry THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 85 is the principal wine of Spain, Port of Portugal, Burgundy of France, and various white wines, known as Rhine wine, of Germany. Fat, sweet wines are often artificially clarified by using lime, albumen, blood, or gypsum. Gypsum is used largely in France and Spain to lessen the acid in the wine and heighten its color. New \vines are termed young or green wines ; after a year of storage wines are regarded as old. With age, the bouquet of wines is changed as the quantity of sugar and glycerine is lessened. Wine is aged artificially by being placed in bottles and heated to a temperature of about 150 F. These wines are known as Pasteurized (according to Pasteur's method of conserving). After complete fermentation the contents of wine are: water, alcohol, sugar, gum, coloring matter, odorous ethers, various acids, salts, and lime. The same variety of wine may differ as to qual- ity dependent upon the soil, climate and treatment during cultivation. As especial varieties of wine grapes, we may name: Riesling, Tramin, Gutedel, Austrian or Frank. Burgundy or Blue Clevner, Early Burgundy, Muscatel, Orleans, Malvasia. Riesling is cultivated in the valley of the Rhine ; Tramin in France and Austria. The quantity of pure alcohol contained in wine is as follows : Port 20 to 25 percent Sherry 15 " 22 " Madeira 16 " 20 Malaga 12 " 16 Rhine Wine 9 " 13 Claret 9 to 11 per cent. Moselle 8 " 9 Champagne 8 " 12 " Burgundy. .11 " 13 Cider 5 " 7 Wines which are rich in alcohol are termed heavy wines, though this does not determine their value. 86 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Light wines are often preferred. Usually wine is valued in the reverse ratio to its contents of wine- acid. Wines containing an abundance of sugar (about 10 per cent) are known as sweet wines; when the opposite is the case they are termed dry wines; e. g., Rhine wine. According to their color, wines are red and white ; light red wines are named Schieler. Wine should be preserved in vessels that are thor- oughly sealed to prevent evaporation. Care should be taken not to subject it to change of temperature. The adulteration of wine is accomplished by mix- ing inferior grades with better qualities or frequently entirely artificial wines are produced by the use of alcohol, vegetable colors, and aromatic spices. Cider. Apple, pear, peach, and orange cider are yielded by pressing the juice from these fruits. Cider is very popular as a beverage in this country. It contains but little alcohol before fermentation, but soon becomes acidulous and wine-like. BEER. Bier, Bierre, Ol. Beer is a fermented liquor made from malt with hops, to impart a bitter flavor. To produce beer malt grain, generally barley, is permitted to sprout to a degree. It is dried by arti- ficial heat. A part of the malt is subjected to a greater degree of heat and forms the "Caramel" by which the beer is colored. The malt is then freed from the germs and crushed. According to the method of preparing, beer varies. It is most fre- quently prepared by the Bavarian method, by which the malt is added to the necessary quantity of luke- warm water and from time to time a portion of the THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 8? extract is poured into the brewing vat and heated to the boiling point and then poured back into the mash basins. After remaining undisturbed for a time the worts are separated from the grain. In order to prevent them from turning to acid and concen- trate, the worts are kept at the boiling point in an open vat (brew-pan ) for some time. After shedding, to a large extent, the insoluble gluten, the hops are added and the mass is cooked until thesaccharometer (sugar-meter) records the necessary degree (winter beer 9 to 11, summer beer, 11 to 14 C.). The beer is now placed into large, wooden cooling vats, and the temperature of the cooling room is lowered by producing artificial ice to enable the worts to reach the proper temperature. When cool the worts are placed at once into fer- menting vats and are treated to the necessary quan- tities of yeast ; the process of fermenting develops according to the temperature of the fermenting cel- lar, and usually ends in from four to ten days. The largest portion of the yeast has then settled. Through the excessive development of carbonic acid much of the yeast appears on the top of the w r orts in the form of foam. After a time the beer is filled into barrels, the bung of which has been removed, and is permitted to slowly ierment again and to such a degree as is necessary to secure the desired variety. Under-fermented (German untergahrigen) beer is filled into ordinary barrels and placed in a cellar, the temperature of which is maintained at about 4-2 F., where the beer is allowed to ierment and over- flow ; the barrels being filled with young beer from time to time. The bungs are placed into the barrels, and, after several days, the beer is drawn off into small well-pitched kegs. The \veaker beer which is brewed during the winter is known as " Winter Beer.'* 88 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Beer which remains stored for a time before being used is stronger and is known as summer or lager beer. The exportation of beer to warm countries during summer months is rendered practical by drawing it off into bottles. A very small quantity of salicylic acid is added. Very strong beer as Bock and Salva- tor are known by the name of " Double Beer." The upper-fermented (German obergahrigen) is generally less durable, having undergone only a slight fermentation, and been treated with hops sparingly. These varieties are usually filled into bot- tles and contain a liberal supply of carbonic acid gas and yeast cells. Among the best beers produced in the world, of the first varieties, are: the Bavarian kinds, Miinchener, Niirnberger, Culmbacher, Erlanger; Austrian, Vienna ; Bohemian, Pilsner, and Leitmeritzer. Among the upper-fermented beers there are the celebrated English ale and porter. Ale is a beer con- taining but little hops. It is both light (pale) and brown. The best is the Burton ale of Burton, in Staffordshire. Windsor ale is pale and wine-like. Porter is a dark, strong beer in the preparation of which, in addition to the ordinary malt, a portion of roasted malt is used. The best variety is London porter. The exported variety is known as brown stout. Of the German varieties of beer, of this class, is the white beer (of wheat) and the mumme, a thick, brown, beer. The elements of the normal beer produced from malt and hops are, excepting water ; alcohol, glucose, dextrin, oily and bitter parts of hops, albumen, traces of fat, glycerine, carbonic acid, coloring mat- ter (caramel), inorganic parts of malt and hops, phosphoric acid, amber and milk acid, lime magne- THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 89 sia, chloride of lime. Many surrogates have been used instead of malt and hops, during later times, quassia, starch, sugar, burned sugar (for caramel), cayenne pepper (pungency). Among the principal cities of the United States engaged in the brewing of beer, the largest product is yielded in New York, Milwaukee, and St. Louis. The Pabst Brewing Co., located at Milwaukee, Wis., has taken rank as the largest lager beer pro- ducing concern in the world. Germany brews about 13,000,000 barrels of beer; Great Britain nearly 15,000,000, and the United States over 7,000,000 barrels annually. In Belgium the consumption of beer per head annually is about 40 gallons ; next is Great Britain, 32 gallons ; Ger- many, nearly 22 gallons ; United States, about 10 gallons. ALCOHOL, WHISKY. German, Alkohol, Brann t \vein ; French, JJau de vie. Any liquid which has undergone spirituous fermen- tation, e. g., wine, beer, and is then subjected to distillation, yields a liquid consisting of alcohol and spirits of wine. Absolutely pure alcohol is a colorless, combustible liquid of a spirituous odor and a burning taste, which acts as a deadly poison when taken internally in a quantity. Thinned with water it intoxicates. Pure alcohol usually contains from 2 to 4 per cent water, and should be kept in closed vessels as it absorbs moisture readily when brought in contact with the air. To free alcohol from every trace of water, it should be distilled over molten chloride of calcium, and the air excluded from it. Alcohol prevents the rotting and fermentation of all organic matter as it deadens the germ. Its use 90 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. as a preservative for fruits is widespread. In chem- istry it is employed as a soluble for coloring matter, gum, salts, sebacic acids, also in the preparation of chloroform, chloral, perfumes, etc. The "whiskies of commerce, rum, gin, arrack, etc., are produced from alcohol and water under various conditions. The difference which exists between these liquors is not confined to the presence of water alone but also to other ingredients. Grain, or corn whisky, is produced from a mash of grain and malt fermented and distilled. Corn whisky has a peculiar fusil odor, and is * regarded most highly, other conditions alike, when it possesses a pleasant aroma. Potato whisky is yielded, by a similar process, from the potato. By the use of the distilling appa- ratus, the distiller yields 90 per cent of alcohol at one distillation. The use of potato whisky is commonly regarded as being more injurious than that of grain whisky. To distinguish it from ordinary alcohol there is a preparation known as " Spirit" from which all fine liquors and essences are prepared; e. g., those which are free from fusil oil and ether. Spirit is manufac- tured in and exported from Germany. Molasses whisky is prepared from molasses which is yielded from beet sugar. The molasses is cooked with sulphuric acid for this purpose, and then goes through the process of fermentation and distilling. Maize whisky is produced largelv in the United States. Winespirit (spirit of wine) is superior to any of the foregoing in odor and taste ; the best varieties are produced in France and lately in California. Eau de vie, simple and double, serve to distinguish between the varieties. The best is usually of a light brown THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 91 color, though it becomes darker with age, and is known as cognac. Grand champagne is the name of the finest, fine champagne of the second, finis bois of the third, and bons bois of the fourth variety of cognac. Rum is a whisky which is yielded by the fermenta- tion and distillation of molasses or of the fresh sap of sugar. Rum is of a light brown color and pos- sesses a peculiarly pleasant odor and taste. The best is Jamaica rum, which is imported from Jamaica and other points of the West Indies. Taffia, but slightly different from rum, comes into trade very rarely. Arrack (usual name for spirituous liquors in East India) is similar to rum, though its odor is still more pungent. It is produced from malted rice, to which the sap of various palms are added. The best variety is the arrack of Goa, and next is Batavia. Whisky is also prepared from various fruits, as of prunes, cherries, hollyberries, mulberries, figs, and peaches. The value of spirituous liquors depends somewhat upon their alcoholic contents. Common whisky con- tains 36 to 45 per cent, arrack 50 to 60 per cent, rum 78 per cent, raw spirits 80 to 85 per cent. The best test of ascertaining whether liquor con- tains fusil oil is to thin the liquid with warm water and the fusil will become perceptible by its bad odor. Aerometer. In order to ascertain the alcoholic contents of spirituous liquors the aerometer is used. The alcohol meter also enables us to determine the amount of alcohol contained in liquor which con- tains nothing but alcohol and water. In order to understand thoroughly the use of the various meters 92 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. employed in testing spirits it is necessary to make alcoholometry a special study. VINEGAR. Essig, Vinaigre, Attika. Vinegar is the thin, fermented liquid which is extracted from various alcoholic liquors. According to its origin vinegar is known as wine, beer, fruit, malt, honey, or mead vinegar. The most preferable variety of vinegar is the wine vinegar, especially that of France, e. g., Orlean. Its preparation consists in simply pouring wine into open vats, and permitting it to remain a few weeks, in which time it usually turns sour. Very little of the white wine vinegar is pure, but is usually pre- pared with acids. The component elements of vinegar are water and acetic acid ; in addition to this the various vinegars contain distinctive principles, e. g., wine vinegar, wine acid ; fruit vinegar, apple acid ; beer vinegar, phosphoric acid, etc., and in addition salt and minor ingredients. The natural wine vinegar has a yellow color. Vinegar should be kept in a cool place and a closed vessel. Good vinegar possesses a pure, sour taste, is not sharp, and is clear. A peculiar variety of vinegar is wood vinegar, which is yielded by distilling the wood in a closed vessel. It contains acetic acid and water in addition to a disagreeable oil, and its color is brown. Wood vinegar is used in preserving meat, marking steel, and in dyeing. CHAPTER VIII. Dyestuffs. INDIGO. Indigo, Indig, Indigo. Indigo is a dyestuff which is yielded from the genus Indigofera. The indigo is contained in the sap of the plant. The cultivation of this plant is carried on in the East and West Indies and in the southern part of North America. The plant is harvested when in blossom and soaked in water until it ferments; the dissolution of the indican colors the \vater yellow and leaves a violet foam upon its surface. In order to secure the blue (ind?go) color, the solution is stirred until it becomes turbid, and the powder is then permitted to settle. To prevent further fermentation the solution is cooked again and is permitted to settle, then the sediment is taken from the basin and thoroughly dried and then packed. The indigo of trade is of a deep blue color, and is pressed into tablets which are very light and brittle. The poorer grades are usually mixed \vith sand and covered with mould. Indigo burns when touched to a flame, and changes into a dark brown liquid when held over smoking sulphuric acid. 93 94 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. The varieties of indigo are the following : Bengal, Java, Kurpah, Madras, Bimlipatam, Benares, Tir- hoot, Oude, etc. Java indigo comes into trade in cases of 200 to 300 pounds and also in one-half and one-third cases. WOAD. Waid, Pastel. Woad is the name given to the fermented leaves of the woad-plant (Isatistinctoria), a vegetation which grows wild in Southern Europe but is cultivated in Germany. The leaves are gathered several times during the year, partially dried and fermented. It appears in trade in balls or in cakes. The balls are of a yellowish green color and improve with age. The value of the plant as a coloring pigment depends upon the amount of indigo. The best variety of woad is the French product, which is very rich in coloring matter. Since indigo has been generally introduced, the use of woad has decreased, and is now very limited. LITMUS. Lackmus, Tournsal en pate, Lackmus. Litmus is a blue dyestuff, which appears in small cubes or long prisms of a color of more or less brightness. Its fractured parts are dull, earthy and easily broken or powdered. Litmus is produced from several lichens which grow on the shores of the Mediterranean, on the Canary and Azore Islands, as well as on the coast of England, Spain, France, and Italy. In order to yield litmus, the lichen is ground, mois- tened, and treated with potash, lime, ammonia, and converted into dough. The mixture is left to ferment. At first it takes a red and then a blue color. When THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 05 the mixture has reached a degree of fermentation, that its color is sufficiently heightened, it is mixed with plaster of Paris, and is then dried and pressed into the proper form. The manufacture of litmus is confined almost entirely to Holland. There are several varieties of litmus ; the best is of a beautiful blue color and very soluble in water. It is used largely as a bluing for washing ; in chemistry it is used to ascertain the acids and bases. LOGWOOD, Blauholz, Bois de campech, Blovad. A red dyewood, produced from a tree of the family of pod plants, which grows on the coast of the West Indies and of Campechy bay. Only the marrow wood can be utilized, for which reason the sap wood is peeled off. It comes into trade in long, thick pieces, but is split and moistened by dyers to make it available for use. Fresh log- wood is of a dark red color, being firm and heavy. It imparts a red color to water which grows darker as the coloring matter is increased. By treating log- wood with various acids it turns into various colors, which serve as dyes. The best sort of logwood is Laguna Campechy ; inferior kinds are Domingo, Jamaica, Honduras. Extract of logwood is manufactured by the Sanford, Freeman, and Boston mills in the United States. Logwood ink is produced from a tincture of log- wood, chromate ot alum and the addition of gum arabic to thicken the solution. Stains arising from this ink maybe removed by applying a light solution of muriatic acid, following that a weak solution of chloride of lime, followed each time by rinsing 96 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. with pure water. This process will efface stains of any dye. MADDER. Krapp, Garance, Krapp. Madder is the root of an herb-like growth native in Asia and Southern Europe, and is often called dyers-red. The roots are a number of inches in length and of the thickness of a pencil. Their skin is brown, while the interior is of a light red color. The ripe root is gathered in the fall, cleansed, dried, and ground. Through careful preservation in closed vessels the quality is improved, after several years of keeping. The best and richest variety of madder is the Smyrna which comes into trade in a powdered form under the name of alizari or lizzari. Ground madder is frequently adulterated. It is mixed with sand, brick dust, ocher, etc. Madder is used in dyeing cotton and wool Turkey red, in the printing of calicoes, and in medicine. SANDAL WOOD. Sandelholz, Bois de Sandal, Sandel. By this name there are two varieties of dyewood in trade, namely, the yellow (or white) and red. The former comes from China, and is but little used. Red sandal wood comes from Ceylon and from West India. The coloring matter of this wood, which is cut into sticks, is of a pithy nature, and must be dissolved in alcohol or spirits of wine. Sandal wood is used as a dyestuff, tooth powder, furniture polish, etc. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 97 ARCHIL AND CUDBEAR Are two red dyestuffs, which are yielded by the fer- mentation of two lichens, and are distinguished from litmus only by the fact that fermentation is not as advanced. The colorless acids contained in the lichens are changed under the influence of ammonia. Archil is a red dough which is kept soft by moisten- ing it with ammonia ; it possesses a varied odor and an alkaline reaction. The preparation of this dye- stuff is carried on chiefly in England, France, Ger- many, and Holland, to which countries the weed is brought from the Canary Islands and Sardinia. Cudbear is about the same product as archil. It was yielded from lichens in Scotland, but the method of its production was much improved by Cuthbert Gordon (hence its name). It is a violet powder. Both substances are especially adapted to dyeing silks. PERNAMBUCO WOOD Is the wood of varieties of Caesalpinia, which grows in South America. Only the marrow wood of the tree contains dyestuif. It is brought into trade in pieces of considerable length and thickness. Pernambuco wood, or real Brazilian wood, has a dark color, sinks in water, and takes a good polish. It bleaches gradually when subjected to the air. It is used largely in dyeing, and is sold in pieces and powdered. Redwood is a similar dyestuff which comes from Africa; also Camwood from Cuba. Redwood extract is yielded by dissolving red- wood. 98 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. SAFFLOWER. Safflor, Safran, Saffran. The dried flowers of the dyers' thistle which is pro- duced in Egypt, East India, and in parts of Europe. The ware appears in trade in the form of narrow, yellow leaves which are elastic, and can be readily compressed. Age tends to injure their color, and causes the leaves to become brittle. Safflower contains two dyestuffs, red and yellow ; the former may be extracted with water, though it is useless ; the latter is used especially in coloring silks. The best safflower is the Persian, the next is Ben- gal, which occurs in round, pressed cakes. Carthamin comes into trade as a pure dyestuff. It produces a red color. Its use is confined to coloring plates and in manufacturing cosmetics. Alkannin is a red dyestufif soluble in spirits of wine, petroleum, and other oils. It is extracted from the root of the alkanna plant. ANNATO. Or/can, R a aeon, Orleaa. A reddish yellow dyestufF which is yielded from the fruit of Bixa orellana, a tree which grows in a wild state in South America, and is cultivated in the West Indies. The fruits are gathered from time to time and kneaded thoroughly in water and permitted to fer- ment. The colored liquid is allowed to settle, and the water is then poured therefrom, and the sediment is cooked and formed into balls. Annato comes into trade packed into sheaves of grass ; its color is dark, and its odor that of the violet. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 99 Much of the annato dye comes from Guadeloup, Cayenne, and Brazil. Annato is used to color oils, butter, and Chester cheese. QUERCITRON BARK. This word is a combination of the words Quercus citrina ; the name applied to the ground bark of the Quercus tinctoria, native in North America. It comes into trade in the form of coarse and fine wood powder, which has a yellow color; the former is of a lighter color and richer in coloring matter. This dyestuff was introduced into Europe by Dr. Bancroft, and is much esteemed for its richness in coloring matter and its beauty. Sometimes the powder is adulterated with that procured from the bark of other oaks, It is exported from Philadelphia in barrels and from Baltimore in bags. Extract of quercitron comes into trade under the name of flavin. FUSTIC. Fustic is the name of the West Indian dyers' mul- berry. It comes to us in pieces and in the form of powder. It is used to dye both in yellow and in black. In addition to this there are other yellow dye- woods known as yellow-woods. Among these is the Hungarian yellow- wood, or younger fustic. WELD Are the leaves of a plant which is cultivated in parts of Europe as a dyestuff. When it blossoms no longer, it is cut, dried, and packed into bundles. It should have a thin stem and many leaves to be of use. The plant contains a yellow coloring principle, 100 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. known as luteolin. Its use has been materially les- sened in Europe since quercitron has made its appear- ance in trade. TURMERIC. Turmeric is the dried rootstalk of a plant resem- bling ginger-root, Curcuma longa. It is produced in East India, China, Java, etc. There are two varie- ties of turmeric in trade, the long and the round. The former, which occurs most frequently, is cylin- drical and of the thickness of a finger. The round turmeric consists of a thickened rootstalk. Turmeric must be of a bright color and fresh. When the roots are black, they are spoiled. They contain an orange, crystallized coloring principle, which is nearly insoluble in \vater, though easily dis- solved in alcohol, ether, or in alkali. It is used in coloring varnish, liquors, leather, and paper. GAMBOGE Is the name of a yellow gum which flows from the East Indian Gamboga tree. The gum is of a light brown color, translucent, and glistening. When dissolved, it produces a yel- low liquid, which, when taken internally, acts as a violent emetic. It appears in different qualities, sometimes clear and pure, but often mixed with starch and sand. Its use is confined to the manufacture of artists' colors; formerly it was used as a medicine. DROP COLORS. The name "drop colors "is used to designate all artificially prepared colors, which are produced from an animal and vegetable pigment combined with clay. They are usually so produced as to combine THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 101 the watery extraction of the vegetable with soda or borax. Among the many lakes (drop colors) which owe their origin to vegetable matter the most important are madder, pernambuco, and scarlet lakes. Drop lakes are used by painters. ANALINE DYES. Under the common name of analine dyes are included all dyes tuffs which are produced through the medium of anthracite coal tar by a process of dis- tillation. These distilled products are of a vast variety. The beauty and the excellent dyeing properties, as well as the cheapness of the analine dyes has resulted in bringing many of the dyestuffs, before explained, into partial disuse, though some of the latter are superior to the analine dyes in durability and gen- uineness. Most of the analine dyes arc soluble in alco- hol, some in water, ether, benzine, glycerine, fatty and ethereal oils, and acids. The use of analine dyes is continually increasing. In addition to their use in dyeing and printing cloth, analines serve to color leather, paper, straw, wood, feathers, celluloid, mar- ble, liquors, ivory, soap, ink, varnish, and stain. Analines come into trade in a crystallized condition, as dry powder, and rarely in the form of paste or a solution. These dyes are largely produced in the United States though mostly in Germany. A complete description of the method of preparing these dyes cannot here be given, as the processes are too manifold to make even an attempt at anything like an accurate description possible, within the limits of space, into which this chapter must neces- sarily be confined. It suffices to say that in order to understand the complicated methods involved in 102 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. producing these dyes, a knowledge of the details of chemical action is absolutely necessary. The raw material from which these dyes are pro- duced is the analine oil, which contains only toluidin and analine. The pure analine is used in producing analine black ; when it contains but little oil in making ana- line blue ; and when its contents of oil is great it yields red dyestuff. The following are the various analine dyes in use : Red analine dyes : Fuchsin is the oldest analine dye preparation. Until recently it contained quanti- ties of arsenic, and could not therefore be used by confectioners, but it is now designated with rubin (arsenic free). Safranin and Congo are two red dyes which have a beautiful bright color, though the latter cannot withstand the action of the light. Panceaux. This name is applied to a group of analine dyes \vhich vary in color from, scarlet to a light yellowish red. Blue analine dyes: Azulin, azurin, bleu de Lyon, de Paris, de Parnee, form copper-colored glistening powders or lumps. Violet analine dyes : The handsomest and bright- est violet is the Violet de Paris. It comes into trade in the form of golden hued lumps or ground into powders of a brown color. Green analine dyes: Emerald, methyl, brilliant. Yellow and orange analine dyes: Phospin, xan- thin, and curcumein. These dyes come into trade in the form of powders, yellow and brown, and are largely used in dyeing woolen yarns. Black analine dyes : Of these there are but few. jetolin is the best known variety ; its use is confined largely to manufacturing printers' ink. CHAPTER IX. Resin and Balsam. Resins are certain tree saps which harden in the air and soften or melt when heated. They are usu- ally soluble in spirits of wine and ethereal oils, though not in water. Pure resins are brittle and have a glassy fracture. They are tasteless and odorless, though some contain oils which impart these quali- ties. GUM LAC. Gummilack, Resine laque, Gummilackka. A resin containing wax, which flows from various East Indian trees. The tree is tapped by the sting of a bee, which is enclosed by the flow of the sap and changed into a chrysalis. The insect has a red dyestuffinits body which is imparted to the sap. Gum lac comes into trade partially raw or pre- pared. Of the latter there are the following kinds: Stick lac, seed lac, lump lac, shellac. Stick lac consists of the dead branches of the lac tree, which are surrounded by the gum in a thick layer, containing many cells. The seed lac is broken from these branches and is formed into lump lac by melting. Shellac consists of the thin, brittle, orange, red or tan colored leaves, which are yielded by melting 103 104 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. stick lac and pressing the gum through sieves and into the desired iorm. The transparent orange-col- ored shellac is considered the best. Shellac burns when subjected to a high degree of temperature. Shellac is used in varnish, putty, and in the manu- facture of sealing wax. MASTIC Is the resin of Mastic pistacia, a tree which grows in Portugal, Spain, and Italy. Mastic appears in trade in two varieties, grain mastic and assorted mastic (common mastic). The former consists of drops which have hardened on the tree itself. They are straw colored, trans- parent, brittle grains of a round shape, with a weak but pleasant balsam taste. In warmth they melt and give off an aromatic odor. Mastic is insoluble in water, though soluble in alcohol and turpentine. Mastic is used as a varnish, especially for fine paintings, and as an ingredient in putty and powder. BENZOIN Is the resin of the Styrax benzoin, a tree, which grows on the Sunday Islands and in Spain. Good benzoin is translucent ; its fracture appears motley and pebbly, and the powder derived from it is of a brown color. It possesses a balsamic taste and an odor resembling vanilla. The varieties are Siam, Singapore, Penang, and Sumatra. Siam is regarded as producing superior benzoin. Assorted benzoin is distinguished by its brown color and lack of white grains. Benzoin is used in fumigating and washing, and is much prized on account of its excellent aroma. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 105 DRAGON'S BLOOD. Dragon's blood is the red resin of various trees, native in Africa, East India, and South America. The resin is yielded from the fruit of some trees and by tapping others. Dragon's blood conies into trade in various forms. The best variety is of the size of a hazel nut, and comes bound in sheaves of grass. It is of a dark red color, translucent and brittle. When dissolved in alcohol, its color becomes blood red. It is used preferably in coloring varnish. COLOPHONY Is the resin of the American and European pine, and comes into trade in various forms. The freshly-gathered fluid which flows from the tree is named turpentine. When the ethereal oil has evaporated, the sediment hardens and forms thepine resin. It is purified by being molten and filtrated through straw. When the turpentine is distilled with water, and its sediment melted in the air, it yields a firm, glassy, transparent pitch of a brown color which is termed colophony. It is produced largely in this country. The various kinds of pine pitch are produced in Germany, Sweden, Finland, France, and especially in North America. Colophony is used by tinners, paper, and soap manufacturers, in paving, on violin bows and in pitching vessels and barrels. Nearly 500,000 barrels of this resin were exported from the United States in 1884. ASPHALT. Asphalt is a combustible mineral pitch of a brownish color and a shell like, glistening fracture. 106 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. It melts in a temperature equal to the boiling point of water, is easily ignited, and burns with a bright flame. The odor of asphalt is bituminous. It is partially soluble in spirits of wine, while it is entirely soluble in turpentine or linseed oil. Of the origin of asphalt but little is known ; though it appears to be the decomposed product of organic substances, probably produced through the gradual oxidation of petroleum. It is found in the newer mountainous regions and is often thrown out by the water. On the island of Trinidad there are layers of asphalt of considerable magnitude, also a lake upon the surface of which large masses of asphalt float (the asphalt lake). Most of the asphalt came from the Dead sea formerly, where it was thrown out by the water, the waves undoubtedly coming in contact with the layers of the substance. This asphalt is known as Syrian ; it is purely black, and is commonly considered as the best. The South American asphalt, which is brought from the shores of the Orinoco in large quantities, is of a brownish black color, and is nearly equal to the Syrian. Asphalt is used as a polish for wood and iron ware. For the latter purpose a solution composed of two parts of molten amber, two parts ot colo- phony, two parts of asphalt are dissolved in six parts of linseed oil and twelve parts of turpentine. Mountain tar, or maltha, is a tough mixture of asphalt and petroleum. The concrete mass used in paving is not purely asphalt but a mixture of mountain tar, sand and lime or gravel. AMBER. Bernstein, Luccin, Bernstea. This fossil is found in angular and round pieces, and has a shell-like fracture of a glossy appearance. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 107 Its color varies between a very light yellow and a reddish-yellow. In heat it melts and finally burns with a bright flame, developing much smoke and a pleasant odor. Amber is thrown out by the sea and is also dug from the banks at the shore. It is found on the shores of the North Sea in Prussia and near Boke- \vood in Australia, and in small quantities in Spain, Sicily, etc. The manner of securing the amber from the sea is by dredging. The pieces are then assorted accord- ing to their size and quality. Amber often contains insects and parts of plants; this, as well as its chemical and physical condition, show that it is a vegetable resin which has become a mineral by being submerged. Copal is frequently sold as genuine amber. Amber is regarded as being partially a precious stone. Formerly it was more highly esteemed than now. The highest price is commanded by the pure transparent amber. Its use is confined to the manu- facture of ornamerits and pipe-stems. The largest demand for amber ornaments exists in Turkey, Africa, and the South Sea Islands. Its manufacture is accomplished by means of steel tools and the polish is added by the use of pumice stone. The form and appearance of amber may be changed by boiling it in linseed oil. OTHER DRY RESINS. Among the large number of resins used in the prep- aration of medicine and for other purposes the fol- lowing are worthy of mention: Elemi, a soft yellow, translucent resin which has the odor of dill, and is found in East and West India. Dammar, the resin of an East Indian and Aus- J(H THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. tralian tree, occurs in lumps about the size of a fist, generally covered with dust and has a colorless or yellowish fracture. When dissolved in turpentine, it produces a good varnish. Guajak is, yielded in the West Indies. Its fracture is of a dirty, greenish blue. It occurs in large lumps. It is odorless and of a bitter taste. When powdered it is gray, but becomes green when subjected to the influence of light. It is used as a medicine. Sandarack is a resin yielded from a tree which is native in Barbary. It is light yellow, transparent, glossy, covered with a white dust, and is soluble in alcohol and oils. It is used in the production of varnish. CHAPTER X. Nat iir;il Balsams. When resins contain much ethereal oil, and are thus rendered fluid or semi-fluid, they are termed balsams. The natural balsams of trade are: TURPENTINE. Turpentine is the balsam which flows from several varieties of the pine tree, and is a mixture of resin and oil of turpentine. Its consistency depends upon the specie of the pine from which it flows. The commonest varieties are the following: The common turpentine is taken from the common pine, Pinus sylvestris and Pirius abies. It is of a yellowish color, turbid, thick, and exceedingly tough, of a peculiar odor, and a bitter taste. It is yielded largely in the South Atlantic states. Venitian turpentine is taken from the Pinus larix. It is clear, thin, yellow, resinous, and possesses a strong aromatic odor. It is yielded largely in Tyrol, and comes into trade in bottles. French turpentine is taken from the Pinus marit- ima. It comes from the forests between Bordeaux and Bayonne. The liquid is both thin and thick. The Canadian, Hungarian, and Cypress turpen- tines are also found in trade. Turpentines are used in the manufacture of var- 109 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. nish, sealing wax, etc. Canada balsam is used in preparing putty for mounting optical instruments. The foreign trade in these resinous products, in 1888, was $6,000,000. BALSAMS. Among the fluid balsams of commerce the follow- ing are the most important : Copaiva balsam is the best. It comes from Brazil and Venezuela, and is yellowish in color, of the con- sistency of thick oil and of a peculiar repulsive taste and odor. Its use is confined to medicine. Mecca balsam, of the better quality, is so highly prized in Turkey that it is not sent out into trade. The inferior variety which reaches us, is yielded by cooking the branches of trees, and is used in manu- facturing cosmetics. > Peru balsam is yielded in South America and on San Salvador. It flows unassisted and is of a light yellow color. In the air it hardens and takes a brown color. It is prepared by cooking the branches of the trees. Its consistency is similar to that of syrup, and its odor resembles vanilla. Peru balsam is used in producing hair-oil, chocolate, etc. Fluid storax is a balsam which does not resemble hard storax. It is produced in Mexico and in the warmer regions of North America in general. It is a thick fluid possessing a pleasant vanilla odor. Tolu balsam is of a reddish yellow tint. It hardens in the air and has a pleasant orange-like odor. It comes from Honduras in tin cans and is used in the production of perfumes. CHAPTER XI. Ethereal Oils. Ethereal oils are certain fluids which impart to a plant its distinctive odor, and may be extracted therefrom by distillation or by pressure. They pos- sess a strong odor and aromatic flavor. They are perfectly soluble in alcohol, though not in water. At a low temperature, solid substances are often sepa- rated from ethereal oils, so-called, stearoptene. The ethereal oils are more susceptible to distillation than the stearoptenes. Ethereal oils burn rapidly with a flashing flame. Most of the ethereal oils consist of water, carbonic acid, and oxygen. A few of the commonest may be described as follows : Oil of turpentine is the ethereal oil produced by distilling turpentine \vith water. Refined turpentine oil has a clear, watery appearance. The best variety is the French, while the American and Austrian follow. It is best preserved in double barrels, so that the intervening space may be filled with water in order to fully prevent the entrance of air. The oxygen of the air tends to cause the fluid to evaporate and become resinous. Juniper-berry oil is produced from the juniper berry. It is clear and aromatic, and is used in medicine and in the preparation of liquor. 111 112 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Cinnamon oil is produced from the offals of cinna- mon bark in Ceylon and Java. Its color is yellow when fresh but gradually turns brown, and its taste and odor is the same as that of the bark from which it is yielded. Its use is confined exclusively to flavoring. Oil of lavender is distilled from lavender, in France, Spain, and England. It has the odor of the plant, and is used in the production of toilet articles, espe- cially eau de cologne. The best is manufactured in Herfordshire, England. Oil of rose, produced exclusively in European Tur- key, is yielded from the leaves of roses, and is desig- nated by the name of attar of roses. It has the con- sistency of butter, and melts in a temperature of about 75 F. Its odor is very pleasant. The adul- teration of this oil is accomplished by the use of ger- anium essence, citron oil, and alcohol. Bitter almond oil is secured by distilling bitter almonds, and is used in pastry and perfumery and in the production of cognac. Naturally this oil is poisonous, though a process has been devised by which the poison may be extracted from it. Orange oil is of several varieties, sweet and bitter. Orange oil is produced from the blossoms and leaves of the orange and peach trees. Its use is confined largely to the manufacture of perfumery. In addition to these, there are a number of similar oils used in the production of medicine and perfume as citron, bergamot, anis, peppermint, sassafras, and wintergreen oil. Toilet water and cologne are produced by mixing alcohol or spirits of wine with a small quantity of lavender, bergamot, or other oils. Hair oil is a compound of fatty oil with various ethereal oils. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 113 CAMPHOR. Kampher, Camphre, Kamfert. Camphor is a solid substance which bears resem- blance to ethereal oil, and is contained in the wood and the root of the camphor tree, native in Formosa, Borneo, Sumatra, and in Japan. The camphor tree % of Sumatra is filled with crystals. In order to secure the camphor, the wood of the tree is chopped into pieces and placed in a kettle, covered with a straw- lined, wooden cover, in which it is boiled until all the particles of camphor have evaporated and settled in the straw covering, where it forms little gray crys- tals, which are packed into barrels and sent out into trade under the name of raw camphor. This raw camphor is purified in Holland, England, and Germany. It is formed into flat cakes, and pos- sesses the name of refined camphor. The purified camphor is a firm, white, translucent mass of a peculiar odor. It is very soft and cannot therefore be pulverized. In ordinary temperature it usually melts. It is soluble in spirits of wine (spirits of camphor). Camphor is used in medicine as a distributive and heating remedy, also in producing fireworks, candles, celluloid, and as a preventative against moths. Menth and thym oil is a specie of camphor which is used as a disinfectant, instead of carbolic acid. BENZINE. Benzine is a thin, colorless, evaporating oil which properly belongs under the head of ethereal oils. It possesses the property of quickly dissolving fats and removing spots of grease from clothing. It is yielded from petroleum and possesses a peculiarly strong but not unpleasant odor. 114 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. CREOSOTE. Creosote is a peculiar liquid, contained in tar, made from beach wood, and from the cinders of wood generally. It is an excellent preventive against decay, and is used in smoking meats and in coating wood-work and railroad ties. It is also well known and much used by druggists. CHAPTER XII. Resinous Gams. Of the large number of resinous gums which come into trade, it is necessary, to make mention only of the most important varieties as follows : Asafoetida is the concentrated and dried sap of a vegetable root of the same name. It consists of a collection of red, yellow, white, and brown pieces, and possesses a bitter taste and garlic odor. It can be powdered only during low temperature. It is brought from East India and Persia. In East India, asafoetida is used as a flavor ; with us, as a drug. Euphorbium is yielded from several varieties of gum resin. It comes in small pieces, perforated with many holes which are caused by the thorns of the plant. Its outer color is light brown and its interior is yellowish, and the dust arising therefrom which comes in contact with the skin causes inflammation. Myrrh. This gum originates from an Arabian plant. It consists of transparent or translucent grains of varied sizes. Its color is nut brown, and it is quite brittle. In water it is soluble to a limited extent. Myrrh comes from East India. Its best variety is myrrha in lacrymis, which occurs rarely. Myrrha in granis are the smaller particles. In ordinary myrrh, remnants of bark are often discernible. The less important gums are, gum ammonia, bedel- lium, galbanum, opopanax, sagapenum, scam- monium. 115 CHAPTER XIII. Gams. Gum is a non-crystallizable vegetable substance. It is fully soluble in water, but cannot be dissolved in spirits of wine. What is known as gum in trade, does not all belong under this title, but is frequently a resin or a gum resin. The real gums are gum arabic and Senegal. Gum arabic comes from Northern Africa and the Arabian desert. It flows from the shrubs and trees unaided. It consists of pieces of various sizes, the largest being of the size of a hazelnut. It is trans- lucent, of a yellowish tint, pebbly fracture, both taste and odorless ; when moistened, it is clammy. It becomes a sticky mixture when dissolved in water. The best variety is the Turkish gum ; the inferior grades are Australian and East Indian gum. Quite different from gum arabic, is the specie known as gum Senegal ; it is native in the regions of the Senegal river in Africa. Since the beginning of the eighteenth century it has been used instead of gum arabic. It consists of larger pieces than the latter, some of which weigh one pound or more, but cannot otherwise be distinguished from it. Much of this gum bears the name of the harbor from which it is exported. This gum is used for medicinal purposes, in pro- ducing a glossy finish on the surface of paper, and in preparing mucilage. 116 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 117 For technical purposes there are several other sub- stances which serve the purpose of gums, namely, bassa, gedda, and dextrin. GUM TRAGACANTH. Gumtni Traganth, Gomme adragant, Gummi Dragant. Gum tragacanth is yielded from the tragacanth shrub, a growth native in Greece and other countries. Its distinctive difference exists in the fact that it is not soluble in cold water as are the pure gums, but simply thickens. Its principal ingredient is vegetable phlegm. Tragacanth consists of bent thread-like, or of broad, flat, horny pieces of a yellowish tint, and is taste and odorless. In hot water, it can be dissolved until it attains the consistency of syrup. Tragacanth from Morea consists of narrow pieces, while that of Smyrna appears in the form of broad flat pieces. It is assorted according to color and purity, and serves the purpose of gums generally. CHAPTER XIV. Caoutchouc and Gutta Percha. Both of these substances are of great technical value, and are usually classified among the resins and gums, but differ from these in many particulars, especially in the fact that they are not soluble in the same liquids, and possess peculiar characteristic qualities; among these are elasticity, flexibility, etc. CAOUTCHOUC. Kautschuk, Caoutchouc, Kautschuk. This plant substance can be obtained from the milky secretion of numerous vegetables, in such quan- tities as to make the yield profitable. Several varie- ties of trees and climbing plants which grow in India, South America, and Africa are especially rich in the milky fluid from which caoutchouc is produced. The manners of yielding this product are various, though the most advantageous method is used in Brazil and is described thus : After the bark of the tree has been thoroughly cleansed, a clay trough is attached, and several incisions are made into the bark ; the sap flows from these into the trough and is caught in flasks, composed of hollow pumpkins ; the drops which adhere to the tree are also gathered in a separate vessel and furnish an inferior quality. The sap is then poured into forms where it is dried 118 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 119 by natural or artificial heat. Owing to the great demand for caoutchouc a number of experiments have recently been made with the milky saps of sev- eral domestic plants, though they have not been attended by any degree of success. The value of the India rubber, by which name caoutchouc is commonly known in this country, imported into the United States has been upward of $15,000,000 per year. The West Indian varieties of India rubber appear in trade in the form of cakes and thin slabs ; this variety is superior to that of Java and Africa. The outer appearance of the pieces is rough, black, and porous ; the pores are filled with a watery or milky fluid, and the substance has several translucent lay- ers. Sometimes the milky fluid is exported, and the rubber prepared at home. India rubber of a superior variety is highly elastic. In low temperature it becomes hard but melts at a temperature of 286 F., and becomes a tar-like mass which may be distilled and made to serve as an oil to protect against rust. India rubber is not soluble in water or spirits of wine, but dissolves in turpentine, petroleum, benzole, and chloroform. The use of India rubber, formerly nearly exclusively confined to the production of erasers, has broadened until it has become very manifold. It is used in the manufacture of water and air tight materials, band- ages, elastic threads, tubes, etc. The preparation of India rubber for technical pur- poses begins by cutting it into pieces and cooking it from two to three hours, which must be done care- fully in order to remove all watery ingredients, thus preventing the possibility of the appearance of air bubbles on the surface of the rubber when vul- canized. 120 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Para caoutchouc requires no cleansing though the inferior varieties must be subjected to the following purifying process : It is kneaded between two slowly moving rollers through which a stream of water is flowing, and is thus purified from earth, sand, and bark ; when clean it is rolled out into thin sheets and dried as thoroughly as possible. This process has important bearingupon the success which is attained \vhen the rubber is vulcanized at a later period, and it usually occupies from eight to fourteen days. The development of the caoutchouc industry really dates from the time when, through the medium of a chemical agency, the subst an cewas secured against the influence of heat, acids, and solubles, with added elasticity. The substance which imparts these qual- ities to caoutchouc is sulphur. The treatment of caoutchouc with sulphur is known as vulcanizing, and the material thus treated is known as vulcanized caoutchouc. The process employed in vulcanizing is exceedingly manifold and conforms to the use for which the vul- canized product is designed. The selection of the temperature most favorable to this process is a very difficult task, and each manufacturer has a distinct method in this particular. The methods which pro- duce favorable results then become the secret of the manufacturer. The usual manner of vulcanizing is to mix the puri- fied India rubber with sulphur and subject it to a temperature of from 270 to 300 F. in the vulcaniz- ing kettle, which is fed with vapor under the pres- sure of two or three atmospheres. Vulcanized caoutchouc is used in producing elastic tubes, plates, bands, overshoes, balloons, etc. These articles are first formed from the caoutchouc and then vulcanized, as the vulcanized material does not THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 121 adhere and cannot therefore be moulded. Frequently the grayish color of the vulcanized caoutchouc is changed to an intense black by the application of heat and a thin solution of lye. By mixing the material with a larger quantity of sulphur, and keeping it under the influence of a higher tempera- ture from six to eight hours, the India rubber hard- ens and becomes ebony-like. It appears in trade in the form of combs, canes, penholders, electric appa- ratus, etc. India rubber is imported principally from Brazil, Guatemala, Assam, and Asia, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and Madagascar. GUTTA-PERCHA. A substance, similar to caoutchouc, though slightly different, is imported from Malacca and Borneo, and is known as Getah-pertja among the Malays. It is the dried milky sap of Isonandra gutta, a tree of the family of the Sapotaceen. It comes into trade in unclean red blocks, with a thread-like fracture, and particles of bark still clinging to it. Gutta-percha possesses a weak, unpleasant odor. It is insoluble in water, alcohol, and thinned acids. Its characteristics are elasticity, flexibility, and leatheryness ; it differs from caoutchouc in its inferior elasticity. It is soluble in turpentine, sulphuric acid, benzole, and chloroform. When subjected to a tem- perature of from 175 to 210 F., gutta-percha becomes soft and pliable. By kneading in hot water, it is purified and Jiardens immediately when suf- ficiently cool. In its soft condition it can readily be formed into various articles, tubes, vessels, soles, surgeons' instruments, covering for wire, matrixes for wood engraving. The purified mass appears nearly white but can easily be colored red, black, etc. 122 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. By vulcanizing its characteristics appear to still better advantage. England furnishes much manu- factured gutta-percha in manifold forms. The mate- rial is also manufactured into various articles in this country. A product very similar to gutta-percha, which has been tested with a view to furnishing a substitute for this article, is known as Balata ; as yet it is but an experiment. CHAPTER XV. Vegetable Fats. According to the consistency, fats are divided into three groups, namely, liquid oils, butters, and tal- lows. The liquid oils differ from the ethereal oils ; tallows are firm fats, and butters are between these and are easily effected by the temperature. The chemical composition of the vegetable fats does not differ materially from those of the animal fats. OLIVE OIL. Olevenol, Huille d'olive, Olivo/ja. Olive oil is the oil which is yielded from the fruit of the common olive tree by pressure. The tree is native on the coast of Southern Asia and was trans- planted from there to Greece, Italy, Peru, and Mexico. Its cultivation is carried on most exten- sively on the coast of the Mediterranean. The ripe fruit is crushed in a horse or water power mill and is then subjected to pressure, several times, until a quantity of oil has been extracted from it, though it is not possible to yield all the oil which is contained in the fruit in this manner. It is customary in some places not to press the olives when fresh, but allow them to ferment for some time, before attempting to extract the oik 123 124 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Iii this manner a large quantity of oil is yielded, and its quality is equal, it not superior, to that obtained by the former process. In Saliil (Tunis), the olives are crushed and immersed in water, and the oil which rises to the surface is skimmed off. By this process the oil which is yielded bv the first skim- ming is the best. The oil obtained by the first pressure bears the name of young oil, and is of the finest quality; it is of a greenish color, and has the odor and taste ot the fruit. The oil which is skimmed from the surface of the water is of a yellow color and more inclined to spoil than the former. These oils bear French titles, huiles d'olive surfine and fine. The best varieties of table oils are termed huiles comes- tibles. Olive oil is largely subject to adulteration ; com- monly by the use of peanut oil, cotton-seed oil, beach-nut oil, etc., and especially with lard oil. To detect the adulteration is generally difficult and can best be accomplished by comparison with reliable samples of the genuine article, in regard to color, taste, and odor. The common olive oils appear in trade in barrels, while the table oils come in bottles. In addition to its common use as an article of diet and for its healing properties, olive oil is used in preparing a soap, which is known in trade as the Venetian, Marseilles, or Spanish soap, and is brought from Italy and Spain. Sweet oil is yielded by pressing out the dregs left after the olive oil, of the better quality, has been extracted from the olives. The various kinds of sweet oils serve as table oils, illuminating oil, for lubricating, producing soap, etc. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 125 SEED OIL. The various oils which are yielded by pressing them out of the seeds of plants or by sulphuric acid and distillation are divided into two classes, which may be distinguished from each other by the condition they maintain toward the air. One variety dries in thin layers, by absorbing the oxygen in the air, into a hard mass; the other remains soft but passes into a decomposition, which is termed rancid ; this occurs also to dry oils, and firm vegetable fats, when kept in the air in a mass. The former, which on account of their dryness serve as varnishes, etc., are known as dry oils; the latter, however, are classed as rancid or fluid oils. The dry oils become firm \vhen brought in contact with nitro-muriatic acid, while the fluid oils remain so under the same treatment. In their firm condition these oils are termed elaidin. Among the oils which form only an imperfect elaidin are cotton seed, beech nut, sun- flower, peach kernel, and almond oil. DRY OILS. Linseed oil is a light yellow oil when pressed cold, and of a brown color when extracted from the hot seeds. The former is the better. It does not solidify in an ordinary temperature, but it requires a low temperature to cause it to get hard. It is used pref- erably in oil color, varnishes, and the like. The dregs are formed into linseed oil cakes, which fur- nish excellent food for cattle. To produce varnish, the linseed oil is heated to about 600 F., but after it has reached a temperature of 480 F., the following ingredients are added : red lead, litharge, carbonate and sulphurate of lead, 126 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. and manganese, and is permitted to boil from one- half to one hour. The richer the varnish is in metaloxide the more readily will it harden when used. Glazing putty is a mixture of varnish and chalk. A mixture of varnish and red lead produces a putty for steam engines and gas pipes, and varnish and sugar or glycerine is used for printers' rollers. Ben- zoine or petroleum thinned are termed oil finish. Other varnishes for finishing are produced by dis- solving shellac in spirits of wine or turpentine. Nut oil, from walnuts, is of a yellowish color. It is odorless, but of a pleasant taste. It is used as a table oil and in producing varnish. Hemp oil, from hemp seed, is of a greenish-yellow color when fresh, but turns yellow. It is of but little value owing to its exceeding dryness, and its use is confined largely to the production of soap. Poppy-seed oil is similar to sweet oil in taste and color. It solidifies in low temperature only. It is used as a table oil and in producing fine varnishes. Cotton seed oil is produced from cotton seeds, and constitutes an extensive article of export from the Southern states of our country. When thoroughly clarified its quality is equal to that of olive oil, and is largely used to replace it. The oil of sunflowers, grape seeds furnish articles of trade. FLUID OILS. Rape-seed oil is used largely as an illuminating oil in the European countries. It is produced from a variety of seeds. This oil possesses a yellow color, and a tendency to solidify at a low temperature. It is usually refined before making its appearance in trade. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 127 Almond oil is produced from sweet and bitter almonds by cold pressure. It is clear, yellow, and odorless, and of a very mild taste. It is produced in France, Italy, England, and Germany, and is employed in the manufacture of toilet articles and medicines. Sesam oil is produced from sesam seed, the prod- uct of an oriental growth. The oil is colorless, and used in adulterating olive oil. Its manufacture is carried on in France and Germany. Peanut oil is yielded largely from the peanut, and is produced principally in the United States. Its use as a table oil is quite extensive, as well as in prepar- ing soap. Recinus oil is produced from the seed of the won- der-tree (Recinus communis), which grows in East and West India. It is thick, yellowish, odorous, tasteless, and possesses the quality of complete solu- bility in alcohol. Its use is confined to the manu- facture of perfumes, soaps, and medicines. Mustard oil is yielded, by cold pressure, from the seeds of the black mustard. Croton oil is produced from croton seed, and is a strong laxative. SOLID VEGETABLE FATS. Several vegetable fats are more or less firm or solid in ordinary temperature, similar in consistency to butter, lard, and tallow ; among these are the fol- lowing: Cocoa butter is yielded, through pressure, from the cocoa bean ; it has the odor and taste of cocoa. It melts at 90 F., but does not become rancid easily. Palm butter is an orange-colored, seedy fat which has a violet odor. It becomes rancid very easily when subjected to the air. This fat is brought into the European market in large quantities from Africa 128 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WAKES. and South America. Its use in the manufacture of soap is very extensive. In Holland, the fat is extracted from the imported palm seeds. Cocoanut oil is manufactured from the kernel of the cocoanut, which is cooked until it has yielded up its oily contents ; the latter is white and firm, but melts at a temperature of 90 F. It becomes rancid very easily. Its use in the manufacture of fine soaps is very extensive. The production of the oil is carried on in Europe generally. VEGETABLE WAX. Vegetable wax comes into trade in many varieties, which are used preferably in the manufacture of candles, and in the adulteration of beeswax. Japanese wax is the riiost important of these; it is somewhat harder than beeswax, and possesses a resinous odor, being yielded from the fruits and leaves of a resinous plant, native in Japan. The pieces of this wax which occur in trade are flat and round, and are covered with a thin white film. A much harder wax is produced in China, which is also found in trade. Chinese vegetable tallow is yielded fromthetallow tree which is native in China, West India, and Florida. It is hard, brittle, and dissolvable. Brazilian wax, or palm wax, comes from Northern Brazil. Its color is yellowish green, and it contains many small air cells. Ocuba wax is yielded from the fruit of the Ocuba tree, which grows on the shores of the Amazon. It is softer than beeswax. Myrtle wax is the firm green wax of the fruit of the Myrica cerifera in the United States, while it is yielded from other trees in Neugranda and at the Cape of Good Hope. CHAPTER XVI. Yegetable Textiles. Textiles are fibers which are capable of being woven. Textiles are divided into two classes, vege- table and animal fabrics. COTTON. Bfium \volle, Cotton, BomuJl. Cotton, an important vegetable fiber, is extensively cultivated in various parts of the globe within the thirty-fifth parallel of latitude. Cotton is produced on all the species of the genus Gassypium . The species are partly shrubs and partly herbaceous, and either perennial or annual ; they are natives of the tropical parts of Asia, Africa, and America, but their cultivation extends far into the temperate zone. They all have leaves with from three to five lobes, which in a very young state are often sprinkled with black points, and rather large flowers, which are mostly yellow, but sometimes in whole or in part purple ; the flowers very soon fall oft; they grow singly from the axils of the leaves and are surrounded at the base by three large, heart- shaped, cut or toothed involucral leaves or bracts partially growing together as one. The fruit is a three to five celled capsule, springing open when ripe, 9 129 130 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. and containing numerous seeds, enveloped in cotton, which is generally white but sometimes yellow, and issues elastically from the capsule after it bursts open. The cultivation of the cotton plant is very simple and can be accomplished on the poorest soil. In Sep- tember, or earlier, the capsules ripen and burst open with a report. The cotton is then freed from the hull by hand and from its seeds by a machine (cotton gin)- The cleaned cotton is brought into trade in various forms, and its quality depends upon the country in which it has been yielded. The fineness, length, elas- ticity, and silkiness of the fibers and its cleanness determine the quality of the cotton. In order to be able to test it thoroughly, a handful should be pressed between both hands and then drawn out; thus the length of the fibers becomes visi- ble. When the fibers are long, the cotton is termed long stapled ; when short, short stapled. The various kinds of cotton in trade are named after the country in which they are produced, but of each of these there are several varieties ; the common designation for these varieties in the cotton markets are the English names of fine, good, fair, middling, ordinary, and inferior, with the intermediate names of good fair, middling fair, good middling, low mid- dling, good ordinary, etc. The best qualities are yielded upon the best adapted soil at the first gath- ering of capsules. This cotton is usually free from hairy fibers and uniform in appearance. North American Cottons. These take rank among the best varieties of cotton produced, and provide, next to the Spanish, the European manufacturers. They are generally well prepared and cleaned. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 131 The preferred variety is the Sea Island cotton, which is produced in the moist, sandy soil of the coast islands of Georgia. It is soft, yellowish, shiny, and composed of small, loose flakes. It is very clean. Next to Sea Island, the Louisiana cotton is the best North American variety. It is soft and white and the prime-ware is free from shells and seeds. It is shipped from New Orleans in large, tightly pressed, cubical bales, containing from 400 to 650 pounds. Texas and Alabama or Mobile cotton is of a shin- ing white color though not as long and soft as the Louisiana variety. Florida cotton is inferior to the foregoing ; it is the poorest of these varieties. It is gray, extremely coarse, or fine in fiber. The prime- ware possesses a dull white color. Georgia or Upland are the names of the North and South Carolina and Georgia product. These vari- eties are usually very white, though not as soft and shiny as the Louisiana product. South American Cottons. The Brazilian variety is the finest cotton on the market if greater care were taken in preparing it for trade. The Pernam- buco cotton belongs to the Brazilian variety and ranks to Sea Island in order of quality. Its fleece is uniform, of a yellow tint, long, and soft. Ceara is harder and more brittle. Alagoas is next to Pernam- buco. Bahia is an excellent product ; while Macaio, Maranham, Paraibo are inferior grades of this variety. The colony of Guyana furnishes several grades of cotton which are somewhat inferior to the Brazilian product. Demerary, Berbice, Surinam, Essquibo, and Cayenne are among the products of this country. 132 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Columbian cotton is produced in the northwestern part of South America, namely, Venezuela and Columbia. The grades of this variety have the fol- lowing names : Varinas, Barcelona, Puerto, Cabello, Caracas, Laguayoa, Cumana, Valenzia, and Carta- gena. They are inferior to the Brazilian cotton, but would be superior to the average North American variety if carefully cleaned and prepared for the market. The Peruvian cotton, of about the same grade as the Columbian, has the following grades: Lima, Payta, Piana. West Indian Cottons. These cottons are of an excellent quality, scarcely inferior to the best North American grades ; though their unclean ness injures their quality. The various grades are Domingo, Porto Rico, Guayanilla, Cuba, St. Martinique, Cura- cao, Jamaica, Barbadoes, Trinidad. East Indian, especially the long stapled grades, are known by the name of "Surate." It is shorter than the American varieties and generally unclean. Its importation into Europe and China is very exten- sive. The grades: Dharwar, Broach, Dhollerah, Oomrawattie, Mangarole, Comptah, Madras, West- ern Madras, Scinde, and Bengal. African Cotton. Egypt furnishes the market with a few grades ; among them is Alexandria, inferior, and Maco, a very good grade. The Sea Island Maco is yielded from seeds of Sea Island cotton, though it is inferior in quality to the American product. European Cotton. The best grade comes from Spain and is named Motril. Sicily and Turkey pro- duce cotton which is usually of a very inferior quality. Australian Cotton. New South Wales, Queens- land, and New Zealand produce some cotton, but THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 133 not in sufficient quantities to make it of importance in trade. Cotton furnishes the cheapest material for wearing apparel. Through the perfection of the machinery employed in its manufacture the cultivation of cot- ton has spread very widely in the United States, as will be seen, from the increased production, in the following tabulation ; the yield of cotton is per 1,000 'bales (450 Ibs. each) : 1824 509 1834 1,205 1840 2,178 1852 3,015 1860 4,676 1862 4,800 1865* 3,656 1866 2,152 1867 1,952 1868 2,440 1870 3.154 1871 4,352 1874 4,250 1880 5,730 1883 7,000 The exportation of cotton from the United States amounted to about 6,410,000 bales in 1892. The principal ports for the exportation of cotton are New Orleans, Mobile, Galveston, Charleston, Savan- nah, Bombay, and Calcutta. During the last few years, a mixture of gun-cotton and camphor has made its appearance in trade under the name of celluloid, serving as a substitute for ivory, horn, and coral. In the production of this material, damp cotton is ground fine and mixed with 100 parts or more of camphor and is pressed into thin sheets by means of hydraulic pressure. The material is exceedingly combustible, which can be lessened by the addition of white-lead or other chem- icals. It is used largely in the production of collars, cuffs, billiard balls, buttons, combs, and fancy articles. The flexibility of celluloid, and the fact The Civil War was the cause of the great falling off of the produc. tion of cotton in this country during this peripd. 134 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. that it can easily be softened and moulded, tends to spread its use very rapidly. COTTON YARN. / BaumwolJengarn, Coton file, Bomullsgan. Cotton is spun by hand and by machine. The former comes from the Orient and is known as "hand-made; " the latter is produced in America and Europe, and is termed "machine-made." The process of spinning cotton by machine is as follows: On arrival at the mill, the cotton first enters the mixing room, where it is sorted, and the various qualities, which are often contained in a single purchase, laid out in layers of equal extent, one over the other, and trodden close together. In this manner, two descriptions of cotton are some- times placed in one mixing. When surat,for instance, is scarce and dear, and short stapled low American plentiful and cheap, spinners of what are called "coarse numbers " invariably use a mixture of both growths ; the same of other kinds, provided there is an approach of equality in length of fiber. Cotton of different shades of color is sometimes woven together in order to produce particular yarn. A quantity of this being then raked, as it is called, from the top to the bottom of the side portion of the side, a portion of each layer is thus secured. This is carried to the scutching or willowing machine, by which the cotton is cleansed from impurities, as sand, seeds, leaves, etc., through which it passes, and is then wound, in its fleecy state, upon a large wooden roller to be transferred to the carding machine. (This machine was perfected by Ark- wright.) The sliver is next passed through the drawing-frame which removes all inequalities, and THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 135 reduces the bands to one uniform thickness. Here, also, several of the slivers are joined together so as to form a continuous cord, which is still further lengthened and increased in fineness by the roving- machine. The firmly wound yarn is termed twist. The yarn is wound into "hanks," which are assorted accord- ing to their \veight and fineness into bundles. Good cotton yarn must, in addition to fineness, possess firmness and smoothness, be round, uni- formly thick, free from knots, and elastic. The largest and best cotton manufactories are in England, Germany, Austria, Belgium, Switzerland, Russia. The United States and France produce cotton yarn. COTTON GOODS. Baumwolleazeuge, Toiles de cotoa, Bomullstyger. All the cotton cloths, of which there are very many varieties, are of three kinds, namely, smooth, twilled, and velvety. The plain or smoothly woven cotton cloth is com- posed of two threads, one running lengthways (link) and the other cross ways (connective). The threads cross each other alternately, and the cloth is either firmly or loosely woven. Among the finely woven cotton cloths, the calicoes are the most conspicuous ; of these there are three kinds : Plain calico, raw, or bleached, usually used for prints. Sarsenet, used for lining, is of an inferior quality. Printed calicoes, percale, cretonne, Indian, are smooth, and printed in colors upon a white or col- ored background. 136 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. In addition to these there are the following grades of cloth among the finely woven fabrics : Cambric, shirting, Nanking, gingham, sheeting, and many other varieties. The loosely woven grades of cotton cloth are batiste, jaconet, organdie, muslin (thin), used as dress goods and drapery ; gauze, tarlatan (very thin), used in covering articles ; babbinet a variety of fine lace. The designed or patterned cotton cloths are wrought by skillfully arranging the threads. They may be produced either plain or colored upon white or colored backgrounds. The following are impor- tant varieties of this kind : Drill, made in imitation of the linen drill ; domes- tique, not patterned ; dimity, heavily woven, ribbed or patterned, white material; ribs, finely ribbed material; damask a fine curled material with beautifully patterned flowers, etc.; sateen, a cloth woven in imitation of satin; barchent, made in imitation of woolen kalmuk; pique, a smooth, finely woven fabric, which may. be white or dyed in one or more colors ; creoise, a closely woven calico, though not smooth, but twilled on one side. Velvety Cotton Fabrics. These fabrics consist of a wooly or hairy coating woven upon a smooth or twilled basis. The coating is termed flor or pol. The pol is arranged in various forms ; sometimes it stands and often it is smoothed down and pressed closely to its basis. Cotton or Manchester velvet comes into trade in all colors and qualities, and is designed to furnish an imitation for silk velvet. Excellent white and colored cotton fabrics are pro- duced in England, the United States, Germany, THE KNOWLEDGE OP WARES. 137 France, and Switzerland. The United States ranks second in the quantity of cotton cloth produced, and the number of spindles is steadily increasing, which is not true of England. Cotton bat ton consists of loose layers of carded cotton coated with a solution of lime. FLAX. Flachs, Lin, Lin. Flax is the fiberous material yielded from the stalks of the flax plant, which is cultivated exten- sively in Europe. Before its seed has fully ripened, the plant is plucked, dried, and freed from its seed pods. In order to loosen the fiber from the rind, the stalks are steamed from sixty to ninety hours, and are then dried, when the bark can easily be removed by breaking or strip- ping it off. By means of a flax-comb, it is fully cleansed and prepared for spinning. The flax of commerce is of various grades and quali- ties dependent upon the condition of the soil, treat- ment in preparing, etc. Flax is grown chiefly in Russia, Germany, Austria, Italy, France, Belgium, Ireland, The Netherlands, and to a small extent in Canada, and the United States. Good flax must be of a yellowish white, greenish white, or silver gray color, soft, shiny, and clean. The fibers must be long and firm. HEMP. Hanf, Chanvre, Hampa. Hemp is a coarser fiber than flax. It is yielded in the same manner as the latter, and its use is confined to the production of coarser articles such as rope 138 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. and oil cloth. The cultivation of hemp is carried on in Poland, Russia, Germany, and France. Two- thirds of the supply of the United States comes from the Philippine Islands. The total value of the import of hemp amounted to $7,354,000 in 1892. Good hemp must be thoroughly cleaned, soft and possess uniformly long fibers. It comes into trade in various colors; pearl and silver gray, greenish and yellow are the commonest tints. Care must be exercised in baling hemp, as self- combustion easily sets in. The bales should be opened even in a slightly warm temperature. Hemp can best be preserved in a dry, well ventilated place. LINEN' YARNS. Hanfgespinste, Fil de lin, Lin garn. Linen threads are spun both by hand and by machine. Both flax and hemp are treated in the same manner, though the latter yields coarser threads. In the mechanical process of spinning, the dry spun yarns are distinguished from those which are wet spun. The latter are spun as fine as 250 and finer. After the yarn has been spun, it is reeled. Many threads wound around the reel constitute a skein. Skeins are of various lengths in England, usually 300 yards. The number attached to the skeins shows how many are required to make a pound; e. g., No. 20, at '300 yards, equal 6,000 3 r ards. Two hundred skeins form a bundle, and from 6 to 12 bundles, according to the fineness of the yarn, a bale. The linen threads are twined from several separate fibers, and are often colored. The flander, or lace thread, is especially noted. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 139 The best flax and hemp threads come from England, France, Belgium, Saxony, Bohemia. Silesia fur- nishes more thread than any other country. LINEN GOODS. Flachsgewebe, Toiles tie lin, Lintyger. Flax and hemp yarns furnish the material for various grades of linen cloth, such as drill, jacquard, and damask. The manufacture of linen has reached its greatest perfection in France and the Netherlands, where the stimulus to produce fine yarns for the lace makers has given rise to such care and attention in the cultivation and preparation of flax, that in point of fineness of fiber it is unequaled. Consequently France, Belgium, and Holland have long enjoyed a well-deserved reputation, and in the article of lawn and linen cloth, the French are unrivaled. In the ordinary kinds of linen, our own manufactures are rapidly improving. The chief varieties of linen goods are lawn, the finest of flax manufactures, formerly exclusively made in Belfast, Armagh, and Warringstown ; cam- bric, damask, draper. Of the finer plain fabrics, sheetings are the most important in England. The chief places of their manufacture are Belfort, Armagh, and Leeds. Common sheeting and toweling are very extensively manufactured in Scotland. Ducks, huckabacks, osnaburgs, crash, and tick are very coarse and heavy materials, some fully bleached, others unbleached or nearly so. They are chiefly made in Scotland. Some few varieties of velvet and velveteen are also made of flax at Manchester, and much linen yarn is used as warp for other materials. 140 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. The industry of producing linen is as yet in its infancy in the United States, and is confined to a few manufactories. VARIOUS PLANT FIBERS USED FOR SPINNING. Jute is a very coarse vegetable fiber from which gunny bags, used in transporting coffee, rice, cotton, etc., are manufactured. Its color is yellow, and it is extensively produced in East India, China, and the Southern states. Gunny-bags are manufactured in Dundee, Scotland. Mattings and heavy curtains are often produced from jute, especially in Germany. Jute cannot be used in the manufacture of rope, as moisture tends to rot it. Sisal grass, or sisal hemp, sometimes called henni- quen, is the leading crop of Yucatan, and forms an important export to the United States. The trade in this article increased from a few thousand dollars to more than $5,000,000 in 1888. The grass is used in making cordage, hammocks, and similar articles. CHAIR RATTANS. Spanish Kohr, Rottings a meubles, Spanskt Ror. The common chair rattan is furnished by the shaft of a reed-like growth, the stronger of which are employed in the manufacture of canes and the weaker in seating chairs. The swamps of East India, Sun- day Islands, and the Phillipines are especially prolific in the production of this ware. The cane has a yel- low color, and is often stained and polished. It comes into trade in bundles of from twenty-five to thirty pounds in weight. Bamboo is the shaft of the Arundo Bambus, a West Indian growth. The young thin shoots are used in THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 141 the manufacture of walking canes, \vhile the longer and stouter varieties come into trade as fishing poles. SEA WEED. Scegras, Vnree. Sjdgras. Under this name there appears in trade, the long elastic blades of grasses which grow in the sea. The best variety of grass of this sort grows on the shores of the Adriatic and Baltic seas. Seaweed is of a grayish- brown color, elastic, and curled. The old blades become brittle and bleached. It is brought into trade in balls of Irom 200 to 300 pounds. Seaweed is used as a substitute for horse-hair in upholstery. It is much cheaper than the latter, but is also inferior in durability, and less elastic. Another vegetable material for upholstery which occurs in trade is known as Mexican fiber. It is yielded from the fiberous leaves of a Mexican and West Indian tree. STRAW WARES. In the production of straw hats and braided work, several varieties of straws are used. The common varieties used for this purpose are : Wheat straw, that of summer wheat, and especially the Marzolane straw yielded in Florence, Italy, from which the cele- brated Florence hats are made. It is used unsplit. Next to this is the Swiss wheat straw, r\ r e straw, barley, and oat straws. The finest straw for hats comes into trade raw or braided into ribbons from Italy and Switzerland. Before using, it must be bleached, split, and then piled to dry ; though the lat- ter treatment is dispensed with when the grade of straw is very fine. 142 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Straw hats are either entirely braided from straw or partially braided and sewed. They are assorted according to the quality of the straw and numbered. The leading manufactories of straw goods are in Florence, Switzerland, and Saxony. The leaves and wood of some trees also furnish material for hats. Panama hats, much esteemed for their lightness and elasticity, are largely worn in South America, and are produced from the leaves of a shrub palm. The Mexican sombrero is made from the leaves of the palmetto. In addition to the straw braided ware, basket, and braided work is made of willows and is generally known as willow ware. Baskets, mattings, carriage tops, and the like, are classified among this specie of ware. The manufacture of straw and willow \vare is increasing each year in this country. PAPER. This well known fabric is usually composed of vegetable fibers minutely divided and recombined in thin sheets, either by simple drying in contact, or with the addition of size or other adhesive materials. Paper is produced from various materials, but whatever material employed, the process is similar. The rags, bark, fiber, or other substances are reduced to the consistency of pulp by means of water. This in the early stage of the manufacture was accom- plished by macerating and boiling of the material, until, in case of bark, fibers, or other raw material, the fibers could be drawn out of the cellulose matter, after which it was beaten with mallets, or with pestles in mortars or stampers moved by some power. The beating is continued until the material is reduced to a smooth pulp. The pulping in our machine-paper mills is more rapidly accomplished by THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 143 boiling the linen or cotton rags or other material in a strong lye or caustic alkali. This effectually cleans the rags, and other vegetable fibers are softened and separated in a remarkable manner by it. They are then put into a machine, called the washing-machine, which washes out the dirt and everything but the pure vegetable fiber. This machine is a large cast- iron vessel, in \vhich the material is violently ground and drawn through a stream of water, until it is thoroughly washed and partly pulped, or, as it is technically termed, "broken in." The \vashing machine is supplied with a continued flow of clean water, and the soiled water regularly escapes through a fine gauze screen, in the ends of the cylinders in which there is an ingenious arrange- ment for carrying it off through its hollow axis. The contents are emptied into the draining chest through a large valve. Here the water is drained off, and the substance is placed into the bleaching vats, which are made of stone, and submitted to the action of a strong solution of chloride of lime for twenty-four hours and frequently agitated, after which it is transferred to a hydraulic press and relieved of a portion of the liquid and chloride of lime. It is then placed in another washing engine, and for an hour it is submitted to the same process as in the first, by which all vestige of bleaching material is removed, and the stuff is so much crushed as to be called half- stuff. From this engine it is let out by a valve, and finds its way into the heating engine, which is placed at a lower level so as to receive it. Here the arrange- ment is nearly the same as in the washing and inter- mediate engines ; but the ridges on the bars below the cylinder, and on the cylinder itself, are much sharper and the disintegration of the fibers is car- ried on with great rapidity until they are separated ; 144 THE KNOWLEDGE OP WARES. and the flow of the water in a rapid current, as it passes the cylinder, draws them out and arranges them in the water in much the same way as wool or cotton is laid on the carding cylinders of a carding machine. This operation takes about five hours, at the end of which time the materials have been worked up with water into an almost impalpable pulp. This is then let out into the pulp vat, where it is kept continually agitated by a wooden wheel revolving in it, called a hog, and from this the hand- workmen or machine is supplied. The pulp being ready for use in the vat, two pro- cesses are employed in paper-making, hand and machine-making. The latter method has replaced the former almost entirely. The principle of the machine for producing paper is very simple ; it contains a pulp vat with a wheel inside to agitate the pulp, and an arrangement for pouring the pulp over the wire gauze mould which is an endless sheet moving around two rollers, which keeps it stretched out and revolving when in opera- tion. When it reaches the couching roll, most of the remaining moisture is pressed out, and it iscarriedto the first press rolls by means of an endless web of felt ; the speed of the felt and the traveling rollers is nicely calculated so as to prevent a strain upon the still tender web of paper. Sometimes the upper of these two series is filled with steam to commence drying the web. The paper is now trusted to itself and passes on from the press rolls to the drying-cylinders, where it again meets with a felt sheet which keeps it close to the steam-filled drying cylinder. After hav- ing passed around these, it is received by the damp calenders which press both surfaces, and remove the marks of the wire and felt which are visible. This is necessary before the drying is quite complete, and THE KNOWLEDGE OP WARES. 145 it then passes the second series of drying cylinders, where the drying is finished and thence to the calen- ders, which are polished cast iron rollers, so adjusted as to give considerable pressure to the paper, and at the same time glossiness of surface. For writing papers, the paper passes through a shallow trough of size after leaving the drying cylinders, and then passes over another series of skeleton cylinders, with fans moving on the inside, by which it is again dried without heat; then it passes through the calenders. Printing and other papers are usually sized by mixing the size in the pulp, in which stage the color- ing materials, such as ultramarine for the blue tint of foolscap, are also introduced. The paper is then cut into widths upon a separate machine, which again crosscuts it into any desired size. The water mark is impressed upon the paper by fine, light wire-gauze with a woven pattern, and the impression is received when the paper is still pulp. The following are the principal varieties of ordi- nary paper ; the sizes are given in inches : Writing and Printing Papers. Pat, 12M? by 15 ; double pat, 15 by 25; foolscap, 16% by 13%; sheet and third do., 22V 2 by 13%; demy, 20 by 15 ; super- royal, 27 by 19 ; imperial, 30 by 22 ; atlas, 34 by 26 ; elephant, 28 by 23 ; antiquarian, 53 by 31. These sizes are somewhat lessened by ploughing and finishing off the edges previous to sale. Coarse paper for wrapping and other purposes, kent-cap, 21 by 18; bay-cap, 19% by 24; imperial- cap, 22% by 29 ; cartridge, casing and middle hand, 21 by 16. Purple papers of a soft texture, unsized, are used in very large quantities by sugar refiners, and are of various sizes. 10 146 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Blotting and Filtering Paper. This is uncalen- dered, made of good quality, and usually colored. It is of the same size as demy. Rice paper is a beautiful material imported from China. It is manufactured from pith, and resembles the ancient papyrus, though it is more beautiful than the latter, its color being purely white. The Chinese and Japanese are the most skillful paper-makers in the world. The manufacture of paper has become so varied as to its products and materials employed, that even to mention the names of all the grades of paper would occupy a volume for itself. The industry of paper manufacturing is experien- cing wonderful development in the United States, especially that of producing paper from wood-pulp (poplar, spruce, and other soft "woods ), which is car- ried on extensively in Michigan, New York, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Pennsylvania, and Wis- consin. Coarser papers are made from jute, hemp, and straw. About $5,000,000 worth of paper was imported into the United States during 1890, and nearly $1,000,000 worth was exported. Much of the fine paper manufactured in this country is produced in Western Massachusetts. PULP AND PAPER PRODUCTS. Cardboard is produced by a similar process as that employed in the production of ordinary paper, and ! the raw material employed is as varied as with the latter. The pulp is spread out in thicker layers and is pressed just as in making common paper. Com- monly cardboards have an additional ingredient con- sisting of clay or crayon. Pasteboards consist of several sheets pasted or pressed together. Many of THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 147 the varieties of pasteboard have a well calendered surface ; the sizing or finish of this board is various, and is so developed as to resemble the finish of gran- ite and the softness of velvet. These boards are of a number of thicknesses known as one, two, three, four, and five ply, and a very heavy board known as railroad card or bristol board. Cardboards are of very numerous sizes and qualities. Paper-hangings, or wall paper, is the name applied to the webs of paper, usually decorated, with which the interior walls of buildings are often covered. The designs are first traced out and then engraved upon wood and printed, similarly to printing calicoes, in various shades and colors. Wall paper comes into trade in rolls. Lithographic paper is prepared from good printing paper by laying on one side of the sheets a prepara- tion consisting of six parts of starch, one of alum, and two of gum arabic, dissolved in warm water and applied with a brush. Generally a little gam- boge is added, to give it a slight yellow color. Copying paper, for manifolding, is made by apply- ing a composition of lard and black-lead to one or both sides of sheets of writing paper; and after leav- ing it on for a day or so it is carefully and smoothly scraped off" and wiped with a soft cloth. Tracing paper is good printing paper rendered transparent by brushing it over with a mixture of Canada balsam and oil of turpentine or nut oil and turpentine. In either case it must be carefully dried "before using. Building and roofing paper is a heavy, coarse paper which comes into trade in rolls. The outer surface of this material is sometimes coated with a solution of tar and asphalt, \vhich adds to its dura- bility and enables it to \vithstand the action of water 148 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. for some time ; in this form it is often termed tarred felt. Papier-mache. The term papier-mache is, in trade, held to apply rather to the articles made of pulp than to the pulp itself; a vast manufacture has sprung up during the present century particularly in Birmingham, England, in which a great variety of ornamental articles and useful \vares are produced from this material. They are coated with successive layers cf asphalt varnish, which is acted upon by the heat in ovens until the volatile parts have dissipated, and it becomes hard, and capable of receiving a high polish. Mother of pearl is much used for its decoration, and, when ground down smooth and polished, has the appearance of being inlaid, though it is usually put on in small flakes only. Besides being manufactured into trays, boxes, statuary, etc., papier-mache is also used for stereo- typing, to replace lead. CHAPTER XVII. Trees and Their Products. Under this head we understand the different kinds of trees which come on the market, and also all their products. They are divided into foreign and domes- tic trees. a. DOMESTIC TREES. OAK. Eiche, Chene, Bk. Oak is a tree of the genus Querrus. The oaks have alternate leaves, often variously lobed, and a smooth nut called acorn. The species are very numerous, form forest trees of grand proportions, and live many centuries. The wood is usually hard and tough, but can be of different qualities, depending upon the age and soil in which it grows; it is provided with con- spicuous medullary rays, forming the silvery grain. The timber is used for ship-building, in carpentry, mill-work, etc. The bark is used for tanning. BEECH. Bucbe, Hetre, Bok. Beech is a tree of genus Fagus. It attains a height of 100 to 120 feet, and a diameter of four feet, hav- 150 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. ing smooth bark and thick foliage. The wood is more or less reddish-brown in color, according as the tree has grown in a dense forest, or has been freely exposed to the sun and air. It is very hard and solid, but brittle, and when exposed to the open air very liable to rot and tp be eaten by worms. It is not therefore adapted to the purposes of the house-car- penter; but when kept under water it is very dura- ble, and is accordingly employed in the erection of mills, and for dams, sluices, etc. It is also employed for many purposes by cabinet-makers, turners, etc. The wood of the red beech is more valuable than that of the white beech. ALDER. Erie, Anne, Al. Alder belongs to the genus Alnus. The common or black alder is a native of Britain and the northern parts of America. The wood is of an orange color, not very good for fuel, but affords one of the best kinds of charcoal for the manufacture of gunpowder, on which account it is often grown for this pur- pose. The wood is also employed by turners and joiners; but it is particularly valuable on account of its propert} r to resist the action of water for a long time, and is therefore used as piles for bridges, for pumps, pipes, etc. The gray or white alder is also a native of North America. The wood is white, fine grained, and com- pact, but readily rots under water. Its bark is used for tanning and dyeing. BIRCH. Birke, BouJeau, Bjork. Birch, of the genus Betulus, is a beautiful forest tree with smooth and silvery white bark. The wood THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 151 is white, firm, and tough, but can be of different qualities, depending upon the soil in which it grows. It is employed by wheelwrights, coopers, turners, etc. The sap is not only used as a beverage in a fresh state, but is converted by fermentation into a kind of wine. The bark and leaves are used in dyeing yellow. The outer or white layers being subjected to distil- lation there is obtained a peculiar reddish oil called oil of birch, which is employed in the preparation of Russian leather. It has many species, as the white or common birch, the dwarf birch, the yellow birch, and the black or cherry birch, etc. LINDEN. Linde, Tilleut. Lind. Linden is a handsome tree of the genus Tilia, has clusters of light yellow flowers, and large cordate leaves. The wood is light and soft, but tough, durable, and particularly suitable for carved \vork. It is much used by turners and for making pill-boxes. The fiberous inner bark is used for making ropes, mats, and other plaited work. ELM. Ulme, Orme, Aim. Elm, a tree of genus Ulmus, of several species, is much used as a shade tree. The wood is compact and very durable in water; it is used for a great variety of purposes by wheelwrights, machine makers, ship builders, etc.; it is also prized by joiners for its fine grain and the mahogany color which it 152 THE KNOWLEDGE OP WARES. readily assumes on the application of an acid. The bark is used in dyeing and in sugar refining. ASH. Esche, Frene, Ask. Ash is a beautiful shade tree of the genus Fraxi- nus, and is highly ornamental in parks. The wood is white, tough and hard, is much valued by wheel- wrights, cartwrights, and coach makers, joiners, and turners. It is also excellent for fuel. Some- times it becomes irregular in the disposition of its fibers and finely veined, and is then prized by cabi- netmakers. Cultivation has produced and perpetu- ated a number of varieties. MAPLE. Ahorn, Erable, Loan. Maple, of the genus Acer, is a highly esteemed tree. The wood is white, compact and firm, hard and capable of receiving a fine polish, and is used by wheelwrights, turners, etc. Sugar is sometimes made from the sap of this tree, but the specie which 3 r ields it most abundantly is the maple or sugar tree of North America. LILAC. Lilak, Syringe, Syren. Lilac, of the genus Syringa, is one of the most common ornamental shrubs. There are many varieties. The flowers grow in large conical pani- cles, are of a bluish purple or white color, and have a very delicious odor. The wood is fine grained, and is used for inlaying, turning, and the making of small articles. A fragrant oil can be obtained from it by distillation. THE KNOWLEDGE OP WARES, 153 PINE. Fichte, Fokre, Pin, Furu, Tall. Pine, of the genus Pinus, includes a number of varieties of beautiful and valuable trees. The timber is highly valuable, being very resinous and durable, although there is a great difference in timber grow- ing in different soils and situations, rich soil and sheltered situations being unfavorable to the quality of timber, which becomes white, soft, and compara- tively worthless. Common turpentine, much tar, pitch, resin, and lamp-black are products of the pine. FIR TREE. Weistanne, Sapin, Gran. Fir tree is also a highly esteemed tree. The wood is much used for musical instruments; it is also valued as fuel. WALNUT. Nassbaum, Nayer, Valnot. Walnut is a specie of the beautiful trees of the genus Juglans. The species, of which nearly thirty are known, are mostly natives of North America; a lew are found in Asia. The common walnut is a lofty tree of sixty to ninety feet. The wood of young trees is white, and but little esteemed ; that of old trees is brown, veined, and shaded with darker brown or black. The wood of the roots is beauti- fully grained. The sap is limpid like water, but contains much sugar, and the tree is sometimes tapped for it. An excellent pickle and a kind of ketchup are made of the unripe fruit. The ripe fruit is one of the best of nuts. Very similar to the common walnut is the black walnut of North America. The timber is even more 154 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. valuable than that of the common, but the nuts are inferior. The butter nut is abundant in the northern parts of North America. The wood is not apt to split or warp, and is useful for many purposes. ft. FOREIGN TREES. MAHOGANY. Mahogoniholz, Bois d' Acajou, Mahogany. Mahogany, the wood of the trunk of the mahog- any tree, Swietenia mahogoni, a tree 80 to 100 high, is a native of South America and the West Indies. It attains an immense size, and its timber is generally sound throughout, in the largest trees. The slow progress which it is observed to make, clearly indi- cates that the trees -which are cut for use must have attained a great age; 200 years has been assumed as an approximation. It is most abundant on the coast of Honduras and around Campeachy bay. St. Domingo and Cuba also yield a considerable quantity, which is of a finer quality than that obtained from the main land, which is frequently called bay wood to distinguish it from the Cuba mahogany, usually called Spanish. The wood varies much in value according to the color and beauty of its grain. EBONY. Ebenholz, Bois d'ebene, Ebenholz. Ebony, a wood remarkable for its hardness, heaviness, and deep black color, is the heart- wood of different species of Diospyros. The best ebony excelling in uniformity and intensity of color, is that from Ceylon, Mauritius, and Madagascar. The Mexican ebony is also much esteemed. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 155 Besides the genuine ebony several other kinds come into market. American ebony, the wood of which is a greenish-brown rather than a black color. It receives a good polish, is very hard and durable, and much sought alter by musical instrument makers. Imitated ebony is obtained from the pear tree, plum tree, etc., by dyeing the wood black. The genuine ebony can easily be distinguished by its peculiar odor when heated, firmness, and unchangeable color. ROSEWOOD. Kosenholz, Bois de rose, Ro?ent r a. Rosewood, a valuable cabinet wood of a dark red color, streaked and variegated with black, is obtained from several tropical leguminous trees. The finest kind comes from Brazil. We receive it chiefly from Para and Maranham ; it conies in lengths of . about ten feet. It is much used for veneering, in making furniture and musical instruments. CEDARWOOD. Cedernholz, Bois de cedre, Cedertra. Cedar is the name of several evergreen trees grow- ing in Asia and America. The cedar of Lebanon, growing in Syria and Asia Minor, has body wood of a reddish color, full of fragrant resin. Besides these, several kinds of so called cedar wood come from the West Indies. The wood, being soft, light, and of an agreeable fragrance, is used for canoes and shingles. Havana cigar boxes are made from it. The Deodar, or Himalayan cedar wood, is a resinous, fragrant, compact and very durable wood. Owing to the abundance of resin, laths made of it burn like candles. 156 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. POCKWOOD. PockenhoJz, Hois de gaiac, Pockenholz. Pockwood from West India comes on the market in big blocks which, on the outside, are of a pale yel- low color, and the inside is resinous brown or, by the influence of the air, greenish. The wood is very hard and heavy, and is used for various mechanical purposes, as for the wheels of ships, blocks, cogs and the like. The best wood comes from Jamaica; less valued is that of Porto Rico and Domingo. TEAK. Thekholz, Tectone, Tetra. Teak is the name of two kinds of timber, valuable for shipbuilding and other purposes; one of them is known as Indian teak and the other as African teak. The most valuable timber of this variety is produced in the East Indies, it is light and easily worked, strong, durable, and not liable to the attacks of insects. BOXWOOD. Buchsbaum, Buis, Buthom. Boxwood is the wood of the box. It is of a beauti- ful pale yellow color, remarkably hard and strong, of a fine, regular, and compact texture, and capable of a beautiful polish. The wood is much valued for the purposes of the turner and the wood carver, and is preferred to every other kind of wood for the manu- facture of flutes, of mathematical instruments, etc. The following kinds of wood also come on the market, although less extensively : Olive wood, of the olive tree, is yellowish-brown and beautifully variegated, durable, and of an aro- matic odor. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 157 Acacia wood, in old trunks, is strong and durable, and admits of a fine polish and is much esteemed lor many purposes. Cashew wood, from tropical America, is much esteemed for fine cabinet work. Satin wood is the hard, lemon-colored, fragrant wood of an East Indian tree. It takes a lustrous finish and is used in cabinet work. The name is also given to the wood of a species of prickly ash grow- ing in Florida and the West Indies. Ironwood is a name applied, in different countries, to the timber of various trees, on account of its great hardness and heaviness. It is chiefly used for axles, ploughs and other agricultural implements. WOOD PRODUCTS. Veneer is a layer of wood, cut very thin, for the purpose of being glued to the surface of commoner kinds. Only choice kinds of hard woods are sawed into veneer, and they are usually attached to deal or pine, so as to give both the appearance of being one piece. In this way, the more costly kinds of fur- niture \voods are economically used by the cabinet makers. By wooden ware we generally understand all articles made of wood. They may be more or less subjected to labor. We mean especially such wares as the cabinetmaker, turner, carver, etc., must first improve before sending on the market. All kinds of furniture, musical instruments, playthings of good or poor quality, partly plain, partly painted or gilded, partly made of a mixture of sawdust and other articles, belong among wooden wares. Most of these playthings are manufactured exclusively in Germany, and are exported from there all over the world. 158 THE KNOWLEDGE OP WARES, Besides those articles directly made of wood, there are several other products yielded from charred wood. The most important of these are as follows: Wood charcoal is coal made by charring wood in a kiln or retort, from which air has been excluded, and by this process the more volatile matters burn away, and most of the carbon remains. Charcoal can IDC made from any kind of wood, but young and firm trees yield the best *coal. The uses of wood charcoal are numerous. It is largely employed as a fuel and as a valuable material in the construction of niters, not only for decolorizing purposes, but for assisting in purifying water for domestic use; itisalso valuable in the preparation of gunpowder and color- ing matters. Wood tar is a thin, black, viscous liquid obtained by the distillation of the wood of pine, spruce, or fir. It is used in varnishes, cements, and to render ropes, oakum, etc., impervious to water. Pitch is the black residue which remains after dis- tilling wood tar. Pitch is solid at the ordinary tem- perature of our climate, but softens and melts with a small accession of heat. It is much used in mak- ing artificial asphalt for building and paving pur- poses, and in the black varnish used for coating iron work to keep it from rusting. Lampblack is the soot produced by burning resin, turpentine, pitch, oil, and other matters, in such a manner that large volumes of smoke are formed and collected in properly arranged receptacles. It consists of finely divided carbon, sometimes with a very small proportion of various impurities. It is used as an ingredient in printers' ink, and various black pigments and cements. India Ink. The cakes of this substance, which is a THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 159 mechanical mixture, and not, like the true inks, a chemical compound, are composed of lampblack and size, or animal glue, with a little perfume. It is extensively employed for designs in black and white and all intermediate shades of color. CHAPTER XVIII. Lichens and Fungus. Among these cryptogamous plants there are very few that come into market, at least in their natural state, although several are much esteemed in the preparation of important articles; e. g., soda, bro- min, iodine; many are valuable as food. ICELAND MOSS. Islaadisbes Moos, Lichen d' Islands, Islandslaf. Iceland moss is a lichen, found in all the northern parts of the world, and is collected as an article of commerce in Norway and Iceland. In many places this lichen covers the whole surface of the ground, growing to about one and one-half to four inches high. It is of a leathery and somewhat cartilagin- ous substance. Iceland moss is an agreeable article of food. It contains 80 per cent of a kind of starch called lichen starch, or lichenin, and owes its bitter- ness to an acid principle, cetracic acid. CARRAGHEEN, OR IRISH MOSS. Islandishes Perlmoos, Mousse perlee, Perlmossa. Carragreen is a seaweed now used to a considerable extent both medicinally and as an article of food. It is found on the rocky seashores of most parts 160 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 161 of Europe and on the eastern coast of North America. The species which principally constitute the carra- green are remarkably numerous. It is from two to twelve inches long, branches by repeated fork- ing, cartilaginous, flexible, reddish brown. When bleached, it is the Irish moss of commerce. FUNGUS. Mushroom is an edible fungus, having a white stalk which bears a convex or evenflattish expanded portion called the pileus. This is whitish and silky, or somewhat scalv above, and bears on the under tf side radiating gills which are at first flesh-colored, but gradually becomes brown. It has a pleasant smell, and is largely used as food. It is also culti- vated from spawn. Lactary of several varieties is also valuable for food. It is full of a juice-like milk. It is brought to market either preserved in butter or in brine, very rarely dried. Morel is an edible fungus, the upper part of which is covered with a reticulated and pitted hymenium. It is nutritious and not difficult to digest, and is chiefly used in sauces and gravies, on account of its pleasant flavor. It is used either fresh or dried, and is often brought to market in a dried state. Truffle is any one of the several kinds of roundish, subterranean fungi, usually of a blackish color. It varies in size; on account of its agreeable flavor it is used in the preparation of many dishes. It is brought to market either in slices which are immersed in fat, or dried and packed in waxed paper. CHAPTER XIX. Vegetable Salts and Acids. SALT OF SORREL. SauerkleesaJz, Sel d' oseille, Syrsalt. Salt of sorrel is an alkaline substance, which is found in thejuice of several plants of the genus Oxalis and Rumex. It is obtained by crystallizing thejuice, expressed from the leaves of these plants. The brown salt which is first obtained is purified by dissolving it in boiling water and then subjected to recrystalli- zation ; it then forms clear, colorless prisms, which are not altered by contact with the air, but in time become opaque and white. The taste of the salt is harsh and sour. Good pure salt of sorrel is partially consumed in a coal fire, giving rise to a bluish smoke and leaving a residue possessed of a strong alkaline taste (potash). Salt of sorrel is used for extracting spots, and par- ticularly iron marks from linen; it is also used in dyeing. Oxalic acid is a dibasic acid, existing combined in oxalis as an acid potassium oxalate and in many plant tissues as the calcium oxalate. It is prepared on a large scale, by the action of fused catistic soda or potash on sawdust, as a white crystalline sub- stance, which has a strong acid taste and is poison- ous in large doses. It is used in dyeing, calico print- 162 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 163 ing, bleaching flax and straw, the preparation of formic acid, and in salts of lemon for removing ink stains, mold, etc. TARTAR. (WINESTONE.) Tartar is the reddish crust or sediment formed in the interior of wine vats and wine bottles. Origin- ally, it exists in the juice of the grape, and is soluble therein ; but during the fermentation of thejuice, and as it passes into wine, much alcohol is developed, which remaining in the fermenting liquor, causes the precipitation of the tartar. Some wines, when bot- tled, are not fully ripe, and more alcohol being there- after developed, a further precipitation of tartar takes place and forms a crust in the bottles. Tartar comes on the market under the name of crude tartar, or argol and cream of tartar. ARGOL. (CRUDE TARTAR.) Roher Weinstcin, Tartre, Raa Vinstein. The constituents of argol are bitartrate of potash, tartrate of lime, with coloring and extracting mat- ters. It is generally of a reddish tinge, obtained from the color of the grapes, but sometimes of a grayish-white color, when it has been deposited dur- ing the fermentation of the juice of colorless grapes. The red or white argol is denominated in commerce crude tartar, and its principal uses are in the prep- aration of cream of tartar and tartaric acid. It is also frequently used in dyeing, calico printing, and in many chemical preparations. CREAM OF TARTAR. Gereinigtcr Weiastein, Tartre purife, Renad Vinstein. Cream of tartar is purified tartar or argol ; so called because of the crust of crystals which forms on 164 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. the surface of the liquor in the process of purification by recrystallization. It is a white crystalline sub- stance, \vith a gritty, acid taste. It is largely used as an ingredient in baking powders, and in dyeing, etc. TARTARIC ACID. Weiasaure, Acide tartarique, Viasyra. Tartaric acid is usually seen in the form of color- less, transparent, oblique prisms which are not affected by the action of the air, have an agreeable acid taste, and are soluble in water and alcohol. This acid occurs abundantly in the vegetable king- dom both in the free and combined state. It is found as a free acid in tamarinds, grapes, the pineapple, etc., and in combination with potash and lime in tamarinds, grapes, mulberries, and in small quantities in the j uice of many other vegetables. It is, however, from argol, a product of the fermentation of grape juice, that the tartaric acid of commerce is obtained. Tartaric acid is used in large quantity by calico- printers and dyers for the removal of certain mor- dants and is much employed in medicine, in the prep- aration of effervescent draughts, and for other pur- poses. Some other kinds of salts as soda, potash, verdigris, sugar of lead, etc., which are partly prepared from vegetable products, are mentioned in connection with the mineral products. PART SECOND. Animal Products. ' The animals of the more developed as well as those oi/the lower stages of animal life furnish products which have an important bearing upon commercial and industrial enterprise. The following divisions serve to distinguish animals belonging to the vari- ous developments of animal life : 1. Vertebrates. This division includes all animals which have an internal skeleton joined to backbone. It comprises four classes: 1, mammalia (animals which produce their young alive and for a time suckle them, as the dog, cat, lion, etc.); 2, birds; 3, reptiles; and 4, fishes. 2. Molluscs. Animals of a soft texture, and having no skeleton ; generally furnished with a stony cover- ing or shell; as the oyster, snail, and mussel. 3. Articulates. Animals consisting of a number of joints or rings, soft or hard, supplying the place of a skeleton ; as the lobster, worms, spiders, and insects. 4. Radiates. So called because in many cases their organs are arranged like rays proceeding from a center; also called zoophytes, or plant animals, from the resemblance to some specie of plants. The coral zoophyte and microscopic animals belong to this division. 165 CHAPTER I. Products from Vertebrates. a. FURS AND HIDES. Most of the mammalia have an outer garment consisting of a haired hide, which in accordance with the skin of other vertebrates consists of two layers : one sensitive, called dermis, and one non-sensitive, called epidermis. The skin of many animals has a wide range of usefulness, and therefore constitutes an important article of trade. Hides that have thin, short, and coarse hair are especially adapted to the preparation of leather ; those with long, dense, and beautiful hair are called furs. Hides are obtained mostly from horned cattle, while furs are obtained from wild animals, especially from beasts of prey and rodentia. FURS. For manufacturing purposes, furs are classified into felted and dressed. Felted furs, such as beaver, otter, hare, and rabbit, are used for hats and other felted fabric, in which the hairs or filaments are made so as to interlace or entangle, forming a very strong and close plexus. Dressed furs are those to which furrier's art is applied in making muffs, boas, and the fur trimmings of garments. The fur is not 166 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 167 separated from the pelt for these purposes. After the pelts have been cleaned and dried, they are made up into garments and trimmings by sewing through them. The pelts, however, are very irregular in shape, and often differ in the color of their parts; theyneedbe cut into pieces, matched according to their tint, and sewed together edge to edge; this requires much skill. The following kinds are obtained from carnivor- ous animals: Lion fur is obtained from the lion, found in South- ern Asia and most parts of Africa. The color is ta\wiy yellow or yellowish brown. Tiger fur, of royal tiger, from Southern Asia and India, is tawny or rufous yellow, transversely striped with black. Jaguar fur, from Texas and Mexico, is brownish yellow, with large, dark, somewhat angular rings, each generally enclosing one or two dark spots. Leopard fur, from Africa and Asia, is of a yellow or fawn color, with rings or rose-like clusters of black spots. Serval fur is tawny, with black spots. Cat fur is partly from the domestic cat, partly from the wild cat of Southern Europe. The color is gray-brown or tawny transversely striped. Beauti- ful cat furs are obtained from North America and Russia. Ermine fur is of a pure white color except the tip of the tail, which is black. The spotted appearance of this fur is not natural ; it is produced by sewing the black tail-tips on the white fur on certain spots. Sable fur, obtained chiefly from Northern Russia and Siberia, is brown, grayish-yellow on the throat, and small grayish-yellow spots are scattered on the 168 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. sides of the neck. The whole fur is extensively lus- trous, and hence of the very highest value. Martin fur is of two sorts ; that of the common martin and that of the pine martin. Both species are of a dark tawny color, the common martin hav- ing a white throat, and the pine martin a yellow throat. The fur of the martin is often dyed and sold as an inferior kind of sable. Otter fur has been known in Europe about a century and a half, being obtained from the otters which frequent the seas washing the Asiatic shores of the Russian dominions; the fur varies from a beautiful brown to jet-black, and is very fine, soft, and glossy. Glutton fur is provided with long nairs, generally of a brown color, sometimes approaching black, lighter bands passing from the neck along the flanks, and meeting at the tail. The short fur is chestnut brown ; the muzzle is black. The fur of glutton is sometimes of a considerable value, and is used for muffs, cloaks, etc. Fox fur, partly from the common fox, partly from other varieties, is obtained in many different quali- ties. The most important varieties are from the following: Cross-gray fox, with a dark brown cross on the back ; coal fox, which on the back is black and on the sides gray ; both varieties furnish valu- able furs. The most esteemed of all furs is furnished by the black fox of Northern Europe and Asia. It is very similar to the common fox, but is entirely of a black velvety color. Gray fox furnishes fur of a gray color, varied with black. Arctic fox furnishes a wooly fur, which on some parts is two inches in length ; the color is pure white in winter, varying to> a brownish or bluish in the summer. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 169 The fur of various other animals of this class is similarly valued, either for its warmth or its beauty; such as that of the bear, badger, lynx, wolf, rac- coon, dog. FURS OBTAINED FROM PENNIPEDES. Seal fur, called seal skin of commerce, is obtained from the seals and the otaries, frequenting various coasts, chiefly in the Southern ocean. The color of the fur is yellowish, variously spotted, and marked with brown. Furs obtained from artiodactylous animals are few. They are as folio ws : Hfeindeer fur, of the reindeer, which belongs to the mostly northern parts of the globe as Lapland and Siberia, is of a gray-brown or light gray color, depending upon the season. FURS OBTAINED FROM INSECTIVOROUS ANIMALS. Mole fur, of the common mole, is ordinarily of a black color, but is occasionally found yellowish-white, or gray, and even orange. The silky and velvety fur lies smoothly in every direction ; the short hairs grow perpendicular from the skin. Muskrat or desman fur is held in much esteem. The Russian desman is blackish above, whitish beneath ; it has long silky hair, with a softer felt beneath. Desman fur is chiefly valued on account of the musky odor which it long exhales. FURS OBTAINED FROM GLIRENE ANIMALS. Beaver fur, of the beaver from North America, has a length of two or three feet ; its color is generally chestnut, rarely black, spotted, or nearly white. It has short, shining hairs. 170 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Squirrel fur, of the common squirrel, flying squirrel, and many other varieties, is of many different colors. That of the common squirrel is white beneath, and red-brown above, and in winter gray. Grayish furs are also found on the market under the name of minever. Chinchilla fur, of the chinchilla, constitutes an important article of commerce ; it is of a lead gray color. The fur of other animals of this class is also esteemed, as that of marmot, hamster, hare, rab- bit, etc. The most extensive trade with furs is led by Russia, and secondly by England, which receives from her colonies in North America. The great source of furs is the Hudson Bay territory. HIDES AND SKINS. In trade we generally distinguish between hides and skins. Hide is generally applied to the undressed skins of the larger animals, as oxen, horses, etc. ; skin is especially applied to that of small animals, as calf, sheep, or goat. In their natural state, they are called raw hides or skins ; they are preserved either by drying or salting. The salted hides, into which alum, soda, or potash are rubbed, are more dura- ble than dried hides ; the weight increases by salt- ing, but not by tanning ; therefore they are gener- ally sold at a lower price. Besides the ox and the cowhides furnished by home trade, vast numbers are brought into market from Monte Video, Buenos Ayres, Russia, and Northern Germany, and a considerable number of dried buffalo hides are brought from the East Indies. Calf skins are, when tanned, chiefly used for the upper leather of boots and shoes. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 171 Sheep and lamb skins are imported in large quan- tity from Australia, tanned, and used for bookbind- ing, furniture, gloves, etc. Dog skins are tanned or tawed for gloves, and for thin shoes or boots. Seal skins are manufactured into the so called "patent leather" by varnishing the upper surface. Hog or pig skin is tanned and chiefly used in the manufacture of saddles for horses, etc. Kangaroo skins of various species are tanned or tawed in Australia, and form a kind of leather in great favor for gentlemen's dress-boots. / LEATHER. Letter, Cu/'r, leader. Leather is the dressed skin or hide of an animal, or a part of such a skin. Leather is manufactured by tanning, tawing, or shamoying. Tanning is to convert a hide or skin into leather by the usual process of steeping it in an infusion of oak or some other bark, whereby it is impregnated with tannin, or tannic acid, which exists in several species of bark, and is thus rendered firm, durable, and in some degree impervious to the \vater. Two main kinds of tanned leather are distinguished as sole leather and upper leather. Sole leather is made from the largest and thickest hides by a slow process of tanning ; it is of many dif- ferent qualities; being thick and strong, it is used for soles of boots and shoes and for other pur- poses. Upper leather is made from a thinner kind of hides, and often the tanning is dyed and treated with oil ; it is used for vamps and quarters for shoes. Many different kinds appear as : 172 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Waxed leather which should be of a light brown color, uniform and without spots. Greased leather is made of hides as well as skins ; after tanning it is dyed black on the grain side and greased. Of greased leather the Russian leather is most esteemed especially for its aromatic odor, which it derives from the peculiar oil of the birch-bark used in tanning it. The fact that its odor repels moths and other insects, renders this leather particularly valu- able for binding books. At first it was prepared only in Russia, but is now imitated in all countries. Sleek leather is tanned \vith care, but not greased ; by varnishing and grinding it is rendered smooth, soft, and glossy; it is generally black, but also brown. Morocco leather is prepared in large quantities from goat skins and sheep skins. It is always dyed on the outer or grain side with some color, and the leather dresser, in finishing, gives a peculiar ribbed or roughly granulated surface to it. Kid skin is smooth, elastic, of a nice, light brown color; it is used for gloves. Chagrin is strong, but rough and grained, and dyed in many different colors. Shamoying is a process used in preparing certain kinds of leather, which consists of frizzing the skin, and working oil into it to supply the place of the astringent (tanning, alum, or the like) ordinarily used in tanning. The leather which is called shammy is soft and pliant ; originally it was made from the skin of the chamois, but is now made from the skins of the sheep, goat, kid, deer, and calf. It is brought on the market either white or dyed ; the dyed is gen- erally of a yellow color. Any kind of shamoying THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 173 leather that is handsomely finished, colored, and gilded is called cordwain. Tawing is to prepare skins, as those of sheep, lamb, goats, and kids, for gloves and the like, by imbuing them with alum, salt, and other agents for softening and bleaching them. White kid skin should be of a uniform color, smooth, and without spots, on the outer side shining and the inner velvety. PARCHMENT. Pergament, Parchemino Pergament. There are several kinds of parchment, prepared from the skins of different animals, according to their intended uses. The ordinary writing parch- ment is made from those of the sheep and of the she- goat; the finer kind, known as vellum, is made from those of very young calves,- kids, and lambs ; the thick common kinds for drums, tambourines, etc., are those from old goats and sheep. A kind of parchment is made from the water leaf or . unsized paper by immersing it only for a few seconds in a bath of oil of vitriol, diluted with one half its volume of water. It resembles accurately the ani- mal parchment, and is in some respects preferable to the old kinds, for insects attack it less, and it can be made so thin as to be used for tracing paper, and bears wet without injury. 6. HAIRS. These materials, which are exclusively found on the more developed vertebrates, are a modification of the epidermis and consist essentially of nucleated particles. Although different to their exterior quali- ties, the inner are alike; but by their exterior differ- ence, as in length, firmness, elasticity, etc., they 174 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. are employed for different articles, and constitute, therefore, an important article of trade. According to their different degrees of fineness, softness, and firmness, they are termed hair, wool, bristles, fur, etc. HAIR. Haar, Foil Crin, Haar. Hair is distinguished by its fineness, softness, and straight or slightly curled fibers. The following main kinds are brought into market : Camel's hair, partly from dromedary, partly from bartrian camel is gray or brown; some kinds are coarse, others comparatively soft ana fine. It is used in the manufacture of cloth, pencils, or small brushes. Alpaca hair, from alpaca of the genus Lama, is straighter than that of the sheep, very strong in proportion to its thickness, and breaks little in comb- ing. The fiber is small, and it is very soft, pliable, and elastic. Vicugna, a South American mammal, has a thick coat of very fine reddish-brown wool, and long, pendent hair on the breast and belly. Goat hair is obtained from several species, of which angora furnishes the best. It is a beautiful, silky hair, eight inches long. Of this goat hair a kind of yarn is made known as Turkish yarn or camel yarn, and of which also a manufacture of camlets is extensively carried on. Cashmere goat hair is very long, fine, and silky hair, from which the highly valued cashmere shawls are made. It is not so much in Cashmere that this variety of goat is to be found, as in Thibet, from which the finest goat hair is imported into Cashmere, to be there manufactured into shawls. The hair is THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 175 even longer than that of the angora goat, and not, like it, curled into ringlets, but straight. It is about eighteen inches long. Imitations of cashmere shawls are manufactured in France rather exten- sively, some from the Thibet wool entirely and others of a mixture of this with silk and cotton. Mohair, the wool of the angora goat, a native of Asia Minor. Few animals have so beautiful a cover- ing as the fine, soft, silky, and always pure white wool of this goat. It is only within the last thirty years that mohair has been in great demand, but its development as an article of trade has been simul- taneous with that of alpaca. WOOL. WolJe, Laine, Ull. Wool is the soft and curled specie of hair which grows on sheep and some other animals, which sometimes approaches fur. Wool is the most impor- tant of all animal products used in manufacture, and ranks next to the cotton as a raw material for textile fabrics. Its use as an article for clothing is almost universal in the temperate regions of the globe. Wool varies in character according to the peculiar breed of sheep which yield it, and also with the con- ditions of the soil, food, shelter, and climate in which the sheep are raised. Wool of the first quality has fine, soft, elastic fibers, and is free from injurious impurities; the commercial value of any sample depends, therefore, upon the degree in which it possesses these properties, and in combed wool, it* also depends upon the length of its threads. Accord- ing as the sheep are sheared once or twice a year, the wool is termed the first cut or second cut ; the former is always preferred, being more developed. For 176 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. technical purposes, shorn fleeces are divided into two classes, one called hogs or tegs, the other wethers or ewes. The former are the first fleeces shorn, the latter are those of the second or succeeding years ; but the meaning of these terms varies a little in dif- ferent districts. The fleeces of yearlings have, as a rule, longer threads, and are otherwise of superior quality to the wool of older animals. As long stapled wools are used for worsted goods, and the short stapled for woolen goods, the various breeds which yield these two leading kinds are naturally divided into long fleeced and short fleeced classes of sheep. In its raw state, the wool is covered with a peculiar fat, which renders it viscid ; by washing this fat is removed. The perfectly cleansed wool loses 50 per cent of its weight. The washing of the wool is either performed on the animal's body, or after it has been taken from its skin ; by latter method hot water is used, which renders the wool conglomerate and makes it useful only for carding. The wool imported into the United States amounted to $19,688,108 in 1892. WOOLEN YARN. Wollengara, Fit de laine, Ullga.ru. Before wool can be manufactured it must be sub- jected to some preparation. The first step is to care- fully wash the raw material and thus remove the fat therefrom. Some wool is then immediately colored and is used in preparing colored fabrics. When dry, the wool is separated (by hand or machine) and thoroughly loosened, and cleansed from dust and impurities. Long wool, which is to be used in knitting stockings does not need this preparation. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 177 The wool is then combed or carded. In combing, -the long threads are separated from those which are short. Combing is needed only by wool which is designed for smooth fabrics. Half combed yarn is produced from long, carded wool, which is formed into narrow ribbons, passed through hot rollers, and thoroughly stretched. This yarn is used in the production of carpets, embroidery, and ornamental articles. In order to make the wool for carding more pliable and prevent its becoming felty, it is soaked in olein or other oils. The process of carding is accomplished foy means of a carding machine, provided with teeth fastened to strips of leather. The wool is then cut into square fleeces, and these are carded into loose threads which are then spun more firmly and finally wound into firm yarns. The yarn is then wound into skeins which generally -weigh about a pound, and are packed according to their weight into bundles, each variety bearing a number. Yarn is usually dyed when it makes its appearance in trade. The finest yarns are the zephyr yarns, which came on the market in 1884. Fantasia yarn is the name applied to the fine yarns produced from mohair or alpaca. The trade in woolen yarns has materially increased in late years. WOOLEN MATERIALS. The materials produced from sheep's wool are of two classes, namely, cloths and draperies. CLOTHS. Cloth is woven on a weaver's bench, where it is stretched out by means of wide strips which are attached to its sides. Various grades of yarns are 178 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. employed in weaving. After weaving, the loose, thin fabric is subjected to the following treatment, namely, napping, milling, carding, shearing, and pressing. By napping, the long knots and unclean parts are removed. Milling causes the cloth to contract and become firm at the same time the material is cleaned from fat. Carding brings the felty wool to the sur- face, which is then sheared to produce the smooth outer surface of the cloth. Pressing lends a firmer and better appearance to the cloth. Smoothing and brushing also constitutes a part of the work of fin- ishing cloth. It is usually passed through rollers and subjected to the action of steam in smoothingit. The bales of cloth are of various widths, both single and double breadths. The finest cloth is usu- ally woven widest. The quality of the cloth is usu- ally determined by the fineness of the yarn and the number of threads which are used in weaving. Woolen cloth appears in its natural color, though it is often made of dyed yarns and is sometimes dyed after weaving. Cashmere may be distinguished from other cloths by the fact that it is twilled. In later times the manufacture of cashmere has been largely superseded by satins, buckskins, velours, etc. Beaver and lady- coating are not twilled. The best woolen cloths and buckskins are produced in the Netherlands, France, England, Germany and Austria. Table spreads, flannels and felts are to be classified among the woolen cloths as well as the long haired materials produced in Saxony. Mixed Fabrics. Wool and silk or cotton and wool are often woven into the same cloth. Brocaded and cashmere shawls belong to this class of goods, also THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 179 Turkish fez (wool and silk) and mixed cloths from "wool, alpaca, mohair, and cotton and silk -which are produced in Bradford. The United States is the third wool manufacturing nation of the world ; the industry's principal seats are in New England, New York, and Pennsylvania, though it is gradually spreading throughout the Northern states. DRAPERIES. (DRESS GOODS.) The wool used for draperies, excepting merinoes, need not be of a fine texture. Draperies are usually produced from fine combed yarns, e. g., thibets, me- rinos, bombazines, delaines, etc.; of hard wool, as Orleans, plush, serge, table damask, etc. Draperies are smooth, twilled, corded, patterned, and vel- vety. The following are the names of some of the smooth draperies : Bucan, moor, popeline, long ribs. The twilled materials are : Merino, thibet, serge, satin, lasting, coating, gurte, and borden. The patterned cloths: Damask, brocades, shawls (plaids and tartans), etc. Woolen velvets : Felbel, velvet or plush used in producing hats and shoes and variety of other arti- cles. Then there are manifold varieties of printed woolen goods and knitware, stockings, jackets, drawers, etc. BRISTLES. Schweins borste, Soi de pore, Borst. Bristles are the strong hairs growing on the back of the hog and wild boar. The quality of bristles depends on their length, stiffness, color, and straight- ness, white being most valuable. The best bristles 180 THE ^KNOWLEDGE OF WAKES. are produced by pigs inhabiting cold countries. Bristles come into market either sorted or unsorted. Sorted bristles are extensively used in the manufac- ture of brushes, pencils : The unsorted bristles are used as a material for stuffing. The northern coun- tries of Europe furnish good bristles. HORSE HAIR. Horse hair is obtained from the common horse. The mane and tail as well as the hair come into mar- ket ; it is usually long and straight, and is then used in its natural state or dyed for the manufacture of some cloth, or curled by spinning, boiling in water and dried in the oven, and is then used for stuffing mat- tresses, etc. QUILLS. Hair is termed quill when it is thick, pointed and firm, as that of porcupine, which is found in North- ern Asia and Southern Europe. The quills are used for penholders, playthings, etc. c.-HORN. Horn, Came, Horn. Horn is a hard, projecting, and usually pointed organ, growing upon the heads of certain animals, especially of the ruminants, as cattle, goats, and the like. The horns are employed for useful and orna- mental purposes. The most important are those of the ox, buffalo, and two or three species of deer, and of sheep and goats. Horn can be softened and split into thin laminae, or pressed into moulds; and as it recovers its peculiar characteristics of flexibility, toughness and transparency, when cold, it is partic- ularly adapted for a great variet}' of purposes. It THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 181 can also be dyed in various colors. Solution of gold in aqua regia, dyes it red; solution of nitrate of silver in nitric acid, black ; a paste of red lead, made with a solution of potash, colors it brown ; so that, with a proper arrangement and application of these materials, the most admirable imitations of the much more costly tortoise shell can be produced. The more common vegetable dyestuffs, as log-wood, saffron, indigo, etc., will also color it, but none so permanently nor so brightly as the metallic mate- rials. Horn is employed in making handles for umbrellas, knives, forks, etc., and even ornamental boxes, and a variety of other articles. Combs are made out of the flattened sheets, and beautiful carvings are made out of the solid parts of buf- falo horns. Ox horns, too, are sometimes of a fine quality and color, and are fashioned into drinking cups, and other articles, often highly ornamented. Deer horns, which, strictly speaking, are bone, have a very limited application ; they are employed in this country for making knife-handles, much in favor for pocketknives. WHALE BONE. Fischbein, Baleine, Fiskben, Whalebones are firm, elastic substances, resembling horn, taken from the upper jaw of whales. Whale bones vary in length from a few inches up to ten. Their color is usually of a bluish black, but in some species they are striped longitudinally with bands of a whitish color ; and they terminate at the point in a number of coarse, black fibers of the baleen, which fibers are found more or less, down both sides of the blade. These fibers are much used by brushmakers. There are three principal kinds in the market, and they are generally known as whale fins. The first is 182 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. the Greenland, or Davis Strait, and North Sea fins; second, the South Sea, or black fish fins ; third, the Northwest coast, or American whale fins. Whale- bone requires some preparation before being fit ior use ; this, however, is very simple. It is first trimmed. The blades are then boiled in water for several hours, until they become soft enough to be cut easily with a common knife. The workmen then cut them into lengths fitted for the purposes to which they are to be applied. They are chiefly used in strips, such as stay-bones and umbrella ribs. Generally, the boiling is combined with a dyeing process, to make the whalebone perfectly black, which is preferred to its disagreeable natural color. Strips of rattan canes dyed black are used as a cheap kind of artificial whalebone, but the best imitation is made of vulcan- ized or prepared caoutchouc, which in many respects is superior to the real whalebone. TORTOISE SHELL. Schildpadd, Ecaille, Skoldpadd. Tortoise shell is the large scale of the carapace, or shield, a species of sea turtle. It is found in the Indian ocean, Amboyna, New Guinea, Havana, and the Red sea. A remarkable peculiarity in this species is the arrangement of the thirteen plates forming carapace, which instead of being joined together by their edges, so as to make apparently one piece, are thinned off at their edges and overlap each other like the tiles of a roof. They vary in size according to the part of the shield they occupy. The beautiful mottled color and semi-transparent characters of this material are well known. A remarkable quality is possessed by tortoise shell which increases its usefulness for the ornamental purposes to which it is generally applied, that is, its property of being THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 183 easily softened by a heat equal to boiling water, and of retaining any form when cold which has been given it while heated. Pieces can also be welded together by pressure of hot irons properly applied. The chief use of tortoise shell is making combs for the hair ; but it is also used for inlaying small pieces of ornamental furniture and various other fancy objects. CATGUT. Darmsaiten, Cordes de boyau, Tarmstrangar. Catgut is made from the intestines of sheep, which are first cleansed and freed from the loose fat, then prepared by soaking and partial putrefaction to loosen the different membranes of which the intes- tine is composed. The small intestines are used for catgut. The coarse kinds of catgut strings are used for pulle\ r and lathe bands, drill bows, hatters bows, and for other purposes where a strong cord subject to friction is required ; the finer kinds are twisted into whip cord, and are used for fishing tackle and the strings of musical instruments. For the latter purpose, a very superior quality is required. The best, called Roman strings, are made chiefly in Milan. Good strings should be uniformly thick throughout, elastic, and remain transparent when stretched. Gold-beaters' skin is a delicate membrane prepared from the large intestine of the ox, and is used as a dressing for slight wounds, as the fabric of court- plaster, but chiefly by gold-beaters. a'. HARTSHORN, BONES, IVORY, ETC. HARTSHORN. Hirchhorn, Carne de cerf, Hjorthorn. Hartshorn is a term given to the antlers of several species of hart. Its composition is very different 184 THE KNOWLEDGE OP WARES. from that of persistent horns, as those of the ox, for example, and is identical, or nearly so, with that of bone ; they differ from the persistent horns in being more compact, and being yearly shedded. Hartshorns are brought on the market either whole, when it is chiefly employed by turners, or in form of chips when it is used for jelly. BONES. Kiiochen, Os, Ben. Bone is the hard, clarified tissue of the skeleton of vertebrate animals consisting very largely of calcic carbonate, calcic phosphate, and gelatine. The uses to which a bone may be put are various. In the making of soups, bones form a constant ingre- dient, and become useful in supplying gelatine. Bone is largely used in making the handles of small brushes, the more common table knives and forks, and penknives, and in the manufacture of cheaper kinds of combs. Bone is likewise serviceable in the arts of yielding bone ash, boneblack, dissolved bones, phosphorus, and superphosphates ; also certain oils and fats, which are employed in forming lampblack, and in the manufacture of soap. IVORY. Blfeabeia, Ivoire, Elfenbea. Ivory is the name commercially given not only to the substance constituting the tusks of the elephant, but also to that of the tusks of the hippopotamus and walrus, the horn-like tusk of the norwhal, etc. The ivory of the tusks of the African elephant is held in the highest esteem by the manufacturer on account of its greater density and whiteness. The tusks are of all sizes, from a few ounces in weight to THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 185 more than 170 pounds each. There are various chemical processes by which it may be dyed in vari- ous colors, as black, blue, green, yellow, red, and violet. It is used in manufacturing articles of orna- mentation or utility. The so-called ivory obtained from the hippopotamus is in special favor with den- tists for making false teeth, on account of its pure white color and freedom from grain. The fossil ivory which is found in considerable quantity in Siberia and the arctic regions, is uncommonly hard and brittle; it is also whiter, but lacks the waxy softness. At present, the demand for ivory is stead- ily increasing, owing to the great taste and skill of some of the artists who work in this material, and as the supply increases but very slowly, it is likely to become very dear. The beautiful art of ivory-carv- ing has recently made extraordinary progress in Europe, as has been shown by works in ivory sent to the various international exhibitions. e. FEATHER, DOWN, QUILL, PLUMAGE. FEATHERS. Feder, Plume, Fjader. Feathers are complicated modifications of the teg- umentary system forming the external covering or plumage of birds, and peculiar to this class of ani- mals. An ordinary feather consists of the quill or hollow basal part ofthe stem, the shaft or rachis, form- ing the upper, or solid part ofthe stem ; the veins or webs implanted on the rachis consist of a series of slender laminae, or barbs, which usually bear barbules, in turn usually bear barbicles and interlocking hooks, by which they are fastened together. The chief 186 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. uses to which feathers are applied in the arts are three, pens, due to the peculiar elasticity of the barrels; bed-feathers, due to the combined softness and elas- ticity of the barbs; ornaments, due to the graceful forms and delicate tints of the whole feather. Bed-feathers consist chiefly of goose feathers. Poultry feathers as those of turkeys, ducks, and fowls generally are less esteemed on account of their deficient elasticity. Wild duck feathers are soft and elastic, but contain an oil difficult to remove. The larger establishments now prepare bed-fea.thers by steaming, which is found to be a more profitable and efficient process than any other. The down, which is of so light and exquisite a texture as to have become the symbol of softness, is mostly taken from the breasts of birds, and forms a warm and delicate stuffing for beds, pillows, and coverlets. The most valuable is that obtained from the eider duck. Feathers used for headdresses, or other purposes of ornamentation, are selected according to their forms and colors which they display, and are brought on the market either in their natural state or dyed. The kinds of feathers chiefly used for ornaments are those of the ostrich, adjutant,rhea or American ostrich, emu, osprey, egret, heron, antrenga, swan, peacock, etc. Thewhiteandgraymarabout feathers, imported from Calcutta, are beautifully light and soft, and are in demand for headdresses, muffs, and boas. The flossy kinds of rhea feathers are used for military plumes and the long brown wing feathers for brooms and brushes. Osprey and egret are mostly used for military plumes. Quills, the large feathers of the wings of birds, the hollow tubes of which, being properly cleaned of all oily or fatty matter, and dried, are used for making pens to write with. Those plucked from geese are THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 187 most generally used, but swan and turkey quills are not uncommon; and for very fine writing and for pen and ink drawing, crow quills are preferred to all others. At one time, the collection and prepara- tion of quills formed a very large and important branch of industry, but the introduction of metal- lic pens has reduced it to very small limits. Good quills should be elastic, not too hard, nor too soft; the thickest and heaviest are the best. f. GELATINE. This term, although only applied to one variety of the substance, obtained by dissolving the soluble portion of the gelatinous tissues of animals, never- theless belongs also to isinglass and glue, which are modifications of the same material. Gelatine and glue signify the more or less carefully prepared jelly of the mammalia, but the term isin- glass is only applied to certain gelatinous parts of fishes, which possess an exceeding richness in gelatine, and are usually merely dried and used without any other preparation than that of a minute division for the purpose of facilitating the action. GELATINE. (PROPER.) Gelatine is prepared for commercial purposes from a variety of animal substances, but chiefly from the softer parts of the hides of oxen and calves, and the skin of sheep, such as the thin portion which covers the abdomen, ears, etc., also from bones and other parts of animals. It comes on the market in thin, oblong, transparent sheets, of a white, yellowish, or red color ; in the latter case it is covered with cochi- neal. 188 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. The purity of gelatine may be very easily tested, thus : Pour upon the dry gelatine a small quantity of boiling water; if pure it will form a thick, gluey, colorless solution, free from smell; but if made from impure materials, it will give off a very offen- sive odor and have a yellow, gluey consistency. No article manufactured requires such careful selection of material and cleanly manipulation to insure a good marketable character ; when purity is desired all artificially colored varieties should be avoided, however temptingly gotten up, unless they are merely required for decorative purposes and not for food. GLUE. Leim, Colle forte, I.'nn. Glue differs from gelatine only in the care taken in its manufacture, and in the selection of the materials from which itismade; almost every animal substance Avill yield it, hence all kinds of animal refuse find their way to the glue maker's boilers. Nevertheless, the impossibility of preserving, for any length of time, the materials required for this manufacture, renders it necessary to adopt some system in choosing and preserving them, until sufficient quantities are col- lected, without fermentation and decomposition. Hence the refuse of tanneries, consisting of the clippings of hides, hoofs, ear, and tail pieces of ox, calf, and sheep, is preferred, because these can be dressed with lime, which removes the hair. Besides its use in joinery, cabinet making, and simi- lar operations, glue is used by paper makers and in dressing silks ; and for the last two purposes fine light-colored kinds in thin cakes are made; large quantities are employed also by paperhangers. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 189 Good glue should be of a yellowish color, clear and translucent, and in breaking, like glass. ISINGLASS. Fiscbleim, Colic de poisson, Fisklim. Isinglass is a semi-transparent, whitish and very pure lorm of gelatine, formerly prepared only from sounds or air bladders of various species of common sturgeons found in the rivers of Western Russia. The necessities of modern commerce have, however, led to the discovery that the same part in many other fishes forms good isinglass ; and instead of Russia, as formerly, being the only producing country, now large quantities are produced in America, Hudson Bay territory, and New York ; an excellent variety is brought from Canada, where it is likely to prove the source of a profitable industry. The commercial varieties of this material are num- erous and a thorough knowledge can only be obtained by considerable personal acquaintance with them. Isinglass is of great value in clarifying beer and other liquids. For this reason isinglass, \vhich has been found the best gelatine for the purpose, is very largely used by brewers. Good isinglass should be of a light yellow color, an almost horn-like appearance, and perfectly soluble in boiling water. g. FATS. Fats are those oily substances which are solid at an ordinary temperature, and are composed of an admixture of three separate fats, margarine, stear- ine, and oleine, of which the two former are solid, 190 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. and the latter fluid at an ordinary temperature. The solid animal oils found in commerce are butter, lard, tallow, mare's grease, goose grease, neat's- foot oil. BUTTER. Butter, Beurre, Smor. Butter is the fatty substance present in the milk of mammalia, and capable of being extracted from it. The amount of butter in cow's milk is about 4- per cent, though the kind of pasture, quantity of milk, and general condition, influence the relative quan- tity in the several ingredients of milk. In the extrac- tion of butter, the milk is allowed to cool, and the cream which rises to the surface is skimmed oft", and put into an earthen vessel, where it lies several days till enough has been collected for churning. As a quicker method of obtaining cream, separators are used. It is found that butter can be obtained from mere agitation, without the admission of the oxygen of the air. At the same time in the ordinary manner of churning, oxygen has the subordinate duty of combining with the sugar of the milk, and forming lactic acid, which in its turn sours the milk, and sep- arates therefrom the caseine (cheese matter) in mi- nute clots or flakes, yielding what is commonly called sour or butter-milk. The process of churning must be conducted at a medium rate. If too quickly performed, the butter is soft and frothy, and is said to burst ; when too slowly made, it is highly tenacious, strong, and badly flavored. When newly prepared, the butter is called fresh or sweet butter, and is of a yellow color, which is \vell known to be deeper as the pasture on which the cows have been fed is richer, and hence the poorer kinds of THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 191 butter are often artificially colored with annatto. A large quantity of the butter sent into market has more or less common salt added, for the purpose of preserving it. The adulteration to which butter is liable is an undue proportion of salt and water, occasionally upwards of 33 per cent of the total weight. The United States' exports of butter in 1891 amounted to 15,187,114 pounds or $2,197,106. Wisconsin is the leading dairy state in the Union. LARD. Schweiaeschemalz, Lard de pork, Spack. Lard is the fat of the hog. Until after the first quarter of the present century, lard was only used for culinary purposes, and as the base of various ointments in medical use. The enormous extent, however, to which pork was raised in America, ren- dered it necessary to find some other application for so valuable a material, and large quantities were pressed at a low temperature, by which stearine and oleine were separated. The former was used for candle-making and the latter became a verv impor- tant article of commerce, under the name of lard-oil, which was found to be a valuable lubricant for machinery. In 1891, the United States exported 498,343,927 pounds, amounting to $34,414,323. TALLOW. Talg, Luif. Talg. Tallow is the fat of oxen and sheep, especially the fat which envelops the kidneys and other parts of the viscera rendered down or nelted. The qualities of this solid oil render it pal icularly well adapted 192 THE KNOWLEDGE OP WARES. for making candles and soap, and for the purpose of preserving machinery from rust. Good tallow should possess a white or yellowish color, must not be musty or of a red tint ; in melting it a clear, colorless fluid should be obtained ; it is fre- quently adulterated with flour, which can easily be detected by the sediment in melting it. MARE'S GREASE, GOOSE GREASE, AND NEAT'S-FOOT OIL. Mare's grease is not so solid as tallow ; it is of a yellowish brown color, exported mostly from Monte Video and Buenos Ayers, where vast numbers of horses are slaughtered for their hides, bones, and grease ; it is particularly valuable as a lubricant for machinery. Goose grease is another soft fat, much valued by housewives for many purposes, but excepting that it is sold in some districts as a remedial agent, it has no commercial importance. Neat 's-foot oil is a soft fat procured in the prepara- tion of the feet and intestines of oxen for food as sold in the tripe shops. The quantity obtained is not very great, but it is in great demand by curriers, for dressing leather. FISH OILS. Thran, Huile de poisson, Tran. Fish oil is obtained from several species of whales and seals by draining the oils out of the thick layer of blubber, which lies immediately under the skin and over the muscular layer of flesh ; it is also obtained from the liver of several species of fishes as cod, herring, shark, etc. The whales which are fished for their oils are : 1. The Sperm Whale. This large creature is from 60 to 70 feet in length, and yields generally from THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARE. 193 5,000 to 6,000 gallons of oil. The finest is taken from a great reservoir in its head. The oil of this specie is of a quality superior to others, and is known as spermaceti. It consists essentially of ethereal salts of palmitic acid with ethal and other hydrocar- bon bases. The substance of spermaceti is used in making candles, ointments, cosmetics, etc. 2. The Right Whale, which forms the chief object of the northern fisheries, but other species of balaenae are sought, in different parts of the world, for the sake of their oil. A large quantity of very valuable oil is obtained from seals, and the seal fishery, as a means of obtain- ing oil, is only second in importance to that of the whale. It is carried on chiefly on the shores of New Foundland, Greenland, and Labrador. Like the whales, the seals have a thin layer of blubber, in which the oil is contained. The first draining from the blubber is of a fine, clear, pale-straw color, the next yellow or tinged ; and the last is brown or dark. The whale and seal oils are nearly all used for illuminating oils, and to this purpose they are admirably adapted owing to their great illuminating power. They are also the best lubricants for machinery. Of the true fish oils, that of the cod is first in importance ; more especially since its medicinal prop- erties were discovered. It is made only from the liver of the fish. Oil is also occasionally made from her- ring, but not in very great quantities ; it is made from the whole of the fish. The lightest of all the fish oils is made from the liver of the common shark. Besides the consumption in lamps and for medicinal purposes, fish oil is used for making some kinds of soap. 13 194- THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Good fish oil should be clear and rusty. In pur- chasing it, it should be carefully examined that no water or any sediment appears in the vessel. SOAP. Soap is a product yielded by cooking fat with alkali or soda which results in the production of stearine, palmitine, and glycerine. Alkali soaps harden when cooled while natron soaps remain soft. According to the fats used, soaps are termed tallow, palm oil, olive oil, and cocoanut oil soaps, and the like. Soapmakers first dissolve in boiling water six to eight cwt. of crude soda-ash, then add pure caustic lime and boil the mixture. When the lime has ren- dered the soda caustic, the boiling subsides and the lye is ready for use. Cured, or white soap, is yielded by reducing the lye by boiling to the consistency of paste. A few shovels of common salt are thrown in and the lye separates. The operation of adding and boiling with lye is repeated until the tallow is saturated with soda. The soap is now treated with a weaker lye and, by using more or less water, is brought to the consistency the maker requires. Pale, or yellow soap, is produced by adding to the mixture a quantity of resin and treating it simi- larly to the foregoing. When the proper tempera- ture is reached, the soap is removed into cast-iron frames, where, after solidifying, which requires three days, it is cut into slabs and then transversely into bars by means of a wire, and is then ready for the market. Mottled soap is of a variety of colors. It was formerly produced by allowing the lye to percolate THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 195 through the boiling mass, though lately cheap imita- tions have been produced by coloring the material. Soft soap differs from hard in having potash for its base instead of soda. It is not an article of com- merce in this country, though it is used by house- wives. Various kinds of powdered soaps appear in trade, and bear names peculiar to themselves ; e. g., pearl- ine, '76, etc. Toilet soap is produced by adding various perfumes to the best qualities of soap. Some of these are entirely or semi-transparent. Most of these soaps are produced from lard oil. Among the soaps which are used for their medicinal properties are glycerine, white soda, carbolic, castile, etc. A. VICTUALS. As the most important victuals of vertebrate ani- mals the flesh of the Ruminantia and the pork of genus Sus, cheese, and several fishes may be men- tioned. MEAT. Fleischwaren, Chair, Kottrarer. Meat is the aggregate of the muscles, fat, and other tissues which cover the frame-work of the bones in several animals. In composition it is mainly albu- minous, but contains in addition a large number of crystalline bodies, such as creatin, xanthin, hypo- xanthin, carmin, etc. It is also rich in phosphate of potash. Preserved Meats. Pickled and smoked meats as well as the sausages deserve especially to be men- tioned. 196 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. Corned beef is produced largely by the packing houses of Chicago, Cincinnati, Kansas City, and other places. Salted and smoked pork are exported in enormous quantities from these places and many other points in the United States, and even fresh meats are sent all over the world by the Armour Packing Company and other concerns in their mod- ern refrigerators. The manufacture of beef extracts, butterine, sau- sages, lard, canned meats (in small tin cans) is assuming immense proportions in the large Western cities of the United States, and constitutes one of the most important industries of the country. The manner of preserving canned meats is similar to the process employed in preserving canned vege- tables. The exportation of beef products for 1891 was as follows : Beef canned 109.585,727 Ibs. " fresh 194,04-5,638 " " salted 90,286,979 " Tallow 111,689,251 " Pork products for the same year : Bacon 514,675,557 Ibs. Hams 84,410,108 " Lard 498,343,927 " See article on canned fruits. CHEESE. K8.se, Fromage, Ost. The manner of preparing cheese is too commonly known to require an explanation, and, moreover, it would be too extensive a subject to treat minutely, being dependent upon too many minor circumstan- ces; e. g., climate, country, animals and other con- ditions to give an exhaustive explanation of cheese making. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 197 But the following are the commonest varieties of trade : The American cheeses have the following names : Young American, Imitation Swiss, Brick (full cream), Cheddars (made of skimmed milk); quantities of this variety are exported from New York, Ohio, and Maine. Cheese of an exceptionally fine quality is produced in Wisconsin, which state has received the highest awards for its excellent cheese at the world's fairs. Edam cheese is a mottled round product brought from Holland ; its quality is superior to that of any other. Limburger cheese is imported from Limburg, Ger- many, and several other places. Its odor is very strong and its taste sharp. Chester cheese is a very excellent article. It is imported from England. Swiss cheese is produced in Switzerland, which country is especially noted for the superior quality and general excellence of its cheese. The best variety is the reputed Emmenthaler. It also produces a cheese manufactured from herbs, which bears the name of green cheese. Of the French cheeses the brie and roquefort are the most noted varieties. The manufacture of cheese has received a great impetus by the growing demand for this dairy prod- uct, and manufactories for the production of the article have sprung up all over the principal dairying states of our country. The value of the importation of cheese into this country exceeds $1,000,000 annu- ally. FISH. Fish are found in abundance and variety in nearly all waters, salt or fresh. The salt-water fisheries are 198 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. commercially of much greater value, and the impor- tant ones are few in number. The banks of the coast of New Foundland and Nova Scotia are the most prolific fishing grounds. The fishing-banks next in productiveness are those north of Norway and in the vicinity of Iceland. Fish are sent to market fresh, pickled, smoked, or dried. The following varieties are the most conspicuous : MACKEREL. Makrele, Maquereau, Makril. Mackerel is any specie of fishes belonging to genus Scomber, and several related genera. They have a spindle shaped body, and are very active oceanic fishes. Most of them are highly prized for food. The common mackerel, which inhabits both sides of the North Atlantic, is one of the most important food fishes. It is a very beautiful fish, mottled green and blue. The common mackerel is said sometimes to attain a length of 20 inches, but is usually about 14 or 16 inches long, and about 2 Ibs. in weight. After being taken, it must be marketed very quickly, as it soon ceases to be fresh. The Spanish mackerel, of the American coast, is covered with bright yellow circular spots. It attains a weight of four or five Ibs. and is less esteemed. Tunny, or horse mackerel, is found on the Atlantic coast ot Europe and America, and especially in the Mediterranean. It is a very large fish, sometimes nine feet in length, and weighing 1,000 Ibs. or even more. Its form is much thicker than that of the common mackerel. Its flesh is much esteemed. It also yields much oil, which is obtained by boiling the head and the belly. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 199 CODFISH. Kabeljaa, Cabillaud, K*biljo. Cod, a fish of the family Gadidae, is almost rival- ing the herring in its importance to mankind. It sometimes attains a weight of 100 Ibs. The cod is found in all the northern parts of the Atlantic ocean, and the productiveness of the great banks of New Foundland excels all others. It is used as food fresh, salted, or dry. Great quantities are carried from New Foundland to the West Indies. Cod sounds are esteemed as a delicacy, and are often salted and sent to market. They are also used in dry state as isinglass. Ling is found throughout the northern seas. It generally attains a length of three or four feet, and has been known to weigh seventy Ibs. The color is gray, inclined to olive ; the belly is silvery. Great numbers are caught in the same manner as cod ; they are split from head to tail, cleaned, salted in brine, washed, dried in the sun, and sent to the market in the form of stock-fish, or haberdine. Stock-fish is the name of several other dried species of codfish, as hake, torsk, whiting, pollack, etc. FLOUNDER. Plunder, Plie, Flundra. Flounder is a genus of fishes of the Flatfish family. To this genus belongthe plane, dab, etc. Theflounder is often a foot or more in length. It is easily dis- tinguished from the plane by a row of small tubercles on each of the lateral sides. The color varies accord- ing to the depth from which ' the fish is taken. Flounder is sometimes smoked and thus sent to market. 200 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. PIKE. Hicht, Brochet. Gudda. Pike is a large fresh-water fish, of numerous species, found in lakes, ponds, and slow rivers. The pike has a dusty olive-brown color on the upper parts, becoming lighter and mottled with green and yellow on the sides. The flesh of the pike is much esteemed, but that of pikes of moderate size is reckoned superior to that of small or very large ones. Large quantities are sometimes caught at spawning season and dried. SALMON, Lacbs, Suumon, Lax. Salmon is one of the several species of fishes of the genus Salmo and allied genera. The common salmon of Northern Europe and Eastern North America, and the California salmon or quinnat are the most impor- tant species. They are extensively preserved for food. The salmon ascend rivers and penetrate to their head streams to spawn. They are remarkably strong fishes, and will even leap over considerable falls which lie in the way of their progress. The common salmon has been known to grow to the weight of seventy-five Ibs. Young salmon are called parr, peal, smelt, and grils. TROUT. Forelle, Truitc, Fore//. The trout belongs also to the genus Salmo, and is highly esteemed as game fish and for the quality of its flesh. All the species breed in fresh water, but after spawning many of them descend to the sea if they have an opportunity. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 201 The most important European species are the river or brown trout, the salmon trout and the sewen. The most important American species are brook, speckled, or red-spotted trout of Northern United States and Canada. HERRING. Haring, Hareng, Sill. Herring is one of the various species of fishes of the genus Clupea ; it is known all over the world. On account of its great applicability and abundance, it is the most important of all the fishes. The her- ring is believed to be an inhabitant of deep water, from which, at certain seasons, it approaches the shores, probably never migrating to any great dis- tance. The herring seems always to deposit its spawn in comparatively shallow water, and certain localities have the reputation of being favorite spawning grounds. The herring fishery is carried on all the year around, but the largest quantities of fish are caught in the months of August and September. A very large proportion of the herrings are pickled or cured by means of salt ; owing to the facilities for speedy transportation afforded by railways, great quanti- ties are also disposed of fresh. At some places the herrings are, after being slightly salted, made into what are called "bloaters" by means of smoking. ANCHOVY. Aacbove, Anchois, Ansjovis. Anchovy is a small fish, about three inches in length, of the herring family ; it is much esteemed for its rich and peculiar flavor. 202 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES, It occurs on the coasts of the Baltic and of Green- land, and abounds in the Mediterranean and on the Atlantic coasts of Spain, Portugal, and France where extensive and very productive fisheries are carried on, particularly in the months of May, June, and July, when the shoals of anchovies leave the deep seas, and approach the shores for the purpose of spawning. They are salted in small barrels, and are much used for sauces, etc. Sardines are often sold as anchovies. SARDINES. Sardellcn, Sardines, Sardeller. Sardines are fishes of the same genus with the herring, and appear in shoals on the coast of the Mediterranean. They are exported to the most dis- tant parts of the world ; cured with olive oil in tin boxes, forming a much esteemed delicacy, and, at the same time, a most wholesome article of food. The California sardines are similar to the European ; but the American sardines of the Atlantic coast are mostly the young of the common herring and of the menhaden. SHAD Is any one of the several species of food fishes of the herring family. The species are numerous; the American specie, which is abundant on the Atlantic coast and ascends the larger rivers in the spring to- spawn, is an important market fish. The European allice, shad or loose, and the twaite shad, are less, important species. LAMPREY. Neunaugen, Lamproie, Nejonogen, Lampreys are an eel-like marsipol branch of the genus Petromyzon, and allied genera. The lam preys THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 203 have a round sucking mouth, without jaws, but set with numerous minute teeth on the palate. There are seven small bronchial openings on each side. All lampreys attach themselves to other fishes, as para- sites, by means of the sucker-like mouth. The common, or sea lamprey, of America and Burope which in the spring ascends rivers to spawn, is considered excellent food by many, and is sold as market fish in many localities. The smaller river lampreys mostly belong to the genus Lamptra, and are about eight to twelve inches in length. They are sent on the market either smoked or pickled. All kinds offish on the market should be fresh, of a pure and fresh odor and taste, not musty, and mod- erately salted. Stockfish should not be spotty, or of a red-brown grayish color. Fishes preserved in brine, as herring, etc., should be densely packed. More or less oily fishes, with a reddish flesh are always old and of a poor quality. Poor salt, employed in their preservation, hastens decay. The addition of a small portion of saltpeter retards decomposition . CAVIAR. Caviar is the salted roes of the common sturgeon and other fishes of the same genus, \vhich are com- mon in the lakes and on the coasts of North America, Europe, and Asia. Caviar is chiefly prepared in Rus- sia, where it is greatly esteemed as an article of food. The species of sturgeon, from the roe of which it is chiefly prepared, inhabit the Caspian and Black seas and their tributary rivers. Among them are the Bielaga (Accipenser huso), the Osseter (A. Gulden- stadu), the Sherg (A. stellatus), and the Sterlet (A. ruthemus). Astrakan is a principal seat of the prep- aration of caviar. 204 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. On the market we distinguish the following kinds of caviar: Black caviar (Siak-hawiar), the best, most durable and high prized; May caviar (Mai- hawiar), a less esteemed and cheaper kind ; Red cav- iar (Kirmizi-hawiar), the poorest and cheapest kind, which is not only prepared from the roe of the stur- geon, but also from the roe of the salmon and other fishes. A kind of caviar, called Bottarge, is prepared in Greece and Turkey. Good caviar consists of black, translucent, and slip- pery grains, of the size of the coriander seed ; among the grains is a tough, dark-green pickle ; it should not be too moist or dense, but loose, of a pure, not stringent taste. Caviar should be kept in cool places^ preferably in ice-boxes. /.-MUSK. Moscbas, Bisam, Muse, AfysA. Musk is obtained from a bag behind the navel of the male musk deer, which is an inhabitant of the elevated mountainous regions and tablelands of Central Asia. The musk-bag is formed by an infolding of a portion of the skin of the abdomen, within which a number of membranes are contained, and between these mem- branes are glands in which the musk is secreted. When newly taken from the animal, musk is soft and! almost resembles an ointment ; it is reddish brown, and has an excessively powerful odor. Very little reaches our country unadulterated. Musk is usually imported either in the form of grain musk, that is,, the musk which has been collected chiefly from the stones upon which it has been deposited by the ani- mal, in which state it is a coarse powder of a dark brown color; or in the pod, that is, in the musk sac, THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 205 which is cut altogether from the animal, and dried with the musk inside. Small quantities are used in medicine, but the greater portion is employed by the perfumers. It is imported in small boxes or caddies, often covered with bright colored silk ; each contain- ing twenty-five pounds. CASTORETJM. BibergeiJ, Castoreum, Ba.fverga.il. Castoreum is a substance secreted in two glandular sacs, closely connected with, but quite distant from, the organs of reproduction in the beaver, and at one time held in the highest repute in medicine, although now regarded as almost inert, and chiefly used by perfumers. The castoreum sacs are pear-shaped and it appears in commerce in the sacs themselves, con- nected in pairs as they are taken from the animal. In Hudson Bay commerce ten pair of them are equal in value to one beaver skin. Russian castoreum is of much higher value than the American. AMBERGRIS. Ambra, Ambregris, Ambra. Ambergris is a substance of the consistency of wax, found floating in the Indian ocean and other parts of the tropics, and also a morbid secretion in the intestines of the sperm whale, which is believed to be in all cases its prime origin. In color it is white, ash-gray, or black, and variegated like marble. The floating masses are sometimes from 60 to 275 Ibs. in weight. It is wholly volatilized as a white vapor at 212 F. Much ambergris is obtained from the coasts of the Bahama Islands; it is also brought from different 206 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. parts of the West Indies, and the coasts of Africa and Brazil. It is highly valued in perfumery. GUANO Is a substance found in great abundance on some coasts or islands frequented by sea fowls, and is com- posed chiefly of their excrement. Guanos are divided according to their composition into three classes: 1 . Those which have suffered but little by atmospheric action, and which retain nearly the whole of their original constituents, such as the Angamos and Peru- vian guanos. 2. Those which have lost a consider- able portion of their soluble constituents, such as the Ichaboe, Bolivian, and Chilian guanos. 3. Those which have lost nearly all their ammonia, and contain but little more than the earthy phosphates of the animal deposit. Many of these are largely contaminated with sand. Test of Quality. Pour half an ounce of guano into an iron ladle, such as is used for casting bullets, and place it upon red-hot coals, until nothing but a white or grayish ash is left, which must be weighed after cooling. The best sorts of Peruvian guano do not yield more than 30 or 33 per cent of ash ; white inferior varieties, such as Patagonian, Chili, or African guano, leave a residue of 60 or even 80 per cent; and those which are intentionally adulterated may leave a still larger residue. Genuine guano of all kinds leaves a white or gray ash ; and a yellow or reddish ash indicates the adulteration with earthy matter, sand, etc. Besides its use as a fertilizer, it is also used in pre- paring murexide, a product of uric acid, and as this exists in abundance, and in a very free state, in guano, that material has been found to be one of the best sources from which to obtain it. The process of THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 207 i V manufacturing murexide is to dissolve uric acid in diluted nitric acid, and after evaporating for some time at a temperature a little short of boiling, while still hot, to add a slight excess of ammonia. Two compounds are formed by this process, alloxan and allolantin, and their mutual reaction on each other results in the formation of beautiful minute, green, metallic lustered crystals of murexide, which, in combination with some of the compounds of lead and mercury, yield most brilliant red and purple dyes. Murexide is used in printing both cotton and silk goods, under the name of "Roman-purple style." /DRUGS FOR DYEING. PRUSSIAN BLUE. Berlinerblnu, Blue dc Prusse, PariscrhJatt. Prussian blue is a deep blue color, which is so fre- quently seen on cotton, muslin, and woolen handker- chiefs and dresses. It may be prepared in several ways: 1. By mixing solutions of yellow prussiate of potash and perchloride of iron, which yields the variety known as Paris blue. 2. By adding a solu- tion of the red prussiate of potash (ferrocyanide of potassium) to a solution of sulphate of iron, and this mode of preparation gives Turnbull's blue. The Prussian blue settles to the bottom of the mixing vessels and may be collected and dried by exposure to the air, when it turns into a blue powder. If heat be applied in drying, the cakes, when cut, exhibit a luster and hue like copper. When alum has been used in its manufacture, the product has a dull earthy fracture. It is employed by washerwomen under the name of blue, for neutralizing the yellow tint of cotton and linen cloths ; by paper makers, to 208 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. color paper ; and is very largely employed as a pig- ment in calico printing and dyeing. A lighter Prussian blue, called mineral blue, is yielded when the Prussian blue is precipitated along with a solution of zinc, magnesia, moist carbonate of zinc or magnesia added during the precipitation of the color. In the formation of royal blue, a solu- tion of tin is added, and steam blue is produced by the addition of tartaric acid and yellow prussiate of potash. The impurities liable to be present in Prus- sian blue are starch, chalk and stucco, either of which necessarily decreases the intensity of the blue color, and the utility of the substance. FERROCYANIDE. Blutla.ugeusa.lz, Ferrocyanate de potasse, Blodlutsalt. Potassium ferrocyanide is a yellow prussiate of potash. It is prepared by heating to redness, in a covered iron pot, a mixture of three parts (by weight) of nitrogenized matter, such as the dried blood, hoofe, parings of hides, scrapings of horn, or the flesh of deceased horses, three parts of carbonate of potash, and one part of iron filings. The carbon, nitrogen and iron combine together, and form ferro- cyanogen, which, at the same time, unites with the potassium, and produces ferrocyanide of potassium, or yellow prussiate of potash. The compound which is obtained from the heated iron vessel is impure, but by repeated solution in hot water, and recrystalli- zation on cooling, the salt is obtained pure in fine, large tubular crystals of lemon-yellow color. The ferrocyanide of potassium is largely used in dye- ing and calico printing and in the production of many shades of Prussian blue ; and when it is treated with sulphuric acid, and subjected to heat, hydrocyanic or prussia acid is distilled from the mixture. THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. 209 The ferrocyanide of potassium is characterized by giving no indication of the presence of iron in its residue on the application of any of the tests of iron. It gives a light blue precipitate on the addition of a solution of proto-sulphate of iron ; a dark blue pre- cipitate \vith perchloride of iron ; and a brown precipi- tate with sulphate of copper; and a white precipitate with acetate of lead. BONEBLACK, OR ANIMAL CHARCOAL. Beinscli \vartz, Charbon animal, Bensvarta. Boneblack is prepared irom bones by heating them in closed retorts until they undergo the process of destructive distillation, when combustible gases and water, together with the vapors of several salts of ammonia, and oils are given oft', and boneblack is left in the retort. It is generally reduced to coarse grains and is extensively used in the art of decolorizing liquids, such as syrup of sugar and solutions of argol (impure cream of tartar) and of the alkaloids, as also in filters, for separating chemical impurities from \vater. Boneblack has likewise great power for absorbing odors, especially those of a disagree- able nature, and can thus be employed to deodorize apartments, clothing, etc., or wherever animal mat- ter may be passing into a state of active putrefac- tion. Oil of hartshorn, volatile salt of hartshorn, and spirits of hartshorn were formerly products of the manufacture of boneblack, but they are now replaced by simpler preparations of the active ingredients of these substances, namely, ammonia and carbonate of ammonia. 14 CHAPTER II. Products from Mollusca. Molluscas have an unsegmented bilateral body with most of the organs and parts paired, but not repeated longitudinally. Most of them develop a mantle which encloses either a bronchial or pulmo- nary cavity. They are generally more or less covered or protected by a calcareous shell, which may be univalve, bivalve, or multivalve. These animals furnish very few articles of com- merce, although some of them are costlv and highly esteemed; ot most frequent occurrence are the follow- ing: SEPIA. Sepia, Sepia Shilling, 12 pence 6 Penny 0.1825 0.09125 924.5 924.5 .23 .1212 3 Penny 0.045625 924.5 .0606 Mexico 1 Dollar(new) 0.8675 903. 1.066 Netherlands 2Y 2 Guilders 804 944 1.033 Russia Ruble 100 co- pecks 0.667 875. .796 Scandinavia Switzerland 1 France / Crown, 100 ore... Franc, 100 cen- times 0.2015 .168 900. 900. .268 .193 Spain Penta 100 cen- times .168 900. .193 Dollar 0.859% 900. Half Dollar 0.400 900. Quarter Dollar 0.200 900. United States (Dime 0.080 900. Half Dime . 0.040 900 Three Cents 0.024 900. NOTE. Weight in Troy ounces ; fineness in thousands. 342 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. MONEY. Though we do not commonly so regard it, money is a ware possessing functions not shared by other wares. It is the measure by which all other wares are determined, and serves as the medium by which these are exchanged. As is commonly known, the production of money involves the use of raw material, upon which labor is expended in perfecting it, and in this particular it does not differ from an ordinary ware. The money of the world may properly be divided into two classes, namely, coins and paper money. Coins bear an eccentric value which is determined by the quantity and quality of the bullion of which they are composed. Paper money is simply representa- tive in value, the material of which it is composed being of slight worth. The standard of monetary value is either gold or silver, the former being used most largely owing to its greater preciousness. The coins of the world are commonly produced from gold, silver, nickel, copper, and bronze, alloyed with copper, tin and zinc. The process of minting or coining money is briefly as follows : The bullion is carefully assayed, and is then melted in pots and the necessary quantity of copper is added (in the United States one-tenth, see fineness in the annexed table). The metal is then cast into bars depending in size upon the dimensions of the coin for which they are designated. The pro- cess of rolling follows that of casting and the metal is gradually rolled to the proper thickness by polished steel rollers, though the fillets (as the thinned bars are called) are sometimes subjected to treatment on THE KNOWLKDGE OF WARES. 343 the draw-bench, where they are drawn out to the desired thickness with the utmost accuracy. A trial blank is then cut from a fillet and weighed ; if found to vary more than one-eighth of a grain the whole fillet is rejected. The cutting of the blanks is accomplished by large presses, and is a very rapid process. The scraps left after cutting, are sent back to be remelted. The blanks are weighed upon a very delicately poised automatic balance. Blanks which come within the limit are dropped into a box and passed on to be coined. Those below the desired weight are passed back to be remelted. The correct blanks are rung on a sounding iron, and those which do not give a clear sound are rejected as dumb. To insure their being properly milled on the edge, they are placed into a machine which raises the edge and at the same time secures their being perfectly round. After this they are annealed to soften them and then struck with dies by the coining press which gives them, in addition to the impression, a milled edge. They are w ashed \vith a solution of sulphuric acid and dried in sawdust find finally heated in an oven. Without these precautions, the new coins would not possess the beautiful luster which dis- tinguishes them. It is found on examining them that about 1 in 200 are imperfectly finished; these are rejected. The coins are then again weighed and to those which weigh too heavily a delicate file is applied and par- ticles are removed. The coins are finally put into bags and stored awaiting circulation. The paper money of the United States is of three kinds, namely, United States treasury notes, national bank notes, and silver certificates. 344 THE KNOWLEDGE OF WARES. The paper money of this country is printed upon a variety of paper -which the government alone man- ufactures. All the paper money is printed by the printing establishment of the government. The national bank notes are signed by the president and cashier of the bank from which they are issued. The silver certifi- cates differ from the treasury notes only in the fact that for each certificate issued a corresponding sum of silver is placed into the treasury of the United States. CONTENTS AND GLOSSARY. A, PAGE. Acacia Wood 157 Agate 244 Alabaster ' 248 Alcohol 89 Alder 150 Ale 88 Alkannin 98 Almonds 41 Valencia 41 Cicilian 41 Malaga 41 Provincial 41 Barbarice 41 Marseilles 41 Bitter 41 Sweet 41 Almond Oil 127 Allspice 54 Alum 283 Ammonia 284 Burnt 284 Chromate of. 285 French 285 Natron 284 Potash 284 Roman 284 Turkish 285 Amber 106-232 Ambergris 205 Ammonia, Carbonate of... 300 Aniline Dyes 101 Black 102 Blue 102 Orange 102 Red... . 102 PAGE. Violet 102 Yellow 102 Anchovy 201 Animal Charcoal 209 Anis 53 Annato 98 Antimony 331 Archil 97 Argol 163 Red 163 White 163 Arsenic 338 Artificial Graphite 265 Asafcetida 115 Asbestos 301 Ash 152 Asphalt 105 Azulin 102 B. Baking Powder 164 Balsams 110 Copaiva 110 Mecca 110 Peru 110 Fluid Storax 110 Tolu 110 Bamboo 140 Barley 27 Bassa 117 Bay Leaves 63 Beans 31 China 32 Egyptian 32 Harricot 32 346 CONTENTS AND GLOSSARY. PAGE. String 32 Pole 32 Bush 32 Lima 32 Bedellium 115 Beech 149 Beech-de-Mer 227 Beer 86 Bavarian 88 Austrian 88 Bohemian 88 Winter 87 Lager 88 Benzine 113-259 Benzoin 104 Bergamot Oil 112 Beryl 239 Siberian 239 Brazil 239 Birch 150 Bismuth 328 White 269 Bitter Almond Oil 112 Bitter Water 283 Black Basalt 316 Black Chalk 267 Blue Vitriol 286 Bole 275 Bones 184 Boneblack 209 Borax 296 Boxwood 156 Bran 29 Brass 322 Brazilian Wood 97 Brilliant 102 Bristles 179 Britannia Metal 327 Bronze 322 Speculum Metal 323 Chinese Gongs 323 Chinese Cymbals 323 Musical Bells 323 House " 323 Large " 323 Tombac 324 Pinchbeck 323 Bronze Colors 276 PAGE. Gold 276 Silver 277 Mosaic 277 Buckwheat Grits 29 Building Paper 147 Butter 190 Butterine 196 C. Calaite 241 Calico 135 Plain 135 Sarsenet 135 Printed 135 Percale 135 Cretonne 135 Indian 135 Cambric 136 Camphor 113 Camwood 97 Canned Goods 47 Fruits 48 Vegetables 48 Caoutchine 259 Caoutchouc 118 Capers 58 Nonpareilles 58 Capuzins 58 Surfines 58 Capottes 58 Fines 58 Mi-fines 58 Communes 58 Caramel Malt Coffee 77 Carbonate of Ammonia... 3-00 Aqua Ammonia 300 Carbonate of Magnesia... 300 Cardamom 50 Cardamom Oil 50 Carragreen 160 Carraway Seed 53 Carthamin 98 Cashew Wood 157 Cashmere 178 Cassava 36 Castoreum 205 Russian.... .. 205 CONTENTS AND GLOSSARY. 347 PAGE. American 205 Catgut 183 Cat's Eye 243 Caviar 203 Black 204 May 204 Red 204 Bottarge 204 Cedar Wood 155 Celluloid 113 Cement 250 Portland 250 Pozzolane 250 Trosz 250 Cereals 25 Chair Rattans 140 Chalcedony 242 Chalk 266 Red 266 White 266 Black 267 Chamott Stones 307 Champaign 84 Charcoal 158 Cheese 196 Young American 197 Brick 197 Cheddars 197 Edam 197 Limburger 197 Chester 197 Swiss 197 Brie 197 Roquefort 197 Chestnuts 45 Chicory 77 Chloric Acid 295 Chloride t.f Calcium 294 Chloride of Tin 293 Chloride of Lime 295 Chocolate 41 Chrysoberyl 238 ChromateofLead 270 Chromate of Potash 296 Red 296 Yellow 296 Cider 86 Apple 86 PAGE. Pear 86 Peach 86 Cigars 68 Cigarettes 69 Cinnabar 271 Cinnamon 73 White 74 Black 74 Cassia 74 Clove 74 Cinnamon Flowers 61 Cinnamon Oil 112 Citron 48 Citron Oil 112 Clay Pipes 303 Turkish 303 Hungarian 303 Common 303 Cloths 177 Clover Seed 56 Cloves 59 Coal 261 Anthracite 262 Bituminous 262 Splint or Hard 263 Cherry or Soft 263 Caking 263 Brown 263 Coal Tar 259 Cobalt 337 Cochineal 222 Mexican 223 Honduras 224 Spanish 224 East Indian 224 Cocoa 39 Soconusa 39 Oaxaca 39 Venizuela 39 Oil 40 Butter 40 Shell 40 Theobromine 40 Cocoanuts 46 Codfish 199 Ling 199 Stockfish 1 99 Dried Fish.... . 199 348 CONTENTS AND GLOSSARY. PAGE. Sounds 199 Coffee 37 Mocha 38 Bourbon 38 Java 38 Ceylon 38 Menado 39 Laguayra 39 Puerto 39 Cabello 39 Maracaibo 39 Rio 39 Nicaragua 39 Cognac 91 Coins 342 Coke 264 Cologne 112-276 Colophony 105 Common Salt 291 Rock 292 Sea 292 Spring 292 Dairy 293 Bromide 293 Chloride of Lime 293 Concrete 250 Copal 107 Copper 319 Copper Alloys 322 Copperas 285 Coral 228 Red 228 Black 228 Coriander 53 Cork 74 Stoppers 75 Soles 75 Coal 75 Corundum 236 Cosmetics 269 Cotton 129 North American 130 West Indian 132 East Indian 132 African 132 European 132 Australian 132 Statistics 133 PAGE. Cotton Batton 137 Cotton Goods 135 Calico 135 Sarsenet 135 Prints 135 Drill 136 Babbinet 136 Barchent 136 Pique 136 Velvety 136 Cotton-seed Oil 126 Cotton Yarn 134 Hand made 134 Machine made 134 Crabs 226 Crayon 266 Crawfish 225 Creosote 114 Cream of Tartar 163 Croton Oil 127 Currants 42 D. Damask 136 Cotton 136 Linen 139 Dates 43 Dextrin 117 Diamond 235 Brilliants 236 Rosettes 236 Pink 235 Yellow 235 Blue 235 Green 235 Brown 235 Black 235 Colorless 235 Amorph 235 Diamond Powder 251 Dill 53 Dimity 136 Diseases of Cereals 28 Bunt 28 Rust 28 Mildew 28 Ergot 28 CONTENTS AND GLOSSARY. 349 PAGE. Smut 28 Dragon's Blood 105 Draperies 179 Dress Goods ...... 179 Smooth 179 Popeline 179 Long Ribs 179 Damask 179 Brocades 179 Shawls 179 Felbel 179 Merino 179 Thibet 179 Serge 179 Satin 179 Coating 179 Dried Fruits 47 Apples 47 Pears 47 Peaches 47 Apricots 47 Berries 47 Drill 13G Linen 139 Cotton 136 Drop Colors 100 Dry Oils 125 Dry Resins 107 Elemi 107 Dammar 107 Guajak 107 Sandarack 107 Dynamite 291 E. Earthenware 303 Earthnuts 46 Ebony 154 Elaidin 125 Elm 150 Emerald 239-102 Emery 251 Emery Paper 251 Emery Stone 251 Epsom Salt 283 Ethereal Oils Ill Euphorbium 115 PAGE. Extract 49 Lemon 49 Orange 49 Vanilla 52 F. Farina 29 Fats 189 Feathers 185 Bed 186 Ornamental 186 Down 186 Felts 178 Fennel 53 Ferrocj'anide 208 Figs 43 Figurestone 247 Filberts 45 Fir Tree 153 Fireworks 257 Fish 197 Fish Oils 192 Sperm 192 Whale 193 Flannels 178 Flavin 99 Flax 137 Flexible Asbestos 301 Flounder 199 Flour 29 Fluor Spar 244 Fluid Oils 126 Fuchsin 102 Fuller's Earth 301 English 302 Saxon 302 Fulminating Mercury 319 Fungus 161 Furs 166 Badger 169 Bear 169 Beaver 169 Cat 167 Chinchilla 17O Desman 169 Dog 169 Ermine.... 167 350 CONTENTS AND GLOSSARY. PAGE. Fox 168 Glutton 168 Jaguar 167 Leopard... 167 Lion 167 Lynx 169 Martin 168 Mole 169 Muskrat 169 Otter 168 Raccoon 169 Reindeer 169 Sab'e 167 Seal 169 Serval 167 Squirrel 170 Tiger 167 Wolf 169 Fusil Oil 90 Fustic 99 G. Galbanum 115 Galena 325 Gamboge 100 Garnet 240 Alamadin 240 Karneel 240 Pyrpp 240 Gasoline 258 Gauze 136 Gedda 117 Gelatine 187 Gem Stones 231 Hard 232 Semi-hard 232 Soft 232 Gin 90 Ginger 76 Gingham 136 Glass-gall 283 Glassware 303 Glass 307 Hollow 307 Plate 308 Flat 308 White.... .. 308 PAGE. Glaubers Salt 282 Glazing 126 Glue 188 Gold 310 Gold-beater's Skin 183 Gold Bronze 276 Gold Lace 313 Gold Leaf. 312 Gold Shell 312 Gold Solder 312 Gold Thread 313 Graham 29 Graphite 265 Granite 250 Grease, Goose 192 Mare's 192 Green Earth 274 Grindstone 253 Grits 29 Groats 29 Guano 206 GumAmmonia 115 Gum Lac 103 Gums 116 Gum Tragacanth 117 Gun Powder 289 Gunny Bags 140 Gutta Percha 121 Gypsum 248 H. Hair 174 Alpaca 174 Camel's 174 Cashmere 174 Goat 174 Mohair 174 Vicugna 174 HairOil 112 Hartshorn 185 Heliotrope 243 Hemp 137 Hemp Oil 126 Henniquen 140 Herring 201 Hides and Skins 170 Calf. 170 CONTENTS AND GLOSSARY. 351 PAGE. Sheep and Lamb 171 Hog 161 Kangaroo 171 Honey 81 Hops" 60 Horn 180 Buffalo 180 Deer 180 Goat 180 Ox 180 Sheep 180 Horse Hair 180 Hyacinth 239 Hydrometer 16 Hydrostatic Balance 16 I. Indian Corn 33 Pop 34 Sweet 34 White 34 Yellow 34 India Ink 158 India Rubber 119 Vulcanized 120 Indigo 93 Bengal 94 Benares 94 Bimliputam 94 Java 1)4 Kurpah 94 Madras 94 Tirhoot 94 Iron 331 Cast 333 Wrought 334 Iron Bronze 276 Iron Stone China 307 Isinglass 189 Ivory 184 J- Jaconet 136 Jas|>er 243 Jetolin 102 Jauiic dc Cologne 270 Juniper Berrv Oil Ill Jute .'. 140 K. PAGE. Kamptulikon 75 Karneol 242 Kerosene 259 L. Lactary 161 Lamprey 202 Lampblack 158 Lard 191 Lasting 179 Lawn 139 Lead 324 Lead Pencils 265 Faber 265 Dixon 265 Leather 171 Chagrin 172 Greased 172 Kid 172 Morocco 172 Shamoying 172 Sleek 172 Sole 171 Waxed 172 Lemons 48 Lentils 31 Licorice 82 Calabre 82 Lignite 263 Lilac 152 Lime 248 Calcareous Spar 249 Fiberous 249 Firm 249 Earthy 249 Gray ." 250 Hydraulic 250 Linden 150 Ling 199 Linen Goods 139 Lawn 139 Cambric 139 Damask 139 Draper 139 Toweling 139 Crash.... . 139 352 CONTENTS AND GLOSSARY. PAGE. Tick 139 Duck 139 Linen Thread 138 Linen Yarns 138 Linoleum , 75 Linseed 56 Linseed Oil 125 Lithographic Stone 267 Litharge 325 Litmus 94 Lobster 225 American 225 European 225 Norwegian 225 Logwood, Extract of 95 M. Macaroni 30 Macaroni a cann a 31 Tagliarini 31 Vermicelli 31 Macaroni a concha 31 Lasagnette 31 Mace 49 Mackerel 198 Spanish 198 Tunny 198 Madder 96 Mad. a Seed 56 Mahogany 154 Maize 33 Malachite 245 Malt 28 Manganese Ore 339 Manioc 36 Maple 152 Maple Sugar 80 Marble 248 Italian 249 Breccia 249 Clouded 249 Streaked 249 Mastic 104 Mead 82 Meal 29 Meat 195 Preserved . 195 PAGE. Corned Beef 196 Canned 196 Beef Extract 196 Butterine 196 Sausages 195 Meerschaum 246 Bowls 246 Stems 246 Melting Pots 303 Hessian 303 Graphite 304 MenthOil 113 Mercury 317 Methyl 102 Mexican Fiber 141 Mica 302 Millet 33 Millstones 254 Quartz 254 Lava 254 Sandstone 254 Mineral Acids 278 Mineral Oils 257 Mineral Salts 282 Mineral White 269 Mirrors 300-317 Mohair 177 Molasses 79 Money 342 Coin 342 Paper 342 Morel 161 Mortar 249 White Lime 250 Gray 250 Hydraulic 250 Concrete 250 Moss, Iceland 160 Irish 160 Mosaic 277 Mother-of-Pearl 213 Bullock Shells 213 Pearl Buttons 213 Mother of Cloves 59 Mountain Blue 273 Mountain Green 274 Mountain Tar 106 Muriate of Tin 293 CONTEXTS AND GLOSSARY. 353 PAGE. Chloride of Tin 293 Muriatic Acid 280 Mushroom 161 Musk 204 Mustard 55 White 55 Black 55 Mustard Oil 127 N. Naphtha 257 Nankin 136 Neat's-foot Oil 192 Nickel 337 Nicotine 64 Nitric Acid 279 AcquaFortis 280 Yellow 280 Fire Red 280 Nitrate of Mercury 280 Nitrate of Soda " 289 Nitrate of Silver 317 Nitro Glycerine 291 Dynamite 291 Dualin 291 Palein 291 Lithofracteur 291 Rackarock 291 Nudels 31 Nutmeg 49 Nut Oil 126 Nuts 45 Brazil 45 Filberts 45 Walnuts 46 Pecans 46 Peanuts 46 O. Oats 27 Common 28 Hungarian 28 Siberian 28 Naked..... 28 China 28 Short 28 23 PAGE. Oat Meal 29 Ochre 269 Red 270 Yellow 270 Oil Crayons 276 Oil of Hartshorn 209 Oil of Lavende- 112 Oil of Rose 112 Oil of Turpentine Ill Oil of Vitriol.' 278 Olive Oil 123 Opal 241 P. Palm Butter 127 Paper 142 Writing and Printing.... 145 Wrapping 145 Blotting 146 Filtering 146 Rice 146 Chinese 146 Paraffine Oil 259 Parchment , 173 Pearl B .rley 29 Pearl White 269 Pearls 212 False 213 Roman 213 Peas 31 Gray 31 Green 31 Yellow 31 Pepper 52 Black 52 White 52 Spanish 53 Cayenne 53 Pernambuco Wood 97 Petroleum 257 Pewter 327 Phosphorus 256 Phosphate of Acid 556 Amorphor 257 Matches 257 Pickles 47 Mixed 47 354 CONTENTS AND GLOSSARY. PAGE. Common 47 Pike 200 Pistachio Nuts 44 Pitch 158 Platinum 313 Sponge 314 Metallic 313 Black 314 Plume Alum 301 Plug Tobacco...' 69 Pockwood 156 Polishing Slate 252 Poppy-seed Oil 126 Porcelain 305 China 306 Japan 306 Saxony 306 Bohemian 306 Bavarian 306 Iron Stone China 307 Porphyx 250 Potstone 247 Potash 297 Pearl Ash 297 Stone Ash 297 Hungarian 297 Peru 297 Pottery 304 Common 304 Majolika 30 t Terrolith 304 Precious Quartz 242 Chalcedony.! 242 Cat's Eye 243 Heliotrope 243 Crysoprose 243 Avanturine 243 Jasper 243 Preserving Cereals. Man- ner of. 28 Protoxide of Chrome 274 Prunes 44 French 44 California 44 Turkey 44 Prunelles 44 Prussian Blue 207 Turnbull's 207 PAGE. Royal 208 Mineral 208 Pulp and Paper Products 146 Cardboard 146 Paper Hangings 147 Tracing Paper 147 Building and Roofing Paper 147 Paper-mache" 148 Q- Quercitron Bark 99 Quicksilver 317 Fulminating 319 Quills 180-186 R. Rape-seed Oil 126 Raisins 42 Smyrna 42 Damascus 42 Malaga 43 Valencia 43 Realgar 271 Redwood 97 Red Lead 271 Resin 103 Rice 32 Egyptian 32 Carolina 32 Indian 32 Italian 32 Broken 32 Meal 32 Rock Crystal 241 Rookwood Pottery 307 Rye 1 27 Winter... 27 S. Saccharometer 81 Saiflower 98 Safranin 102 Saffron.... 59 CONTEXTS AND GLOSSARY. 355 PAGE. Sago 36 Pearl 36 Salmon 200 Parr 200 Peal 200 Smelt 200 Grilse 200 Sal Ammonia 294 Salt 291 Saltpeter 288 ' Indian 289 i American 289 Salt of Sorrel 162 ' Sandarack 108 i Sandal Wood 96 i Red.^ 96 ! Yellow 96 i White 96 ! Sand Paper 251 ; Sandstone 250 Sapphire 237 , Sardines 202 Sarsenet 135 : Sassafras 112 i Sassafras Oil 112 i Satin 179 Satin Spar 24-5 Satin Wood 157 Schweinfurth Green 274 Sea Weed 141 Seeds 56 Linseed 56 Hemp Seed 56 Rape Seed 56 Madia Seed 56 Clover Seed 5G Timothy 57 Seed Oil...". 125 Senna Leaves 72 Sepia 210 Serge 170 Serpentire 2 7 Sesam Oil 127 Shad 202 Shale Naphtha 259 Shale Naphtha Oil 259 Shawls 17S Shellac... . 103 PAGE. Sheeting, Cotton 136 Linen 139 Shirting 136 Shot 325 Swan 325 Pea and Dust 325 Shrimp 225 Silk 214 Worms 214 Orgazine 216 Tram 216 Raw 216 Thread 217 Ribbons 217 Handkerchiefs 217 Silks 217 Coarse 218 Smooth 218 Pure 217 Mixed 217 Gauze 219 Atlas 219 Fashioned 219 Jacquard 219 Velvet 220 Knit 220 Reticular 220 Watered 221 Silver 314 Ruby 315 Chloride 315 Wrought 316 Bullion 316 Sisal Grass 140 Skins 17O Dog 171 Calf. 170 Hog 171 Kangaroo 171 Sheepor Lamb 171 Slate 250 Slate Pencils 267 Brown 267 Smalt 272-337 Snails 211 Snuff 69 Soap 194 White.... . 194 356 CONTENTS AND GLOSSARY. PAGE. Yellow 194 Powder 195 Toilet 195 Soapstone 247 Soda 298 Carbonate of 298 Kelp 299 Bicarbonate of 299 Caustic 299 Solid Vegetable Fats 127 Cocoa Butter 127 Palm Butter 127 CocoanutOil 128 Spanish "White 269 Spelter 329 Spirits of Camphor 113 Sponges 229 Levant 230 West Indies 230 Florida 230 Starch 34 Corn 35 Rice 35 Potato 35 Arrow Root 35 Steel 335 Blistered 336 Cast 336 Chromium 336 Mild 336 Puddle 336 Damask 336 Silver 336 St. John's Bread 54 Stoneware 305 Straw Wares 141 Hats 142 Panama Hats 142 Mexican Sombrero 142 Sugar 78 Brown 79 Cut-loaf 79 Pulverized 79 Granulated 79 C 79 A 79 Sub Carbonate of Potash 298 Sulphur 255 PAGE. Sulphuric Acid 278 Oil of Vitriol 278 Common 279 Sulphureted Hydrogen... 279 Sweet Oil 124 Syenite 250 Syrup 80 T. Table of Foreign and United States Gold Coins 340 Table of Foreign and United States Silver Coins 341 Taffer 337 Talc !.. 269 Tallow 191 Tapioca 36 Rio 36 Bahia 36 Tartar 163 Crude 163 Cream of. 163 Baking Powder 164 Tartaric Acid 164 Tea 69 Green 71 Black 71 Pekoe 70 Paraguay 72 Chinese 71 Japan 71 Teak 156 Teasels 61 Terra Cotta Ware 305 ThymOil 113 Tin 326 Block 327 Grain 327 Tobacco 63 West Indian 65 South American 65 Asiatic 67 North American 66 European 67 Toilet Water 112 Topaz - 238 CONTENTS AND GLOSSARY. 357 PAGE. Colorless 238 Green 238 Red 238 Tortoise Shell 182 Touchstone 253 Tripoli 252 Trout 200 Brook 201 Speckled 201 Truffle 161 Turtnuric 100 Turpentine 109 Common 109 Venetian 109 French 109 U. Ultramarine 272 Umber 275 V. Vanilla 50 Camphor 51 Vegetable Fats 123 Vegetable Wax 128 Japanese. 128 Brazilian 128 Myrtle 128 Chinese 128 Veneer 157 Victuals 195 Vinegar 92 Wine 92 Fruit 92 Wood 92 Violet Quartz 242 Vitriol, Green 285 W. Walnut 153 Wash Blue 273 Wax 221 Yellow 221 White 221 Bees , .. 221 PAGE. Weld 99 Whale Bone 181 Wheat 25 Bald 25 Bearded 25 Winter 25 Summer 25 Qualities 26 No. 1 Hard 26 No. 1 Northern.... 26 No. 2 Northern 26 No. 3 Northern 26 Rejected 26 Whetstones 253 Oilstones 254 White Lead 268 Whiting 287 White Vitriol 266 Whisky 89 Rum'. 90 Gin 90 Arrack 90 Potato 90 Molasses 90 Fruit 91 Winespirit 90 Grain 90 Taffia 91 Willow-ware 14-2 Baskets 142 Wine 83 White 84 Red 84 Champaign 84 Port 85 Per cent of Alcohol 85 Rhine 86 Wooden ware 157 Furniture 157 Playthings 157 Wood Charcoal 158 Wood Tar 158 Wool 175 Long-fleeced 1 76 Short-fleeced 176 Woolen Yarn 176 Zephyr 177 Fantasia 177 358 CONTENTS AND GLOSSARY. PAGE. Mohair 177 Alpaca 177 Woolen Materials 177 Cloths 177 Table Spreads 178 Cashmere 178 Buckskin.... . 178 PAGE. Yellowwood 99 Z. Zircone 239 Yellow 240 Red .. 240 THE LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Santa Barbara THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW. Series 9482 DC SOUTHERN REGIONAL UBRARY FACIUTY A 000 721 531 2