LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Class 
 
The D. Van Nostrand Company 
 
 intend this book to be sold to the Public 
 at the advertised price, and supply it to 
 the Trade on terms which will not allow 
 of reduction 
 
BOILER-WATERS 
 
 SCALE, 
 
 CORROSION, 
 
 FOAMING 
 
 B7 
 
 WILLIAM WALLACE QHRISTIE 
 
 M. Am. Soc. N. E., Consulting Engineer 
 
 AUTHOR OF "CHIMNEY FORMULAE AND TABLES," "CHIMNEY DESIGN AND 
 THEORY," AND " FURNACE DRAFT : ITS PRODUCTION 
 BY MECHANICAL METHODS" 
 
 SEVENTY. SEVEN ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 D. VAN NOSTKAND COMPANY 
 
 23 MUERAY AND 27 WARRED STREETS 
 1906 
 
Copyright, 1906 
 
 BY 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
 
 ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW TORK 
 
21 steam-boiler id a steam-generator, 
 not a kettle for chemical reaction. 
 
 "(Set, if possible, a supply of clean, soft, 
 natural water." 
 
 "lje onlg componno to jmt into a boiler 
 is jmre water." 
 
 , tlje most useful element, is, 
 toljen free in boilers, a most bestrnctitJe 
 corrosive element. 
 
 161878 
 
PEEFACE. 
 
 THE relative value of one boiler to another may, in many 
 cases, be measured by its scale-forming propensity with a given 
 water. 
 
 Purify this water and all boilers come much nearer a uniform 
 value per unit of heating-surface. 
 
 This work has for its object to furnish steam-users with in- 
 formation regarding water, its use, and troubles arising from the 
 use of water, and remedies that may be used or applied; the gain 
 being more efficient generation of steam. 
 
 It is due to the Railway Master Mechanics' Association that 
 real progress has been made in the softening of water for loco- 
 motives, along which line much work is being done, and the same 
 line of work is now being taken up by manufacturers and indus- 
 trial corporations. 
 
 The author wishes to thank all who have aided him in his 
 work; credit has been given, as far as possible, to those to whom 
 credit is due, and he sends the book forth as a pioneer on the 
 subject in this country, and he will be glad to receive suggestions, 
 just criticisms, and new material looking toward a more perfect 
 and rounded-out work in the near future. 
 
 WILLIAM WALLACE CHRISTIE. 
 
 PATERSON, N. J., Oct. 1st, 1906. 
 
 v 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 PAQB 
 
 WATER, ITS PROPERTIES, MATERIALS FOUND IN WATER, WATER 
 ANALYSIS 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 BOILER-SCALE TRANSMISSION OF HEAT-CONDUCTIVITY OF SOLIDS 39 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 CORROSION 68 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 FEED- WATER PIPES BLOW-OFF PIPES TUBES 103 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 PRIMING AND FOAMING 117 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 OIL GREASE ZINC 128 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 HARDNESS OF WATER 142 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 FEED-WATER HEATERS ECONOMIZERS 1 54 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 WATER-SOFTENING 1 77 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS TABLES 217 
 
 vii 
 
OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 WATER, ITS PROPERTIES, MATERIALS FOUND IN WATER, 
 WATER ANALYSIS. 
 
 STEAM-MAKING is the important thing in all steam-plants; 
 next in importance to the boilers themselves is the water to be 
 evaporated as steam. 
 
 Water is a combination of the two very abundant elements, 
 hydrogen and oxygen, in the proportion of two parts hydrogen 
 by volume to one part oxygen (H 2 0); it is also one part by weight 
 of hydrogen to eight parts of oxygen. 
 
 All living things, plant and animal, contain a large proportion 
 of water. 
 
 Water as used in power-plants is seldom sent to the boiler in 
 a proper condition of purity, as is evidenced by the large number 
 of boilers in which scale or corrosion is found. 
 
 Distilled water should not be used unless a certain amount of 
 raw water be added to it at regular intervals to prevent entirely 
 or lessen its corrosive action. 
 
 The most desirable feed-water is soft water, either that natu- 
 rally soft or water that has been treated by one of the many methods 
 of water-softening now in use, which destroy scale-forming proper- 
 ties. 
 
 Rain-water, a water we should think would come to us pure, 
 is never entirely so, frequently containing one to three parts of 
 inorganic impurities per 100,000 parts of water. 
 
2 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Snow and rain always contain gases of atmospheric origin, 
 among which are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid.* 
 
 Nitrogen. . . 
 Ammonia. . 
 Nitric acid. 
 Chlorine. . . 
 Lime. ..... 
 
 Magnesium. 
 
 Water Falling at Paris. 
 Grams per Cubic Meter. 
 
 6.397 
 3.334 
 14.069 
 2.081 
 6.220 
 2.100 
 
 7.939 
 2.769 
 21.800 
 1.946 
 5.397 
 2.300 
 
 In addition to gases, we find in water the salts of ammonium, 
 sodium, and calcium. 
 
 Rain-water we may say in a general way is the purest of all 
 natural waters. 
 
 From seventy-one samples of water collected at a farm at 
 Rothamsted, England, we have for an average: 
 
 Total dissolved solids 3 . 95 
 
 Organic carbon . 099 
 
 Organic nitrogen . 022 
 
 Ammonia . . .050 parts per 
 
 Nitrogen as nitrates and nitrites .007 ' 00 
 
 Total combined nitrogen 0.071 
 
 Chlorine . 063 
 
 From Massachusetts we have this analysis of polluted river- 
 water : 
 
 Turbidity slight 
 
 Color 1.5 
 
 f Albuminoid ammonia . 263 
 
 Nitrogen as j *"*. ammonia 0.664 
 
 I Nitrites 0.025 
 
 [Nitrates 0.800 
 
 Chlorine 24 . 1 
 
 Total residue 127.0 
 
 All in parts per million. 
 
 The waters of many rivers are contaminated with much coloring- 
 matter and other organic matter in suspension, which can be 
 readily filtered out and save much trouble in the boiler. 
 
 * De La Coux, p. 8. 
 
IMPURITIES IN WATER. 
 
 The same remark will apply if we leave certain organic matter 
 in the water, as we shall see later is the case with river-water at 
 Pittsburg, Pa. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF WELL-WATER.* 
 (U. S. Government Wells, Sandy Hook, N. J.) 
 
 
 Machine- 
 shop. 
 
 Officers' Quarters. 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 .0352 
 .0225 
 .0014 
 .0005 
 .0109 
 .0053 
 .0419 
 .0042 
 .0074 
 .0015 
 .0408 
 .0083 
 
 .0170 1 
 .0142 J 
 .0013 i 
 .0012 
 .0127 
 .0117 
 .0296 
 .0003 J 
 .0087 ' 
 .0024 
 .0412 
 .0064 
 
 Grams per liter. 
 
 Soluble residue, 
 grams per liter. 
 
 Insoluble residue, 
 grams per liter. 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 Silica 
 
 Iron and alumina 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Soda 
 
 Potash 
 
 Silica 
 
 Iron and alumina 
 
 Lime 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 
 Suspended 
 matter 
 
 IMPURITIES IN NATURAL WATERS^ 
 
 T . . r Sand. clay, and various pulverized min- 
 
 Inorgamc or mineral j ' 
 
 Living microscopic animals; dead 
 fish and parts thereof; feathers 
 from birds, etc. ; decayed animal 
 refuse; hair; manufacturing 
 wastes, such as wool-scourings, 
 dyehouse wastes, blood from 
 slaughter-houses, etc.; excre- 
 ment and urine from sewers, etc. 
 
 . Organic 
 
 Animal 
 
 Vegetable 
 
 Dried leaves, grass, flowers; de- 
 cayed wood; peaty matter; alga; 
 and other plant life, including 
 bacteria; wastes from cotton-, 
 
 . silk-, and linen-mills, and from 
 distilleries, etc. 
 
 Dissolved 
 matter 
 
 Gaseous 
 
 Solid 
 
 f Carbon dioxide. 
 
 \ Hydrogen bisulphide. 
 
 f Inorganic metals in general. 
 
 1 rw.,, / Animal see above. 
 I Orgamc \ Vegetable-see above. 
 
 * TJ.S. Government Tests, 1886, p. 4. 
 
 t From W. S. and 1. P., No. 79, U. S. Geological Survey. 
 
BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Spring-water, like well-water, is frequently impregnated with 
 carbonic-acid gas, which comes from the organic matter in the 
 earth. 
 
 The water obtained from the granitic rocks is purer than that 
 from the secondary strata, which latter is calcareous in its make-up. 
 
 Unfiltered and filtered water may contain certain of the chemi- 
 cal elements, such as sodium, calcium, potassium, etc., which re- 
 main in solution at the ordinary or lower temperatures, but which 
 decompose when subjected to the high temperatures from furnace- 
 fires, and which elements fall to the shells or tubes of boilers as a 
 fine powder or, what is more frequent, adhere to the tubes and 
 shell as scale. 
 
 Some spring-waters contain zinc ; * for example, one in southern 
 Missouri has this analysis: 
 
 Parts 
 per Millon. 
 
 PbSO 4 trace 
 
 CuSO 4 0.5 
 
 CdSO 4 0.9 
 
 ZnSO 4 297.7 
 
 FeSO 4 1.6 
 
 MnSO 4 . 6.3 
 
 A1 2 (SO 4 ) 3 2.5 
 
 Parts 
 per Million. 
 
 CaSO 4 109.9 
 
 MgSO 4 19.0 
 
 K 2 SO 4 5.6 
 
 Na 2 SO 4 5.9 
 
 NaCl 4.3 
 
 CaCO 3 72.0 
 
 SiO 2 13.7 
 
 Compressibility of Water. Water is but slightly compressible: 
 for each foot of pressure distilled water will be diminished .0000015 
 to .0000013 in volume. 
 
 At a depth of half a mile, 2640 feet, a cubic foot weighs only 
 about one quarter of a pound more than at the surface. 
 
 The freezing-point of water is at 32 F. at the ordinary at- 
 mospheric pressure sea-level and ice melts at the same tem- 
 perature. 
 
 Sea-water freezes at 27 F., and the ice is fresh. The usual 
 sources of water are: 
 
 1. Rain or melted snow; 
 
 2. Lakes, rivers, or creeks; 
 
 3. Wells, driven or dug; 
 
 4. Mineral springs; 
 
 5. Ocean- or sea-water; 
 
 * Hillebrand, Bui. 113, U S. Geol. Survey. 
 
GASES IN WATER. 
 
 and the forms of water commonly known to us are 
 (a) Solid form Ice; 
 (6) Liquid form Water; 
 (c) Gaseous form Steam. 
 
 Though water is used for domestic purposes, and for washing 
 in its broad sense, and to sustain life, it is only its use in steam- 
 boilers steam-making that we shall consider in this book. 
 
 Peaty water from woodlands has a solvent action on lead 
 pipes due to its acidify, which varies in terms of a sulphuric acid 
 equivalent from 1 to 4 parts in 100,000. 
 
 Mr. Ackroyd says that the solvent action would not occur if 
 the acidity did not exceed 0.5 part in 100,000. 
 
 High velocity of steam-particles is considered favorable to both 
 corrosion and incrustation. 
 
 Oxygen Dissolved in Water. Nearly all waters contain oxygen 
 in solution. 
 
 Spenmath states that water absorbs oxygen as follows: 
 At 32, F. it absorbs 4.9 per cent of its own bulk; 
 At 50 F. it absorbs 3.8 per cent of its own bulk; 
 At 68 F. it absorbs 3.1 per cent of its own bulk. 
 Stromeyer states that under 150 pounds pressure cold feed- 
 water absorbs 3.2 pounds of oxygen per ton of water. 
 
 ABSORPTION OF GASES. 
 
 
 Coefficients of Absorption 
 in Water. 
 
 At C. 
 (32 F.) 
 
 At 20 C. 
 (68 F ) 
 
 Nitrogen . ... 
 
 0.02035 
 1 . 7967 
 0.04114 
 0.02471 
 
 0.01403 
 0.9014 
 0.02838 
 0.01704 
 
 Carbonic acid 
 Oxygen. 
 Atmospheric air 
 
 Figure la is a graphic representation of the relation of tem- 
 perature to the evolution of mixed gases in water under atmos- 
 pheric pressure, and is taken from a paper read before the Victorian 
 Institute of Engineers, Australia, by Mr. James Alex. Smith. 
 
 The water used in making the determinations was the ordinary 
 "Yan Yean" supplied to Melbourne, Australia, and which is, 
 chemically, almost a natural distilled water. 
 
BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Gases were expelled from unit volume of water. 
 Gases previously absorbed from the atmosphere at 54 F, 
 Composition of gases: Oxygen 31, nitrogen 69 per cent. 
 Barometer, 29.9 in. 
 
 170 180 1'JO 
 
 TEMPERATURE 
 
 210 F. 
 
 .000 
 
 FIG. la. Temperature-gas-emission Curve. 
 
 Temperature of water raised from 54 F., and steadily increased 
 to 212 F. in one hundred and fifty (150) minutes. 
 First evolution of gas at 120. 
 Mr. Smith says that "known facts relating to feed-pipes, econo- 
 
SEA-WATER. 
 
 mizer tubes, and those parts of boilers near the inlet amply prove 
 that marked oxidation may ensue when the gases are released by 
 temperature increment and whilst they still continue in a con- 
 stricted fluid flow ; in contact with relatively large bounding super- 
 ficies." 
 
 Atmospheric air contains only - of carbonic acid, whereas 
 
 the air held in solution in water contains from 40 to 42 per cent 
 of carbonic acid. The boiling-point of water depends on the 
 substances it contains in solution, or, in other words, depends 
 upon its purity, also upon the atmospheric pressure or pressure 
 in vessels containing the water. 
 
 Water containing sodium chloride has the boiling-point raised 
 in proportion to its salinity as shown in the following table : * 
 
 
 
 Deg. C. 
 
 Deg. F- 
 
 Pure water 
 
 
 100 
 
 212 
 
 Water containing 5 
 
 per cent of sodium chloride 
 
 101 
 
 213 8 
 
 " " 10 
 
 
 103 
 
 217 5 
 
 " " 15 
 
 < < 1 1 
 
 104 6 
 
 220 
 
 20 
 25 
 
 (t n < < 
 n t ( a n it 
 
 106.3 
 107.9 
 
 223.5 
 226.3 
 
 A solution containing 30 per cent of magnesium chloride boils 
 at 115.6C. (240 F.). 
 
 Sea-water is very much like deep well-water, having many 
 substances in common. There are certain salts in each which 
 are especially corrosive and scale-forming. They are: 
 
 . , . 
 Scale -forming 
 
 Corrosive 
 
 j Sulphate of calcium. 
 
 i , , c 
 
 \ Sulphate of magnesium. 
 
 -,,,., . ,. / In presence of calcium and magne- 
 Chlonde of sodium ( " 6 
 
 I smm salts. 
 
 Chloride of magnesium. 
 Chloride of calcium. 
 Chloride of potassium. 
 
 Sulphate of calcium, a very troublesome scale-forming salt, 
 is decidedly prevalent in both sea- and well-waters. 
 
 Calcium Sulphate,f CaSO 4 . Calcium sulphate, known as gyp- 
 sum, or plaster of Paris, is slightly soluble in salt water or pure 
 
 * De La Coux, p. 34. 
 
 t See Eng. News, vol. 40, 403. 
 
BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 water at temperatures between 140 and 150 C. (284 and 302 F.) 
 and beyond; precipitation which has been started by heating the 
 solution to 140-150 C. (284-302 F.) continues even after the 
 water has been cooled. Below 284 F. the lower the temperature 
 the greater the solubility. 
 
 TABLE OF SOLUBILITY OF CALCIUM SULPHATE IN 100 PARTS OF 
 WATER AT HIGH TEMPERATURES. 
 
 Temperature, deg. C. . 
 
 140 
 
 165 
 
 175-185 
 
 240 
 
 250 
 
 " F.. 
 
 284 
 
 329 
 
 347-365 
 
 464 
 
 482 
 
 Parts CaSO 4 
 
 078 
 
 056 
 
 027 
 
 018 
 
 016 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Precipitation of CaSO4 is in the form of heavy crystals. It 
 is a very poor conductor of heat. Being soluble in water free from 
 carbonic-acid gas at the moderately low temperatures, it can be 
 removed by means of carbonate of soda soda-ash. The chemistry 
 of the reaction is CaS04 + Na2CO3=, after being dissolved in 
 water and mixed, CaCO 3 + Na 2 S04. CaCO 3 settles as a white 
 precipitate. Caustic soda may also be used, but gives a slightly 
 different reaction. 
 
 Prof. V. B. Lewes * has found by experiment that if sea-water 
 is diluted a thousand times its own bulk with distilled water, 
 the minute trace of calcium sulphate will separate in a thin pellicle, 
 which attaches itself to the side of the vessel when a temperature 
 of 300 F. is reached, at which temperature all of the calcium 
 sulphate will separate out, though more slowly than at higher 
 temperatures. 
 
 G. M. Davidson states that calcium sulphate is much more 
 harmful to boilers than large quantities of sodium sulphate, pro- 
 vided the calcium sulphate does not run, say, above 150 grains per 
 gallon. 
 
 Sodium sulphate can be removed by blowing off or washing 
 out; calcium sulphate once precipitated can only be removed with 
 great difficulty. It forms no scale in the pipes of the fuel-econo- 
 mizer, the temperatures attained in the water not being sufficiently 
 high. Its deposition in boilers is due to the slow concentration of 
 the water and higher temperatures reached in them. 
 
 Calcium sulphate in boiler-waters causes hard incrustation 
 * V. 30, 345 Inst. Nav. Archs. 
 
IMPURITIES IN WATER. 
 
 9 
 
 which is difficult to remove, and causes a noticeable loss in evapo- 
 rative efficiency of the boiler. It also becomes mixed with mud 
 in the boiler and renders the resultant scale hard. 
 
 Water temporarily hard, with the proper handling of the 
 boiler gives a loose powdery or sludge deposit, such hardness being 
 due to calcium and magnesium carbonates. 
 
 Water permanently hard, usually due to calcium sulphate, 
 generally produces a hard scale, and one of the most objectionable 
 of scales, especially due to the fact that it becomes less soluble 
 in water at the higher temperatures, as given by the following 
 table. 
 
 SOLUBILITIES IN GRAINS PER GALLON (ENGLISH).* 
 
 Temperature, 
 Degrees F. 
 
 Corresponding 
 Steam 
 Pressure, 
 Pounds. 
 
 Chemicals and Experimenters. 
 
 Calcium 
 Oxide, t 
 
 Calcium Sulphate. 
 
 Lanny, 
 1878. 
 
 Marignac, 
 1874. 
 
 Poggiale, 
 1879. 
 
 Tilden and 
 Shenstone. 
 
 32 
 40 
 59 
 64.4 
 68 
 75.2 
 86 
 95 
 101.5 
 111 
 127.4 
 140 
 158 
 161.6 
 210.2 
 212 
 284 
 323.6 
 356 
 464 
 482 
 
 
 96.7 
 94.0 
 91.0 
 
 133.0 
 143.0 
 
 iieis 
 
 143.5 
 
 168.7 
 177.8 
 
 170.8 
 151 
 
 54.6 
 39.2 
 18.9 
 12.6 
 12.6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 81.4 
 
 
 
 7o!i 
 
 '.7Q.*8 
 
 150.3 
 147.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 140.8 
 122.6 
 
 
 '4()'.2 
 
 
 37 
 
 79 
 131 
 484 
 575 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Engineering, Dec. 25, 1903. t Caustic lime. 
 
 Calcium Carbonate, CaCO 3 . Calcium carbonate, commonly 
 known as limestone, marble, or chalk, is readily soluble in water 
 containing carbonic-acid gas, is more soluble in cold than in hot 
 water. 
 
10 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 When recently precipitated it is soluble in 8834 parts of boiling 
 water, in 10,601 parts of cold water, and at a temperature of 
 15 C. (59 F.) is soluble in 12,858 parts of water; another 
 authority says it is soluble in 16,000 to 24,000 parts of pure water. 
 It does not form a very hard scale, but is sometimes bulky upon 
 crystallization. 
 
 Carbonate of lime is held in solution in water which contains 
 carbonic-acid gas, so that any chemical which will take up the 
 carbonic-acid gas will precipitate the calcium carbonate. The 
 most frequently used chemical for this purpose is common build- 
 ing-lime, or quicklime as it is called. It unites with the water 
 and forms a new substance hydrate of lime, or slaked lime 
 which takes up the carbonic-acid gas and forms calcium carbonate, 
 which being then insoluble, is all precipitated as a white powder. 
 
 Carbonate of lime forms a hard scale in economizers and a 
 soft mud in boilers, unless sulphate of lime is present, when it 
 also is cemented into a scale. 
 
 When the carbonate of lime is , precipitated out of water it 
 first appears as a bluish-white thin starch, which can readily pass 
 through the best chemical filters, not being arrested by wood- 
 wool, cloth, or sponges. If allowed to stand or be slightly heated, 
 the color changes to yellow, and no amount of shaking will change 
 it back; it likewise settles very slowly. Prof. Wanklyn's experi- 
 ments give 25 minutes for this precipitate to settle through f inch 
 of water, 8 hours or 480 minutes to clear up 20 inches depth 
 of water; the rate of settlement being 1.8 to 2.5 inches per 
 hour with the water cold] We can thus see why large settling- 
 tanks are necessary when working with cold water. 
 
 If the raw water is heated, as is done in some of the softening 
 processes, the settling-tank is made smaller. 
 
 Sulphate of lime and magnesium hydrate form the hardest 
 kind of a scale ; a scale of this kind has the following composition : 
 
 Carbonate of lime. 2.490 per cent 
 
 Sulphate of lime 74.280 
 
 Magnesium hydrate 18 .000 
 
 Alumina and oxide of iron 1 .276 
 
 Silica 1-830 
 
 Organic matter. 2 . 124 
 
 100.000 per cent 
 
IMPURITIES IN WATER 11 
 
 This scale had to be chipped from the boiler-shell. 
 Six specimens of incrustations analyzed by Prof. Chandler 
 gave for averages: 
 
 Sulphate of lime 56 . 49 per cent 
 
 Carbonate of lime 18.11 " " 
 
 Basic carbonate of magnesia 19.77 ' 
 
 Oxide of iron and aluminium . 69 ' ' 
 
 Silica 3.81 " " 
 
 Organic matter not determined 
 
 Water 1 . 62 per cent 
 
 100.00 per cent 
 
 Magnesium Sulphate, MgS0 4 . Magnesium sulphate, or Epsom 
 salts, is very slowly soluble in cold water, and easily soluble in 
 warm water; is very common and decomposes at high tempera- 
 tures, forming scale. At the higher temperatures the solubility 
 increases as the temperature. It does not of itself form boiler- 
 scale, but when in a boiler containing carbonate of lime a chemical 
 reaction takes place, when hydrate of magnesia and calcium sul- 
 phate are formed. These two compounds form a very hard and 
 stony scale. 
 
 The sulphate and carbonates of calcium cause most all of the 
 scale troubles in boilers. 
 
 Rankine in his " Mechanics " gives this table of resistance to 
 passage of heat of various substances: 
 
 Wrought iron 1 
 
 Copper 0.4 
 
 Slate 9.5 
 
 Brick. 16.7 
 
 Calcium carbonate 17 
 
 Calcium sulphate 48 
 
 Magnesium Carbonate, MgCO 3 . Magnesium carbonate, or 
 magnesia, is insoluble in water. Like carbonate of lime, it is 
 held in solution by carbonic-acid gas, and is precipitated when 
 the gas is driven off by the use of slaked lime. 
 
 This substance forms the principal ingredient of a" well-known 
 steam-pipe covering, and is there used to keep the heat in the pipes ; 
 it should be kept out of the boiler's interior parts as scale; that is, 
 out of all the water-surface in the tubes, shell, and all parts of 
 the boiler itself. 
 
12 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Magnesium Chloride, MgC^. Magnesium chloride is very 
 soluble in water, and evolves heat when in solution. 1 part is 
 soluble in one part of cold water; 1 part is soluble in 1.857 parts 
 of water at 15 C. (59 F.). 
 
 Sodium Sulphate, Na 2 SO4. One part of sodium sulphate is 
 soluble in 7.367 parts of water at 15 C. (59 F.). 100 parts of 
 water at C. (32 F.) dissolve 5.155 parts of sodium sulphate; 
 at 100.6 C. (213 F.) 100 parts of water dissolve 45.985 parts of 
 sodium sulphate. The maximum solubility is at 33 C. (91.5 F.). 
 The solubility is least at 103.17 C. or 218 F. 
 
 SOLUBILITY OF 
 
 IN WATER AT THE VARIOUS TEMPERATURES 
 AND PRESSURES.* 
 
 Parts of Na 2 SO 4 contained in 100 parts of the saturated solution at 
 pressure A in atmospheres. 
 
 
 0C. 
 
 15 C. 
 
 15.4 C. 
 
 A. 
 
 (32 F ) 
 
 (59 F.) 
 
 (59.75 F.) 
 
 1 
 
 4.40 
 
 11.32 
 
 11.4 
 
 20 
 
 4.53 
 
 10.78 
 
 10.74 
 
 30 
 
 
 10.05 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 10.33 
 
 
 Where sulphate of soda is present in excessive quantities in 
 boilers, the frequent use of the blow-off cock will remove the con- 
 centrated solution and prevent foaming. 
 
 Sodium Carbonate, Na2COs. Sodium carbonate, known as 
 " soda crystals," washing-soda, Scotch soda, or soda-ash, is soluble 
 in water with evolution of heat. One part is soluble in 2 to 5.967 
 parts of water at 15 C. (59 F.). It possesses four different degrees 
 of rapidity of solubility, due to varying quantities of water of 
 crystallization, and is but little more soluble at 34-38 C. (93.2- 
 100.4 F.) than at 104 C. (219.2 F.). 
 
 A saturated solution forms a crust at 104.l C. (219.2 F.), and 
 contains 42.2 parts of sodium carbonate to 100 parts of water. 
 The highest temperature observations were at 105 C. (221 F.). 
 
 Soda-ash is a dry, sometimes impure carbonate, and is used 
 where a cheap reagent is wanted in large quantities, and is not 
 adapted to " cold-process " treatments. Flynt f says that soda- 
 
 * Moller. 
 
 t Eng. Mag., 1903. 
 
IMPURITIES IN WATER. 
 
 13 
 
 ash, if used to treat water which is " hard " because of bicarbonates 
 with free carbonic acid dissolved, can only be used in conjunction 
 with lime, and then in the purification of waters which contain 
 silicates or sulphates only, either or both. 
 
 Muddiness in the water as seen in the gauge-glasses is a sure 
 test if too much soda-ash is being used, and when this is noticed 
 and acted upon there should be no further trouble from material 
 passing over to the engine-cylinders. 
 
 Sodium Chloride, NaCl. Sodium chloride, or common salt, is 
 always present in sea-water, and is frequently found in artesian- 
 well water when wells are driven near sea or ocean. It is soluble 
 in water; 36 parts of sodium chloride mixed with 100 parts of 
 water at 12.6 C. (54.7 F.) lowers the temperature 2.5 C. 
 (4.5 F.). The presence of other salts increases the solubility of 
 sodium chloride in water. 
 
 SOLUBILITY OP NaCl IN 100 PARTS OF WATER AT GIVEN 
 TEMPERATURES.* 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 
 Temperature. 
 
 
 Deg. C. 
 
 Deg. F. 
 
 
 Deg. C. 
 
 Deg. F. 
 
 
 -15 
 
 5 
 
 32.73 
 
 40 
 
 104 
 
 36.64 
 
 -10 
 
 14 
 
 33.49 
 
 50 
 
 122 
 
 36.98 
 
 - 5 
 
 23 
 
 34.22 
 
 60 
 
 140 
 
 37.25 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 35.52 
 
 70 
 
 158 
 
 37.88 
 
 5 
 
 41 
 
 35.63 
 
 80 
 
 176 
 
 38.22 
 
 9 
 
 48.2 
 
 35.74 
 
 90 
 
 194 
 
 38.87 
 
 14 
 
 57.2 
 
 35.87 
 
 100 
 
 212 
 
 39.61 
 
 25 
 
 77 
 
 36.13 
 
 109.7 
 
 229.5 
 
 40.35 
 
 * Poggiale. 
 
 Another table gives these figures: 
 
 At 32 F. 20,849 grains NaCl dissolved per gallon 
 " 68 F. 21,014 " " 
 " 122 F. 21,598 " " " " " 
 
 " 167 F. 22,182 
 " 194 F. 22,767 
 " 220 F. 23,349 
 " 239 F. 23,640 
 
14 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Silica. Silica is never dissolved in large quantities in steam- 
 boiler water, and but little is present in scale, but it is often com- 
 bined with alumina. 
 
 With other impurities in time there is formed a jelly-like paste, 
 changing under heat to a white, laminated mass, undulating in 
 its surface, which can be detached by scraping from the shell of 
 the boiler. 
 
 Heat eventually bakes it into a hard crust, removed by chipping. 
 
 Silica is easily precipitated by boiling the water at atmospheric 
 pressure, and it is occasionally found in liberal proportions in low- 
 pressure boilers with sulphate of lime. 
 
 Silicic Acid, SiO 2 . Silicic acid is soluble in 1000 parts of pure 
 H 2 0, water. 
 
 Oxides of Iron and Aluminium, Fe 2 3 and A1 2 3 . Fe 2 O 3 , 
 oxide of iron, is formed at 110- 140 C. (230-284 F.), and is 
 insoluble in water, H 2 O, or in solutions of alkalies. A1 2 O 3 , alumi- 
 nium oxide, is insoluble in acids and soluble in water. 
 
 Caustic Baryta, Ba(OH) 2 . Caustic baryta is said by H. de la 
 Coux to be an admirable remedy for encrusting-corrosive waters, 
 sea-water and deep-well water. It transforms sulphate of calcium 
 into sulphate of barium, which does not adhere to the boiler- 
 plates. As to corrosion it acts energetically; for instance, with 
 chloride of magnesium at boiling-point magnesium oxide is rapidly 
 precipitated. The chloride of barium then obtained precipitates 
 the sulphate of calcium in turn. It is much better to use, under 
 the above conditions, than lime, which increases scale rather than 
 preventing it when used in excess. 
 
 Carbonate of Barium (Witherite). Carbonate of barium, a 
 by-product of sugar-refineries, may be used to advantage with 
 deep-well waters, as, even cold, it precipitates the metallic oxides 
 of the salts which are very injurious, such as sulphate of iron and 
 aluminium. It is also used to treat water too high in sulphates. 
 It adds nothing to the water, and with calcium sulphate forms 
 barium sulphate, which is precipitated, and calcium carbonate, 
 which also is readily precipitated. It is used for waters high in 
 sulphates or free sulphuric acid. 
 
 Glycerine. H. de la Coux says that the use of glycerine as 
 recommended by Asselin and P. Videt depends upon the great 
 solubility of the calcic salts in this agent. When the water by 
 
IMPURITIES IN WATER. 15 
 
 continued evaporation contains too great a quantity of calcic salts 
 for the glycerine salts, the salts of the alkaline earths, instead of 
 forming adhesive scale, take a gelatinous form and will not adhere 
 to the boiler-plates. 
 
 Acids. Acids have been described as salts of hydrogen; and 
 those acids most common have these properties: 
 
 1. Solubility in water; 
 
 2. A sour taste (even after great dilution); 
 
 3. Reddening organic blue, etc.; 
 
 4. The power of decomposing most carbonates, causing 
 
 effervescence ; 
 
 5. The power of destroying the characteristics of alkalies 
 
 and forming alkaline salts. 
 
 Sulphate of aluminium and potassium (alum) possesses all of 
 the above characteristics, though it is not an acid. Sewage con- 
 tains ammonia, which, as a gas, escapes from the water or per- 
 meates it, and neutralizes the carbonic-acid gas. 
 
 Wood Extracts. We frequently hear of wood chips or chunks 
 of wood of different varieties being placed directly in the boiler; 
 neither, however, is as satisfactory as the use of the wood extract. 
 Logwood or oak wood is frequently used; but the quantity, 
 as for any other material, must be determined for each water used. 
 
 There are many mixtures called boiler compounds used for 
 the purpose of preventing scale. De la Coux recommends : Boil 
 2 kilograms of oak sawdust for an hour, at least, in 10 liters of 
 water, then add 3 kilograms of molasses. A kilogram per H.P. 
 per week is usually sufficient. 
 
 Solubility. Schwackhofer says that although the solubility 
 of solid bodies rises, as a rule, with the temperature, the following 
 points must be noted: 
 
 1. Solubility increases at a very slow rate, the behavior of 
 chloride of sodium being one of few exceptions. 
 
 2. Solubility is proportional to the increase of temperature 
 (in chloride and sulphate of potassium, sulphate of magnesium, 
 and chloride of barium). 
 
 3. Solubility, as a rule, takes place at a quicker rate than the 
 temperature rises (e.g., nitrate of potassium, nitrate of lead, sugar, 
 etc.). 
 
16 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 4. Solubility sometimes increases with increase of temperature 
 up to a certain point, but diminishes after that point has been 
 reached (sulphate of soda). 
 
 5. Finally, solubility sometimes diminishes with increasing 
 temperature (sulphate of calcium). 
 
 TABLE OP SOLUBILITIES. 
 Quantity of substance that one English * gallon of pure water can dissolve. 
 
 Substance. 
 
 At 60 F. 
 
 At 212 F. 
 
 Alum (potash alum) 
 
 95 Ibs. 
 
 35 7 Ibs 
 
 Aluminium sulphate 
 
 3.3 " 
 
 89" 
 
 Ammonium oxalate 
 Barium chloride 
 
 0.45 " 
 3.5 " 
 
 4.08 " 
 6.0 " 
 
 ' ' hydrate 
 
 05 " 
 
 10" 
 
 Calcium carbonate 1" 
 
 2 5 grains 
 
 1 5 grains 
 
 c chloride 
 
 40 Ibs 
 
 unlimited 
 
 hydrate 
 
 93 grains 
 
 53 6 grains 
 
 nitrate 
 
 40 Ibs 
 
 unlimited 
 
 oxide (lime) 
 
 70 grains 
 
 40 5 grains 
 
 sulphate J 
 
 161 " 
 
 152 
 
 Ferrous sulphate 
 
 2.0 Ibs. 
 
 17.8 Ibs. 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 
 
 doubtful 
 
 1 5 grains 
 
 ' ' chloride 
 
 20 Ibs 
 
 40 Ibs 
 
 ' ' hydrate 
 
 2 grains 
 
 2 grains 
 
 " oxide 
 
 14 " 
 
 14 " 
 
 ft sulphate 
 
 3 Ibs. 
 
 13 Ibs. 
 
 Sodium biborate (borax) . 
 
 0.4 
 
 5.5 " 
 
 carbonate (dry) 
 
 1 2 
 
 45 " 
 
 ' ' (crystals) 
 
 4 1 
 
 14 " 
 
 chloride 
 
 3 5 
 
 40" 
 
 hydrate 
 
 6 1 
 
 unlimited 
 
 hyposulphite 
 
 5 
 
 20 Ibs 
 
 
 1.2 
 
 20.0 " 
 
 " sulphite 
 
 2.5 
 
 10.0 " 
 
 11 sulphate 
 
 1 1 
 
 42" 
 
 
 
 
 * For an American gallon reduce each amount by 16.7 per cent, 
 t Insoluble at about 290 F. 
 
 J Decomposes at boiler temperatures in presence of alkaline earths or 
 iron. 
 
 Insoluble at 302 F. , equal to 70 Ibs. steam pressure. 
 
 Chemical Analysis. Many times when we are away from the 
 large business centres it is desired to test the feed-water, without 
 employing a chemist, to find out just what chemicals are needed 
 to make the water the best for our use. 
 
 We will need a few test-tubes and the materials called for on 
 the following list. 
 
WATER ANALYSIS. 17 
 
 LIST OF CHEMICALS AND APPARATUS. 
 
 i-pint bottle of soap solution ; 
 1 2-oz. bottle of lime-water; 
 1 " " " chloride of barium; 
 1 " " " chloride of ammonium; 
 1 " " " ferrocyanide of potassium; 
 1 " " " hydrochloric acid; 
 1 " " " nitric acid; 
 1 " " " tincture of cochineal ; 
 1 " " " metallic mercury; 
 1 " " " carbonate of ammonia (crystals): 
 1 1-oz. " " oxalic acid (crystals); 
 1 " " " phosphate of soda (crystals); 
 Slips of blue litmus paper; 
 " " red litmus paper; 
 1 4-oz. flat-bottom clear-glass bottle; 
 A wooden test-tube holder; 
 1 small spirit-lamp; 
 \ pint of alcohol; 
 A test-tube brush ; 
 \ dozen test-tubes. 
 
 These can be supplied by any chemist. 
 
 Take any clean bottle and fill it with the water you desire to 
 test, and proceed as follows: 
 
 To see whether the Water is Hard or Soft. Take a clean test- 
 tube and pour into it about three quarters of an inch in depth 
 of the soap solution ; then pour into it three or four drops, only, 
 of the water; if it becomes milky or curdy, the water is hard. 
 
 To see if the Water is Alkaline or Acid. Dip into a test-tube 
 half filled with water a strip of red litmus paper; if it does not 
 turn blue, the water is not alkaline. Now dip a strip of blue litmus- 
 paper into the water; if it does not turn red, the water is not acid- 
 
 To see if there is Carbonic Acid. Fill about three quarters of an 
 inch of water in a test-tube and then pour in just as much lime- 
 water; if there is carbonic acid, the water will become milky, 
 and on adding a little hydrochloric acid the water will become 
 clear again. 
 
18 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Test for Sulphate of Lime (Gypsum). Fill in the water to the 
 depth of 1^ inches in a test-tube, and then add a little chloride 
 of barium; if a white precipitate is formed, and it will not re- 
 dissolve when you add a little nitric acid, sulphate of lime is 
 present. 
 
 Test for Magnesia. Fill a test-tube about one fourth or one 
 third full of water; hold it with tube-holder, and bring it to a 
 
 FIG. lb. Test-tubes. 
 
 boil over the spirit-lamp; then add the point of a knife full of 
 carbonate of ammonia, and a very little phosphate of soda; if 
 magnesia is present, it will form a white precipitate; but as 
 it may not do so at once, it is best to set it one side for a few 
 moments. 
 
 Test for Lead. Fill a test-tube one fourth full of the water, and 
 add one or two drops, only, of tincture of cochineal. If there is 
 
WATER ANALYSIS. 19 
 
 only a trace of lead in the water, it will be colored blue instead of 
 pink. 
 
 Test for Copper. Add to some water in a test-tube a little 
 filing dust of soft iron, and a few drops of chloride of ammonium; 
 a blue coloration denotes the presence of copper. 
 
 Test for Iron. To some water in a test-tube add one drop of 
 f errocyanide : it will color it blue if iron is present. 
 
 Test for Sulphur Combinations. Pour enough mercury into a 
 small glass bottle with a flat bottom to cover it, then pour in water 
 enough to fill it for a depth of half an inch or more, stopper the 
 bottle and let it stand a few hours. If the mercury assumes a 
 darker surface, and upon shaking separates into a dark powder, 
 the water contains sulphur combinations. 
 
 General Instructions. Remember to rinse a test-tube out 
 thoroughly before using with the water that you are about to 
 test, and after making one test rinse out the tube thoroughly 
 in the water, using the tube-brush if necessary. 
 
 The soap solution can be prepared by putting some fine scrap- 
 ings of white curd soap (from an apothecary) into a bottle and 
 pouring alcohol upon it, then cork the bottle and set it one side, 
 shaking it often for a few days until it is all dissolved, then add 
 a little more soap, and if you find you have too'much, add a little 
 alcohol, so as to just dissolve it. 
 
 Lime-water can be prepared by slaking a small lump of freshly 
 burned lime with half its weight of water in a vegetable-dish; 
 then take some of the slaked lime and put it in a bottle with some 
 old distilled water (which can be obtained by condensing steam), 
 and shaking it occasionally; then let the undissolved portion sub- 
 side, draw off most of the clear liquid, and keep it tightly stoppered 
 in a clean bottle. 
 
 Note. Lime-water shaken up with linseed-oil in a bottle forms 
 a yellowish, creamy substance, which is a very soothing and cooling 
 application in case of severe burns and scalds. 
 
 Professor Hayes, in speaking of the deposits in tubes and flues, 
 says: 
 
 " They are of two kinds, both of which are capable of corroding 
 the iron rapidly, especially when the boilers are heated and in 
 operation. The most common one consists of soot (nearly pure 
 carbon) saturated with pyroligneous acid, and contains a large 
 
20 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 proportion of iron if the deposit is an old one, or very little of it 
 if it has been recently formed. The other has a basis of soot and 
 fine coal-ashes (silicate of alumina) filled with sulphur acids, and 
 containing more or less iron, the quantity depending on the age 
 of the deposit. The pyrol igneous deposits are always occasioned 
 by want of judgment in kindling and managing the fires. The 
 boilers being cold, the fires are generally started with wood; pyro- 
 ligneous acid then distils over into the tubes, and, collecting with 
 the soot already there from the first kindling fires, forms the nu- 
 cleus for the deposits, which soon become permanent and more 
 dangerous every time wood is used in the furnace afterwards. 
 
 " The sulphuric-acid deposits derive their acids from the coal 
 used, but the basis material holding these acids is at first occa- 
 sioned by cleaning or shaking the grates soon after adding fresh 
 charges of coal. Fine ashes are thus driven into the flues at the 
 opportune moment for them to become absorbents for the sulphur 
 compounds distilling from the coals, and the corrosion of the iron 
 follows rapidly after the formation of these deposits." 
 
 It is well to remark that the above-mentioned deposits form a 
 very hard incrustation, though of but little thickness generally, 
 and that they are very bad conductors of heat; therefore their 
 removal is necessary.* 
 
 Testing Feed-water. In Holland factories and on Holland 
 steamers, when sodium carbonate is employed to prevent scale, they 
 use f what is known as the " Erfmann Boiler-water Controller " 
 to test the water and tell them how much carbonate of soda to 
 put in the boiler. 
 
 As will be seen from the accompanying cuts, the apparatus 
 consists of two graduated vessels, marked respectively 1 and 2 
 (Fig. 2 with a pipette or inner tube), and a base containing a filter, 
 fitted in a case, Fig. 3. The case also contains three drop-bottles 
 (two for chemicals and one for boiler-water), a box of filter-papers, 
 and a cleaning-brush, compactly fitted for use on steamships. 
 
 On opening the case the directions for use are found inside of 
 the cover. By following these failure is said to be impossible. 
 The base of the apparatus slides into two dovetail catches and is 
 
 * From Tower's Guide-posts on the Engineer's Journey, 
 t U. S. Consular Reports, No. 1699. 
 
WATER ANALYSIS. 
 
 21 
 
 easily removable. All the other parts are provided with proper 
 receptacles to insure safety and to minimize the risk of breakage. 
 
 Bottle 1 contains a yellow liquid, and bottle 2 a colorless liquid. 
 The bottles are made in such a way that the flow of liquid can 
 be regulated to a nicety by the finger-tip on the air-inlet. To 
 
 FTG. 2. Controlling Apparatus. 
 
 operate the apparatus one has only to observe the directions, as 
 follows: 
 
 Place a piece of filter-paper in the filter (above the perforated 
 plate, to avoid tearing). Vessel 1 is then placed in position with 
 cock closed, and filled to mark A with hot water taken from the 
 boiler. The yellow liquid is then added to the height of mark B 
 and the contents shaken to mix them, properly. Next, vessel 2 
 is placed in position, with inner tube P inserted, whereupon all 
 cocks are opened. The liquid in vessel 1 (which has become thick) 
 passes through the filter and rises into vessel 2 in a clear state. 
 
22 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Only a certain quantity can rise, and, as it would be unsatisfactory 
 to leave this to the manipulator, the pipette, or inner tube P, 
 is used to obtain the exact quantity. When the fluid has reached 
 the maximum level in vessel 2 (that is, when it has risen in the 
 pipette P) all the cocks are closed and the pipette and its contents 
 removed. The remainder is the proper quantity for testing. 
 
 Take vessel 2, and from bottle 2 add the colorless liquid drop 
 by drop until a change of color from yellow to red is observed. 
 When the vessel is shaken this red tinge will disappear. The 
 
 FIG. 3. Case of Apparatus. 
 
 process of adding drops should, however, be continued until the 
 red tinge remains permanent after shaking the mixture. 
 
 Result. The level at which the reddish fluid stands indicates 
 on the graduated scale as follows; 
 
 A. By the number of degrees (or lines) below zero the quantity 
 in ounces of soda-ash required to be added daily for each ton of 
 boiler capacity, each line indicating one ounce per ton. 
 
 B. By the number of degrees above zero the presence already 
 of an excess of soda. In this event the quantity of soda added 
 daily must be decreased accordingly. 
 
 C. If the level stands at zero, then the water is not corrosive 
 
WATER ANALYSIS. 23 
 
 or liable to cause incrustation and the daily additions are correct 
 in quantity. By boiler capacity is understood the normal quantity 
 of water that is always kept in the boiler. 
 
 How to Add Soda. The first time the boiler- water is tested 
 or examined it naturally contains a great deal in the shape of 
 harmful elements, especially if the boiler has been in use for a long 
 period. If when tested the controller indicates 5 ounces per ton 
 (which means that the boiler-water is of a bad nature), then, 
 if dealing with a boiler which holds 16 tons of water, it is necessary 
 to put into the boiler at once 16 times 5 ounces (5 pounds) of 
 soda. This will make the water in the boiler harmless. 
 
 When the boiler is fed continuously it may, upon testing, be 
 found the following day that a need of 4 ounces per ton is indicated, 
 which means that since the 5 pounds were added such a quantity 
 of impure elements has entered the boiler that 16 times 4 ounces 
 (4 pounds) of soda is required to neutralize them. Then 4 pounds 
 is added at once, and as new water is being fed, another 4 pounds 
 should be added during the time the boiler is in use that day. 
 The latter quantity, however, should be dissolved in a tank or 
 bucket to enable the boiler to take it up during the working-day. 
 If on the third day the controller indicates zero, the adding of 
 4 pounds of soda per working-day may be continued, and it will after 
 that be sufficient to test the boiler-water once or twice a week. 
 
 As stated before, the quantity -of carbonate of soda required 
 for one work-day is dissolved in a small tank or bucket which 
 can be connected by means of a cock and tube to the feed-pump 
 suction-pipe, as shown at A (Fig. 4), regulating it in such a way 
 that it will take up the contents of the tank gradually during 
 the time the boiler is in use each day. When several boilers used 
 for different purposes are fed by one pump, then the soda must 
 be added direct to each boiler. This may be done by means of 
 a soda-cup, as in B. The soda-cup may, however, be placed right 
 on the boiler C. 
 
 How to Blow Off Effectively. The soda-ash having caused the 
 impurities to sink to the bottom of the boiler in the form of a 
 soft mud, this may be removed by occasionally blowing off. This 
 should be done when the boiler is not in use for instance, in the 
 morning before firing up, and even then with the blow-off 
 cock partially opened. It is not necessary to blow off longer 
 
24 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 than is required to lower the water-level about 2 inches, and it is 
 useless to blow off under high pressure, as the water circulation 
 would keep the mud stirring and only a small portion of it would 
 be removed. Sea-going steamers can therefore only rarely blow 
 off; but, owing to the use of condensers, the boilers on such steamers 
 do not require it so frequently. In their case corrosion is feared 
 more than incrustation. 
 
 FIG. 4. Apparatus attached to Boiler. 
 
 It is claimed that the apparatus is a remarkable labor-saver, 
 and the fact that the Holland-American Steamship Company of 
 Rotterdam, Holland, used to employ thirty men to clean out the 
 boilers after every home trip of one of their steamers across the 
 Atlantic, besides laying up their steamers once in three years 
 for two months for a thorough cleaning out, while at present, with 
 the aid of the apparatus described, the boilers are cleaned out by 
 means of a hose in a couple of hours, seems to warrant the claim. 
 
 Pittsburgh Testing Laboratory Method for Calculation of 
 Chemicals Required for Water-softening, or Neutralization of 
 Acid Waters.* Basis: Add one equivalent of lime for free carbon 
 
 * This and Archbutt's Method on the next page are given here by per- 
 mission of James O. Handy, Chief Chemist of the Pittsburgh Testing Labora- 
 tory, and are from a paper by him read before the Engineers' Society of 
 Western Pennsylvania. 
 
WATER ANALYSIS. 25 
 
 dioxide, insoluble lime, insoluble magnesia, soluble magnesia, acid 
 iron salts, and free acid. Insoluble magnesia requires two equiva- 
 lents of lime. 
 
 Add soda enough for soluble lime and soluble magnesia and free 
 acid, including acid iron salts. 
 
 Iron present as carbonate is removed by the addition of an 
 equivalent of lime. 
 
 Parts per 100,000. Pounds for 1000 U S. Gallons. 
 
 CaO, insoluble (i.e., as carbonate) j X . 0925 = commercial lime, 90% CaO 
 MgO, insoluble (i.e., as carbonate) / X. 26 = " " " " 
 
 MgO, soluble (i.e., as sulphate) -> 
 
 MgO, soluble (i.e., as chloride) ix.13 = " " " " 
 
 MgO, soluble (i.e., as nitrate) J 
 Acid, free (calculated as H 2 SO 4 ) X.053 = " " " " 
 
 CO 2 , free. . . X.118 = " " " " 
 
 Fe (as carbonate) X .093 = " " " " 
 
 CaO, soluble X . 166 = Soda-ash, 95% Na 2 CO 3 
 
 MgO, soluble X.233= " " 
 
 Acid, free X .095 = " " " 
 
 At 15 C., saturated lime-water = 1 . 3 g. per liter. 
 At 15 C., saturated lime-water = 1 . 083 Ibs. per 100 gallons. 
 The solubility of lime in water varies slightly. 
 
 ARCHBUTT'S METHOD FOR CALCULATION OF CHEMICALS REQUIRED 
 FOR WATER-SOFTENING.* As much sodium carbonate is dissolved 
 n a little water as is equivalent to the total lime and magnesia, de- 
 ducting as much as is equivalent to the total alkalinity of the water. 
 
 Lime-water enough is added to give a straw-color with silver 
 nitrate, and then as much more as is equivalent to the magnesia 
 present. This would apparently lead to the same results as would 
 be obtained by our method of calculation. We have not tested it. 
 
 Returning to a further consideration of the method in which it 
 is best to state the results of chemical analyses of water, it may 
 be admitted that the simple statement of basic and acid radicals 
 actually found will be safest and wisest in some cases. 
 
 In a very great number of instances, however, the client desires 
 to have the analysis show the most probable combination of bases 
 and acids. He wishes to know what salts are in the water, so 
 that its medicinal or technical uses may be intelligently under- 
 stood. 
 
 * See foot-note p. 24. 
 
26 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 For this reason it is desirable that chemists should get together 
 and agree upon a method of expressing results. 
 
 Cairns, " Quantitative Analysis," 1888, p. 182, follows this 
 plan, which he says meets most cases: Combine the sodium with 
 chlorine as sodium chloride, and the potassium with sulphuric acid 
 as potassium sulphate. Should there be any more sodium than 
 chlorine, and more sulphuric acid than is required by potassium, 
 combine the excess with sodium, and if there is more sodium left, 
 combine it with carbonic acid. 
 
 Should there be more than enough sulphuric acid for both sodium 
 and potassium, combine excess first with calcium as calcium sul- 
 phate, and next with magnesia as magnesium sulphate. 
 
 If chlorine is more than enough to satisfy sodium, combine it 
 with potassium if sulphuric acid was not sufficient. If chlorine 
 is still in excess, combine it with magnesium and then with calcium. 
 Calculate all calcium and magnesium, not combined with chlorine, 
 and sulphuric acid, as carbonates. 
 
 This method may be criticised in that it makes no provision for 
 nitric acid if present, and that it does not take advantage of the 
 absolute knowledge which may be gained by analysis, as to the 
 amounts of calcium and magnesium present as carbonates. The 
 method is based on Fresenius's earlier recommendations. In the 
 latest * edition of Fresenius the following example of a water- 
 analysis calculation is given. Mr. Handy determines the calcium 
 precipitated by boiling, and calculates it to carbonate. Beyond 
 that he attempts to combine acids and bases according to relative 
 affinities and solubilities: 
 
 1. Barium calculated to sulphate of barium. 
 
 2. Strontium calculated to sulphate of strontium. 
 
 3. Residual sulphuric acid calculated to calcium sulphate. 
 
 4. Bromine calculated to magnesium bromide. 
 
 5. Iodine calculated to magnesium iodide. 
 
 6. Calcium not precipitated by boiling, and not already 
 figured to sulphate, is calculated to chloride of calcium. 
 
 7. Potassium calculated to chloride of potassium. 
 
 8. Lithium calculated to chloride of lithium. 
 
 * "Traite de 1' Analyse Quantitative," R. Fresenius, 7th French from 6th 
 German edition, 1900. 
 
WATER ANALYSIS. 27 
 
 9. Ammonia calculated to chloride of ammonium. 
 
 10. Sodium calculated to chloride of sodium. 
 
 11. Residual chlorine calculated to magnesium chloride. 
 
 12. Phosphoric anhydride calculated to phosphate of calcium. 
 
 13. The calcium found in the precipitate on boiling, minus the 
 amount required by phosphoric acid, is calculated to carbonate. 
 
 14. The magnesium not calculated to bromide, iodide, or chlo- 
 ride is figured to carbonate. 
 
 15. The iron found is calculated to carbonate. 
 
 16. The manganese found is calculated to carbonate. 
 
 17. The silica found is calculated as silica. 
 
 18. The free carbonic acid is calculated by deducting from the 
 total the amount required by the lime, magnesia, and iron to form 
 bicarbonates. In alkaline waters the phosphoric acid is calculated 
 to phosphate of alumina. In saline waters it is figured as phos- 
 phate of calcium. 
 
 The scheme given above was used in connection with a mineral- 
 water analysis. No provision is made for nitric anhydride. 
 
 FRESENIUS'S GENERAL RULE FOR WATER-ANALYSIS CALCULA- 
 TION. This is supposed to apply to technical analyses where the 
 rarer elements are not determined, and is given in the 1900 edtion. 
 
 If the water is alkaline, all of the calcium and magnesium present 
 are calculated as carbonates. Otherwise proceed as follows: 
 
 1. Combine all chlorine with sodium. 
 
 2. Combine excess chlorine with calcium. 
 
 3. Combine sulphuric acid with calcium. 
 
 4. Combine nitric acid with ammonium, and then with calcium 
 or magnesium, if necessary. 
 
 5. The remaining lime and magnesia are calculated as carbonates. 
 This rule is very incomplete, in that it does not provide for the 
 
 disposal of the sodium which might be in excess of the chlorine. 
 It is also silent on the disposition of sulphuric acid in excess of 
 the amount required by calcium, and of nitric acid in excess of 
 the amounts required by the bases enumerated. The first illus- 
 tration is much more complete. 
 
 There seems to be a feeling among the followers of Fresenius 
 that in general the sodium and potassium should be the first bases 
 to be provided for, and they are generally given the chlorine or 
 sulphuric acid, or both if necessary. 
 
28 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 The method of analysis used in the Kennicott laboratories is 
 shown on a chart recently sent out for criticism, and differs from 
 plans in general use, in that it provides for the determination of 
 the amount of calcium sulphate actually present. This is accom- 
 plished by the use of alcohol of 0.92 specific gravity as a solvent 
 for treating the dry residue. Silica, carbonates of lime and mag- 
 nesia, and sulphate of lime are insoluble in this menstruum. They 
 are afterwards separated, the determination of sulphuric anhydride 
 being the index to the amount of calcium present as sulphate. 
 
 This removes one more arbitrary step from water-analysis cal- 
 culation, but it is accomplished at the expense of some time and 
 considerable alcohol. It does not affect water-softening calcula- 
 tions at all, but is designed to give certain information regarding 
 the most important scale-forming compound which occurs in 
 waters. The actual value of the alcohol used for each analysis 
 would be from six to ten cents, which is not so serious a matter 
 as would at first appear. 
 
 The fact that three hours are required for the extraction indi- 
 cates that sulphate of soda and the other soluble salts do not 
 dissolve rapidly, and errors due to incomplete extraction would 
 have to be guarded against by tests, as suggested. 
 
 ORDER IN WHICH BASES ARE APPORTIONED TO ACIDS BY SEVERAL 
 
 ANALYSTS. 
 
 Nitric Acid. 
 
 Cairns 
 
 E 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid. 
 Potassium 
 Sodium 
 
 Chlorine. 
 
 Sodium 
 Potassium 
 
 Fresenius .... 
 
 3. 
 4. 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 Calcium 
 Magnesium 
 Barium 
 Strontium 
 
 Magnesium 
 Calcium 
 Calcium 
 Potassium 
 
 
 3. 
 4. 
 
 Calcium 
 
 Sodium 
 Magnesium 
 
 Pittsburgh Testing 
 Laboratory 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 
 Calcium 
 Magnesium 
 Sodium 
 
 Calcium 
 Magnesium 
 Sodium 
 
 Kennicott 
 
 .4. 
 1. 
 2. 
 .3. 
 
 Potassium 
 Calcium * 
 Magnesium f 
 Sodium 
 
 Potassium 
 Calcium 
 Magnesium 
 Sodium 
 
 Calcium 
 Magnesium 
 Sodium 
 Potassium 
 
 * Calcium calculated from sulphate insoluble in alcohol, 
 t Magnesium figured to sulphate is the amount left over after figuring 
 the magnesium combined with chlorine. 
 
WATER ANALYSIS. 
 
 29 
 
 The scheme makes no provision for calculation of nitrates, but 
 it seems to the writer to be commendable in other respects. If 
 the plan could be elaborated further to allow discrimination between 
 magnesium chloride, sulphate, and nitrate, nothing would be left 
 to the analyst's judgment. This, however, is hardly to be hoped 
 for, and it is therefore desirable to have the necessarily arbitrary 
 calculations all made by the same method. 
 
 For technical work direct determinations of sodium and potas- 
 sium are not usually made. The residual acids not required for 
 the bases found are calculated to sodium salts. 
 
 Analysis of Water. The following table gives the results of 
 tests made by Prof. C. F. Chandler of waters along the line of the 
 New York Central Railroad. (The figures represent grains per 
 U. S. gallon.) 
 
 Source. 
 
 Corroding 
 Matter. 
 
 Incrusting 
 Matter. 
 
 Organic 
 Matter. 
 
 Total 
 Solids. 
 
 Syracuse Onondaga Creek 
 
 3 44 
 
 22 58 
 
 34 
 
 26 36 
 
 ' ' hydrant 
 
 38 
 
 27 55 
 
 trace 
 
 27 93 
 
 Memphis . ... 
 
 91 
 
 21 68 
 
 18 
 
 22 77 
 
 Jordan 
 
 1 71 
 
 11 47 
 
 06 
 
 13 24 
 
 Port Byron 
 
 1 08 
 
 7 17 
 
 1 28 
 
 9 53 
 
 Savannah 
 
 1 35 
 
 17 63 
 
 1 52 
 
 20 50 
 
 Clyde, spring 
 
 77 
 
 14 64 
 
 2 16 
 
 17 58 
 
 ' ' river 
 
 2 10 
 
 14.30 
 
 1 88 
 
 18 28 
 
 Lyons 
 
 1 03 
 
 11.07 
 
 1 00 
 
 13 10 
 
 Newark 
 
 1.17 
 
 18.73 
 
 2.16 
 
 22 07 
 
 Palmyra 
 
 1.43 
 
 33.39 
 
 1.46 
 
 36 28 
 
 Macedon Swamp 
 
 0.71 
 
 10.53 
 
 80 
 
 12 04 
 
 Fairport 
 
 3.19 
 
 15.06 
 
 1.14 
 
 19 39 
 
 Rochester N Street well 
 
 7 31 
 
 33 26 
 
 1 60 
 
 42 17 
 
 " Genesee 'River 
 
 1 18 
 
 10 85 
 
 1 64 
 
 13 67 
 
 " canal, roundhouse. . . 
 
 1.11 
 
 8.80 
 
 1.24 
 
 11.15 
 
30 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 WATERS AT VARIOUS POINTS IN THE NEW ENGLAND STATES, 
 
 ANALYZED BY S. DANA HAYES. 
 
 (Grams per one U. S. gallon.) 
 
 No. 
 
 Source. 
 
 Mineral 
 Matter. 
 
 Organic 
 Matter. 
 
 Total 
 Solids. 
 
 1 
 
 MAINE. 
 Pure spring, near Auburn 
 
 85 
 
 13 
 
 98 
 
 2 
 
 Spring on (Jape Elizabeth 
 
 7 40 
 
 2 21 
 
 9 61 
 
 3 
 
 Wells in Portland (av of four) 
 
 13 35 
 
 5 13 
 
 18 48 
 
 4 
 5 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 Merrimac River, at Manchester (drainage) . . 
 Merrimac River at .Lowell Mass 
 
 2.96 
 1 80 
 
 2.60 
 11 
 
 5.56 
 1 91 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 Massabeesic Lake, near Manchester 
 Hotel well on Rye Beach . . 
 
 1.16 
 6 08 
 
 1.66 
 2 43 
 
 2.82 
 8 51 
 
 8 
 9 
 10 
 
 VERMONT. 
 Mineral Springs, near St. Albans (av of seven' 
 at Guilford (chalybeate) . . 
 " " at Brunswick 
 
 15.24 
 25.27 
 
 77 79 
 
 1.25 
 1.65 
 2 33 
 
 16.49 
 26.92 
 80 12 
 
 11 
 
 " " at Danby 
 
 7.19 
 
 91 
 
 8 10 
 
 12 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 Cochituate Boston February 1871 
 
 2 37 
 
 83 
 
 3 20 
 
 13 
 
 Mystic Charlestown February 1871 
 
 3 96 
 
 1.72 
 
 5 68 
 
 14 
 
 Jamaica Pond, Roxbury, 18( 7 
 
 2.41 
 
 1.36 
 
 3.77 
 
 15 
 
 Connecticut River, at Holyoke 
 
 1.81 
 
 1.39 
 
 3.20 
 
 16 
 
 Saugus River Lynn 
 
 3 12 
 
 2 40 
 
 5 52 
 
 17 
 
 Flax Pond Lynn (drainage) 
 
 2 24 
 
 1 84 
 
 4 08 
 
 18 
 
 Horn Pond VVoburn 
 
 3 85 
 
 1 59 
 
 5 44 
 
 19 
 
 Locomotive supply Taurton .... 
 
 4 37 
 
 2 03 
 
 6 40 
 
 20 
 
 Artesian well Dedhf)^' 
 
 4 08 
 
 1.11 
 
 5.19 
 
 21 
 
 Wells in Woburn (av ' t lour) 
 
 51 . 52 
 
 4 60 
 
 56.12 
 
 99 
 
 W^ells in Lynn (av of six) 
 
 19.27 
 
 4.23 
 
 23.50 
 
 23 
 24 
 
 Old artesian well, Boston (reopened 1871) . . 
 Well on Cape Cod 
 
 54.35 
 10 01 
 
 1.85 
 2 41 
 
 56.20 
 12 42 
 
 25 
 
 B^ewerv spring Boston 
 
 13 68 
 
 1 68 
 
 15 36 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mr. J. T. Fennell says, leaving Philadelphia, the farther west 
 you go the worse boiler- water gets. Pittsburg water is rather bad; 
 Columbus, 0., is worse, but the worst he has found is at Junction 
 City, Kan. At Newton, Kan., the water is very good, the boilers 
 looking as though newly whitewashed, which is about as thick 
 as scale gets at this place. 
 
 Birmingham, Ala., water is bad makes lots of scale while 
 Atlanta, Ga., water is excellent, where light scale and some red 
 mud is found when examining boilers. 
 
WATER ANALYSIS. 31 
 
 Artesian well-water at Atlantic City and Camden, N. J., is 
 good, especially at Camden, where there are some boilers, installed 
 in 1868, which are nearly as good as when new as far as appear- 
 ances are concerned. These boilers are well cared for and are 
 never blown out while they are hot. 
 
 The well-water in Philadelphia, Pa., is very bad for boilers, 
 while at Brandy wine Summit, Pa., it is fairly good and leaves a 
 chalk-like deposit. 
 
 ANALYSIS OP SEA-WATER. 
 (Grains per gallon.) 
 
 Carbonate of lime 9 . 75 grains 
 
 -Sulphate of lime 114.38 " 
 
 il " magnesium 134 .86 " 
 
 Chloride of " 244.46 " 
 
 " sodium. . . 1706.00 " 
 
 Total 2209.47 grains 
 
 Sea-water, according to one authority, contains from 32 to 38 
 parts of salt, or sodium chloride, per 1000 parts of water. 
 
 WATER ANALYSIS. 
 
 Mineral water from a well about 60 feet deep at Carrizo Springs, 
 Texas, has been analyzed with these results in grains per U. S. 
 gallon: 
 
 Total mineral matter. 1306 18 
 
 Magnesium sulphate 231 . 00 
 
 Sodium sulphate 390 00 
 
 ' ' chloride 467 . 00 
 
 " bicarbonate 80 . 30 
 
 Calcium 130 . 40 
 
 Potassium chloride 5 . 50 
 
 Soluble silica 0.71 
 
32 
 
 BOILER- WATERS. 
 
 TABLE OF WATER ANALYSES. 
 Grains per U. S. Gallon of 231 Cubic Inches. 
 
 Where From. 
 
 Lime and 
 Magnesia 
 Carbonates. 
 
 Lime and 
 Magnesia 
 Sulphates. 
 
 Sodium 
 Chloride 
 (Salt). 
 
 Iron Oxide, 
 Carb.Sulph., 
 etc. 
 
 Volatile and 
 Organic 
 Matter. 
 
 Total Solids in 
 Grains. 
 
 Buffalo N Y Lake Erie 
 
 5 66 
 
 3 32 
 
 58 
 
 
 18 
 
 9 74 
 
 Pittsburgh, Allegheny River. 
 " Monongahela River. . 
 " Pa., artesian well. .. 
 Milwaukee, Wisconsin River 
 
 0.37 
 1.06 
 23.45 
 6 23 
 
 3.78 
 5.12 
 5.71 
 4 67 
 
 0.58 
 0.64 
 18.41 
 1.76 
 
 0.37 
 0.78 
 1 04 
 20 14 
 
 1.50 
 3.20 
 0.82 
 6 50 
 
 6.60 
 10.80 
 49.43 
 39 30 
 
 Galveston Texas 1 
 
 13 68 
 
 13 52 
 
 326 64 
 
 Trace 
 
 Trace 
 
 353 84 
 
 ii it ' 2 
 
 21 79 
 
 9 9 15 
 
 398 99 
 
 
 4 00 
 
 453 95 
 
 Columbus Ohio 
 
 20 76 
 
 11 74 
 
 7 02 
 
 58 
 
 6 50 
 
 46 60 
 
 Washington, D. C., city supply. . 
 Baltimore Md city supply 
 
 2.87 
 2 77 
 
 3.27 
 65 
 
 Trace 
 Trace 
 
 0.36 
 10 
 
 2.10 
 3 80 
 
 8.60 
 7 30 
 
 Sioux City la city supply 
 
 19 76 
 
 1 24 
 
 1 17 
 
 1 03 
 
 4 40 
 
 27 60 
 
 Los Angeles Cal 1 
 
 10 12 
 
 5 84 
 
 3 51 
 
 2 63 
 
 4 10 
 
 26 20 
 
 if < < < I n 
 
 3 72 
 
 12 59 
 
 
 76 
 
 6 00 
 
 23 07 
 
 Bay City, Michigan, Bay 
 River. 
 Cincinnati Ohio River 
 
 8.47 
 4.84 
 3 88 
 
 10.36 
 33.66 
 78 
 
 20.48 
 126.78 
 1 79 
 
 1.15 
 3.00 
 
 8.74 
 10.92 
 Trace 
 
 49.20 
 179.20 
 6.73 
 
 Watertown Conn 
 
 1 47 
 
 4 51 
 
 1 76 
 
 Trace 
 
 1 78 
 
 9 52 
 
 Fort Wayne Ind 
 
 8 78 
 
 6 22 
 
 3 51 
 
 1 59 
 
 10 98 
 
 31 08 
 
 Wilmington Del 
 
 10 04 
 
 6 02 
 
 4 29 
 
 8 48 
 
 6 17 
 
 35 00 
 
 Wichita Kansas 
 
 14 14 
 
 25 91 
 
 24 34 
 
 
 2 00 
 
 66 39 
 
 Springfield 111 1 
 
 12 99 
 
 7 40 
 
 1 97 
 
 2 19 
 
 8 62 
 
 33 17 
 
 " " 2 
 
 5 47 
 
 4 31 
 
 1 56 
 
 4 28 
 
 5 83 
 
 21 45 
 
 Hillsboro, 111 
 
 14 56 
 
 2 97 
 
 2 39 
 
 1 63 
 
 Trace 
 
 21.55 
 
 Pueblo Colo 
 
 4 32 
 
 16 15 
 
 1 20 
 
 1 97 
 
 5 12 
 
 28 76 
 
 Long Island City, L. I 
 Mississippi River above Mis- 
 souri River 
 
 4.0 
 8 24 
 
 28.0 
 1 02 
 
 16.0 
 50 
 
 
 1.0 
 5 25 
 
 39.0 
 15 01 
 
 Mississippi River below mouth 
 of Missouri River 
 
 10 64 
 
 7 41 
 
 1 36 
 
 1 22 
 
 15 86 
 
 36.49 
 
 Mississippi River at St. Louis, 
 W W 
 
 9 64 
 
 6 94 
 
 1 54 
 
 1 57 
 
 9 85 
 
 29 54 
 
 Hudson River above Pough- 
 keepsie NY 
 
 1 06 
 
 
 11 
 
 10 76 
 
 77 
 
 12 70 
 
 Croton River above Croton 
 Dam, NY 
 
 4 57 
 
 16 
 
 40 
 
 1 92 
 
 67 
 
 7.72 
 
 Croton River water from service- 
 pipes in New York City 
 Schuylkill River above Phila- 
 delphia Pa 
 
 2.36 
 2 16 
 
 29 
 
 49 
 
 1.36 
 1 30 
 
 
 3.72 
 4 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
WATER ANALYSIS. 
 
 33 
 
 O Oi-i 00 O OO O <& O 
 
 CO O 
 OS 
 
 Q ' 
 
 'saurj 'uuaj 
 
 Oi OOOOO^Oi-iO^O 
 i-i O'.OOOCDCDOt^O 
 
 O O CO O O O5 i-H O CO O 
 
 Q ' 
 
 'uuaj 
 
 (N CO CO O 1^- O iO (N t^ O t^ O 
 COr-< (N OOO<MCCOOOO 
 
 1C O O O O O<N t^ I-H O 1-1 O 
 
 CM 
 (M 
 
 'sautq -uuaj 
 
 OOO CO OOOOOCCT'GCIO 
 rrt C<l OOOCOOO^OOOO 
 
 TF O O O C O "5 T-H O O CO O 
 
 08 
 
 tan 
 
 1 
 
 G 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 O 
 
 I 
 I 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 le 
 
 in 
 
 Q 'pjoj 
 'sauiq -uaaj 
 
 (NO O O^COCO^OOOi-HO 
 
 A 'N < 
 "H'H 3 
 
 CO 
 
 r 1 OOCOOOi^rOCMOO 
 O OOCOOOOOi-HOO 
 
 OO 
 CM 
 
 paj 'si 
 -ay ' 
 
 CO 
 
 iO O 
 
 Tf O O O CO 00 OS O 00 O 00 
 T-I OiOOCOtO'-HOOOOOO 
 
 O OCMOCOCMi iOr-iOO 
 
 CMO 
 
 OO 
 
 ureo 'sauiq -tiuaj 
 
 coco 
 
 t> O 
 
 i IOCMOCOOO^OOOOOO 
 
 O OI-H O "tf r+ O O O O O 
 
 'O <snc l co 
 -ran 103 'jacjBM 
 AH3 'saurr -unaj I 
 
 I-H CO 
 00O 
 
 COO 
 
 CM O^OCMCOCOOi iOCM i i O 
 I-H OCMO'OO5>OOT^OO5 O3O 
 
 COO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO O'CTOCMi 'O'^rOOO 
 CM OCM*OOCOTfiOiOOCM 
 
 (3 'snqumjoo 
 'sdoqg 'sauiq "ua 
 
 CO 
 iO 
 
 ^ O 
 CM 
 
 'uostuaQ CM 
 X ^ 'H "PV c^' 
 
 2 8S8Sc1828 88 
 
 O O^OOOrfOOOO 
 CM 
 
 o o o icoos oo 
 
 CM 
 
 1 'IS 3> '0 "0 "0 
 
 So 1 5j ^ 8Sw8?S8S28 
 
 T-H JO O Oi-HiCOOOOOOO 
 
 "00 85100 ^> 
 
 1*03 uo^snofj 
 
 O cOiOOOO^TTCCNOO 
 O T (TfOOOt^-t^O^OOCO 
 
 O CMCOOO^i-HOOOo'r-i 
 
 COO 
 <M 
 
 "BQ ' 
 
 OOc^OOOCM 
 OOt^OOr-(^H 
 
 '8mjdg ' 
 
 -auaj 
 
 f CO OOCOCMCOOCMO' 
 OS T-H OOOOSOCMCOO^fO 1 
 
 O O O COO O 00 O OI-H O ' 
 
 Cu 
 ctj 
 
 1 
 
 T3 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 'paoj ' 
 
 -aaaj 
 
 O O OCM CM O I-H I-H OCM OrH 
 
 COO 
 "t> O 
 
 OOO 
 
 10 
 
 O CM OCMOOSOOOOCOCOCO COO 
 <* I-H OOsOCDOOrHOO0 I-HO 
 
 O O O O O O O O CO I-H Tf O CMO 
 
 * 
 
 .2 
 
 1-3 ScJS?' 
 
 H> 
 
 
 
 
 SiSw* 
 
34 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 WATER ANALYSES. 
 
 [W. B. Scaife & Sons Co.] 
 
 Impurities, Expressed in Grains, 
 per U S. Gallon 
 (about 58,000 Grains). 
 
 Carbonates. 
 
 Sulphates 
 and Other 
 Solids. 
 
 Total 
 Solids. 
 
 
 9.01 
 
 19.79 
 
 28.80 
 
 Albany N Y (average, 3 wells) 
 
 
 
 48.69 
 
 Ashtabula Ohio 
 
 5.65 
 
 3.95 
 
 9.60 
 
 
 9.80 
 
 13.68 
 
 23.48 
 
 Baltimore Md (city supply) 
 
 2.77 
 
 4.53 
 
 7.30 
 
 Bay City Mich (bay) 
 
 8.47 
 
 40 73 
 
 49.20 
 
 " " " (river} 
 
 4.84 
 
 173.36 
 
 179.20 
 
 Beaufort S C 
 
 31.40 
 
 23.20 
 
 54.60 
 
 Bethlehem Pa 
 
 1.18 
 
 4.22 
 
 5.40 
 
 Benwood W Va 
 
 3.64 
 
 9.37 
 
 13.01 
 
 
 3.62 
 
 3.08 
 
 6.70 
 
 Boston Mass (average 3 wells) ... 
 
 
 
 44 46 
 
 Boulder Col 
 
 5.65 
 
 7.05 
 
 12.70 
 
 Bridgeport Conn 
 
 3 90 
 
 16 26 
 
 20 16 
 
 Brooklyn N Y (average well) 
 
 
 
 48 83 
 
 Buffalo N Y (Lake Erie) 
 
 5.66 
 
 4.08 
 
 9 74 
 
 ' < ' (river) 
 
 6.74 
 
 6.78 
 
 13.52 
 
 
 33.71 
 
 134.12 
 
 167.83 
 
 Canton Ohio 
 
 1.85 
 
 26.05 
 
 27.90 
 
 Chicago Ills (average 5 wells) . ... 
 
 32 16 
 
 55 92 
 
 88 08 
 
 Chicago Heights Ills 
 
 1 39 
 
 81 
 
 2 20 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio (Ohio River). . . 
 
 3.88 
 
 3.85 
 
 6.73 
 
 Clarksville Xenn 
 
 12 48 
 
 11 77 
 
 24.25 
 
 
 20.76 
 
 25.84 
 
 46.60 
 
 Connecticut River (above Springfield) 
 Dallas Tex 
 
 1.57 
 19.82 
 
 4.44 
 53.48 
 
 6.01 
 73.30 
 
 Dayton Ohio (well) 
 
 
 
 56 50 
 
 Decatur Ills 
 
 34 48 
 
 4 27 
 
 38 75 
 
 Detroit Mich (well) 
 
 
 
 116 46 
 
 
 8 39 
 
 9 51 
 
 17 90 
 
 
 1.45 
 
 7.05 
 
 8.50 
 
 
 17.61 
 
 4.73 
 
 22.34 
 
 Ensley Ala (village creek) 
 
 9 43 
 
 8 42 
 
 17 83 
 
 Fall River Mass (average 17 wells) 
 
 
 
 36 12 
 
 
 16 15 
 
 28 70 
 
 44.85 
 
 ' ' (well) 
 
 14 37 
 
 47 43 
 
 61.80 
 
 Galveston Tex 
 
 22.79 
 
 381 . 20 
 
 403 . 99 
 
 Orand Rapids Mich (Grand River) 
 
 9 02 
 
 22 22 
 
 31 24 
 
 Hamilton Ontario . . . 
 
 6 02 
 
 5 18 
 
 11 20 
 
 Harrisburg Pa 
 
 
 
 12.13 . 
 
 Hartford Conn (average, 5 wells) 
 
 
 
 47.21 
 
 Hartford City, Ind 
 
 16.11 
 
 22.45 
 
 38.56 
 
 Harvey, Ills 
 
 14.85 
 
 71.12 
 
 85.97 
 
 Hillsboro Ills 
 
 14 56 
 
 6 99 
 
 21 55 
 
 Hudson River (above Poughkeepsie). 
 Hull, Fla 
 
 3.19 
 1.38 
 
 9.51 
 
 6.82 
 
 12.70 
 8.20 
 
 Indianapolis Ind (creek) 
 
 2 17 
 
 33 
 
 2 50 
 
 " " (well) 
 
 1 57 
 
 36 85 
 
 38 42 
 
 Ivorydale Ohio 
 
 16.90 
 
 3.68 
 
 20 58 
 
 Joliet, Ills (well) 
 
 15.67 
 
 39.91 
 
 55.58 
 
 
 
 
 
WATER ANALYSIS. 
 WATER ANALYSES Continued. 
 
 Impurities, Expressed in Grains, 
 per U S- Gallon 
 (about 58,000 Grains). 
 
 Carbonates. 
 
 Sulphates 
 and Other 
 Solids. 
 
 Joplin, Mo, 
 
 9 09 
 
 7 71 
 
 Junction City, Kans , 
 
 20 82 
 
 9 43 
 
 Kansas City, Mo 
 
 10 50 
 
 5 20 
 
 Kent, Ohio 
 
 9 86 
 
 4 34 
 
 Lebanon, Pa 
 
 3 60 
 
 3 59 
 
 Lockport, N Y 
 
 6 61 
 
 5 60 
 
 Long Island City, N Y 
 
 5 40 
 
 33 90 
 
 Lorain Ohio, Black River 
 
 4 86 
 
 9 86 
 
 Los Angeles, Cal 
 
 3 72 
 
 19 35 
 
 Lowell, Mass, (average, 15 wells) 
 
 
 
 Lynn Mass (Saugus River) 
 
 1 81 
 
 4 81 
 
 " ' ' (average, 2 wells) 
 
 
 
 Massillon, Ohio (river-water) 
 
 
 
 Milwaukee Wis (lake- water) 
 
 4 50 
 
 3 67 
 
 " " (Wisconsin River) 
 
 6.23 
 
 33 07 
 
 Mississippi River (above Missouri River) . . . 
 " (below " "")... 
 Missouri River (above mouth) 
 
 8.24 
 9.64 
 10 07 
 
 7.77 
 19.90 
 25 42 
 
 Muncie, Ind 
 
 20 30 
 
 14 20 
 
 Nebraska City, Neb. (Missouri River) 
 
 17 85 
 
 39 84 
 
 Newark, N J 
 
 19 82 
 
 26 22 
 
 New York N Y (city supply) 
 
 2 36 
 
 1 36 
 
 " ' ' " (average, 4 wells) 
 
 
 
 Norfolk, Va 
 
 1 14 
 
 9 76 
 
 Omaha Neb (well) 
 
 14 43 
 
 59 22 
 
 Oswego N Y (well) . . . 
 
 10 93 
 
 
 Passaic N J 
 
 5 70 
 
 55 20 
 
 Paterson, N J 
 
 4 88 
 
 8 66 
 
 Piqua, Ohio 
 
 18 80 
 
 6 64 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa (Allegheny River) 
 
 1 56 
 
 10 51 
 
 ' (Monongahela River) 
 
 1 08 
 
 9 72 
 
 ' ' " (average well) 
 
 23 70 
 
 18 98 
 
 Plainfield N J 
 
 4 06 
 
 4 64 
 
 Providence, R. I. (average, 24 wells) 
 
 
 
 Pueblo Col 
 
 4 32 
 
 24 44 
 
 Pulaski, Va (city supply) 
 
 2 98 
 
 2 99 
 
 ' ' (well) 
 
 18 40 
 
 3 23 
 
 Rochester, N. Y. (average, 3 wells) 
 St Louis, Mo (average, 3 wells) . . 
 
 7.32 
 
 16 82 
 
 14.68 
 38 15 
 
 San Antonio, Tex 
 
 18 11 
 
 12 79 
 
 Sandusky, Ohio 
 
 4 91 
 
 12 96 
 
 Schuylkill River (above Philadelphia) . . . . 
 
 2 16 
 
 2 08 
 
 Sharpsburg, Pa. (well-water) 
 
 34 62 
 
 143 29 
 
 Sharpsville, Pa 
 
 1 99 
 
 2 92 
 
 Sheboygan Mich 
 
 14 44 
 
 8 64 
 
 Sherman Tex 
 
 4 56 
 
 8 94 
 
 Sioux City, iDwa 
 
 15 31 
 
 42 41 
 
 Springfield, Ills 
 
 12 12 
 
 44 25 
 
 Mass (Mill River) 
 
 2 68 
 
 5 54 
 
 " " (average, 4 wells) 
 
 
 
 Stockton, Cal (well) . 
 
 12 95 
 
 80 11 
 
 Streator, Ills . 
 
 8 62 
 
 21 77 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Solids. 
 
 16.80 
 30.25 
 15.70 
 14.20 
 
 7.19 
 12.21 
 39.30 
 14.72 
 23.07 
 39.33 
 
 6.62 
 34.19 
 35.28 
 
 8.17 
 39.30 
 15.01 
 29.54 
 35.49 
 34.50 
 47.69 
 46.04 
 
 3.72 
 58.07 
 10.90 
 73.65 
 52.10 
 60.90 
 13.54 
 25.44 
 12.07 
 10.80 
 42.68 
 
 8.70 
 33.02 
 28.76 
 
 5.97 
 21.63 
 22.00 
 54.97 
 31.90 
 17 87 
 
 4.24 
 177.91 
 
 4.91 
 23.08 
 13.50 
 57.72 
 56.37 
 
 8.14 
 13.08 
 93.06 
 30.39 
 
36 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 WATER ANALYSES Continued. 
 
 Impurities, Expressed in Grains, 
 per U S. Gallon 
 (about 58,000 Grams). 
 
 Carbonates. 
 
 Sulphates 
 and Other 
 Solids. 
 
 Total 
 Solids. 
 
 Sturgis, Mich. 
 
 15 00 
 
 8 13 
 
 23 13 
 
 Sumter, S C 
 
 87 
 
 8 33 
 
 9 20 
 
 Tampa, Fla 
 
 14 66 
 
 8 64 
 
 23 30 
 
 Taunton, Mass (average, 2 wells) 
 
 
 
 33 54 
 
 Terre Haute, Ind .... . . 
 
 11 89 
 
 8 25 
 
 20 14 
 
 Tonawanda, N Y 
 
 6 16 
 
 3 54 
 
 9 70 
 
 Trenton, N J 
 
 2 06 
 
 3 38 
 
 5 44 
 
 Tyrone, Pa 
 
 93 
 
 10.96 
 
 11 89 
 
 Warners, N. Y (canal-water) 
 ' ' ' ' (creek-water) . . 
 
 8.28 
 13 76 
 
 12.56 
 35 90 
 
 20.84 
 49 68 
 
 Warsaw NY 
 
 6 98 
 
 67 29 
 
 74 27 
 
 Washington, D C (city supply) 
 
 2 87 
 
 5 73 
 
 8 60 
 
 Watertown, Conn 
 
 1 47 
 
 8 05 
 
 9 52 
 
 West Pullman Ills 
 
 11 89 
 
 5 59 
 
 17 48 
 
 Wichita, Kans 
 
 14.14 
 
 42 25 
 
 66.39 
 
 Wilmington Del 
 
 6 90 
 
 19 60 
 
 26 50 
 
 Woburn Mass (average, 4 wells) 
 
 
 
 56 12 
 
 Youngstown Ohio 
 
 4 64 
 
 14 28 
 
 14 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 ANALYSES IN PARTS PER 100,000 OF WATERS GIVING BAD RESULTS 
 FOR STEAM PURPOSES.* 
 
 
 -i 
 
 35 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 0) G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 <~ a 
 o o 
 
 "oS 
 
 
 .S 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 i 
 
 | 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 "8 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 11 
 
 a 
 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 
 .2 
 c 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 is 
 
 H 
 
 3 
 
 OQ 
 
 1 
 
 | 
 
 I 
 
 | 
 
 S 
 o 
 
 
 Feed-water 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 giving 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scales 2.5-3.... 
 
 225 
 
 19 
 
 450 
 
 85 
 
 219 
 
 293 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fischer 
 
 ' 3 atmos . 
 
 88 
 
 3 
 
 147 
 
 22 
 
 121 
 
 59 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 1 3.5 " . 
 
 ;r'ce 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 . 
 
 .Se 
 
 eTa 
 
 ble 
 
 D of 
 
 ' ' 
 
 ' 3.5 il . 
 
 63 
 
 39 
 
 155 
 
 68 
 
 89 
 
 91 
 
 
 Boil 
 
 erS 
 
 cales* 
 
 " 
 
 ' 5 " . 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 244 
 
 32 
 
 232 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 ' 5-6 " . 
 
 tr'ce 
 
 
 
 599 
 
 81 
 
 306 
 
 770 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 Coal-mine wat'r 
 
 110 
 
 25 
 
 119 
 
 39 
 
 890 
 
 590 
 
 780 
 
 30 
 
 640 
 
 
 A E. Hunt 
 
 Salt-well 
 
 151 
 
 38 
 
 1.90 
 
 48 
 
 360 
 
 990 
 
 38 
 
 21 
 
 30 
 
 13.10 
 
 ' 
 
 Spring 
 
 75 
 
 89 
 
 95 
 
 120 
 
 310 
 
 21 
 
 75 
 
 10 
 
 80 
 
 36 
 
 t 
 
 Monongahela 
 
 River t 
 
 130 
 
 21 
 
 161 
 
 33 
 
 210 
 
 38 
 
 70 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 do 
 
 80 
 
 70 
 
 94 
 
 81 
 
 219 
 
 210 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 do 
 
 32 
 
 82 
 
 61 
 
 1.04 
 
 28 
 
 1.90 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 Allegheny rive 
 near Oil-wr'k 
 
 3C 
 
 50 
 
 41 
 
 68 
 
 890 
 
 42 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 *A. I. M. E., Vol. 17, p. 353. 
 
 t Taken near discharge-pipes from large manufacturing establishments. 
 
WATER ANALYSIS. 
 
 37 
 
 How much of scale-forming impurities may be contained in a 
 feed-water, and it still be called good, depends largely on what the 
 impurities are. 
 
 Silvester has given us a classification of this kind: 
 
 "Less than 8 grains of incrusting solids per gallon 
 carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, 
 
 sulphate of lime, chloride of magnesia, etc Good 
 
 8 to 15 grains per gallon Fair 
 
 15 to 20 " " " Poor 
 
 20 to 30 " " " Bad 
 
 30 to 40 " " " .\ Very bad" 
 
 TROUBLES DUE TO WATER: PREVENTION AND CURE. 
 
 Trouble. Cause. Cure. 
 
 r Sediment, mud, clay, etc. { Filtration. 
 I Blowing-off. 
 
 Incrustation 
 
 Corrosion 
 
 Priming 
 
 Readily soluble salts. 
 
 Blowing-off. 
 
 r Heating feed and precipitate. 
 Bicarbonate of magnesia, ] Caustic soda, 
 lime, iron i Lime. 
 
 * Magnesia. 
 
 Organic matter 
 . Sulphate of lime 
 
 Organic matter 
 
 Grease 
 
 See below. 
 
 r Sodium carbonate. 
 \ Barium chloride. 
 
 r Precip. with alum 
 
 j Precip. with ferric i and filter. 
 
 I chloride 
 
 f Slaked lime 
 
 1 Carbonate of soda 
 
 and filter. 
 
 Chloride or sulphate of 1 
 
 magnesium j Carbonate of soda. 
 
 Sugars. 
 
 Acid Alkali. 
 
 Dissolved carbonic acid \ Slaked lime ' 
 j Caustic soda. 
 
 I Heating. 
 
 and oxygen 
 Electrolytic action 
 Sewage 
 
 Alkalies 
 
 Carbon ate of soda in large i 
 quantities _-/ 
 
 Zinc plates. 
 
 / Precipitate with alum or fern 
 1 chloride and filter. 
 
 Heating feed and precipitate, 
 chloride. 
 
8 I 
 
 H4 O 
 
 I! 
 
 o o 
 
 M CQ 
 
 QQ 
 
 Js 
 
 It 
 
 g 
 
 W 
 I 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 BOILER-SCALE. 
 
 THE hard coating of insoluble materials from boiler feed-waters 
 on the water-heating surface of steam-boilers is called scale; if 
 this deposit anywhere inside the water or steam space is an in- 
 soluble powder in form it is called sediment. 
 
 Both scale and sediment are poor conductors of heat and also 
 are a cause of overheating of boiler-shells, and wherever there is 
 a deposit of sediment or scale, it is in those places we are most 
 likely to find evidences of corrosion. 
 
 One of the principal objections to boiler-scale of ordinary thick- 
 ness is, that it may cause the metal over the fire to be so highly 
 heated as to cause burning; also leakage of joints and tube-ends 
 and their subsequent corrosion and other forms of rapid deteriora- 
 tion. 
 
 So far as evaporative efficiency is concerned, soot on fire-sur- 
 faces is often more effectual as a heat retardent than is ordinary 
 scale. Soot is known to be a very good non-conductor of heat. 
 
 Fig. 5 shows a bagged and ruptured sheet; the bag to the right 
 having ruptured, the one on the left has not. 
 
 In the case of one boiler subjected to inspection for insurance 
 it was found full of scale between the tubes (probably a horizontal 
 return tubular-boiler), necessitating cutting off the front head in 
 order to remove the tubes. 
 
 The scale was almost as hard as granite, and had to be broken 
 with a heavy hammer. Five hundred pounds of scale were taken 
 from this boiler. 
 
 Mr. James T. Fennell, Chief Inspector for the Maryland Casu- 
 
 39 
 
40 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 alty Company, has furnished the writer these interesting items, which 
 are pictured on pages 38, 42, 43 and 45, and facing Chapter II : 
 
 Exhibit 1. C. S. Garratt & Son's Co., Buck Run, Pa., paper- 
 mill. From flange of the rear head, between shell and tubes; 
 was much larger; broken during removal. 
 
 (Fidelity & Casualty Co.) 
 
 FIG. 5. A Bagged and Ruptured Sheet. 
 
 Exhibit 2. Pottstown Cold Storage and Warehouse Co., Potts- 
 town, Pa. From flange of the rear head, between the shell and 
 tubes. There was a large quantity of this scale in each of the 
 four corners of the boiler; this sample came from the corner con- 
 taining the largest quantity. 
 
 This was from a boiler supposed to be clean, but the cleanli- 
 ness was only on the bottom in plain sight, the scale being between 
 the tubes and overhead. The small portions of scale are carried 
 upward by the circulation and come down in the restricted pass- 
 ages between the tubes, and tubes and shell and cement them- 
 
BOILER-SCALE. 41 
 
 selves to scale already formed at these places, completely shutting 
 off circulation at many points. 
 
 Where braces are put in so close that a man cannot get near 
 enough to the boiler-heads to remove the scale there, in time 
 tubes start leaking, and must themselves be\ removed to get 
 the scale away. 
 
 Exhibit 3. Is from a boiler in John Wanamaker's store, No. 
 1829 Market Street, Philadelphia, Pa. The scale remaining on the 
 head after tube was removed was chipped off in small pieces, 
 being thoroughly cemented to the head and heads of rivets. 
 
 The Vulcanized Rubber Co., at Morrisville, Pa., have also 
 had trouble of this character, and at Mr. Fennell's suggestion 
 removed the bottom tube on each side, tapped the whole, inserted 
 a plug, leaving nothing to catch the scale. 
 
 One of the plants of the Cincinnati Gas Light & Coke Qo. at 
 Cincinnati, 0., having vertical tubular boilers similar to the Man- 
 ning type, had much trouble with tubes leaking at the lower end, 
 on account of accumulation of scale on tubes and sheet. By 
 removing a tube here and there, and in their places screwing 
 in a brass plug having a square socket for a wrench a square 
 projection would burn off it was found thereafter that the 
 furnace crown-sheet and ends of tubes would keep quite clean 
 when boiler was washed out without frequent removal of plugs. 
 
 The improved circulation is given as the reason for the con- 
 ditions then found. 
 
 Exhibit '4. -C. S. Garratt & Son's Co., Paper Mill, at Childs, Md. 
 Was taken from a pile of boiler-scale from a number of tubes 
 removed from boilers. While removing these tubes one collapsed. 
 
 From these experiences and many others of a like character 
 the designer should give careful consideration to the kind of water 
 that is fed to the boiler, which if bad should only be used in a 
 boiler with free and unrestricted passages, and one from which 
 the scale can be easily removed. 
 
 Exhibit 5. Shows how scale has been thrown up in the drum 
 of a water-tube boiler at the Thirteenth and Mount Vernon Streets 
 power-house of the Philadelphia Rapid Transit Co. The accumu- 
 lation was almost up to the manhole in the drum. 
 
 Stromeyer and Baron say: " Scale does not materially reduce 
 the efficiency of a boiler, but it seriously increases its wear and tear, 
 
42 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 EXHIBIT No. 1. 
 
 SCALE BETWEEN SHELL AND TUBES. 
 (U. S. Garrett & Son Co., Buck Run, Pa.) 
 
 EXHIBIT No. 3. 
 SCALE BKTWEEN THE TUBES NEAR BOTTOM OF BOILER, CAUSING TUBE TO LEAK. 
 
 (John Wanamaker, 1825-1823 Market St., Philadelphia, Pa.) 
 Water used Schuylkill River water. 
 
44 
 
 BOILER-WATERS 
 
 whereby its life is considerably reduced. It also endangers the 
 safety of boilers." 
 
 Suspended matter, such as fine sand, and especially paper-pulp, 
 settling on crown-sheets causes collapse. 
 
 In speaking of locomotive boilers, M. E. Wells (Pac. Ry. Club, 
 1903) says that by carefully cooling down and washing boilers he 
 
 (Parker Boiler Co.) 
 
 EXHIBIT No. 5. 
 
 found that the more carefully this was done the more white mud 
 came down to be washed out, the percentage analysis of which 
 was: 
 
 Sulphate of lime (CaSO 4 ) 4 .90 
 
 Carbonate of lime (CaCO 3 ) 32.62 
 
 11 magnesia (MgCO 3 ) 30.62 
 
 Silica (SiO 2 ) 1 . 12 
 
 Water (H 2 O) 31 .90 
 
 It is largely made up of the carbonates of lime and magnesia. 
 After some months the scale from the properly cooled boilers 
 became noticeably less, until the scale averaged the thickness of 
 
BOILER-SCALE. 
 
 45 
 
 an egg-shell, which would detach itself when it reached a certain 
 thickness. 
 
 These shell-scales from boilers on divisions of the railroad 400 
 miles apart were analyzed as follows: 
 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 Water (H 2 O) 
 
 11 24 
 
 22 78 
 
 Silica (Si() 2 ) 
 
 3 14 
 
 7 62 
 
 A1 2 O 3 and Fe 2 O 3 
 Calcium (CaO) 
 Magnesia (MgO) 
 Sulphuric acid (SO 3 ). 
 Undetermined 
 
 92. io 
 24.10 
 35.29 
 4 13 
 
 3.10 
 31.00 
 
 7.68 
 21 91 
 6 61 
 
 
 
 
 
 (Fidelity & Casualty Co ) 
 
 FIG. 6. Accumulation of Scale in Flue Ends. 
 
 These analyses show principally lime and magnesium sulphates, 
 which form the scale when the boilers are cooled down slowly. 
 G. M. Davidson,* chemist and engineer of tests, C. & N.W. 
 
 * Western Railway Club, Feb. 1903. 
 
46 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Ry. Co., states that the scale in locomotive boilers is due to one 
 or more of the following causes: 
 
 1st. Deposition of lime and magnesia carbonates, due to the 
 boiling off of the carbonic-acid gas from the water in which they 
 were dissolved. 
 
 2d. Deposition of sulphate of lime, due to high temperature in 
 the boiler. 
 
 3d. Deposition of magnesia compounds, due to their decom- 
 position in the boiler. 
 
 4th. Deposition of sand, clay, and other matter that was sus- 
 pended in the water. 
 
 5th. Deposition of alkali salts, due to concentration. 
 
 Analysis of Boiler-scale. A boiler-scale containing some oil 
 had this analysis: 
 
 SiO 2 7 . 36 per cent 
 
 Al 2 3 + Fe 2 O 3 i 91 ii 
 
 CaCO 3 62.71 " " 
 
 MgCO 3 18.15 " " 
 
 Mg(OH) ? 4.21 " " 
 
 H ? OatllOC. .- 2.51 " " 
 
 Oil (lubricating) 3.53 " " 
 
 Undetermined. . 62 " ll 
 
 Some scales, notably oxides of calcium and magnesium, take 
 up a large amount of water of hydration; one such example from 
 Birmingham, Ala., after this water was driven off by heating to 
 constant weight, gave these results: 
 
 Silica and clay 11 . 70 per cent 
 
 AlA + FeA 2.81 f! " 
 
 CaS0 4 1.69 " " 
 
 CaCO 3 5.45 " " 
 
 MgCO 3 7.36 " " 
 
 Ca(OH) 2 13.70 W " 
 
 Mg(OH) ? 56.37 * " 
 
 H 2 O (moisture at 212 F.) 0.69 " " 
 
 Undetermined 0.21 " " 
 
 99 . 97 per cent 
 
 A Corliss engine, using steam at 120 pounds pressure, was con- 
 nected to a surface condenser. Ordinary filtration did not remove 
 the oil in the condensed steam from the air-pump; a patent filter, 
 
BOILER-SCALE. 47 
 
 with a chemical arrangement for coagulating the oil with alum, 
 was used with entire success, the purified water being as clear 
 as spring- water. 
 
 The higher the temperature of the feed-water, the more im- 
 purities will be settled as scale or powder; in some cases water is 
 taken from the boiler, and, as in one instance, passed through a 
 Hyatt filter, circulation being induced by means of a Blessing trap. 
 
 In Sweet's rolling-mill, Syracuse, N. Y. (1892), the water was 
 drawn from the blow-off cock of the boiler, and treated, filtered, 
 and passed into a small boiler carrying a higher steam-pressure 
 than the main battery, and from there back to the main boilers, 
 thereby throwing down more impurities than in the main battery. 
 
 Mr, W. B. Cogswell says that at the Solvay Process Company's 
 works at Syracuse, N. Y., they use (1902) a weak soda-liquor, 
 containing about 12 to 15 grains Na 2 CO 3 per liter. Say 1J to 2 
 cubic meters (397 to 530 gallons) of this liquor are run into the 
 precipita ting-tank. Hot water, about 60 C. is then turned in, and 
 the reaction and precipitation go on while the tank is filling, 
 which requires about 15 minutes. When the tank is full the water 
 is filtered through the four Hyatt 5-ft.-diameter and the one Jewell 
 10-ft. -diameter filters in 30 minutes. Forty tanks are treated in 
 24 hours. Charge of water purified at once, 9275 gallons. Soda 
 in purifying reagent, 15 kilograms Na 2 C0 3 . Soda used per 1000 
 gallons, 3.5 pounds. 
 
 Analysis of lake water, January 1, 1892: 
 
 Calcium sulphate 261 grams per liter 
 
 Calcium chloride 183 " . " " 
 
 Calcium bicarbonate (as CaCO 3 ) 091 " " " 
 
 Magnesium bicarbonate (as MgCO 3 ) . .015 " " " 
 
 chloride 087 " " " 
 
 Salt.. .63 " " ' 
 
 Analysis of mud from Hyatt filter: 
 
 Silica 15. 17 grams per liter 
 
 Iron and aluminum oxide 3 . 75 " ' ' " 
 
 Calcium sulphate 3 . 70 " " " 
 
 Magnesium carbonate Ill " " " 
 
 Calcium carbonate. . .63.37 " " " 
 
48 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Analysis of scale from boiler-tube, November 14, 1887: 
 
 Silica 2 . 29 grams per liter 
 
 Iron and aluminum oxide. ........ 1 . 10 " ' ' " 
 
 Calcium carbonate 19 . 76 " " " 
 
 Magnesium carbonate 25.21 " " " 
 
 Calcium sulphate 51 .24 " " " 
 
 NaCl. . .14 " " " 
 
 99.74 grams per liter 
 
 Analysis of scale found in pump, pumping from tanks through 
 filters: 
 
 Silica 
 
 8 grams per liter 
 
 Iron and aluminum oxide .......... 1.2 " ' ' ' ' 
 
 Calcium carbonate ................ 87. " " " 
 
 sulphate .................. 10.9 " " " 
 
 99.9 grams per liter 
 
 A sample is taken from each boiler every other day and tested 
 for degrees Baume soda and salt. 
 
 If the degree Baume is more than 2, that boiler is blown to 
 reduce it below 2 Be. 
 
 Samples taken from twelve boilers on Feb. 10, 1889, when canal- 
 water was used for steam, gave the following results on testing 
 for degrees Baume Na 2 C03, Na 2 SO 4 , and NaCl: 
 
 Boiler. 
 
 Degree 
 Baume". 
 
 Na 2 CO 3 . 
 
 Na 2 SO 4 . 
 
 NaCl. 
 
 No 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 86 
 
 3 39 
 
 94 
 
 2 
 
 1 8 
 
 5 14 
 
 6 51 
 
 1 31 
 
 3 , 
 
 8 
 
 1 53 
 
 1 63 
 
 .585 
 
 4 
 
 1 6 
 
 4 24 
 
 5 51 
 
 1 52 
 
 5 
 
 2 4 
 
 6 62 
 
 8 97 
 
 2 34 
 
 6 .... 
 
 1 
 
 2 49 
 
 2 92 
 
 906 
 
 7 
 
 2 
 
 5 56 
 
 7 91 
 
 2 77 
 
 8 
 
 2 8 
 
 8 42 
 
 10 36 
 
 1.98 
 
 9 
 
 1 6 
 
 4 45 
 
 5 77 
 
 1 57 
 
 10 
 
 1 2 
 
 2 86 
 
 3 47 
 
 1 02 
 
 11 
 
 1 6 
 
 4 24 
 
 5 9 
 
 1 58 
 
 12 
 
 3 1 
 
 6 51 
 
 15 8 
 
 2.19 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The analysis of the canal-water at this time was: 
 
 CaSO 4 246 grams per liter 
 
 CaHCO as CaCO, .031 " " " 
 
 NaCl 043 " " " 
 
 MgCl 2 038 " " " 
 
BOILER-SCALE. 
 
 49 
 
 It will be seen that at this time the carbonate of soda and 
 sulphate of soda were present in greatest quantity, and the boilers 
 had to be blown to keep these down in saturation. 
 
 This was not the case on January 1, 1892. The salt in the lake- 
 water is now very high. More than twenty times the amount is 
 now present in the lake-water, and hence the high degree Baume 
 is caused by the salt more than by the sulphate and carbonate 
 of soda. 
 
 The following is test of degrees Baume Na 2 CO3 and salt on 
 January 1, 1892: 
 
 
 Degree 
 
 Grams pei 
 
 Liter. 
 
 
 Baume*. 
 
 Nad. 
 
 Na 2 C0 3 . 
 
 No. 1 . . 
 
 1 
 
 7 87 
 
 848 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 56 
 
 318 
 
 3 
 
 2 7 
 
 17 30 
 
 2 96 
 
 4 
 
 1 9 
 
 10 99 
 
 1 84 
 
 5 
 
 2 6 
 
 16 66 
 
 42 
 
 6. 
 
 5 
 
 4 09 
 
 2 Qfi 
 
 7 
 
 2 8 
 
 17 30 
 
 q 71 
 
 8 . 
 
 3 4 
 
 20 00 
 
 4 1 
 
 9 . 
 
 3 4 
 
 21 52 
 
 Q 18 
 
 10 . . 
 
 3 
 
 18 72 
 
 300 
 
 11 
 
 2 7 
 
 16 66 
 
 Q 10 
 
 12 
 
 2 5 
 
 15 08 
 
 Q no 
 
 
 
 
 
 It would then be much better to use in the boilers canal-water 
 instead of lake-water, to avoid this large percentage of salt. 
 The analysis of the canal-water is: 
 
 CaSO. 
 CaCl. . 
 CaCO. 
 MgCO. 
 NaCl. . 
 
 .223 
 
 None 
 
 .088 
 
 .08 
 
 .04 
 
 One man attends to the work during the day and one during 
 the night. 
 
50 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 PURIFICATION OF WATER AT LAKE PUMP.* 
 
 Amount purified per day (24 hours), 13,000 gallons. 
 
 Soda used, 40 pounds in 24 hours. 
 
 Soda per 1000 gallons, 3^ pounds. 
 
 Fliter used, a Bunnell, 3 feet 6 inches in diameter, and 5 feet 
 high. Washed twice in 24 hours. 
 
 The soda (about 20 pounds) is dissolved in 90 gallons of water, 
 and this solution is mixed in the top of the filter with water from 
 the hot- well and the circulating water from the boilers at 65 C., 
 and is then filtered. Filter washed twice in 24 hours. There is 
 no scale now in these boilers. 
 
 Rules for Preventing Scale. J. C. Simpson, f of the Boiler 
 Insurance and Steam-power Company, read a paper in 1894 at 
 Hull, England, on Incrustation in Steam-boilers, and recommended 
 these rules for lessening incrustation troubles: 
 
 1. The blow-off top should be opened the first thing in the 
 morning, and again at starting after stoppage at each meal, and 
 kept open for twenty seconds at a time. 
 
 2. A suitable fluid should be put in regularly with the feed- 
 water. 
 
 3. When the time came round for boiler-cleaning, the water 
 should be kept in after the steam is blown out, the dampers opened, 
 and the brickwork allowed to cool for thirty-six hours, if practica- 
 ble, after which the water should be run out, and the cleaners sent 
 in as soon as possible. 
 
 Removal of Scale. Aside from the results obtained when water 
 has been chemically treated and leaves a soft, pliable, muddy 
 deposit or sludge, which can be readily blown out, or taken from 
 the boiler by hand, there is the hard scale, only to be removed 
 by using edged tools, which method is not only hard work, often 
 dangerous to the boiler itself, but it is also expensive. 
 
 There are many patented devices on the market for removing 
 scale and cleaning boilers by machinery, many of which are very 
 effective and good; but we will not describe them here. 
 
 Do not turn cold water into a steam-boiler which is already 
 hot, and crack the scale and loosen it, so that it can be easily taken 
 
 * Trans. A. S. M. E., Vol. 13. t Eng. Record, Vol. 29, p. 94. 
 
BOILER-SCALE. 51 
 
 out, for such a course is disastrous to the boiler, and the boiler- 
 maker will be required to do much work before your boiler will 
 be fit for service. 
 
 The Engineering Record well says : " A boiler-plant which is 
 supplied with impure water should be in two parts, one a purifying 
 apparatus, and the other the boiler proper; and these should be 
 entirely distinct from each other." 
 
 The purifier removes the scale-making material and other im- 
 purities from the water, and deposits it where it can be readily 
 removed and where it will do no harm. The boiler then has to 
 perform simply the functions of generating steam, and with pure 
 water the heating-surfaces can be arranged in the best manner to 
 secure efficiency without regard to the deposit of scale. 
 
 Water is a poor conductor of heat ; and since the heat imparted 
 to boiler-waters is, in the case of the best-designed boilers, on the 
 bottom of the shell or tubes, and the circulation is generally con- 
 ceded to be in vertical lines or planes, the heated water passes 
 upward and its place is taken by slightly cooler water in its turn; 
 therefore, to secure the highest results in evaporative efficiency, 
 the contact or medium of heat transmission between the furnace- 
 fire and the water must be in the most perfect and clean condition 
 possible, and maintained in that condition. 
 
 The steel shell is this medium, except in a very few cases 
 where other metals are used, and is a good medium when clean. 
 The instant that its outer or inner surface (we are dealing 
 principally with the inner) becomes coated or insulated in any 
 way, there is an immediate reduction in the evaporative efficiency 
 of the boiler, which depends upon the amount, solidity, and the 
 general character of the coating or scale; a very thin scale fre- 
 quently produces easily detected loss of efficiency. 
 
 Conduction of Heat. Conduction is the movement ot heat 
 through substances, or from one substance to another in contact 
 with it. The table herewith contains the relative internal conducting 
 power of metals and earths, according to M. Despretz. Bodies 
 which are finely fibrous, as cotton, wool, eider-down, wadding, and 
 finely divided charcoal, are the worst conductors of heat. Liquids 
 and gases are bad conductors, but if suitable provision be made 
 for the free circulation of fluids they may abstract heat very quickly 
 by contact with heated surfaces, acting by convection. Con- 
 
52 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 vection, or carried heat, is that which is transferred from one 
 place to another by a current of liquid or gas; for example, by 
 the products of combustion in a furnace towards the heating, 
 surface in the flues of a boiler. 
 
 Substance. 
 
 Relative 
 Conducting 
 Power 
 
 Substance. 
 
 Relative 
 Conducting 
 Power 
 
 Gold 
 
 1000 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 363 
 
 Platinum 
 
 981 
 
 Tin 
 
 304 
 
 Silver 
 
 973 
 
 Lead 
 
 180 
 
 Copper 
 
 892 
 
 Marble 
 
 24 
 
 Brass 
 
 749 
 
 Porcelain 
 
 12 
 
 
 562 
 
 Terra-cotta 
 
 11 
 
 Wrought iron 
 
 374 
 
 
 
 D. K. Clark, Manual of Rules, Tables, Data, etc., p. 331. 
 
 Transmission of Heat. Experiments of the transmission of 
 heat; that is, units of heat a plate J inch thick will transmit per 
 square foot per hour if supplied with an unlimited amount of 
 water on one side and steam on the other: 
 
 Cast iron 265 units 
 
 Wrought iron 252 " 
 
 Steel 246 " 
 
 White metal 207 " 
 
 Brass plates 175 " 
 
 Gun-metal 168 ' ' 
 
 Phosphor-bronze 162 ' ' 
 
 Copper 155 
 
 Tin-plate 142 " 
 
 Glass-plate 259 ' ' 
 
 Tiles 240 
 
 W. S. Hutton, 1887. 
 
 Tiles and glass are very much superior to copper and tin for the 
 transmission of heat, but have less conductivity. 
 
 The effect of scale in a boiler is shown by this extract from 
 report of tests made in a boiler in the Conservatory, France : 
 
 
 Water Vapor- 
 ized per Hour. 
 
 Coal Burned 
 per Hour. 
 
 Steam per Kilo of 
 Coal per Hour. 
 
 Boiler clean 
 
 200 liters 
 
 25 5 kilos 
 
 8 50 
 
 ' ' scaled 
 
 136 " 
 
 34.7 " 
 
 3.87 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tower, p. 87. 
 
BOILER-SCALE. 53 
 
 After a long period of use we thus have the evaporative 
 capacity compared to what it was when the boiler was clean. 
 
 An experiment * on the effect of scale on transmission of heat 
 showed that a calcium-sulphate scale 0.11 inch thick caused a 
 loss in evaporative efficiency of over 7 per cent. 
 
 In a set of experiments, J. Hirsch,f 1890, used a small kettle 
 about 10 inches diameter with an iron bottom f inch thick. 
 
 When this plate had been covered with scale J inch thick the 
 temperature of the fire side of the plate had to be increased an 
 additional 460 when evaporating 55 pounds of water per hour. 
 
 Thus scale as in above tests offers five times the resistance to 
 transmission of heat that iron does. Other experiments show ten 
 times as the ratio of plaster of Paris to iron. Hirsch also proves 
 the injurious results from allowing grease to settle on heating- 
 surfaces. 
 
 Ten specimens of scale, three of lubricants, two of tar, and 
 one of anti-scale substance were measured at about 30 C. (86 F.) 
 by Christiansen's comparison method by W. R. Ernst, t in order 
 to test whether scale-forming and other materials settling on 
 boiler-surfaces are really conducive to boiler explosions and burnt 
 plates. 
 
 The conductivity of the scale varied between 0.00313 and 0.00768 
 (that is, 3 to 7.4 times that of water) and that of other substances 
 between 0.000253 and 0.000324. Calculations are made by means 
 of these numbers of the temperatures of scale-covered surfaces 
 under certain ordinary conditions of steam pressure and genera- 
 tion, and their results thoroughly justify the usual notions on the 
 subject. 
 
 The conductivity of one of the specimens of scale diminished 
 by 15 per cent when its temperature was raised to 110 C. (230 F.)' 
 
 The transmission of heat through plates from hot gases on the 
 one side to water on the other, from tests conducted by Blechynden, 
 resulted in the conclusion that 
 
 * J A. Carney, Proc. A. Inst. Mining Engineers, 1897. 
 f Stromeyer, Marine-boiler Management, p. 95. 
 j Akad. Wiss. Wien, Sitz. Ber. Ill, 2a, July 1902. 
 
54 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Q = B.T.U. transmitted per square foot per hour; 
 T = temperature of furnace at plate; 
 
 t = steam temperature or water temperature at steam side of plate; 
 A = a, constant, which in the tests varied from 38.6 to 71.9. 
 
 200 to 400 is a value more likely to be obtained in steam-boiler 
 tests, and, in fact, Schwackhofer (p. 33) gives, as the value 
 of H, 560 to 700. 
 
 Blechynden also found that the slightest traces of grease caused 
 a marked fall in the rate of transmission. Smoothness of surfaces 
 had a marked influence on the rate of heat transmission also. 
 
 A. D. Risteen * outlines a method for calculation of the effect 
 of scale on the transmission of heat by taking the temperature 
 degrees F., or t measured just within the material of the plate 
 where it is considerable less than in the fire itself just away from 
 the plate, and t' the degrees F. just within the scale, using the 
 formula 
 
 t-t' 
 Q= = T.U. transmitted per square foot per hour. 
 
 p= thickness of plate in inches; 
 
 r = a constant = specific internal thermal resistance of the plate 
 material, which equals about 0.0043. 
 
 If there are two thicknesses or layers of different composition, 
 let 
 
 s = thickness of layer of scale in inches. 
 The formula then becomes 
 
 t-t' 
 
 Q = 
 
 rp + Rs' 
 
 where R= specific internal resistance of the scale (Rankine gives 
 7^=0.0716 for calcium carbonate or marble); 
 T = temperature of furnace gases near plate ; 
 t" = temperature of water in boiler. 
 
 * Amer. Man'f r, Sept. 1904. 
 
BOILER-SCALE. 55 
 
 If T is made use of, being measured beyond the chilled film on 
 the surface of the metal, we will need another formula in which 
 so-called " surface " or skin resistance is represented by k, or 
 
 Q " 
 
 k+rp + Rs' 
 
 180 
 Rankine gives the value of k for boiler-plate as = -7-,, which 
 
 substituted in the above gives 
 QJ 
 
 By using this formula for Q in the case of a clean boiler we have 
 
 Q = 6068; 
 f=359.8, or less than 10 hotter than the water in the boiler. 
 
 Now considering a scale J inch thick, everything else the same 
 as before, we get 
 
 / = 410.9, or 60.9 hotter than the water in the boiler. 
 
 The heat-absorbing power of the boiler has also been decreased 
 about 5 per cent. " The efficiency of the boiler as a whole 
 would not be reduced by as much as the 5 per cent here indi- 
 cated, because the furnace-gases would enter the tubes at a higher 
 temperature than they would have had if the boilers were free from 
 scale, and hence the heat absorption in the tubes would be greater 
 than before"; the heat absorption in the furnace likewise being 
 less. 
 
 A partial compensation would then result, and the efficiency 
 would not actually fall off the 5 per cent as calculated for plate 
 and scale. 
 
 Conductivity of Scale. Tests made by members of the 
 N. A. S. E., No. 31, Brooklyn, N. Y., and reported in Power, 
 1896, showed the relative conductivity of different substances 
 as used in boilers to be: 
 
 Brass ............................................ 4 
 
 Plaster of Paris ................................... 26 
 
 Portland cement ............................ 71 
 
56 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 A vessel coated & of an inch with plaster of Paris steamed 
 just as quickly as a clean one. 
 
 A sample of scale was tested which had the same conductivity 
 as the plaster of Paris. 
 
 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SOLIDS.* 
 
 {' 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 .4 
 4 
 1 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 1 
 1 
 1- 
 5 
 
 Materials. 
 
 G. C. S. Scale. 
 
 English Scales. 
 
 Thermal Units. 
 
 Evaporative Units. 
 
 Iron at 32 F 
 
 " " 212 F 
 527 o F 
 
 < < 
 
 .207 to .154 
 .157 to .129 
 .124 to .112 
 .164 
 .199 
 (1-.0029* C.) 
 1.027 
 (1-.002HC.) 
 1.108 
 .302 
 .307 
 .109 
 .0055 to .0065 
 .00315 to .0036 
 .0081 
 .00223 
 .0020 to .0033 
 .00174 
 .00164 
 .00057 to .00113 
 .00055 
 .00026 to .00359 
 .00041 
 .000089 
 .00048 
 .00022 
 .00044 
 .000122 
 .000094 
 .000453 
 .00014 
 .0000335 
 .00136 
 
 603 to 449 
 456 to 375 
 361 to 297 
 477 
 610 
 (1-.0015*F.) 
 8140 
 (1 -.00110**. F.) 
 3220 
 878 
 892 
 317 
 160 to 190 
 92 to 105 
 23.5 
 6.6 
 5 . 8 to 9 . 6 
 51 
 48 
 1.65 to 3. 3 
 1.60 
 .76 to 1.71 
 1.19 
 .258 
 1.40 
 .64 
 1.28 
 .35 
 .273 
 1.33 
 .41 
 .097 
 4.00 
 
 .621 to .462 
 .472 to .387 
 .372 to .306 
 .492 
 .6 
 (1-.0015* F.) 
 3.08 
 (1-.0021*F.) 
 3.024 
 .906 
 .921 
 .327 
 .0165 to .0195 
 .0095 to .0108 
 .0243 
 .00669 
 .006 to .010 
 .00522 
 .00492 
 .0017 to .0034 
 .00165 
 .00078 to .00177 
 .00123 
 .000267 
 .00144 
 .00066 
 .00132 
 .000366 
 .000282 
 .00136 
 .00042 
 .0001 
 .004 
 
 . / 
 
 i 
 Copper 
 
 < 
 
 Brass 
 
 Zinc 
 
 German silver 
 Slate, alone; cleavage 
 ' ' across ' ' 
 
 Clay, sun dried 
 Chalk .... 
 
 Fire-brick 
 
 Plaster of Paris, wet. 
 Coal 
 
 Pumice-stone 
 Various woods 
 
 Caoutchouc 
 ' ' vulcanized 
 Gutta-percha . . 
 
 Powdered charcoal . . 
 " coke 
 Charred wood. . . . . 
 Gray paper 
 
 Pasteboard 
 
 Paraffin 
 
 Flannel 
 
 Water 
 
 
 Observers. 1. Forbes; 2. Neumann; 3. Angstrom; 4. Peclet; 5. Weber 
 * Stromeyer, Marine-boiler Management. 
 
 In this table thermal units are the units of heat which 1 
 square foot of heating-surface 1 inch thick will transmit per hour, 
 with a difference of temperature on the two surfaces of the plate 
 of 1 F. 
 
BOILER-SCALE. 
 
 57 
 
 Evaporative units are thermal units divided by 966, the T.U. 
 required to evaporate one pound of water from and at 212 F. 
 
 Evaporative units can also be obtained by multiplying the 
 figures in G.C.S. column by 3. 
 
 These experiments were made on rods or rings and do not 
 give precisely the same results as plates do. 
 
 Mr. J. E. Bell,* in a paper before the Ohio Soc. of Mech., 
 Elec., and Steam Engineers (1904) on the effect of boiler con- 
 ditions on efficiency, referred to a boiler having a slight coating 
 of scale and all the dust it could hold on every portion of tubes, 
 etc., which gave an equivalent evaporation of 8.04 pounds per 
 pound of dry buckwheat coal when boiler was in above condi- 
 tion and 10.3 pounds after boiler had been cleaned. 
 
 Another case concerning thickness of fires is also noted: A 
 pumping-plant operated under identical conditions gave a duty of 
 93,000,000 foot-pounds when the fire was 8 to 9 inches thick 
 and 143,000,000 foot-pounds when the fire was 14 to 15 inches 
 thick. A high-grade semi-bituminous coal was used. 
 
 Transmission of Heat through Scale-covered Boiler-tubes. 
 A series of experiments were conducted by F. L. McCune in 1901, 
 at the University of Illinois, to determine the relative conduc- 
 tivities for heat of clean and scaled locomotive-boiler tubes. 
 
 Tubes were furnished by different railroads, and were tested 
 in a special apparatus in which hot gases passed through the tubes 
 and water around them received the heat. 
 
 The tests are very fully described in the Railroad Gazette, 
 June 14, 1901, p. 408, in which paper is also a drawing of the 
 apparatus used. 
 
 TUBES TESTED. 
 
 
 
 Time in 
 
 Diameter 
 
 of Tube. 
 
 Average 
 
 Tube No. 
 
 Railroad. 
 
 Service, 
 
 
 
 Thickness of 
 
 
 
 Months. 
 
 
 
 Scale, Inch. 
 
 
 
 
 Inside. 
 
 Outside. 
 
 
 2 
 
 P. &E. 
 
 13 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.00 
 
 0.04 
 
 3 
 
 1 1 
 
 5* 
 
 .75 
 
 2.00 
 
 0.02 
 
 5 
 
 C.,M. &St. P. 
 
 
 .75 
 
 2.00 
 
 0.13 
 
 6 
 
 I. C. R.R. 
 
 51 
 
 .75 
 
 2.00 
 
 0.07 
 
 7 
 
 P. &E. 
 
 37J 
 
 .75 
 
 2.00 
 
 0.04 
 
 9 
 
 C., B. & Q. 
 
 
 .75 
 
 2.00 
 
 0.07 
 
 11 
 
 I. C. R.R. 
 
 '21 
 
 .75 
 
 2.00 
 
 0.09 
 
 14 
 
 P. &E. 
 
 
 
 1.75 
 
 2.00 
 
 0.00 
 
 * Eng. Rec., Vol. 51, p. 53. 
 
58 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 The character of the scale for the various tubes was as follows: 
 
 Tube No. 2, soft, porous, mud-colored, off in places; 
 
 " " 3, even, hard, dense, white; 
 
 " " 5, even, hard, dense, mud-colored; 
 
 " " 6, mileage during service, 19,690; 
 
 " " 7, hard, dense and rough, one end; soft and porous 
 
 at the other; 
 
 " " 9, hard, porous, gray; mileage, 50,889; 
 
 " " 11, soft, porous; 
 
 " " 14, clean tube. 
 
 TRANSMISSION OF HEAT THROUGH TUBES. 
 
 Tube No. 
 A 
 
 Averages for the Various Tests of Eacb Tube 
 
 Range of Temp 
 between Water 
 and Gases 
 
 B 
 
 B.T.U Trans- 
 mitted through 
 the Tube During 
 the Tests. 
 
 C 
 
 B.T.U. which 
 would have 
 been Trans- 
 mitted had the 
 Range of Temp, 
 been the Same 
 as for Tube 14. 
 D 
 
 Decrease of 
 Conductivity 
 Due to the Scale, 
 29854 - Col. D 
 
 29854 
 E 
 
 2 
 
 859.4 
 877.3 
 . 855.9 
 899.3 
 886.5 
 820.8 
 882.2 
 873.4 
 
 27370 
 27258 
 27270 
 30675 
 29370 
 23362 
 26937 
 29854 
 
 27816 
 27137 
 27828 
 29792 
 28936 
 24859 
 26680 
 29854 
 
 6.82 
 9.10 
 6.75 
 0.21 
 3.07 
 16.73 
 10.63 
 Clean tube 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 6. 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 14 
 
 The above illustrates how great may be the losses from scale 
 on tubes, also how variable a quantity the loss is with various 
 kinds of scale and from water of different localities. 
 
 Effect of Scale on Evaporative Power of a Locomotive Boiler. 
 The mechanical engineering department of the University of 
 Illinois in 1898 conducted a series of tests on a locomotive to 
 determine its evaporative efficiency, with clean or scaled water- 
 surfaces. 
 
 The locomotive tested was a Mogul, No. 420, on the Illinois 
 Central R. R., built by the Rogers L. & M. Works of Paterson, 
 N. J., and had beon in use twenty-one months. 
 
 The tests were made in the round-house and by the " standard " 
 method. 
 
BOILER-SCALE. 
 
 59 
 
 The following are the locomotive's principal dimensions and 
 proportions : 
 
 Cylinders, 19 inches diameter. 
 Stroke, 26 inches. 
 Diameter of drivers, 56 inches. 
 Total weight of engine, 126,000 pounds. 
 Diameter of boiler, 62 inches. 
 
 Tubes, 236; 2 inches diameter, 11 feet ft inch long. 
 Fire-box, 114 inches long by 33f inches wide. 
 " depth, front end, 67 inches. 
 
 " back " 59$ " 
 Length of grate, 114 inches. 
 Width " " 33| " 
 Diameter of steam-dome, 29 inches. 
 Lagging of boiler, magnesia sectional. 
 Grate-area, 26.45 square feet. 
 Total heating-surface, 1531.65 square feet. 
 Area of draught through tubes, 573.48 square inches. 
 Ratio, grate- to heating-surface, 1 to 57.91. 
 Fuel, ordinary mine-run. 
 
 Lumps, 75 per cent; small coal, 20 per cent; slack, 5 per cent. 
 B.T.U. per pound of dry coal by calorimeter, 12,240. 
 
 The results of these tests are given in the tables on page 60, 
 and a condensed table of results is given here: 
 
 
 Scale in 
 
 Boiler. 
 
 Clean 
 
 Boiler. 
 
 Date of trial, 1898 
 
 May 2 
 
 May 3 
 
 May 31 
 
 
 Duration of test, hours 
 
 8 33 
 
 8 17 
 
 8 03 
 
 o i 
 
 Steam pressure, by gauge 
 
 143 
 
 140 
 
 116 4 
 
 114 
 
 Vacuum in smoke-box, inches water. 
 Temperature of feed-water, deg F. . . 
 ' ' escaping gases, deg. F 
 Moisture in coal 
 
 2.0 
 57 
 623 
 4 
 
 2.0 
 54 
 670 
 4 
 
 2.9 
 58.5 
 621 
 4 
 
 2.8 
 59.4 
 
 687 
 
 Per cent ash (from ash-pan) .... 
 
 15 6 
 
 15 6 
 
 16 6 
 
 107 
 
 " " moisture in steam 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.25 
 
 2.85 
 
 2.85 
 
 The loss due to scale in the boiler was 9.55 per cent. Average 
 thickness of scale on principal heating-surface / T inch. 360 pounds 
 were removed from the tubes and 125 pounds were removed from 
 the shell and fire-box sheets, a total of 485 pounds. 
 
60 
 
 BOILER- WATERS. 
 
 w g 
 "cc I 
 
 O <^ 
 
 
 S| 
 1 
 
 o I 
 
 03 'S 
 C S 
 
 ^ 13 
 
 3s 
 
 ^ -3 
 " 
 
 3 03 
 
 -| 
 Is 
 
 g 
 
 CO*H IOOO _t 00 
 
 ,|iCt-t^OOO^_^ 
 
 CO I-H 00 O 
 
 -H co oooos o t>- 
 
 OS r-l OS 1C 1C t^- i-H 
 
 "OOO5OSCOOOOOSO 00 
 
 osT-Hooo 
 
 1C r-H T-H 
 
 cS CO 01 *C OS TF OS r-l OS 
 
 ?5>O5iCOSi-H 1C OS 
 
 fp (N CO <N 1C C t-i OS ^ O 
 
 OO'-HOS 
 OS <N <N 
 
 . CO O 
 
 rH TP Tf 00 OS 00 00 
 
 : 'r2 S 
 :c?8 
 
 OJ 
 
 IK 
 3 
 
 c 
 pq 
 
 & 
 
 c 
 
 | 
 
 i 
 
 tt 
 
 C w O 
 
 o3- - 
 
 
 i> t^- co oo t 
 
 : ^^ 
 
 
 <N <N 00 1C T-H 
 
 00 O 
 
 
 1C 1C CO -CO 
 
 ooo co o 
 
 rH $H TP 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 co t> TP o 
 
 rH OS Tt< 
 
 
 1C O T-H .10 
 (N OS 1C -OS 
 
 o r^ co 
 
 t>. 
 
 
 
 
 00 CO 1C T-H 
 
 1C xfi 
 rH 
 
 
 iC OOO -l^ 
 <N l> O -OS 
 
 OSrH 
 
 (N b- 
 
 co 
 
 
 
 
 T-t |> t^. T-I 
 
 Os<N 
 
 
 r-H CO 
 
 
 C! 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 00 CO CO t>- CO 
 
 -CO O 
 . . co I> 
 
 1O m 
 
 
 
 D. 
 
 1C Tf O 00 r-l 
 
 T-H CO (N 
 
 I ^r^ 
 
 S 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 rp t>. r-,^ oo 
 
 00 (N i-H rH CO 
 
 t^ CO 
 
 "* 
 
 l^CO r-H 00^ 
 
 1C OS 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 OOS O <M 
 O OS OS <M 
 
 800rH 
 Tf C 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 00 TT 00 r-H 
 
 rH TlH C 
 
 
 Tf (N 
 
 
 
 O O <M 1C iC 
 
 <>J r- OS O * 
 
 y ^ 
 
 
 C l> OCOCO 
 
 Osl> 
 
 
 ^Soo -oo 
 
 - iC 00 
 1C l> 
 
 11 
 
 i> co ic o 
 
 OS(M 
 
 
 O rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 QJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a; 
 
 
 J 
 
 "1 
 
 
 
 
 -o * ' ' 
 
 '. '. c 
 
 a 
 
 o : v ' 
 
 
 O ro 
 
 * "ti 
 
 O " ^^ 
 
 
 S d c : 
 
 cj . ^ 
 
 t^ - 
 
 S -e o v 
 
 
 "S " 
 
 c <^ 4s 
 
 CL T3 c 
 
 'o < 
 
 II &! 
 
 l|i| 
 
 S 
 
 03 ^ M 
 
 2 Q E be 
 
 1 
 
 ;| g| | 
 
 |' 
 
 IS 
 
 .1 g^s ll 
 
 1^ 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 S^osd 
 
 ^O^rS 
 
BOILER-SCALE. 61 
 
 The quality of scale from various parts is noted below; the 
 reference numbers refer also to table of analysis. 
 
 Point No. 1. Near injector-discharge, hard and soft scale J inch 
 thick ; 
 
 " " 2. On upper tubes, hard smooth scale, uniform thick- 
 ness of $2 inch ; 
 
 " " 3. On lower tubes, hard scale near middle, ^ inch thick; 
 
 " " 4. Mud covering hard scale at No. 3, ^ inch thick; 
 
 " " 5. Scale from side sheet, flue-sheet and tubes, rough 
 and scaly; 
 
 " " 6. From bottom of barrel, 4 feet from flue-sheet; 
 
 " " 7. On crown-stays, 3 to 6 inches from crown-sheet; 
 
 " " 8. On crown-sheet, rivet-heads and base of stays; 
 
 " " 9. From the water-line on vertical stay-bolts. 
 
 Note that the calcium carbonates deposit easily without high 
 heat, that is, near the injector-discharge (Point No. 1) and in 
 bottom of the boiler (Point No. 6), while on the crown-sheet (Point 
 No. 8) the scale carries the largest percentage of calcium sulphate. 
 
 The boilers were supplied with good feed-water, as is evidenced 
 by the comparatively small amount of scale accumulating in the 
 lengthy period of twenty-one months. 
 
 More complete details and two cost diagrams may be found 
 in the Railroad Gazette of Jan. 27, 1899. 
 
 Thermal Conductivity. The relation between thermal and 
 electrical conductivity is given by H. F. Weber, 1880, as 
 
 | = (0.0877 + 0. 136(7) 10 4 ; 
 & 
 
 where T = thermal conductivity; 
 E electrical conductivity ; 
 (7= specific heat of the substance. 
 
 Scale-forming Solids. C. L. Kennicott, in Proc. Western 
 Ry. Club, 1903, gives this rule for finding the weight of scale- 
 forming solids entering a boiler: Take any analysis, divide the 
 number of grains (per American gallon) of in crusting solids by 7 r 
 and you have the pounds per 1000 gallons; multiply this result 
 by the number of " 1000 gallons " used in a given time and you 
 have the weight of incrusting solids entering the boilers. 
 
62 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 AMOUNT OF SEDIMENT COLLECTED IN A STEAM-BOILER WHEN 
 EVAPORATING 1000 GALLONS OF WATER PER DAY, 6000 GALLONS 
 PER WEEK, GALLONS OF 58,318 GRAINS EACH. 
 
 When a Gallon of 
 Feed-water Evapo- 
 rated to Dryness 
 at 212 Fahrenheit 
 Leaves of Solid 
 Matter in Grains. 
 
 The Amount of Solid Matter 
 Collecting in Boiler per Day 
 will be 
 
 The Amount of Solid Matter 
 Collecting in Boiler per Week 
 will be 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 Pounds. 
 
 Ounces. 
 
 1 
 
 
 2.286 
 
 
 13.714 
 
 2 
 
 
 4.571 
 
 i 
 
 11.428 
 
 3 
 
 . 
 
 6.857 
 
 2 
 
 9.143 
 
 4 
 
 . . 
 
 9.143 
 
 3 
 
 6.857 
 
 5 
 
 . . 
 
 11.428 
 
 4 
 
 4.571 
 
 6 
 
 . . . 
 
 13.714 
 
 5 
 
 2.285 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 2.286 
 
 6 
 
 is'714 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 4.571 
 
 7 
 
 11.428 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 6.857 
 
 8 
 
 9.142 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 2.285 
 
 12 
 
 13.713 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 13.714 
 
 17 
 
 2.284 
 
 25 
 
 3 
 
 9.142 
 
 21 
 
 6.855 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 4.571 
 
 25 
 
 11.426 
 
 35 
 
 5 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 11.428 
 
 34 
 
 4.571 
 
 45 
 
 6 
 
 6.856 
 
 38 
 
 9.143 
 
 50 
 
 7 
 
 2.285 
 
 42 
 
 13.714 
 
 55 
 
 7 
 
 13.713 
 
 47 
 
 2.285 
 
 60 
 
 8 
 
 9.142 
 
 51 
 
 6.857 
 
 65 
 
 9 
 
 4.571 
 
 55 
 
 11.428 
 
 70 
 
 10 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 75 
 
 10 
 
 11.428 
 
 64 
 
 ' 4.bi\ 
 
 80 
 
 11 
 
 6.857 
 
 68 
 
 9.143 
 
 85 
 
 12 
 
 2.286 
 
 72 
 
 13.714 
 
 90 
 
 12 
 
 13.714 
 
 77 
 
 2.285 
 
 95 
 
 13 
 
 9.143 
 
 81 
 
 6.857 
 
 100 
 
 14 
 
 4.571 
 
 85 
 
 11.428 
 
 110 
 
 15 
 
 11.428 
 
 94 
 
 4.571 
 
 120 
 
 17 
 
 2.286 
 
 102 
 
 13.714 
 
 130 
 
 18 
 
 9.143 
 
 111 
 
 6.857 
 
 140 
 
 20 
 
 
 120 
 
 
 150 
 
 21 
 
 6\857 
 
 128 
 
 9J42 
 
 160 
 
 22 
 
 13.714 
 
 137 
 
 2.285 
 
 170 
 
 24 
 
 4.571 
 
 145 
 
 11.428 
 
 180 
 
 25 
 
 11.428 
 
 154 
 
 4.571 
 
 190 
 
 27 
 
 2.286 
 
 162 
 
 13.714 
 
 200 
 
 28 
 
 9.143 
 
 171 
 
 6.857 
 
 210 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 180 
 
 
 
 Locomotive, 1884. 
 
 The above table was prepared by F E Engelhardt, Ph.D., of the American 
 Dairy Salt Company, Syracuse, New York. It represents the total amount 
 of solid matter, or sediment, deposited under the conditions of the boiler 
 making steam without any water being drawn or blown off, or any cleaning 
 whatever, and shows the necessity for such cleaning even in the case of a 
 good feed-water 
 
BO1LER-SCA 
 
 63 
 
 _ 
 o 
 PQ 
 
 fc 
 o 
 
 fc 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 CO 
 
 PPV V 
 
 
 CM 2 00 CM, l> 
 G ... 
 
 CM ,P CO iO 00 
 
 3, as they were done under different circumstances. They, however, furnish 
 
 te precipitated with an increasing pressure, and therefore temperature, 
 ass, in which the temporary hardness is predominant. 
 3 to sulphate of lime, 
 rkable, also the action on iron, 
 mall quantity of carbonate of lime has probably been protected by the iron 
 
 ignesium carbonate found in some of the above analyses must be due to the 
 
 10 
 1 1 
 
 UO^UBJQ 
 
 
 - CO TfTf OOCOCOOO 
 
 cot> 0*0 oococoi> 
 
 J> CO 00 O <N rti <N O 
 
 2 
 
 -S8J J 80T3J 
 
 -ang % s^ij; 
 
 
 CM CM CD -*f ^ C.N 00 CM 
 
 CM CO COCO CO CM 00 1> 
 
 I-H 00 OO "* CO O O 
 
 CO 
 
 q3no|g 
 Suudg 
 
 
 00> 00 N^O- 
 
 -dng UMOX 
 
 
 O O T Ci_> 00 CD Oi CM 
 O500 <MOO "* l>- CO CM 
 
 CM O t^* O CM CO O 1 " H 
 
 CO CM 
 
 ri 
 
 MSno, S 
 
 
 CQ C^ CO CQ "^T 1 CO ^f ^ 
 CO C5 *O CM OCM O CO 
 
 j-equnQ 
 
 
 i i CO OCO TJ< C5 CO t 
 
 CM tO O CO t^* CO 1^" CO 
 
 CO CM 
 
 oo 
 
 River-water. 
 
 saureqx 
 
 s 
 
 iOcoo '<u Tri^-iocc 
 
 ^^^ . .0 ^OOCOOO 
 ^-i r-I 00 > <N O Tf O 
 
 oo tr 1 
 
 
 g 
 
 O i i CO o> CM i i CJ 
 CM OCO U iO Oi 
 
 00^^ ; ^^ 
 
 - 
 
 o 
 
 
 oi2 :^2oo ; o.S?8 
 
 iO CO -OO CM Tf o i- 1 
 
 t>. r ( 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 IOOOCD *O COCO^O 
 OOCOIO -*i CiOCOC^I 
 
 NOTES These analyses are only comparative in a general sens* 
 good examples of the effects of varying conditions. 
 Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 show the increasing proportion of calcium sulpha 
 In Nos. 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, the waters were of the carbonate of lime c 
 In Nos. 8, 14, 15, the waters had a high permanent hardness, du 
 No. 10 is a magnesian water. The high amount of silica is rema 
 No. 16 shows the action of a soft and acid water on iron. The s 
 scale 
 The proportion of organic matter is seen to vary greatly. 
 As boiler-crusts usually contain magnesium hydrate only, the rm 
 absorption of carbonic acid from the air by the crust after removal. 
 
 IOCOCM O CMt^COCO 
 
 iO 
 
 M^ a 
 
 
 lOOO^t 1 CO TtiCMOCD 
 CO l> CO O Tti iO 10 i i 
 
 CO -* ^f O CO t>- i i "* 
 
 TT CO 
 
 * 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 o^oco CM O^H(>*IO 
 
 00 " 
 
 CO 
 
 
 8 
 
 COOO 00 1-1 "tf 00 CO 
 O CM 00 CM CM. O CM 
 
 CM 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 1> O O5 CO CO 00 
 
 CO d CM O i-l O rH 
 CO CM 
 
 ~ 
 
 
 
 
 00 <v co <y i^ 
 o o y co ^ co 
 
 Number 
 
 I 
 
 Pressure in pounds 
 per square inch. 
 
 :::::: : :^^-- 
 
 
 ;.. 
 
 
 : i i . i-rcT ' B 
 
 O . ^ -"^OH o 
 
 ^Q^ ; ^^ *s _3 
 
 r> ^"^ ^L^CJ) ^^ C^ N ^3 cw 
 
64 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Scale. Prof. V. B. Lewes, Inst. Nav. Archts., vol. 30, 332, 
 gives these analyses of incrustations formed in the boilers of 
 steamers using fresh river-water, brackish water at the mouth of 
 the river, and sea-water respectively: 
 
 
 River. 
 
 Brackish. 
 
 Sea. 
 
 Calcium carbonate 
 
 , 75.85 
 3.68 
 2.56 
 0.45 
 7.66 
 2.96 
 3.64 
 3.20 
 
 100.00 
 
 43.65 
 34.78 
 4.34 
 0.56 
 7.52 
 3.44 
 1.55 
 4.16 
 
 100.00 
 
 0.97 
 85.53 
 3.39 
 2.79 
 1.10 
 0.32 
 Trace 
 5.90 
 
 100.00 
 
 ' ' sulphate 
 
 Magnesium hydrate 
 
 Sodium chloride .... 
 
 Silica 
 
 Oxides of iron and alumina 
 
 Organic matter 
 
 Moisture 
 
 Total 
 
 
 ANALYSES OF Six SPECIMENS OF SCALE. (PROF. CHANDLER.*) 
 
 Averages. 
 
 Sulphate of lime 56.49 
 
 Carbonate of lime 18 11 
 
 Basic carbonate of magnesia 19 . 77 
 
 Oxide of iron and alumina . 69 
 
 Silica 3.81 
 
 Organic matter 
 
 Water.. 1.62 
 
 100.00 
 W. E. Ridenour f classifies boiler-scales in this way : 
 
 A. The calcium-sulphate scales; 
 
 B. The calcium-carbonate scales; 
 
 C. The silica scales ; 
 
 D. The magnesia scales. 
 
 The class B scales are moderately soft. The class A scales 
 are, as a rule, very hard and porcelain-like, and can be told with 
 the aid of a magnifying-glass by their glassy or vitreous appear- 
 ance. 
 
 Class C scales are strange and interesting and most common 
 in the Southern States, though occurring in other quarters. 
 
 The silica scales have no characteristic physical properties. 
 
 * Tower, p. 81. 
 
 f Jour Frank. Inst., Vol. 152, p. 113. 
 
BOILER-SCALE. 
 
 SILICATE SCALE ANALYSES. 
 
 65 
 
 
 i. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 4. 
 
 Calcium carbonate 
 
 Per Cent. 
 36 40 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 7 47 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 ' ' oxide 
 
 7 32 
 
 21 94 
 
 36 42 
 
 5 42 
 
 ' ' sulphate 
 
 
 
 
 3 95 
 
 Silica 
 
 41 00 
 
 51 07 
 
 40 51 
 
 48 02 
 
 Magnesium hydrate 
 
 50 
 
 2 74 
 
 3 04 
 
 3 58 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 Louisiana; 2. New Jersey; 3. Olympia, Wash. ; 4. Pennsylvania. 
 
 Class D, or magnesium scales, has been the subject of differ- 
 ences between chemists, but the hydrate is the generally accepted 
 combination. 
 
 A Texas scale contained 82.95 per cent of magnesium hydrate, 
 7.59 per cent of calcium sulphate, and 3.10 per cent of silica. 
 
 Mr. Ridenour refers to a scale 96 per cent calcium carbonate 
 which came from near the feed-pipe where the water receives its 
 first high heat; driving off carbonic acid and precipitating the 
 carbonate, the calcium sulphate passes on in the boiler and is 
 found in another scale 76 per cent calcium sulphate. 
 
 V. B. Lewes mentions the variety in chemical composition of 
 scales taken from different parts of the same boiler. 
 
 From analyses, Didos, in reviewing European practice, says 
 more than 75 per cent of scale deposited from river-water is car- 
 bonate of lime and only 3 per cent sulphate of lime, while for 
 brackish water the proportions are nearly equal, 40 per cent each. 
 
 For sea- water the other extreme is reached, for we find 85 per 
 cent of sulphate and less than 1 per cent of carbonate. 
 
 Hydrate of magnesia is not over 4 per cent in any of these 
 cases ; its presence, however, causes harder scale than otherwise 
 would be the case. 
 
 PITTSBURGH, PA., EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 In order to find out the effect of using filtered water in the 
 boilers at the Brilliant Pumping Station,* a series of tests were 
 made, using a locomotive-type boiler and water as follows: 
 
 No. 1. Effluent from the sand-filters; 
 
 No. 2. Effluent from the mechanical filters; 
 
 No. 3. Unfiltered water. ' 
 
 Report of Pittsburgh Filtration Com., 1899, p. 216. 
 
66 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 The general dimensions of the locomotive-type boiler were; 
 
 Horse-power, at 12 sq. ft. of heating-sur- 
 face per H.P 30 
 
 Diameter of shell 40 inches 
 
 Length 14 feet 
 
 Height 8 ' ' 
 
 Tubes, diameter 48 " Sins. 
 
 Tubes, length 93 inches 
 
 Heating-surface 369 square feet 
 
 Length of furnace 50 inches 
 
 Width " " 40 " 
 
 Gas was used for fuel from an 8-inch diameter main in which 
 a pressure of about " 8 inches of water " was maintained. The 
 details of the burners do not especially interest us here; the gas 
 burned had its flow maintained at about 20 cubic feet per minute. 
 Boilers No. 1 and No. 2 were fed with water by injectors; 
 No. 3 was fed directly from the city main, under 140 pounds 
 pressure. 
 
 After operating the boilers about two months, samples of the 
 .scale and sediment were collected and analyzed as follows: 
 
 Parts by Weight. 
 
 Number of sample 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 G 
 
 Weight in grams 
 
 19 88 
 
 40 02 
 
 29 91 
 
 
 
 
 Calcium carbonate 
 
 33 11 
 
 17 78 
 
 32 11 
 
 3 79 
 
 7 36 
 
 1 82 
 
 ' ' sulphate 
 
 52 03 
 
 56 98 
 
 47 46 
 
 3 77 
 
 30 23 
 
 2 38 
 
 Magnesium carbonate .... 
 Sodium chloride .... 
 
 1.99 
 0.00 
 
 3.21 
 00 
 
 1.96 
 0.78 
 
 0.00 
 88 32 
 
 1.54 
 53 82 
 
 0.70 
 00 
 
 Iron and aluminum oxide . 
 
 2.76 
 
 5.20 
 
 1.64 
 
 0.40 
 
 2.20 
 
 85.86 
 
 Insoluble matter 
 
 10.11 
 
 16.83 
 
 16.05 
 
 3.72 
 
 4.85 
 
 9.24 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100 00 
 
 100 00 
 
 100 00 
 
 100 00 
 
 100 00 
 
 100 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scale 3*2 inch thick in each. 
 
 c'o 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 io 
 
 73 
 
 73 
 
 'o'o 
 
 No. 1. Hand, tenacious. 
 
 2 ^ 
 
 2 N . 
 
 o 
 
 i . 
 
 i 
 
 Sg . 
 
 " 2. " brittle, 
 
 
 ~S 
 
 O -4J5 CO 
 
 ^ & 
 
 - -^ S 
 
 00 -9 
 
 cracks off easily. 
 No. 3. Soft and powdery. 
 
 111 
 
 ill 
 
 N 
 
 2"^^ 
 En 
 
 P 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 pi 
 
 After the boilers were finally blown out they were returned to 
 their makers, who cleaned them, and had the scale again analyzed, 
 
BOILER-SCALE. 67 
 
 but as the samples analyzed are not from the same place in each, 
 comparisons cannot be made, so the results are not given here. 
 
 After a thorough examination by a boiler expert, these three 
 boilers, which were new when tests were begun, were judged 
 by him as follows: " In our opinion boiler No. 3 is in the best 
 condition, for while there is considerable scale and sediment, it 
 is soft, adheres loosely, and can easily be washed off and removed. 
 
 " The other boilers we would consider on a par, the only differ- 
 ence being that the rivets in No. 2 are badly corroded, and the 
 tubes have a thicker coating than either of the others. Con- 
 sidering all things, we believe the boiler to be in the worst condi- 
 tion of the three." 
 
 This boiler, No. 2, used water from the mechanical filters, and 
 the scale from this filtered water was very hard and porcelain-like. 
 
 The water supplied to No. 3 boiler and filtered for the other 
 two boilers was of a 
 
 Total hardness. 3 . 51 4 . 53 3 . 99 1 
 
 Alkalinity 3.10 3.41 3.15 I parts per 
 
 Sulphuric acid. . 1.04 1.55 0.93 | 100,000 
 
 Chlorine 2.42 2.47 2.42 
 
 June July August 
 
 1898 
 
 An analysis of sample of raw water taken September 19, 1898, 
 gave, in parts per 100,000: 
 
 Total solids 12 . 70 
 
 Loss on ignition 4 . 30 
 
 Calcium oxide, CaO 2 .04 
 
 Magnesium oxide, MgO . 49 
 
 Sulphuric acid, SO 3 . 1 .61 
 
 Chlorine, Cl 2 . 20 
 
 Silica, SiO 2 . 10 
 
 Iron oxide, Fe 2 O 3 0.01 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 CORROSION. 
 
 CORROSION is the strongest destructive force acting against the 
 life of a boiler. 
 
 All natural waters are more or less corrosive, for they all carry 
 carbonic-acid gas and free oxygen, which are each capable of 
 corrosive action; if the water also has salts in solution, they render 
 it more corrosive. 
 
 In a general way iron is more capable of resisting corrosion 
 than steel, though English mild steel is more liable to corrosion 
 than iron. 
 
 In steam-boiler practice corrosion exists in two forms: 
 
 1. Externally; 
 
 2. Internally; as, uniform corrosion, wasting, pitting or honey- 
 combing, and grooving. 
 
 The first, external, is due to the atmosphere or setting, and ashes 
 under boilers. The second, internal, is due to the corrosive proper- 
 ties of the feed -water, and quality of material composing the boiler- 
 shells, and is met by special treatment of the water, and in some 
 cases by hanging plates of zinc in the water-space, of which we 
 shall speak later. 
 
 When the space between the grate-bars and shell of the boiler 
 becomes filled with ashes, they usually get wet and a major part 
 stick to the shell ; especially is this likely to happen in internally 
 fired boilers, where the ashes attach themselves to the shell, and, as 
 they absorb moisture, corrosion is soon a result. 
 
 The piece represented by Fig. 7 was taken from a furnace two 
 years old, and was originally a full quarter of an inch thick; it was 
 taken out just above the grate-bars, and, in some places was -h to 
 
 68 
 
CORROSION. 
 
 69 
 
 & of an inch thick. The same condition was noticeable about 
 the entire boundary of the fire-box. As a cautionary measure, 
 never cool any ashes with water while they are under the boiler- 
 grates. 
 
 * i 
 
 CQ O 
 
 1 o 
 
 33 43 
 
 W. F. Worthington says that cold sea-water corrodes iron 
 and steel equally, but that steel suffers much more than iron in 
 hot sea-water. 
 
 Some writers assert that carbonic acid is necessary in waters 
 that they may corrode the metal; others have proved that it is 
 
70 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 not so. The amount of carbonic acid is small in sea-water, but is 
 greater and more variable in river- waters . 
 
 Land- water may be easily tested for organic matter by adding 
 a little sulphuric acid, H 2 SO 4 , when, if organic matter is present, 
 the water will turn dark. 
 
 All corrosion in steam-boilers may be called oxidation, which 
 in the case of iron, Fe, occurs in these common forms: 
 
 1. Fe2O3 + H 2 0, or ordinary yellow iron-rust, which is found 
 on the outside of boilers. 
 
 2. Fe 2 Os, r red oxide of iron, which is found on the fire-box 
 sheets and flues as pustules or pitting. 
 
 3. Fe 3 O4, or black or magnetic oxide of iron, which occurs 
 from overheating, resulting from excessive scale or mud, or from 
 electrolytic action. 
 
 Corrosion is frequently caused by copper ferrules being used 
 on ends of boiler-tubes when expanding them in the flue-sheet; 
 on this account soft-iron ferrules are to be preferred. 
 
 Howe's experiments have shown that when steel plates with 
 mill-scale and plates free from mill-scale are connected galvanic- 
 ally, electric currents capable of measurement are set up, in which 
 case the mill-scale is as active as the copper. 
 
 Tubes pickled in acid to remove scale should be washed in lime- 
 water and then be baked for several hours at a temperature of 
 400 to 450 F. 
 
 Mill-scale may be removed from the outside of tubes with a sand- 
 blast, and inside by using a bundle of rods and sand, and revolving 
 the entire mass, holding the tube itself rigid. 
 
 Rear-Admiral C. M. Aynsley, C.B.,* gives, as the results of 
 investigations by the Admiralty Boiler Committee, these causes of 
 corrosion : 
 
 1. Water too pure for constant condensation; 
 
 2. Fatty acids from oils used for internal lubrication; 
 
 3. Quantity of iron used; 
 
 4. Particles of copper carried in by the feed; 
 
 5. Galvanic action ; 
 
 6. The use of copper feed-pipe; 
 
 7. Bad management of boilers; 
 
 * Van Nostrand's Eng. Mag., Nov. 1880. 
 
CORROSION. 71 
 
 8. Copper in solution; 
 
 9. Use of copper internal pipes; 
 
 10. Chemical action; 
 
 11. Mechanical action; 
 
 12. Softening effect of distilled water upon iron; 
 
 13. Absence of air in water repeatedly condensed; 
 
 14. Too much blowing; 
 
 15. Decomposition of water, etc. 
 
 One of the worst things that can happen to a boiler is to have 
 it fired at irregular intervals, hot for a time, then cold, as is the 
 case with some heating-boilers, and also those in fire-engines. 
 The amount of corrosion in some instances of the above kinds of 
 treatment may be considerable. 
 
 In the larger cities fire-engines are kept under steam con- 
 tinuously, and while providing steam pressure at the moment 
 they go to a fire, the results are also exceedingly more favorable 
 to a longer life to the boiler than if they were irregularly fired. 
 
 Extensive internal corrosion frequently occurs in boilers using 
 water that has been passed through surface condensers over and 
 over again. 
 
 To prevent the corrosion add sufficient soda to the feed-water 
 to make the water in the boiler alkaline, and place rolled-zinc 
 plates in good metallic and electrical connection with the inside 
 of the boiler and under water, so that no part of the boiler is more 
 than 6 feet from the zinc, and renew the zinc when it is wasted. 
 
 To prevent corrosion in idle boilers fill them with water in 
 which about 50 pounds of common soda has been dissolved to 
 each 100 cubic feet of water. If the water is sufficiently alkaline 
 after this is done, a bright nail hung in the water will not rust. 
 
 The French navy uses this system: The boilers are first com- 
 pletely filled with sufficient water and a solution of milk of lime 
 or soda is added to the water. The solution is made stronger if 
 the tubes are large, and of less strength if they are small, in order 
 to avoid any danger of contracting the effective area by deposit 
 from the solution. 
 
 The outside of the steel or iron tubes is painted with red lead 
 or tar as far as the parts are accessible. For those parts which 
 are inaccessible a protective coating is obtained by burning tar 
 under them. 
 
72 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 In the American navy boilers not in use are thoroughly cleaned 
 and painted with a mineral oil. 
 
 In the English navy, after cleaning, boilers are thoroughly 
 dried and a pan of charcoal burned in them to consume the oxygen 
 of the air, and quicklime is used to absorb any moisture that may 
 remain. 
 
 To prevent rust in unused boilers, it is advisable to keep them 
 filled with water and the exterior well painted. 
 
 Corrosion of Iron and Steel. Corrosion of iron and steel has 
 been the subject of investigation of several Admiralty committees. 
 This extract from their report, as made by Mr. Thos. Turner,* is 
 to the point: 
 
 The differences of opinion on this subject have arisen, the author 
 believes, on account of conclusions being drawn from limited 
 observation or special circumstances, while much confusion has 
 arisen from failing to recognize that the conditions in fresh water, 
 salt water, the interior of the boiler, or in diluted acids are all 
 different, and that a specimen which may very successfully resist 
 corrosion in one of these cases may readily oxidize in another. 
 
 On account of the greater uniformity in the physical properties 
 of steel, and the laminated character of iron, it was anticipated 
 in the early days of the use of mild steel that it would resist corro- 
 sion much better than wrought iron. Thus Sir L. Bell f expressed 
 the opinion that the cinder in wrought-iron rails would set up 
 galvanic currents and thus lead to more rapid corrosion. Experi- 
 ence has, however, shown that on lines where there is very little 
 traffic and the chief agent of destruction is corrosion, wrought-iron 
 rails wear better than steel. 
 
 The result of the experiments of the Admiralty committees, 
 which were appointed to consider the causes of the deterioration 
 of boilers, and which issued reports in 1877 and 1880, led to the 
 conclusion that in all cases wrought iron resisted corrosion better 
 than steel. 
 
 Where the conditions were not severe the differences observed 
 were not great, but where the plates were daily dipped in water 
 and exposed during the rest of the time to the action of the atmos- 
 
 * Rowan, Steam Boilers, pp. 326, 327 
 
 t Jour. Iron and Steel Inst., Vol. I, 1878, p. 97 
 
CORROSION. 73 
 
 phere, the superiority of iron was very marked, while common 
 iron was less affected by corrosion than best Yorkshire iron, which 
 is in accordance with the statement of Gmelin, that phosphorus 
 diminishes corrosion in iron. The following percentages in favor 
 of iron were obtained in these experiments: 
 
 Common iron resisted corrosion better than 
 
 Yorkshire iron 9.6 per cent 
 
 Yorkshire iron resisted corrosion better than 
 
 mild steel 16.0 " " 
 
 In another series of experiments, conducted by Mr. D. Phillips, 
 in Cardigan Bay, and lasting for seven years, it was found that 
 the average corrosion of mild steel during the whole period was 
 126 per cent more than wrought iron.* 
 
 Independent experiments conducted by Mr. T. Andrews f 
 also showed that wrought iron corroded less rapidly than mild steel 
 when the cleaned metallic surfaces were exposed to the action 
 of sea-water. 
 
 The conclusions of the Admiralty Committee and of Mr. Phillips 
 aroused much adverse criticism, and it was shown that though 
 steel is more affected by ordinary atmospheric corrosion, it is not 
 usually more affected when in the form of a steel boiler. 
 
 This was stated by Mr. W. Parker,} who based his conclusions 
 on the result of over 1100 actual examinations of boilers, and his 
 observations were confirmed by experienced makers and users of 
 boilers, who took part in the discussion of his paper. 
 
 Sir W. Siemens says as manganese in mild steel is increased 
 the tendency to corrode becomes greater. 
 
 G. J. Snelus has ascribed the pitting in steel to the irregular 
 distribution of manganese in the metal. 
 
 Mallet says the alloys of potassium, sodium, barium, aluminum, 
 manganese, silver, platinum, antimony, and arsenic with iron 
 corrode more rapidly than pure iron; while the presence of nickel, 
 cobalt, tin, copper, mercury, and chromium affords protection, 
 the effect being in each case in the order given. 
 
 The reasons usually given for the corrosion of boiler-tubes are: 
 
 * Inst. C. E., Vol. 65, 73; Inst. Mar. Eng., May 1890. 
 t Inst. C, E., Vol. 77, p. 323; Vol. 82, p. 281. 
 t Jour. Iron and Steel Inst., Vol. I, 1881, p. 39. 
 
74 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 1. Fatty acids, from decomposition of animal or vegetable 
 
 oils; 
 
 2. Hydrochloric acid, due to decomposition of MgCl 2 in sea- 
 
 water at high temperature; 
 
 3. Galvanic action; 
 
 4. Use of salt ; 
 
 5. Presence of carbonic acid in water. 
 
 Com. Walter F. Worthington * says: "Direct experiments 
 have shown that under certain conditions it is possible to decom- 
 pose magnesium chloride (MgCU) at a temperature of 212 F., 
 setting free hydrochloric acid (HC1). When such action takes 
 place it appears that the HC1 is always immediately appropriated 
 by some base other than the boiler metal." 
 
 Mr. Worthington has often searched for but never dis- 
 covered any acidity by testing the water with litmus paper, 
 nor met any other engineer who had found acid in our (U. S.) 
 naval boilers. Lewis states that " chloride of iron is not found 
 in the water of the boiler, which would be the case if any corrosion 
 or pitting were due to the action of free hydrochloric acid." Then, 
 again, our naval boilers are not under steam on an average of 
 more than one-third of their time, and no HC1 can be generated 
 when the water is cold. The usual practice is to fill all boilers 
 with fresh water at the start, and to use only about half of the 
 boilers for steaming, the others serving as fresh-water tanks. In 
 this way but a small part of the make-up feed is taken from the sea. 
 
 We may conclude that little if any damage is done to our tubes 
 by the decomposition of the MgCb in sea-water. 
 
 Boiler Corrosion from Rain-water. Trans. Soc. of Steam- 
 users of Paris f contains an account of the destructive corrosion 
 of a steam-boiler which had been fed with rain-water collected 
 from a zinc roof over a shop located in a district in which the 
 atmosphere was heavily charged with acid vapors. 
 
 While pure rain-water itself, as we know, frequently produces 
 serious corrosion, it appears that in this instance the water became 
 acidulated through absorption of the acid fumes, and not only 
 attacked the metal roof, but also the boiler, and to such an extent 
 as to cause it to be condemned. 
 
 * Journal of the A. S. Nav. Engrs., Vol. 12, p. 589. 
 t R.R Gazette, 1893, p. 771. 
 
CORROSION. 
 
 75 
 
 Chemical analysis of the water showed it to contain a con- 
 siderable percentage of sulphuric acid. 
 
 Sulphuric and muriatic acids in carboys were driven to one 
 factory on a road that was directly over a cistern to which all 
 steam-drips were run; in some way a carboy broke at this point, 
 and rather than be compelled to pay for the loss of the acid, the 
 most of which went into the cistern and from there was pumped 
 to the boiler, the man in charge told some plausible story other 
 than the true one. 
 
 (From " The Locomotive," Hartford S. B. I & I. Co.) 
 
 FIG. 8. A Corroded Brace. 
 
 The corrosion shown in Figs. 8 and 9 was the result of this 
 accident, and never again occurred in this 
 factory from any cause. 
 
 The corrosive action was very intense at 
 the rear end of the boi}er: the plates and 
 tubes began to pit badly, and rivet-heads 
 and submerged braces wasted away rapidly. 
 
 The boiler-head, Figs. 10 and 11, was 
 from one of a battery of boilers at a coal- 
 mine in the West. 
 
 Contrary to advice, water impregnated 
 with the products of the mine was fed to 
 the boilers; the severe corrosion resulting is 
 credited to the sulphur the water contained. 
 
 In some places the corrosion was three- 
 fifths the thickness of the head, originally A inch. The life of the 
 boiler was eight months. Where the braces were attached there 
 
 (From " The Locomotive," 
 Hartford S. B. 1. & 1. Co.) 
 
 FIG. 9. A Corroded 
 Rivet. 
 
76 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 was no corrosive action. The cause of the lines shown, \ inch 
 wide, re inch deep, has not been satisfactorily explained. 
 
 (From " The Locomotive." Hartford S. B. I. & I. Co.) 
 
 FIG. 10. Corroded Boiler-head. 
 
 Feed-water taken from a presumably reliable source may, 
 while giving good results, change " without notice " as to quality 
 
 ( From " Tbe Locomotive," Hartford S. B. 1. & 1. Co.) 
 
 FIG. 11. Corroded Boiler-head. 
 
 and do great harm unless closely watched, as in one case where 
 the water was taken from a rock-bottom well fed by a spring, 
 with which water the shell of the boiler was free from pitting or 
 corrosion. After a sewer had been built in the neighborhood and 
 
CORROSION. 77 
 
 cut off the spring-water supply, the surface drainage, including 
 cesspool and other contaminated waters, was the source of supply , 
 resulting in the grooved and pitted plate Fig. 12. 
 
 (From "The Locomotive," Hartford S. B. I. & I. Co.) 
 FIG. 12. Grooved and Pitted Plate. 
 
 The carbonate of ammonia produced by fermentation of urine 
 in outhouses is a particularly destructive substance when it gets 
 into feed-water. 
 
 The Corrosive Action of Chloride of Magnesium is well 
 known. 
 
 H. Ost prepared a paper on this subject * which has been 
 condensed and appeared in Engineering, from which this review 
 is taken. 
 
 It has been assumed that magnesium chloride attacks the iron 
 of boilers because it splits off hydrochloric acid. Ost contradicts 
 this, and his experiments appear to be fairly conclusive. The 
 question is interesting to the engineer, because magnesium salts 
 appear in many boiler-waters, and in large quantities in sea- water. 
 A. Wagner in 1875 conducted some experiments on the action of 
 various salts contained in the feed-water for boilers, and working 
 at ordinary atmospheric pressure, he observed that the iron rusted 
 in the presence of the chlorides of the alkalies and alkaline earths 
 when the air had access. 
 
 When air was excluded only magnesium chloride attacked the 
 
 * Chemiker-Zeitung. 
 
78 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 iron. The corrosion was not well understood then, and was con- 
 veniently ascribed to some catalytic action. The chloride of 
 magnesium was later thought to be decomposed in boiling water, 
 but not unless it is present as hydrate, MgCl 2 .6H 2 O, and the 
 temperature above 223 F. 
 
 Ost has only experimented in closed vessels, so as not to be 
 troubled by ordinary oxidation. Water in which some magnesium 
 chloride was dissolved, when distilled from glass vessels, was always 
 found to be neutral and free from chlorine. The distillate also re- 
 mained neutral when copper or tinned copper boilers were used for 
 the distillation, at a pressure of several atmospheres; but some 
 decomposition took place in these cases, for a certain amount of 
 tin or copper was dissolved by the water. Ost then had a small 
 experimental boiler specially constructed in Krupp's works, at 
 Essen. It is a horizontal cylinder with hollow bottom, pressed 
 out of a block of Siemens-Martin steel, and closed in front by a 
 flange and a steel plate, packed with lead. The capacity of the 
 boiler is nearly three quarts, and it was generally charged with 
 two quarts of water, and the heating by gas-burners continued 
 until one quart of the water had evaporated. The temperature 
 was 360 F., corresponding to a pressure of about 10 atmospheres. 
 After each experiment the inside of the boiler was found to be 
 coated with a black, adhesive crust of the iron oxide, Fe 3 O 4 , a 
 mixture of oxide and protoxide. This oxidation Ost ascribes to 
 a decomposition of water into hydrogen and oxygen, which takes 
 place whenever the hot feed -water comes in contact with the bare 
 iron. Ost does not refer to electrolysis; some might possibly 
 occur. The water was charged with 10 per cent solutions of 
 various salts. The generation of hydrogen was most energetic, 
 as much as 7.5 cubic inches of hydrogen being found in a total 
 quantity of 8.8 cubic inches of gas collected in the presence of 
 calcium chloride, potassium chloride, and potassium sulphate. 
 No iron was dissolved in these cases, however, except when mag- 
 nesium chloride or magnesium sulphate was present; but the 
 chloride of magnesium dissolved as much as 2.08 grains of iron 
 per quart of the 10 per cent solution. Now, we do not understand 
 how magnesium sulphate could split up so as to be acid, and no 
 free acid was observed in the case of magnesium chloride either, 
 although the steam pressure was high. In Ost's opinion, the attack 
 
CORROSION. 79 
 
 of the iron is primarily due to the decomposition of the water; 
 the oxygen oxidizes the iron, and the magnesium salt reacts with 
 the protoxide of iron so formed, with the result that some of the 
 iron is dissolved, while magnesium hydrate is precipitated. This 
 reaction takes place according to the formula 
 
 The sulphate of magnesium would react similarly. In neither 
 case is the reaction complete, however; that is to say, the reaction 
 does not proceed until all the magnesium salt has been trans- 
 formed, but only until a certain quantity of magnesium hydrate 
 has been formed. It then ceases until the magnesium hydrate is 
 removed, or until the equilibrium is disturbed in some other manner. 
 " In support of this view, Ost treated iron with hot solutions 
 of magnesium salts in glass vessels on a water-bath, where the 
 temperature could not rise above the boiling-point. Similar 
 experiments were conducted with various irons and steels obtained 
 from the Krupp works, including nickel-steel, and also with flower- 
 wire, and the finely divided iron employed in pharmacy. These 
 all generated hydrogen, the finely divided iron most (as was to be 
 expected), and the nickel-steel and weld-iron least. The more 
 sulphur the iron contains, the more easily it will be attacked; 
 silicon, phosphorus, manganese, and also carbon, seem to protect 
 the iron to a certain extent; but this point appears to require 
 further investigation. The behavior of the iron also changes with 
 the steam pressure. 
 
 , " Thus magnesium salts, and especially magnesium chloride, 
 are injurious to boilers, though probably for different reasons than 
 are generally assumed. There is a remedy, however. At higher 
 pressures the magnesium chloride and calcium carbonate interact, 
 forming calcium chloride (which does not attack the iron), mag- 
 nesia (which falls out as mud), and carbonic acid (which escapes 
 with the steam). The escape of carbonic-acid gas begins at low 
 steam pressures; and though the reaction is never complete, it 
 would appear from Ost's experiments in his boiler that a little 
 carbonate of lime suffices to prevent the corrosion of the iron by 
 magnesium salt; he estimates that we need only a quarter as much 
 carbonate as we have magnesium chloride. The precipitated 
 
80 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 magnesia does not swell the bulk of the scale in such cases, because 
 an equivalent amount of the calcium salt is dissolved. Some of 
 the rivers, whose contamination with magnesium chloride induced 
 Ost to investigate the subject, contain a sufficient amount of car- 
 bonates and bicarbonates to render the water harmless as feed- 
 water from this point of view, though we have to fear the forma- 
 tion of rust, owing to the decomposition of water by iron. In 
 sea-water we have no natural carbonates as a remedy, and the 
 detrimental action of the magnesium salts that are always present 
 is therefore unchecked." 
 
 Stillman * says : Where all the chlorine is not in combination 
 with the sodium and potassium, magnesium chloride is usually 
 present. 
 
 This compound (MgCy, while not scale-forming, is considered 
 as an active corrosive agent, upon the supposition that at the 
 temperature of 100 C., and higher, it is decomposed and hydro- 
 chloric acid formed and liberated. 
 
 This analysis of water, from a driven well in Florida, is an 
 illustration of this, and was complained of as causing an exces- 
 sive amount of scale, and also the corrosive action was very 
 marked. 
 
 
 Grains per 
 Gallon. 
 
 NaCl 
 
 18 83 
 
 KC1 
 
 3 91 
 
 MgCL 
 
 6 06 
 
 CaSO 4 
 
 11.49 
 
 CaCO 3 
 
 17.08 
 
 MgCO 3 
 
 8 40 
 
 SiO 2 
 
 64 
 
 Al 2 O 3 ,Fe 2 O 3 
 Organic 
 
 0.41 
 8.05 
 
 
 
 Corrosive Action of Water. A Parsons steam-turbine in Silesia 
 underwent but one repair in 7000 running hours; that was the 
 reseating of the double-beat admission-valve, mainly due to un- 
 clean acid-holding water. 
 
 The relative corrosion of certain metals, taking wrought iron 
 as 100, is thus given by H. M. Howe: 
 
 * Eng. Chemistry, p. 50. 
 
CORROSION. 
 
 81 
 
 
 Metal. 
 
 Sea- water. 
 
 Fresh 
 Water. 
 
 Weather 
 
 Exposure. 
 
 Average. 
 
 Wrought ir 
 
 on 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 Soft steel 
 
 
 114 
 
 94 
 
 103 
 
 103 
 
 3 per cent 
 
 nickel-steel 
 
 83 
 
 80 
 
 67 
 
 77 
 
 26 " " 
 
 it it 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Prof. Ernst Cohen,* Amsterdam, Holland, says that chemically 
 pure copper is corroded only by sea-water if atmospheric air can 
 co-operate in its action. 
 
 Tests made with electrolytic, sheet-hammered, cast, and com- 
 mercial copper. 
 
 Copper is corroded if sea-water, air, and carbonic acid act on it 
 simultaneously. 
 
 Condenser-tubes, 33.40 per cent zinc and 66.60 per cent copper, 
 corrode only in the presence of carbonic acid and air. 
 
 Tin is corroded in the presence of sea-water and atmospheric 
 air. 
 
 Oxide of copper and nickel resist even a prolonged action of 
 sea-water and atmospheric air, while aluminum bronzes, though 
 often recommended, are strongly attacked in a short time. 
 
 Ordinary steel castings when placed in sea-water in contact 
 with nickel-steel result in bad corrosion of the ordinary steel. 
 
 Corrosion by Sea-water. Pieces of iron low in phosphorus in 
 contact with iron high in phosphorus showed that that low in 
 phosphorus formed the anode and was badly corroded, and the 
 other formed the cathode and was protected from corrosion. 
 
 Herr Diegel suggests the use of certain alloys rather than 
 copper pipes, after tests with alloys of copper with iron, zinc, 
 nickel, and aluminum, the copper-nickel alloys being 18 to 42 
 per cent nickel. 
 
 Rods of these alloys suspended in salt water for twenty-five 
 months showed results most favorable to the copper-nickel alloys. 
 
 The water action was largely influenced by the metals alloyed 
 with the copper, for the iron-bronze was deeply corroded, while 
 the nickel alloy was protected. Chemical analysis showed that 
 " pure copper " is, in general, more rapidly corroded than metal 
 containing impurities, the ordinary commercial material being 
 acted upon less rapidly than electrolytic copper. 
 * Inst. Nav. Arch., Vol. 44, p. 215. 
 
82 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 The presence of oxide in copper increases its liability to corro- 
 sion. Apparently the presence of arsenic in copper hastens the 
 corrosive action. Where oxidation has occurred, arsenic seems 
 to retard corrosion. 
 
 Attaching pieces of zinc to copper pipes is the usual method 
 employed to prevent corrosion, as it serves the purpose of an 
 anode to the copper, and itself is corroded by the galvanic action 
 set up. 
 
 Where pieces of corroded zinc fall on copper pipes and remain, 
 excessive corrosion of the copper is produced, and hence we have 
 an objection to its use. Herr Diegel speaks of the large variety 
 of effects from an equally large number of causes, as a result of 
 using copper pipes on shipboard. 
 
 In some cases there is pitting over the whole inside surface of 
 the pipes, while in others limited local corrosion is seen as cutting 
 and grooving. 
 
 This action seems to be caused by high heating when brazing 
 on flange-fittings. 
 
 This local corrosion may come from 
 
 1. Variety in copper; 
 
 2. Air in the pipes; 
 
 3. Electrolytic action. 
 
 The rate of corrosion in alloys seems to be governed by their 
 relative position in the galvanic scale; metals which resisted corro- 
 sion well when in contact with metals electro-negative towards 
 them corroded badly when in contact with electro-positive metal. 
 Electrolytic copper, 99.955 per cent pure, in sea-water with ordinary 
 commercial copper, 98.98 per cent pure, with 0.6 per cent arsenic, 
 was corroded rapidly, fully thirteen times as fast as the commercial 
 copper. 
 
 Two ships' hulls, the one sheathed with the pure, the other 
 with the impure copper, gave similar results, so that the cause 
 was not in any galvanic action. 
 
 A sheet of pure copper oxidized in spots was immersed and 
 the bare portions rapidly corroded, showing a galvanic couple 
 in the sheet itself, the pure copper being the anode. 
 
 Annealed copper corroded less rapidly than hard-drawn copper 
 of a higher resistance and elastic limit. 
 
CORROSION. 83 
 
 All of these results were obtained after tests lasting 2 to 2^ 
 years had been completed.* 
 
 Action of Sea- water on Cast Iron. W. H. Thorpe, in 
 Engineering, 1905, gives his experience with 4^ cast-iron piles : 
 
 " In no case was there any general softening of the whole 
 thickness, but merely a distinct change for some definite thick- 
 ness inward. It was most marked close to the ground and gen- 
 erally disappeared at a height of 5 feet. Different piles in the 
 same structure did not show the same amount of softening. The 
 injured material taken from a pile thirty-six years old was soft, 
 greasy, and black, but after exposure to the^ir for a few hours 
 became a dry yellow powder." 
 
 Corrosion. Boiler-tubes corroded by forcing air through 
 tubes wetted by distilled water showed a loss in weight in six- 
 teen weeks of 0.315 grain per square inch, while when the water 
 was made alkaline the loss was reduced to 0.1 grain. f 
 
 Method of Testing Water for Corrosiveness. For marine prac- 
 tice, where engineers and firemen are off shore a long time, it is 
 well to know how to test the feed-water one is using, and for this 
 purpose there is no better guide than the method of testing for 
 corrosiveness as given by the Babcock & Wilcox Company in 
 Marine Steam, from which the following is taken with their per- 
 mission : 
 
 "The first thing in testing, as is well known, is to see that the 
 color of the water, as shown in the gauge-glass, is neither black 
 nor red. The only color admissible is slightly dirty gray or straw 
 color, unless the water is transparent. So long as water is red or 
 black, corrosion is going on, and it must immediately be neu- 
 tralized by freely using lime or soda, and frequently scumming 
 and blowing off, the make-up being provided by the evaporator. 
 
 " The salinometer is not a very accurate instrument for deter- 
 mining the quantity of sea-water in boiler-water, but the apparatus 
 here described gives a convenient and accurate method of ascer- 
 taining the exact number of grains of chlorine per gallon in the 
 water tested. It is based on the scheme for the volumetric deter- 
 mination of chlorine devised by Fr. Mohr, an eminent chemist, and 
 requires one graduated bottle, one bottle of silver solution con- 
 
 * Eng. News, Vol. 50, p. 173. f Eng. Rec., Vol. 51, p. 187. 
 
84 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 taining 4.738 grams of silver nitrate to 1000 grams of distilled 
 water, and one bottle of chromate indicator, which is a 10 per cent 
 solution of pure neutral potassium chromate. 
 
 " To Make Test. Fill the graduated bottle to the zero-mark 
 with the water to be tested; add one drop of the chromate indi- 
 cator, then solwly add the silver solution; keep 
 shaking the bottle. On nearing the full amount 
 of silver solution required the water will turn red 
 for a moment and then back to yellow again 
 when shaken. The moment it turns red and re- 
 mains red, stop adding the silver. The reading 
 on the graduated bottle at the level of the liquid 
 will then show the amount of chlorine in grains 
 per gallon. For example, if a permanent red 
 color is shown when the level is midway between 
 150 and 200 there are 175 grains of chlorine per 
 gallon. 
 
 "The principle of the process depends upon the 
 fact that if some of this silver solution be dropped 
 into water containing a chloride, a curdy white 
 precipitate of chloride of silver will be formed. 
 If there is also present in the water enough 
 potassium chromate to give a yellow color, the 
 white precipitate will continue to perform as be- 
 fore, owing to the silver having a greater affinity 
 for chlorine than for the chromic acid in the 
 chromate. But, at the moment when all the 
 chlorine in the sample has been converted, the 
 silver will attack the yellow potassium chromate, 
 and chromate of silver will be formed, which is 
 red in color. The amount of chlorine present is, 
 Graduated Bottle therefore, shown by the amount of silver solution 
 required to convert it all to silver chloride, and 
 the determination of the exact point at which the chloride pre- 
 cipitate ceases to form is greatly facilitated by observing when 
 the chromate indicator turns from yellow to red. 
 
 " It is not necessary to add the silver solution until the color 
 becomes very red, as the delicacy of the reaction would be de- 
 stroyed, but the change from yellow to yellowish red must be 
 
 - 'tOQ 
 
CORROSION. 85 
 
 distinct and must not change on shaking. The sample of water 
 to be tested should be neutral, as free acids dissolve the silver 
 chromate. If it should be acid, neutralize by adding sodium 
 carbonate. Slight alkalinity does not interfere with the reaction, 
 but should the example be very alkaline, it may be neutralized 
 with nitric acid. 
 
 "Should it happen that the color does not change within the 
 limits of the graduations, the sample may be tested by diluting 
 with distilled water. For example, add three parts of distilled 
 water to one part of the sample. If, then, on testing the mixture, 
 the color changes at 200, the number of grains per gallon in the 
 original sample will be four times this reading, or 800 grains. 
 
 "The chlorine should be kept down to the least possible amount 
 say below 50 grains per gallon as the nearer the boiler-water 
 is to fresh water the safer the boilers are against corrosion. 
 
 " If the water is so corrosive as to be acid, blue litmus paper 
 which has not been allowed to become deteriorated through ex- 
 posure to the atmosphere (keep in a bottle with a glass stopper) 
 will turn slightly red. If a change in color is not apparent at once, 
 it should be allowed to remain in the solution a few minutes and 
 then carefully dried and compared with an unused sample. 
 
 " Another method is to put into it a few drops of a chemical 
 called methyl-orange. This methyl-orange gives a yellow color 
 so long as the water is alkaline, but if turned pink it shows that 
 the water is acid and therefore highly corrosive. This latter test 
 is more sensitive than the litmus-paper test and should be used 
 in preference. 
 
 " A testing-kit containing the graduated bottle and the solutions 
 referred to, also strips of blue and red litmus paper, neatly packed 
 in a padded box, is supplied by the Babcock & Wilcox Company 
 with all boiler installations intended for salt-water service." 
 
 A Peculiar Example of Scale Formation Following Corrosion 
 is given by a boiler in one of the small vessels in the U. S. Navy 
 after several months' experience on the Cuban blockade in 1898, 
 during the Spanish-American war. 
 
 The boiler in question was a Yarrow boiler, consisting of a 
 steam-drum to which are attached two banks of straight tubes, 
 one of which extends obliquely down on either side of the grate. 
 The upper ends were expanded into the steam-drum, the lower 
 
86 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 ends expanded into a practically flat plate, forming the top or 
 cover of a water-chamber or mud-drum. 
 
 The tubes were 1-inch-diameter copper tubes, very closely 
 set and staggered. 
 
 When repairs were made the tubes were found to be con- 
 siderably pitted and corroded on the exterior, and, in some cases, 
 entirely eaten through and away. In the case of one tube 5 
 inches of its length was gone and the free ends were as thin as 
 paper. 
 
 Unaware of these conditions, the engineer steamed into port 
 with a steam pressure of 250 pounds per square inch in the boilers. 
 
 The spaces between tubes were solid with hard scale at the 
 above break, and no leakage was noticed. 
 
 Marine boilers of this class are supposed to use only fresh water 
 from distilling apparatus aboard ship, but frequently sea-water 
 must be used, the sea-salt accumulating on the tubes resulting 
 in overheating or burning. Then cracks sometimes show them- 
 selves, and the salt water mingles with the soot and ashes, and 
 further leaks cannot be seen readily at the point of rupture, and 
 at the same time corrosion is encouraged and is progressing more 
 rapidily 
 
 In this case the wasted tube was not scaled on its interior, 
 all of its troubles coming from the outside.* 
 
 The testimony taken by the United States inspectors of steam- 
 vessels showed that, on the night of September 12, 1899, the 
 regular engineer closed the connections between the gauge-glass 
 and the boiler, as was his custom, and that the next day, being 
 sick, he employed another engineer to take his place for the day. 
 Also that the tug left her berth shortly before 7 o'clock in the 
 morning in charge of the substitute engineer, and that the acci- 
 dent occurred about 1 o'clock, while the tug was towing a large 
 loaded scow against the tide. The day after the accident, the 
 gauge-glass was noticed to have 3 or 4 inches of water and the 
 boiler connections were closed. 
 
 The substitute engineer testified that the boiler-gauge showed 
 a steam pressure of 140 pounds while towing the scow, and every- 
 thing appeared to be all right until he noticed that the pressure 
 
 * Cassier's Mag., Vol. 16, p. 620. 
 
CORROSION. 87 
 
 was falling. He then shoveled on fresh coal and turned the exhaust 
 into the stack. Receiving a signal to slow down, he attempted 
 to work the injector, but could not get water into the boiler, so 
 was forced to draw the fire. While drawing the fire the tubes 
 dropped down, but without explosion or any apparent commotion. 
 The superintendent of the dredging company testified that he 
 visited the tugboat an hour and a quarter after the accident, and 
 found the fire-room still so hot that he could scarcely endure the heat. 
 
 When it is remembered that the fiercest heat of the forge is 
 required to bring wrought iron to the plastic condition necessary 
 for welding, and that a still higher temperature is required for 
 melting it, some idea is gained of the extreme temperature that 
 must have prevailed. 
 
 An examination of the boiler-tubes showed that they were all 
 clear, and that the circulation was not impeded; also that the 
 tubes were coated on the inside and outside with black oxide of 
 iron, which is formed by the combination of iron with oxygen gas 
 when the former is red-hot. The combination will take place in 
 the presence of air or aqueous vapor; so it is believed by the manu- 
 facturers of the Boyer sectional water-tube boiler, who made the 
 boiler in question, that the condition of the tubes shows conclu- 
 sively that, by reason of the connections between the boiler and 
 the gauge-glass being closed, the engineer did not know where 
 his water-level was, and that it had been materially lowered during 
 the hour and a half while lying still before towing the large 
 scow; also that the towing of the big loaded scow against the 
 tide was hard work for the little boat, and that there was an unusual 
 consumption of water. Thus the upper evaporating-tubes became 
 empty of water, and when the exhaust was put into the stack 
 they became superheated and then red-hot, at which time the 
 steam was decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen gases. These 
 gases being released by a split in some of the pipes, part of the 
 oxygen combined with the iron, forming black oxide of iron, and 
 leaving the hydrogen to combine with the oxygen of the air passing 
 through the furnace. Thus with the aid of the fire the terrific 
 heat was produced that melted the boiler-tubes. This action was 
 further aided by the air that passed over the fire, the boiler-doors 
 being open at the time, and the engineer engaged in hauling the 
 fire. 
 
88 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 That the collapse of the furnace did not produce a disastrous 
 explosion, with a consequent loss of life and property, is a remark- 
 able fact and one that testifies to the safety of the water -tube 
 boiler when subjected to the roughtest usage. The damage was 
 entirely confined to the nest of tubes. Fig. 14 shows the boiler 
 before the outside tubes were removed, and Fig. 15 shows its appear- 
 ance after four rows were taken off.* 
 
 FIG. 14. An Exploded Boiler. (A marine accident.) 
 
 A Remarkable Example of Boiler Destruction, where flues were 
 clear of scale and the accident due to the sudden formation of 
 magnetic oxide of iron, was that of the water-tube boiler on the 
 tugboat W. H. Beard, 28^ gross tons, used in towing mud-scows, 
 which boiler was so badly burned that 300 of 785 water-tubes 
 were practically melted together. 
 
 Fig. 16 is of a tube corroded by pure water coming in direct 
 contact with the iron; this forms a blister, underneath which 
 pitting goes on to considerable depth. A heavy fall of snow melting 
 quickly on a large watershed is sure to give a very pure water 
 to the rivers draining the same, and if feed -water is pumped from 
 the river containing frequently less than one part of solid matter 
 to 100,000, and used in a boiler which has no scale veneer, bad 
 
 * Steam Engineering. 
 
CORROSION. 
 
 89 
 
 corrosion is certain, and has caused endless trouble, the corrosion 
 being principally due to the free CC>2 contained in the water. 
 
 Lime introduced in small quantities from time to time is the 
 proper thing to maintain this thin scale, if such water is used for 
 any length of time. 
 
 FIG. 15. Another View of an Exploded Boiler. 
 
 (From " The Locomotive.") 
 
 FIG. 16. Tube Pitted by Pure Water. 
 
 Salt Water as Feed- water. Power * quotes a marine engineer 
 who says that salt water could be used in boilers without trouble. 
 The boilers should not be blown down until the water in the boilers 
 has the saline part increased four times; the water should then 
 
 * Nov. 1903. 
 
90 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 be all let out, and 100 pounds of soda put in at the top of the 
 boilers. It should also be fed during the ran. 
 
 In the Philippines, where the water is the densest in the world, 
 he had no trouble with the boilers. While he does not advise 
 blowing down such boilers daily, he thinks where they can be cooled 
 down and the water changed once in two weeks the water can 
 be used. 
 
 Analysis of waters, if studied carefully, may often reveal corro- 
 sive effect from the action of heat on the water when in the steam- 
 boiler. The following tables * give the reactions by which hydro- 
 chloric, sulphuric, and nitric acids may be formed in boilers: 
 
 a. FORMATION OF HYDROCHLORIC ACID. 
 
 Chloride of magnesium and steam . . . MgCl 2 + H 2 O = MgO + 2HC1. 
 Sulphate of magnesium and alkaline 
 
 chlorides MgSO 4 + H 2 O + 2NaCl = Na.>SO 4 + MgO 
 
 + 2HC1. 
 
 Silica and alkaline chlorides. ..." SiO 2 + 2'NaCl + H 2 O - Na 2 SiO 3 + 2HC1. 
 
 Ferric chloride -Fe 2 Cl + 3H 2 O = Fe 2 O 3 + 6HCl. 
 
 Ferrous chloride. * 3FeCl 2 + 4H 2 O=Fe 3 O 4 +H ? 
 
 Carbonate of magnesium and chlorides MgCO 3 + 2 NaCl + H 2 O = Na 2 CO 3 
 
 + MgO + 2HCl. 
 Chloride of ammonium NH 4 C1 = NH 3 + HC1. 
 
 b. FORMATION OF SULPHURIC ACID. 
 
 Normal ferric sulphate ............. 2Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 = (Fe 2 O 3 ) 2 SO 2 + 5 
 
 Ferrous sulphate .................. 3FeSO 4 + 4H 2 O = Fe 3 O 4 
 
 Sulphurous acid, sulphite ........... SO 2 + H 2 O + O = H 2 SO 4 . 
 
 Sulphurous acid and ferric sulphate. . H2SO 3 + Fe ? (SO 4 ) 3 + H 2 O =2FeSO 4 
 
 Sulphurous acid and ferric chloride . . SO 2 + Fe 2 Cl 6 -f- 2H 2 O = 2FeCl 2 + 2 HC1 
 
 fH,|3Q 4 . 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphides. . . E^S -f 4O = H 2 SO 4 . 
 Sulphate of calcium and organic mat- 
 
 ters ......................... 2CaS0 4 + C + 3H 2 O=Ca(OH) 2 + CO 
 
 + 2H.,S0 4 . 
 Sulphate of aluminium ............. A1 2 (SO 4 ) 3 + 3H 2 O =A1 2 O 3 + 3H 2 SO 4 . 
 
 Sulphate of ammonium ............ (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 = 2NH 3 + H 2 SO 4 . 
 
 Sulphate of copper ............... CuSO 4 + Fe = FeSO 4 + Cu. 
 
 * De la Coux, p. 101. 
 
CORROSION. 91 
 
 c: FORMATION OF NITRIC ACID. 
 
 Normal ferric nitrate Fe 2 (NO 3 ) 6 = Ferric nitrate + HNO 3 . 
 
 Alkaline nitrate and acid sulphate or 
 
 sulphuric acid NaNO 3 + NaHSO 4 = Na 2 SO 4 + HNO 3 . 
 
 Nitrate of ammonium NH 3 NO 3 = NH 3 + HNO 3 . 
 
 Tannin when used with a certain water as a solvent for scale 
 gave no trouble, but when the regular feed-water was left to itself, 
 or certain patented compounds were used, 
 the effect was something like the scale shown 
 in Fig. 17, under which conditions corrosion 
 acted rapidly, in fact but a few months 
 sufficed to eat through the plate. 
 
 In another case a patch lasted only 
 
 , ,1 j_i 1- j (From "The Locomotive.") 
 
 twelve months, the corrosive action destroy- 
 ing it being due to the presence of ammonia u Fl ?v, 17 ' 
 
 Result of Corrosion, 
 in some form, probably sal-ammoniac, which 
 
 if at all concentrated forms a very active agent in the destruction 
 of steel plates. \ 
 
 Note. For a very complete digest of boiler corrosion, mechanical in 
 character rather than from water, see Engineering News, Vol. 37, p. 94, and 
 full inset plate. 
 
 Tests by W. F. Worthington to discover the difference in 
 corrodibility of tubes made of iron and Bessemer or open-hearth 
 steel resulted as follows : 
 
 1. Corrosion was quickly present in all samples in pure water; 
 
 2. Though a jet of air struck the center of the inner side of each 
 
 sample, in many cases the outer side was much corroded; 
 
 3. All test-pieces show pitting to a certain extent, which agrees 
 
 with Rowan's statement, that " pitting occurs in all kinds 
 of corrosive liquids and all kinds of metals, even platinum/' 
 
 4. The corrosion attacked the seamless-drawn tubes ^ inch in 
 
 depth and then shelled off, leaving metal bright. 
 
 5. Oxygen attacked 30 per cent nickel-steel with avidity, notwith- 
 
 standing Vos'smaer says 25 per cent nickel-steel is practi- 
 cally incorrodible. 
 
 The above writer cannot conclude from his experience which 
 tubes are the best. He says there is reason to believe that at 
 356 F. (146 pounds pressure) iron or ordinary carbon steel begins 
 to decompose water. 
 
92 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Nickel-steel seems to be the only available material. 
 Trautwine says: "It is said that the softest water may be 
 kept in brass vessels without any deleterious results. 
 
 (Fidelity & Casualty Co.) 
 
 FIG. 18. Nos. 1 and 3, Ruptured Tubes; No. 2, Collapsed Tube; 4, Split 
 Feed-pipe; 5, Corroded Tubes. No. 6 was taken from a water-tube 
 boiler and carried 100 pounds of steam up to the time inspection was 
 made. Accumulation of scale inside prevented its leaking. 
 
 "Copper and bronze are very little affected by sea-water. 
 " Fresh water corrodes wrought iron more rapidly than it does 
 cast iron ; the reverse seems to be true with sea-water. 
 
CORROSION. 93 
 
 " Corrosion of iron or steel by sea-water increases with the car- 
 bon in the metal. 
 
 "Iron boilers made fifty or sixty years ago are still doing good 
 work/ 7 
 
 Percy, in a paper, " British Assoc. Rep. 2," 1849, pp. 39, 40, 
 on copper containing phosphorus with details of experiments on 
 the corrosive action of sea-water on some varieties of copper, 
 describes an alloy containing copper, 95.72 per cent; iron, 2.41 
 per cent; phosphorus, 2.41 per cent, which on being exposed 
 to sea-water for nine months suffered no loss of weight. 
 
 Corrosion of Iron and Steel Tubes.* The experience of the 
 Mutual Boiler Insurance Company with a large number of small 
 upright boilers, in which one new heavy steel tube with fusible 
 plug replaced one of an all-iron set, was as follows: 
 
 At the end of a few years the steel tubes were pitted and corroded, 
 the iron tubes being as good as ever. A horizontal boiler contain- 
 ing both iron and steel tubes, run at high pressure, gave equally 
 good results for both metals. 
 
 The steel tubes gave poor service in heating-boilers run at low 
 pressures and laid off a part of the year. 
 
 A serious case of corrosion of a feed-pipe and the shell of a 
 horizontal tubular boiler between the water-line and above the 
 fire-line was caused by the return from copper vacuum-kettles 
 of the condensed steam used in heating them and to which a little 
 raw water was to be added. While in ordinary corrosion cases 
 the trouble is localized, in this case the trouble was evenly dis- 
 tributed all over the pipe. The particles of the copper coming 
 over from the kettles was the probable cause of the corrosion. 
 
 Mr. Yarrow gives as the probable causes of the deterioration 
 of marine boiler-tubes: 
 
 " 1st. The action of acids in the water due to the grease, which 
 in spite of every precaution finds its way into the boiler. 
 
 " 2d. The tubes become overheated and oxidizing on the out- 
 side through contact with hot gases when passing from the furnace 
 to the uptake. 
 
 " 3d. The action of the steam, which if superheated decom- 
 poses, causing deterioration on the inside of the tubes. 
 
 * Eng. News, Vol. 50, p 318. 
 
94 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 " The last two conditions occur when the tubes from defective 
 circulation, shortness of water, or from the collection of scale be- 
 come overheated." 
 
 The chemical composition of the feed-water plays an im- 
 portant part in each of the above cases. 
 
 In order to show the relative deterioration due to the action 
 of acids in the water on boiler- tubes, Yarrow tested two mild 
 steel tubes and two 25 per cent nickel tubes tor corrosion. After 
 being immersed for 22J days in a bath of 33 per cent hydro- 
 chloric acid the results were as per table. 
 
 Fig. 19 shows how the carbon-steel tubes B and F and nickel- 
 steel tubes A and E looked after the completion of the tests. 
 The same figure shows results of fire- tests of similar tubes and 
 is self-explanatory. 
 
 CORROSION TEST.* EXPERIMENTS TO ASCERTAIN THE EFFECTS 
 OF ACID ON NICKEL-STEEL AND MILD CARBON-STEEL TUBES. 
 
 
 
 Solution Used Two Parts of Water to One Part Con- 
 
 
 
 
 centrated Hydrochloric Acid. 
 
 Total Loss in 
 
 
 J3 
 
 
 533 Hours, or 
 
 Kind 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 Weight in Grams at End of Each Period of 
 
 
 
 22 Days 
 5 Hours. 
 
 of 
 Steel. 
 
 !> . 
 
 ~F 
 
 Immersion. 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 .So 
 
 21 
 
 64 
 
 44 
 
 92 
 
 168 
 
 72 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 13 
 g 
 
 In 
 
 InFer 
 
 
 
 
 Hrs. 
 
 Hrs. 
 
 Hrs 
 
 Hrs. 
 
 Hrs. 
 
 Hrs. 
 
 Hrs. 
 
 Hrs. 
 
 Hrs. 
 
 
 
 Gims. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Nickel . . 
 
 190 
 
 190 
 
 189 
 
 189 
 
 188 
 
 186 
 
 186 
 
 185 
 
 185 
 
 185 
 
 533 
 
 5 
 
 2.f3 
 
 Carbon. . 
 
 186 
 
 184 
 
 173 
 
 166 
 
 140 
 
 101 
 
 98 
 
 94 
 
 91 
 
 88 
 
 533 
 
 98 
 
 52. f 8 
 
 Nickel . . 
 
 188 
 
 188 
 
 187 
 
 187 
 
 186 
 
 183 
 
 182 
 
 181 
 
 181 
 
 181 
 
 533 
 
 7 
 
 3.72 
 
 Carbon. . 
 
 188 
 
 187 
 
 173 
 
 162 
 
 137 
 
 112 
 
 95 
 
 92 
 
 90 
 
 88 
 
 533 
 
 ICO 
 
 53.19 
 
 * Colby, Soc. Nav. Engrs., 1903. 
 
 For corrosion and pitting Mr. J. T. Fennell recommends 
 from experience thoroughly cleaning the shell and painting with 
 a thin wash of Portland cement, and putting 3 pounds of sal soda 
 in when starting the boiler, and ^ pound of the same every few 
 days. The result was very satisfactory. 
 
 The boats on the Mississippi River have " pans " in their 
 boilers, about 4 feet long by 12 inches wide, made of sheet iron, 
 with a small I bolt in each end 12 inches long to support them. 
 These pans must be put in through the manhole above the flues 
 and passed down between them to the front end, and being 2 inches 
 deep, are made secure by placing them tight up against the 
 
CORROSION. 
 
 95 
 
96 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 bottom flues, and directly over the fire, the back end being 
 about 2J inches over the forward mud-drum leg. 
 
 These pans catch a great deal of the loose scale that is brought 
 up by circulation. 
 
 The end of the pan being over the mud-drum leg assists the 
 scale being drawn from the pan directly to the leg when blowing 
 out, which is done about five times every twenty-four hours. 
 
 For horizontal tubular boilers Mr. Fennell makes these pans 
 5 feet long by 2 inches deep, and of such a width as to get them 
 through the manhole. Their bottoms should be square or flat, not 
 arched. Arched bottoms are always a failure. 
 
 Pans in horizontal boilers should be kept at least 18 inches 
 away from the front head. A weight made from a ladleful of 
 lead, cooled, is used to hold the pan from the tendency to float. 
 
 Pitting. Pitting is a most dangerous form of corrosion and 
 " may be described as a series of small holes often running into 
 each other, in lines and patches, eaten into the surface of the iron 
 to a depth sometimes reaching one-fourth of an inch." The 
 mysterious ways of pitting have been enigmas to engineers. 
 
 Grooving frequently occurs around the stay-bolts of the water- 
 legs or furnaces of locomotive boilers, radiating also from the 
 stay-bolts as centers. The side sheets bending backward and 
 forward under varying steam pressure start incipient cracks or 
 open up the surfaces to admit water. The repeated and inter- 
 mittent strains on the sheets from the very severe conditions 
 such boilers are called upon to meet aid very materially in this 
 work of corrosion. 
 
 Idle boilers are especially liable to pitting and usually severe 
 sufferers, unless the best of care is given them. 
 
 Fig. 20 is an example from an idle boiler in which impure 
 water had been used, though similar results would have been 
 obtained if pure water had been used ; and though the exterior of 
 the plate was clear, the furrows were quite deep inside, and stay- 
 bolts were corroded entirely off. 
 
 Examples of pitting are shown in Figs. 21 and 22. 
 
 These examples are from a horizontal tubular boiler 48 inches 
 in diameter and in use for six years at a nail-works. 
 
 The lap-joint shown was directly over the flue through which 
 the waste furnace-gases were admitted to the boiler-setting, and 
 
CORROSION. 
 
 97 
 
 consequently were exposed to sudden and violent variations of 
 temperature. One minute steam would blow off at 90 pounds 
 
 ("From "The Locomotive," Hartford S. B. I. & I. Co.) 
 
 FIG. 20 Corrosion around Stay-bolts. 
 
 (From " The Locomotive," Hartford S. B. I. & I. Co.) 
 
 FIG. 21. A Pitted Plate Outer Lap. 
 
 (From "The Locomotive." Hartford S B. I. & I. Co.) 
 
 FIG. 22. A Pitted Plate Inner Lap. 
 
 gauge pressure; the next the gauge was indicating a drop to 40 
 pounds. 
 
 As in almost every other case, the grooving and pitting was 
 most severe along the edge of the lap. 
 
98 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 The feed-water was very pure so much so that there was no 
 scale; had it been less pure, it would probably scale the shell 
 sufficiently to prevent the pitting. 
 
 The experience of the Hartford Steam-boiler Inspection and 
 Insurance Company is that some very troublesome cases of this 
 character have been cured by curving the flue toward the rear end 
 of the boiler (that is, the flue from the blast-furnace), so that the 
 gases will not impinge directly on the plates, but be delivered 
 horizontally along the under surface of the boiler. 
 
 Mud-drums which are located close to brick walls and are 
 frequently supplied with cold water are very likely to " sweat "; 
 this moisture, along with the lime of the setting, starts pitting; 
 and as a similar action goes on in many cases inside of the drum 
 also, it is but a short time when the pitting has perforated the 
 shell. To prevent inside pitting, blow down the drum frequently ; 
 to stop outside troubles, keep the masonry away from the boiler- 
 metal. 
 
 In recording the explosion of twenty-two two-cylinder steam- 
 boilers at Friedenshiitte, Germany, July 25, 1887, Locomotive, 
 1888, says: " The feed-water was, as is apt to be the case in coal 
 districts, bad for boiler use. It made a bad scale which became 
 detached and, falling to the bottom of the boilers, formed a deposit 
 which caused some pitting of the shell-plates. 
 
 " This is the analysis of the feed-water used: 
 
 Silicic acid .0300 gram 
 
 Iron oxide 0160 
 
 Lime 2624 
 
 Manganese oxide 0540 
 
 Sulphuric acid x.;. 3698 
 
 Chlorine ~~. . 0139 
 
 Organic matter. . 1200 
 
 A French engineer, M. Olroy,* in Engineering, gives an in- 
 teresting account of an investigation by him into the cause of 
 pitting in boilers. He says: Pitting is particularly likely to occur 
 if a water very free from lime is used in a clean boiler. The pits 
 take the form of conical or, more frequently, spherical depressions, 
 which are filled with a yellowish-brown deposit, consisting mainly 
 of iron oxide. 
 
 * Locomotive, Nov. 1894. 
 
CORROSION. 99 
 
 The volume of the powder is greater than that of the metal 
 oxidized, so that a blister is formed above the pit, which has a 
 skin as thin as an egg-shell. This skin contains usually both 
 iron oxide and lime salts, and differs greatly in toughness. 
 
 In many cases it is so friable that it breaks with the least 
 shock, falling to powder, while in other cases the blister detaches 
 itself from the plate as a whole. An analysis of the powder in 
 the pits showed it to consist of 86.26 per cent of peroxide of iron, 6.29 
 per cent of grease and other organic matter, and 4.25 per cent of 
 lime salts, the remainder being water, silica, aluminum, etc. The 
 skin over the pits was found to contain 38 parts of calcium car- 
 bonate, 12.8 parts of calcium sulphate, and 32.2 parts of iron 
 oxide, with about 8 parts each of magnesium carbonate and in- 
 soluble matter. 
 
 Feed-heaters often suffer badly from pitting, particularly near 
 the cold-water inlet, and in boilers the parts most likely to be 
 attacked are those where the circulation is bad, especially if such 
 portions are also near the feed-inlet. 
 
 In locomotives the bottom of the barrel is most frequently 
 attacked, and the largest ring. 
 
 The steam-spaces are generally free from pitting, unless the 
 boiler is frequently kept standing with water in it. As the water 
 evaporates, pitting is then likely to occur along the region of the 
 water-line, a part which, in a working boiler, is generally free from 
 attack. This is especially the case if longitudinal joints of the 
 boiler are liable to be exposed by the evaporation of the water, 
 and to form a ledge on which moisture can rest. 
 
 When a boiler forms one of a battery, and is kept standing for 
 a long interval, the top of the boiler is liable to pit. Steam finds its 
 way into it, and condenses on the roof, causing bad pitting there. 
 
 Perfectly pure water containing no air does no harm, and 
 steam alone will not cause pitting, unless it gets a supply of air. 
 The Loch Katrine water of Glasgow, which causes pitting in 
 clean boilers, contains much gas. 
 
 MM. Scheurer-Kestner and Meunier-Dolfas inclosed a polished 
 iron bar in a natural water containing much oxygen and no lime 
 salts. The bar gradually rusted, but the corrosion ceased when 
 the oxygen was used up. The bar was then removed, repolished, 
 and put back, after which it remained perfectly bright. 
 
1 00 BOI LER- WATER S. 
 
 Repeating the experiment with water containing lime, the 
 rusting was much less complete, the lime salts forming a protective 
 layer on the iron, but corrosion recommenced on polishing the layer 
 off. 
 
 In distilled water the bar remained quite bright. The corro- 
 sion is much more rapid if the water contains carbonic-acid gas 
 as well as oxygen. In this case a voltaic action takes place. 
 The rust first formed is electropositive to the iron, which then 
 dissolves away, decomposing the water. It is for this reason that 
 in cases of pitting it is essential that all traces of the iron peroxide 
 should be cleaned from the metal, or the rusting will be continued. 
 
 Parker, in the American Machinist, July 1892, says that in 
 Louisville, Ky., rust and scale in boiler-shells and mud-drums 
 has been prevented by a thorough cleaning and then applying 
 graphited oil with a swab-brush or anything handy to the joints 
 and parts where the water enters the drum. The operation is 
 repeated every four or six weeks with the most gratifying re- 
 sults. 
 
 In a boiler of the porcupine type pitting was arrested by scraping 
 and painting with graphite mixed with mineral oil. 
 
 A pair of new cylindrical boilers, 42 inches in diameter by 
 28 feet long, were tested for a period of six months. Feed-water 
 was mine- water. They replaced . others rotten from corrosion, and 
 during this test the occasional application of plumbago and mineral 
 cylinder-oil kept back corrosion. Mr. Deeley has found pitting to 
 cease in many instances when the water was kept slightly alkaline. 
 
 The late Dr. R. H. Thurston, in a communication to Engineer- 
 ing News, 1898, gave, as the result of his researches in connection 
 with this subject, these notes, which are also to be found in his 
 " Materials of Engineering," Vol. 2: 
 
 1. Corrosion can ordinarily only occur in the presence, simul- 
 taneously, of oxygen, moisture, and carbon dioxide (Calvert). 
 
 2. The gases of the locomotive accelerate corrosion by their 
 peculiar acid quality, arising from their contents of sulphur oxides; 
 iron and steel absorbing acids somewhat greedily. 
 
 3. Cast iron, in dilute solutions of acids, is rapidly acted upon, 
 especially in warm water in the flow of water of condensation 
 from engine-condensers, for example, losing the metal, and often 
 leaving the carbon and other matters ; the piece retaining its form 
 
CORROSION. 
 
 101 
 
 and general appearance unchanged, but with enormously reduced 
 density. The metal is said by the uninformed to have been 
 " changed to plumbago " (Calvert). 
 
 4. Corrosion is rapidly effected with cast metal irregularly 
 and quickly cooled in the mould, less rapidly where slowly and 
 regularly cooled (Mallet). 
 
 5. The rate of corrosion is ordinarily constant over long periods 
 of time; but the removal of dust retards oxidation, as it destroys 
 the voltaic couple composed of metal and of oxide. 
 
 6. Hard iron, rich in combined carbon, rusts slowly. The 
 presence of graphite or of a different quality of iron in metallic 
 contact with it increases the rate of oxidation, presumably by 
 forming local voltaic samples. Hard steel rusts less rapidly than 
 soft. 
 
 7. Foul sea-water, as the bilge-water of a ship, corrodes iron 
 and steel rapidly. 
 
 8. The rate of corrosion is too variable to be stated in exact 
 terms. The hulls of iron ships have been found to average a rate 
 of not far from ^ inch in twenty-five years when carefully painted. 
 Iron roofs exposed to smoke and gases of locomotives are some- 
 times ruined in three or four years. 
 
 9. The observations of Thwaite are as follows: The time of 
 endurance in years may be expected to average about 
 
 T=WXCL; 
 
 where W is the weight of metal in pounds per foot length of the 
 member; L is its length of perimeter inside and out if it is hollow; 
 and C is a constant which has the following values and the mag. 
 nitude of which measures the relative loss by corrosion: 
 
 
 Water. 
 
 Impure 
 Air. 
 
 Sea. 
 
 River. 
 
 Foul. 
 
 Clear. 
 
 Foul. 
 
 Clear or 
 in Air. 
 
 Cast iron 
 
 0.0656 
 .1956 
 .1944 
 .23 
 .09 
 
 0.0636 
 .1255 
 .0970 
 .0880 
 .0359 
 
 0.0381 
 .1440 
 .1133 
 .0728 
 .0371 
 
 0.0113 
 .0123 
 .0125 
 0109 
 .0048 
 
 0.0476 
 .1254 
 .1252 
 .0854 
 .0199 
 
 Wrought iron 
 
 Steel 
 
 Cast iron, no skin 
 Galvanized 
 
 
102 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Average for sea-water, cast iron, in contact with brass, copper, 
 or gun-bronzes, 0.19 to 0.35; wrought iron, in contact with the 
 same, 0.3 to 0.45. This is for unpainted metal, of course. 
 
 For painted iron or steel it is safe to multiply the endurance, 
 as above, by two or more. 
 
 The above are general statements, and there is no clue to 
 analysis or quality of the metals themselves, and the above figures 
 should be considered in this light. 
 
 Mr. Thos. Andrews, F.R.S., writing on the effect of stress on 
 corrosion of metals,* gives a table of the electromotive force 
 obtained between strained and unstrained portions of the same 
 metal, which varied from 0.002 to 0.019 volt. In all these tests 
 the strained metal was the electropositive. 
 
 Corrosion is always accompanied by electrical energy of greater 
 or less intensity or electromotive force, according to the sub- 
 stance consumed. 
 
 Mr. Carl Hambuchen, B.Sc.,f says concerning corrosion: "In 
 many if not all cases the character and rapidity of ordinary 
 corrosion of iron and steel depend upon their physical and chemical 
 properties, and the galvanic action due to differences of potential 
 between different parts of the metal." 
 
 In addition to boiler materials being under strain, they are 
 subject to very high and variable temperatures, which also con- 
 tribute to assist the work of corrosion. 
 
 * Proc. Inst. C. E., 1893-94. t Bui. Univ. of Wis., Vol. 2, No. 8. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 FEED-WATER PIPES. BLOW-OFF PIPES TUBES. 
 
 WE all know that the feed-water inlet in a steam-boiler is 
 one of the parts of a setting that are subject to hard usage, and in 
 the furnace this piping is subject to all the ills of the boiler itself. 
 It frequently happens that in neglected plants the pipe is almost 
 closed with mud and scale. 
 
 Fig. 22a shows a ruptured blow-off pipe, the rupture caused 
 by a deposit of scale and sediment lodging in the pipe, and indicated 
 
 (Fidelity & Casualty Co ) 
 
 tic. 22a. Ruptured Blow-off Pipe. 
 
 by Fig. 23. When the pipe broke, the steam dug a hole in the 
 ground, and also opened the furnace-doors and cleaned the wood 
 fire off the grates. The steam-gauge indicated 100 pounds pres- 
 sure. 
 
 After inspecting a horizontal tubular boiler in South Carolina, 
 C. C. Davis, of the Fidelity and Casualty Company, reported a 
 little information worthy of preservation. 
 
 " There is a small bag on the bottom of the shell near the rear 
 head, due to the blow-off pipes being tapped into the rear head 
 about 3 inches above the bottom of the shell. The metal in the bag 
 
 103 
 
104 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 is in good condition and is not down over & of an inch, and we 
 would recommend that the blow-off pipe be tapped into this bag. 
 There is also a slight pitting, mostly on the tube surface, and 
 we would recommend the use of carbonate of soda for the purpose 
 of preventing the pitting from extending. The soda should be 
 introduced continuously through the feed-water, in a quantity that 
 will best be determined by experiment. 
 
 " Care should be taken to open the boiler shortly after the soda 
 has been introduced, and to remove whatever scale has accumu- 
 lated on the sheets, as otherwise serious trouble is liable to be caused 
 
 (Fidelity & Casualty Co.) 
 
 FIG. 23 Side Elevation of Blow-off Connection. 
 
 through the overheating of the metal. Care should also be taken 
 to open the surface and bottom blow-off pipes at frequent intervals, 
 in order to prevent the density of the solution from becoming too 
 great, as otherwise priming is liable to ensue." 
 
 Condenser-tubes. W. A. Stewart, in a paper before the Institute 
 of Naval Engineers, 1903, said that serious corrosion on condenser- 
 tubes on board ship is often laid to the charge of faulty wiring. 
 
 One Channel steamer that had such trouble was wired on the 
 single-wire system, and though having seen but one year of service, 
 some of the condenser-tubes needed renewal. 
 
 At the same time a twenty-year-old paddle-wheel steamer 
 
FEED-WATER PIPES. BLOW-OFF PIPES. TUBES. 105 
 
 showed the same trouble; it was not wired at all for electricity, 
 but both had been moored together near the outlet of a sewer 
 from a galvanizing works, where many acids were discharged, 
 and it was this foul acid water that caused the trouble. 
 
 The elements used in alloys may be electrochemically arranged, 
 so that each element will be positive to any above it and negative 
 to any below it. The oxides of elements are electropositive to 
 their own elements. 
 
 The nearer together the metals are in the list the less will be 
 the difference of potential: 
 
 Copper, 
 
 Tin, 
 
 Lead, 
 
 Nickel, 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 A flow of electricity is always set up where there is a difference 
 of potential. Electrolysis or electrochemical action occurs at the 
 expense or using up of the electropositive element or oxide, and 
 can be accelerated, or vice versa, by the contact liquid. 
 
 As to oxidation, pure copper cannot be cast without the oxi- 
 dation of the metal, which shows itself after the metal is drawn 
 to a tube or other form, and the places of oxidation are the begin- 
 ning of pitting and finally holes in the tube. 
 
 Brass tubes always contain some zinc, which is positive to the 
 copper and corrodes very easily; and the zinc being thus entirely 
 liberated, the strength of the tube is also reduced materially. 
 
 Nickel is very inert, that is, slow to act or be acted upon. 
 
 In the French battleship Brennus copper tubes corroded in a 
 very short time and much more rapidly than the brass tubes 
 in use. 
 
 The deterioration from corrosion of the parts of compound 
 boilers, such as mud-drums, heaters, water-bottoms, water-legs, 
 and the like, which are located below the active generating surfaces 
 of a boiler is a notable experience in boiler practice. 
 
 This corrosion is most frequently caused by the condensation 
 of acid vapors from the furnace-gases upon the cooler surfaces, 
 or by the salts of acids deposited with soot and ashes ; the corrosion 
 of steel chimneys where the ashes lodge on the joints of the sheets 
 
106 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 and is washed through the joint by moisture is another example 
 of corrosion from this cause and which occurs in steam-plants. 
 
 It makes no difference whether the boiler is in steady or in- 
 termittent use or not, nor how good the metal is ; in fact, the com- 
 mon impurities of iron are least soluble in acids and resist for a 
 long period any tendency to corrosion. 
 
 Brass pipe should never be used for internal feed-pipes or for 
 blow-off connections; it may, however, be used for external feed- 
 pipes which are not exposed to very high temperatures, and where 
 
 FIG. 24. Effect of Electrolysis upon Brass Tubes 
 
 the feed-water is of such a character as to be liable to produce 
 pitting. 
 
 Heavy iron pipe is the best for internal use, that is, inside of 
 the boiler, and is likewise much cheaper than copper or brass pipe. 
 An inch and a quarter inside diameter | inch thick iron pipe used 
 as a feed-pipe entered a boiler from the top through a bushing, 
 and the brass pipe (Fig. 25) was screwed into this bushing inside 
 the boiler in a vertical position, with its lower end (elbow end) 
 just below the water-line and just above the top row of tubes. A 
 horizontal iron pipe from the elbow took the feed-water toward 
 the rear end of the boiler. While the brass pipe was much cor- 
 roded the iron pipe was not affected. 
 
 " The boiler in question was situated in a shoe-shop in Massa- 
 chusetts, in a part of the State where the water is more or less 
 
FEED-WATER PIPES. BLOW-OFF PIPES. TUBES. 107 
 
 hard, soda-ash and kerosene being used to prevent the accumula- 
 tion of scale. The boiler was three years old, and the brass pipe 
 had been in use for the same length of time. 
 
 "The feed-water was drawn from the town supply and was 
 heated in a coil heater with exhaust-steam. It was metered, and, 
 naturally enough, an effort was made to economize in the con- 
 sumption of it, so far as possible. The drips from the shop were 
 all returned to the feed-tank, together with the condensed water 
 from the heater. As a result a considerable quantity of greasy 
 matter was introduced into the boiler along with the feed, and 
 some trouble was experienced through the starting of the girth 
 joint over the fire. The drip from the heater was then disconnected 
 
 (From " The Locomotive," Hartford S. B. I. & I. Co.) 
 
 FIG. 25. Corroded Brass Pipe from the Interior of a Boiler. 
 
 from the feed-tank and allowed to run to waste. This prevented 
 the introduction of grease, so that the boiler became much cleaner 
 and no further trouble was had with the joints. The change was 
 made. last January, and the boiler was not inspected internally 
 at that time, so far as we are aware. 
 
 " The large hole in the corroded brass pipe came just at the usual 
 water-line, and the natural inference would be that the destruction 
 was due to the corrosive action of the floating grease, which would 
 be gradually decomposed by the heat with a corresponding libera- 
 tion of the fatty acids it contained. There are several objections 
 to this hypothesis, however. In the first place, the pipe was in 
 good condition when the last internal inspection was made, a year 
 ago, although it had been exposed to the grease two years. Twenty- 
 four months of exposure had not noticeably affected it, and yet 
 the seven months that elapsed between the last inspection and the 
 disconnection of the heater had entirely destroyed it (assuming 
 the grease theory to be correct). Again, there is another boiler 
 in the same room eight years old which also has a brass pir>e 
 
108 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 in it arranged in the same way. There is no observable difference 
 in the conditions under which the two boilers are run, nor in the 
 manner of feeding them, and yet the brass pipe in the second 
 boiler, which is five years older, is far less affected, although it 
 does show signs of the same action. The shell-plates along the 
 water-line are perfectly sound in both boilers, with no indications 
 of pitting or corrosion. 
 
 "It has also been suggested that the action was of electrical 
 origin, and that it was due either to the dynamo in the next room, 
 used for lighting the shop, or to the simpler fact that the feed- 
 pipe was constructed of two metals, brass and iron, which would 
 naturally produce a galvanic couple when submerged in the water 
 of the boiler.* In support of the first view, it is alleged that 
 the corrosion dates practically from the time the electric lights 
 are introduced; and yet it is hard to understand how an electric 
 action from such a cause could take place within the closed con- 
 ductor formed by the boiler-shell. If the corrosion were of elec- 
 trical origin, it seems more likely that the source of the electricity 
 was within the boiler; but in that case we fail to understand 
 why it was not observed before. 
 
 " As may be inferred from what has been said, we are not pre- 
 pared to offer any conclusive theory with regard to this particular 
 case of corrosion. The brass pipe here illustrated has been re- 
 placed by an iron one, while the corresponding brass pipe in the 
 neighboring boiler has not been disturbed. The conditions under 
 which the two boilers are run have not been otherwise changed, 
 and it will doubtless be instructive to observe the subsequent 
 course of events. 
 
 * Faraday made elaborate investigations of the electrical condition of the 
 interior of a conductor which was charged on the outside with electricity. In 
 the course of one of his experiments he 'built a large hollow cube, 12 feet 
 square, and covered it all over on the outside with copper wire and tin-foil. 
 He took delicate electroscopes into the cube, but could not detect any elec- 
 tricity at all, even when the outside was strongly charged. "I went into 
 the cube and lived in it," he says, "and using lighted candles, electrometers, 
 and all other tests of electrical states, I could not find the least influence upon 
 them or indication of anything particular given by them, though all the 
 time the outside of the cube was powerfully charged, and large sparks and 
 brushes were darting off from every part of its outer surface." (Experimental 
 Researches in Electricity, by Michael Faraday, Vol. I, p. 366.) 
 
FEED-WATER PIPES BLOW-OFF PIPES. TUBES. 109 
 
 " In conclusion, we may say, that in our judgment, brass should 
 never be used either for internal feed-pipes or for blow-offs. It- 
 does very well for external feed-pipes, which are not exposed to 
 heat, but in other places it cannot be recommended. Iron is 
 much better." 
 
 Corrosion. Mr. Victor Beutner,* in a paper on " The Manu- 
 facture of Welded Pipe," says: " Generally speaking, steel presents 
 less difficulties in manufacturing than wrought iron, being much 
 1 cleaner ' to handle and furnishing a more uniform and reliable 
 product. 
 
 " The only exception is the well-known power of resistance 
 of pure wrought iron to the influence of rain or other atmospheric 
 moisture, and to the corrosion by the soil, if exposed to either 
 without protection. In such case the wrought-iron pipe will out- 
 last the steel pipe nearly three times." 
 
 This is the testimony of an engineer of long experience in pipe 
 manufacture. 
 
 Again, Mr. Alex. B. Moncrieff, South Australia, with experience 
 in the use of the very best wrought-iron casing in deep-well bores in 
 the above country, says that in wells from which the water flows at 
 considerable velocity, and at temperatures as high as 204, piping 
 sometimes rusts through. The water is mineralized, probably with 
 sodium chloride (common salt), by which either steel or iron 
 would be corroded. 
 
 Durability of Wrought-iron Pipe. A section of water-pipe 
 30 feet long taken up in 1899 at Rochester, N. Y., was 25 years, 
 old. It was a thin riveted wrought-iron pipe J of an inch thick, 
 laid in 1874 by Thos. Leighton as a portion of a 24-in. -diameter 
 supply-pipe from Carrol to Fitzhugh Race to the Holly Pumping 
 Station. The pipe was practically as good as when it was laid 
 25 years ago, and with probably an equally long life ahead of it. 
 The pipe was made originally for another use. 
 
 From a discussion in Engineering News f on quality and dura- 
 bility of steel and wrought-iron pipe it is brought out that steel 
 pipe corrodes much quicker than wrought iron; that steel tubes, 
 have been quite universally discarded for locomotive boilers. 
 
 Old-fashioned corrugated iron lasted twenty years on buildings 
 
 * Eng. News, Vol. 51, p. 425. f Vol. 50, pp. 286, 296, and 502. 
 
110 BOILER- WATERS. 
 
 where the new, so called (probably steel), lasted three years. A 
 general manager of one of the large steel-mills freely admitted that 
 steel was more easily corroded than wrought iron. 
 
 After telling how the two products are manufactured, Mr. Jas. 
 P. Roe, M.E. and superintendent of iron-works of the Glasgow 
 Iron Company, Pottstown, Pa., says: "It is probable that the 
 high phosphorus that iron will safely carry, compared to steel, 
 tends to help in its resistance to oxidation, as steel high in metal- 
 loids appears to resist oxidation better than steel low in metalloids. 
 Steel finishes smooth, while iron finishes rough, and is better 
 prepared to receive and hold a protective coating, whatever it 
 may be." 
 
 Another thinks steel made by the basic process changes its 
 character and improves with age; in other words, it will not cor- 
 rode after reaching a certain age. 
 
 A steel company having corrugated covering put on a building 
 would not allow steel, but insisted on wrought iron. 
 
 Mr. Chas. H. Manning, superintendent of the Amoskeag Com- 
 pany, Manchester, N. H., says in part: "There is no denying the 
 fact that steel boiler-tubes will pit much sooner than iron tubes, 
 or, I should say, will pit where iron tubes will not, and I never use 
 steel tubes. 
 
 "I have recently retubed a boiler, built in 1898, with as good 
 charcoal-iron tubes as I ever used, and yet they were ruined by 
 pitting. 
 
 "This boiler had been fed on city water where there was an 
 alum coagulant used in the filter. However, tubes of the same 
 make and the same lot used in other boilers built at the same 
 time are perfectly good." 
 
 Mr. Manning prefers steel to iron except in boiler-tubes aud 
 small piping, his objection being that steel pipe is harder to make 
 up well and is ruinous to dies for large s:'zes of pipe. 
 
 In two plants known to the author, in the same city, one uses 
 river-water and has no trouble with corrosion, while the other 
 uses city water in which alum coagulant was used in the filtration 
 process, and the feed-piping of this plant has been entirely corroded 
 through in less than five years. 
 
 A 3-inch extra-strong wrought-iron pipe, replacing a pipe 
 lasting fifteen years, using same water-supply failed by corrosion. 
 
FEED- WATER PIPES. BLOW-OFF PIPES. TUBES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Investigation as to its cause showed the water to be contami- 
 nated with sewage. The corrosion along the top of the pipe and 
 
 FIG. 25a. Conoded Wrought-iron Pipe. 
 
 the decomposition of the sewage to H 2 S and C0 2 mixed with 
 air in a trapped portion of the line did the work quickly. 
 
112 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 The corrosion was not uniform, as has been thought by some 
 to be the case with wrought iron. 
 
 Mr. Frank N. Speller, in closing the article in the Engineering 
 Record, Vol. 51, p. 654, from which the above is taken, says: " It 
 would therefore seem that environment is the determining factor 
 in corrosion, compared with which any difference there may be 
 between the relative tendencies of wrought iron and soft steel 
 to rust is usually trivial." 
 
 Sweet's Mud-catcher. While feed-water heaters catch some 
 of the impurities before the water reaches the boiler at a temper- 
 ture below 212 F. in closed heaters, in John E. Sweet's mud- 
 catcher the work is done much better, partly for the reason that 
 it is located inside the boiler and is heated to a very high tem- 
 perature. 
 
 The feed-water enters the boiler at the top, is passed through 
 a spray-plate, and enters the tank A, passes down through the 
 tube B, entering the mud-catcher C, out of which it cannot escape 
 except through a narrow slit in its upper side. 
 
 Notwithstanding the Syracuse, N. Y., water is thought to 
 be the best in the State, the mud-catcher soon fills up, making it 
 both advisable and necessary to clean it often rather than have 
 it overflow and the "stuff" accumulate on the bottom of the 
 boiler. 
 
 The blow-off connection is placed in the front of the boiler, 
 and, as may readily be seen from the figure, is entirely protected 
 by brickwork. 
 
 In a letter to the author from John E. Sweet, he says: "This 
 Yankee nation, of which we boast so much, is the stupidest in 
 some things of any in the world. The papers are all the time 
 pointing out where other nations are copying our things right 
 and left, where we will neither copy the best of what other nations 
 do, and we won't copy 'ourselves. 
 
 " For ten or a dozen years I have been showing our mud-catcher 
 (one of the most simple and sensible things I ever devised) to 
 everybody, but nobody adopts it." 
 
 A somewhat similar device has been in use on locomotives of 
 the New York, Chicago, and St. Louis Railroad, and has been 
 illustrated in the Report of the Master Mechanics' Association, 
 as shown by Fig. 27. 
 
FEED-WATER PIPES. BLOW-OFF PIPES. TUBES. 
 
 113 
 
 GB 
 
114 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 In this case, however, the pipe along the boiler bottom is 
 much smaller, and serves as a mud " scourer," not as a " catcher." 
 
 This device insures the sediment being blown out from the 
 entire lengths of places of settling, instead of only at blow-off 
 cock outlet, as is so often the case in the ordinary boiler-setting. 
 
FEED-WATER PIPES. BLOW-OFF PIPES. TUBES. 115 
 
 Cooling of Boilers. M. E. Wells says: "A boiler with 200 
 pounds of steam should be given at least 1J hours to cool, to no 
 steam pressure, and the boiler should be well filled with water 
 all the time. Water should stay well above the crown-sheet 
 until the water in the boiler is cooled to 90 in summer and to 
 70 in winter. The reason for this is that wash- and filling-water 
 will average from 20 to 30 F. colder in winter than in summer. 
 This applies where water is used from streams or tanks. Where 
 it is pumped from deep wells, there will not be this difference. It 
 is a well-known fact that boilers leak more in winter than in summer. 
 Many consider a boiler cool when the steam is gone, and draw 
 the water out. It is just about half cool, for it is 176 from 388 
 (200 pounds steam) to 212 (no steam), and it is 152 from 212 to 
 60, the temperature of average wash-water. 
 
 Blowlng-off. Mr. N. O. Goldsmith* very aptly says: " To 
 lengthen the intervals between washing out, made necessary 
 by concentration to a dangerous degree, it is found that regular 
 blowing down of water from one to two gauges, depending upon 
 the type of boiler, and pumping up fresh water is decidedly bene- 
 ficial. There are twenty-two Cahali vertical boilers, 250 horse- 
 power each, at the blast-furnace plant; in normal working con- 
 dition each of these holds 292 cubic feet, equal to 2200 U. S. gallons. 
 When 6 inches are blown down about 100 gallons of water are 
 discharged; if this is done once every twelve hours, an amount 
 equal to the entire capacity of the boiler is blown away in eleven 
 days. The objection to blowing out hot water and pumping in 
 cooler water is recognized as not being an economical practice, 
 but it is one cf the penalties steam-users must pay when they are 
 compelled to use water containing comparatively small amounts 
 of soluble impurities and want to keep their boilers free from 
 scale. Therefore in order to get the best condition, it is necessary 
 to make chemical analysis not only of the raw water and the treated 
 water but also of the concentrated water from the blow-off cock. 
 This should be started when clean boilers are put in service and 
 samples should be taken at regular intervals and the concentra- 
 tion watched. By this means it can be determined how long it 
 is safe to run without washing; this interval will vary with the 
 
 * Trans. A. S. M. E., Vol. XXI, p. 882. 
 
116 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 condition of the raw water at different locations, as upon the raw 
 water depends th6 character of the softened water. 
 
 "If the length of time between boiler-washings can be in- 
 creased three or four times over what was necessary before softened 
 water was used and regular blowing down put in practice, and 
 if it is found unnecessary to use scrapers or tube-cleaning machines 
 at all, because no scale accumulates or builds up ; if open-exhaust 
 steam-heaters can be run from six months to one year without 
 cleaning, if no live-steam purifiers are required and no boiler 
 compound used, then by the use of softened water the percentage 
 of idle capital is decreased. The fuel economy is increased, first, 
 because a clean heater gives hotter feed-water; second, the fuel 
 used to heat up a cold boiler is more than that used to keep steam 
 in a hot one; third, a clean boiler will evaporate more water than 
 a dirty one." 
 
 In marine work the old rule was to begin "bio wing-off " as 
 soon as the proportion of saline ingredients had become about 
 twice the normal in sea-water, and this was kept up steadily 
 throughout the voyage. 
 
 The idea as to what would have happened if there had not 
 been the blowing-off must have been something wonderful, for 
 the amount of scale which was actually produced under this regi- 
 men was enormous. 
 
 It has been shown that sulphate of lime is deposited not so 
 much on account of increased density as by elevation of tempera- 
 ture, thus forming an exception to the usual rule with salts which 
 are more readily soluble in hot than in cold water. In fact, when 
 the steam pressure was in excess of 60 pounds every bit of sul- 
 phate of lime would be deposited, even before any of the water 
 was evaporated. The method followed therefore increased the 
 deposit of scale, involving as it did an increased amount of sea- 
 water. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 PRIMING AND FOAMING. 
 
 Priming. A boiler is said to prime when water is carried 
 as steam-bubbles, with the steam up, through the water to its 
 surface, and may be considered as affecting the entire depth of 
 the water in a boiler. 
 
 Foaming is the result of suspended impurities in the water, 
 which rise to its surface in a more or less dirty condition and forms 
 a scum. Pure water cannot produce foam; steam from a boiler 
 which foams is dryer than that from a boiler which primes. 
 
 Surface bio wing-off is a remedy for foaming; foaming is a 
 surface condition. A boiler supplying dry steam, when not over- 
 worked, may prime heavily when it is hard pressed. 
 
 William A. Fairburn, in a paper on "The Water-tube Boiler 
 in the American Mercantile Marine," read before the Soc. Nav. 
 Archs. and Marine Engrs., 1902, says: "Water which causes prim- 
 ing produces foam in the boiler, consisting of a mass of bubbles, 
 so durable that they remain a considerable time without breaking, 
 and by them the steam-space of a boiler may be entirely filled. 
 When this takes place, instead of steam leaving the boiler, the 
 discharge is composed of foam, which becomes broken up in its 
 journey through the steam-pipe and is carried into the engine 
 cylinders as water. Pure water is incapable of forming bubbles. 
 Sometimes sea-water will work in a satisfactory manner, but when 
 mixed with fresh water, priming takes place. There are so-called 
 pure fresh waters that cannot be mixed without priming, and 
 Mr. Fairburn has had such an experience with water from springs, 
 surface reservoirs, and a sunken well, all taken within a radius 
 of 300 feet. But all these facts apply to Scotch boilers as well as 
 water-tube boilers, the only advantage in favor of the fire-tube 
 
 117 
 
1 18 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 boiler being less work involved in 'brining' or 'blowing-oftV 
 Some of the Thorneycroft-built torpedo-boats, fitted with small 
 tube boilers with accelerated circulation, we are told, have steamed 
 for weeks with nothing but salt water in the boilers and no trouble 
 has been experienced. 
 
 In the early days of railroading on the B. & O. a locomotive 
 with a round fire-box boiler, something like the style of the present 
 Fitzgibbons boiler, always pruned when pulling a train up a cer- 
 tain grade. If feed-water was pumped into the boiler at this time, 
 priming would cease at once, the cause of the trouble being the 
 intense heat, which impinged upon the water-leg of the fire-box 
 with restricted water space, which was partially empty. 
 
 The vertical staggering of tubes in fire-tube boilers used to 
 be considered the best way to distribute the flues. Under the 
 low-steam pressures then in vogue there was no trouble from 
 priming with boilers so built, which, however, is the tendency 
 when the high pressures now in vogue are used, notwithstanding 
 the fact that the tendency of a boiler to prime decreases as the 
 pressure of the steam increases and increases as the water surface 
 diminishes. 
 
 Mineral oil is sometimes injected into boilers to prevent priming. 
 
 To cure priming on the U. S. steamship Galena, bolts were sub- 
 stituted for some of the tubes coming under the smoke-stack. 
 
 If foaming or priming is especially violent, the draft should 
 be shut off at once and the fires covered up until the cause can 
 be removed. 
 
 The writer recently tested three horizontal return tubular 
 boilers, one of which had been cleaned a few days before the test, 
 the other two being dirty. With a total heating-surface of 5880 
 square feet, during a ten-hour test these boilers developed 514 
 horse-power. At two different periods during the test, when an 
 extra supply of steam was demanded from the boilers, the two 
 dirty boilers primed badly, and the extra load had to be carried 
 by other boilers in the steam-plant, the one clean horizontal boiler 
 giving no trouble. Since the test was made the two boilers were 
 opened and found to contain considerable scale, varying from Jg 
 to & inch in thickness, of a very dark color, the surface being 
 dark red only and the scale very rotten to the touch ; considerable 
 fine dirt of the same general character was also found. These 
 
FOAMING. 119 
 
 troubles are caused by contracted water-space and steam-liberat- 
 ing surface, by contracted steam-space, by boilers poorly designed, 
 and by trying to get a much higher boiler horse-power than the 
 boiler was designed to give. 
 
 Foaming. The alkali solids or those which cause foaming 
 include : 
 
 Salts of sodium; 
 
 Salts of potassium; 
 
 Sodium chloride. 
 
 One water in the West which contained 1.16 grains per gallon 
 of sodium sulphate before softening, had 20 grains of the same 
 after treatment, and in the same part of the country experiment 
 has shown that water containing 175 grains per gallon of alkali 
 (sulphate and carbonate of soda) has caused locomotive boilers 
 to foam badly. 
 
 It may have been noticed that sodium sulphate is the most 
 prominent substance in softened water in many cases. It is an 
 absolutely neutral salt, and sodium and sulphuric acid being 
 about the strongest alkali and acid, it is not possible to find a 
 stronger one of either class to break up the compound. 
 
 The amount of sodium sulphate usually present in softened 
 water does no harm. If water is specially high in this salt, 
 blowing-off must be practiced to prevent too great concentra- 
 tion or foaming will be the outcome. 
 
 There are no two types of boiler exactly alike in their working; 
 one boiler is better suited to its work than another type would 
 be to take its place. 
 
 One of the prominent manufacturers of softeners conducted 
 some experiments to see what amount of sodium sulphate several 
 types of boilers would carry and not cause foaming; he found 
 these figures to be approximately correct: 
 
 A. Old-type two-flue boiler, 1000 grains of sodium sulphate 
 (Na 2 SO4) to the gallon when the boiler was working at its maximum 
 capacity. Steam pressure, 50 pounds. 
 
 B. Ordinary horizontal return tubular boiler, 500 to 600 
 grains; same conditions. Steam pressure, 100 pounds. 
 
 C. Modern water-tube boiler, such as the Babcock & Wilcox or 
 Heine, 300 to 400 grains; same conditions. Steam pressure, 
 125 pounds. 
 
120 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 D. Stirling boiler, 250 to 300 grains; same conditions. Steam 
 pressure, 125 pounds. 
 
 E. Locomotive boiler, 150 to 200 grains; same conditions. 
 Steam pressure, 200 pounds. 
 
 It was found that the steam pressure carried had very little 
 or nothing to do with the results tested for. Allegheny River 
 water was used, and had passed through a filter before going to 
 the boilers, so probably did not contain much organic matter. 
 
 Carney * says foaming is caused by interference with the free 
 escape of steam from the water in the boiler, and manifests itself 
 by the rising and frequent appearance of boiling of the water in 
 the water-glass and by water in the steam. 
 
 He gives as causes: 1, sodium salts; 2, mud or suspended 
 matter; 3, organic matter. Mud and organic matter can be 
 removed by filtration, but there is no practical way of getting rid 
 of sodium salts. The sodium salts in solution increase the surface- 
 tension and thereby prevent the free escape of steam from the 
 water. 
 
 Bubbles formed in rapid succession constitute a froth which 
 fills the steam-space of the boiler and passes over with the steam. 
 
 Locomotive boilers foam with 75 to 200 grains of alkali per 
 gallon, while stationary boilers have been run successfully without 
 foaming with 650 grains of sodium salts and more per gallon. 
 A case is given of a stationary boiler with 8.7 times the steam- 
 liberating surface that we find in a locomotive boiler, which explains 
 in part why the locomotive boiler foams the easier. 
 
 C. Herschel Koyl, in the Railroad Gazette of October 12, 1900, 
 says: " I have reasons for the belief that, under ordinary conditions 
 of service, boiler-foaming takes place only in the presence of par- 
 ticles of matter suspended in the water in the boiler. This belief 
 is at variance with the usual opinions on the subject, and I there- 
 fore present some of my observations and the conclusions I have 
 drawn therefrom. 
 
 "Not all the causes of foaming are known with certainty, I 
 believe, to any one. The general belief f appears to be that foam- 
 
 * A. Inst. Min. Engrs., 1897. 
 
 t American Railway Master Mechanics' Association : Report of Committee 
 on the Best Method of Preventing Trouble in Boilers from Water Impurities, 
 1899. 
 
FOAMING. 121 
 
 ing is produced by the presence of the salts of sodium alkali 
 salts commonly called alkaline salts, though some of them are 
 not alkaline at all, sodium chloride, for instance, being common 
 salt and having no alkaline reaction, sodium sulphate being just 
 as neutral as sodium chloride. But I have not been able to find 
 evidence of water caused to foam by the alkali salts except in 
 the presence of matter in suspension. 
 
 "In the laboratory I have many times fed into boiling dis- 
 tilled water quantities of chemically pure sodium carbonate, up 
 to several hundred grains per gallon, without producing any foam- 
 ing effect. But if there is fed into the boiling distilled water a fine 
 insoluble powder, such as calcium carbonate or magnesia alba, 
 the water will soon be foaming as vigorously as any one could wish. 
 
 "If hard water is used in a boiler of any kind until a scale 
 has been formed and the boiler then is fed with rain-water Or any 
 other soft water, a disintegrating action upon the scale begins 
 immediately, the water is filled with floating particles of loosened 
 scale, and a violent foaming ensues. 
 
 "It is frequently the case in railroad service that a locomotive 
 is supplied from a tank containing hard water, which, of course, 
 begins to form scale in the boiler, and that later the locomotive 
 is supplied from another tank containing alkaline water. In this 
 case the action of the alkali is exactly the same as the action of 
 the rain-water, or of soda-ash when used as a boiler compound, 
 and its effect is not only to precipitate scale matter from the hard 
 water, but also to disintegrate the scale attached to the boiler and, 
 from these two sources, to fill the water with floating particles, 
 which soon start the boiler foaming. 
 
 "It has been the common practice to attribute the foaming 
 of the boiler to the alkaline water, because it was fed in just before 
 the foaming began, while according to my opinion it was only 
 the loosened scale matter which produced the foaming, and there 
 would have been no foaming had there been no scale. It is per- 
 fectly natural, in the absence of other information, to ascribe the 
 foaming of a boiler to the last water which was put in; but in 
 the same manner it might be asserted that two taps of the bell 
 move a street-car, because the street-car moves immediately after 
 the two taps are heard. 
 
 "Three physical conditions are recognized in boiling liquids 
 
122 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 in the laboratory, and doubtless may exist in boilers of any size 
 and pressure: (1) ' Bumping/ when the steam rises in great bubbles 
 and tears such holes through the liquid that vigorous thumping 
 upon the bottom of the vessel is produced by the liquid falling 
 back to its place; (2) 'Quiet boiling/ when the steam appears 
 to enter the water freely and to rise through it without difficulty; 
 (3) 'Foaming/ when the steam and the liquid appear to be so 
 intimately mixed that they cannot easily be separated, and the 
 liquid is carried up and out with the bubbles of steam. 
 
 "In making ammonia determinations by the Kjeldahl method 
 there is frequently much difficulty in preventing, on the one hand, 
 bumping, and, on the other hand, foaming of the alkaline liquid 
 during distillation. If a caustic-soda solution, strong and clear, 
 is used to liberate the ammonia there is great bumping, frequently 
 of sufficient violence to shatter the flask. If a caustic-soda solu- 
 tion, strong and turbid (from various suspended impurities present 
 in the commercial article), is used there is furious foaming. But 
 if a caustic-soda solution, strong and clear, is used and zinc dust 
 is added to the proper amount (very little suffices) a point is 
 reached at which the bumping ceases and foaming does not com- 
 mence; while if more zinc dust is added foaming follows. This 
 illustration appears to me to be free from complications and to 
 leave open no other conclusion than that bumping is obviated, 
 and the liquid caused to boil quietly, by the introduction of a 
 small amount of insoluble powder; and that, given a quiet-boiling 
 liquid, foaming is produced by the addition of a little more in- 
 soluble powder. 
 
 " Fortunately there are analogies for illustration which may 
 explain why a few particles of foreign matter may prevent boiling 
 water from bumping and more particles may cause it to foam. 
 It is well known that perfectly clean water in a perfectly clean 
 vessel may be cooled below 32 F. (0 C.) without freezing, or that 
 it may be heated above 212 F. (100 C.) without boiling; but that 
 dropping into it a small piece of solid matter of any kind will cause 
 it in the one case to begin to solidify along the course of the particle 
 and in the other case to burst into steam along the course of the 
 particle. These are the phenomena of supercooling and super- 
 heating, and are generally ascribed to the viscosity or cohesion 
 or internal friction of the water which prevents, on the one hand, 
 
FOAMING, 123 
 
 freezing, or, on the other hand, the formation of steam bubbles, 
 until, in the one case, the crystallizing force is in excess, or, in 
 the other case, the internal vapor-tension exceeds considerably 
 the external pressure or vapor-tension. 
 
 "If now perfectly clean water in a perfectly clean boiler tends 
 to remain at rest and therefore to become superheated at the heat- 
 ing-surfaces, and to liberate its steam only at intervals and then 
 to ' bump/ the addition of some foreign matter, such as is in all 
 ordinary water, will release the steam more frequently, and may be 
 made to do it at such intervals as to result in quiet boiling; while 
 if these particles are increased in number, the liberation of stearn 
 throughout the water in the vicinity of each particle may produce 
 such an almost infinite number of bubbles that the boiling water 
 becomes a seething mass so filled with bubbles as to occupy the 
 whole space of the boiler and to make it impossible for the 
 bubbles all to break at the surface without throwing up quan- 
 tities of water to go over mechanically with the steam. This is. 
 foaming. 
 
 " In boilers working at a high temperature there is seldom 
 noticeable bumping, because the water is separated from the 
 heating surface by a thin layer of steam, and this prevents the 
 superheating of the water which gives rise to the sudden bursts 
 of steam which produce bumping. If, however, the boiler is cov- 
 ered with scale which separates the water from the hot iron, and a 
 piece of this scale is loosened in any way so that some of the water 
 may strike the iron which is at a much higher temperature than 
 the water, a sudden burst of steam takes place sometimes sufficient 
 to rupture the boiler. If a stream of cold water condenses the 
 film of steam and so reaches a hot boiler-sheet, the same sudden 
 burst of steam may take place with the same result of bursting the 
 boiler. 
 
 "The point to be remembered, is that this bumping in any 
 of its forms is due to the superheating of the water; and to the 
 sudden release of large quantities of steam at the heating-surface. 
 When the water contains a small number of particles in suspension, 
 each of these particles serving to release the steam and therefore 
 the superheating in its immediate vicinity (as is easily seen by 
 observing the phenomenon in glass vessels) the result is quiet 
 boiling. When the water contains a very large number of sus- 
 
124 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 pended particles, each serving to release the steam in its immediate 
 vicinity, steam bubbles are formed not merely at the heating 
 surfaces and not merely at a few other places but in every part 
 of the water, with the result of increasing the space occupied 
 by the water to such an extent that the water may be forced 
 out of the steam-pipes. 
 
 "Of course a sudden reduction of pressure outside the boiler 
 might carry over water in any quantity ; water saturated with air 
 or gas would boil with great disturbance, and then a lot of soap 
 put into a boiler would produce very sticky wet steam, but by 
 the limitation made in the first paragraph 'under ordinary con- 
 ditions of service ' I have endeavored to eliminate from the dis- 
 cussion such causes as are not likely to exist in ordinary boiler work, 
 but to include others which do occur, such as heavy hill -climbing 
 when for a time the engine is calling for enormous amounts of 
 steam and the water in the boiler must be in ideal condition if such 
 amounts of steam are to rise through it without taking it along. 
 
 "Of the ordinary cases of boiler foaming: (1) That produced 
 by the use of boiler precipitants I explain as above, and hold 
 that the foaming is produced by the suspended matter in the 
 water and without regard to the amount of alkali salts in the 
 water, except in so far as this may be a gauge of the amount of 
 matter precipitated; (2) That produced by the use of alkaline 
 feed-water I explain in the same way, with the exception noted 
 in a later paragraph; (3) The foaming produced by water from 
 some of the western rivers which contain mud and organic matter 
 appears to me to be explicable on this theory and on no other, 
 for many of these waters contain no alkali ; (4) The foaming some- 
 times produced in a locomotive fed from a water-softening machine, 
 may be due to either of three causes, (a) the boiler may have 
 been coated with scale which the soft water disintegrates and 
 loosens, (b) the water furnished by the machine may not have 
 settled well, nor have been filtered, so that it contains matter 
 n suspension when it enters the boiler, or (c) the machine may 
 not have been capable of completing the softening of the water 
 (there are such machines), but if the proper amount of chemicals 
 has been supplied to the water, this softening action this scale- 
 matter precipitation is completed within the boiler and of course 
 produces foaming. 
 
FOAMING. 125 
 
 "It is probable that the presence of alkali salts does, by increas- 
 ing the surface-tension of the water, increase the severity of the 
 foaming which results from the cause above mentioned; but, so 
 far as I know, the production of foaming by the use of, say, salt 
 water alkali water but not alkaline water takes place only 
 when the solution is so concentrated as to be filled with particles 
 of solid salt; and the view of the case which holds that foaming 
 is due to alkali alone could be established only by feeding perfectly 
 clean alkali water into an absolutely clean boiler, which, it is 
 needless to say, is difficult to find among boilers which have been 
 in service. 
 
 "One apparent exception serves only to prove the rule. It 
 is possible to have a clean alkali water, containing only sodium 
 bicarbonate, foaming in a clean boiler through the combination 
 of three causes: (1) the separation in innumerable bubbles of 
 the large amount of loosely combined CO2J (2) the concentration 
 of the liquid so as to produce considerable surface-tension, and 
 (3) the very rapid generation of steam in a boiler of inadequate 
 steam space. 
 
 "Foaming occasions such loss of water and of heat, creates 
 so much danger to the boiler from uncertainty as to the height 
 of water, detracts so much from the power and efficiency of the 
 engine, and has left unremunerative so many dollars sunk in 
 wells the water of which cannot be used, that the benefits to be 
 derived from a determination of the causes of foaming, and there- 
 fore of its remedy, are great, and I believe the railroad world would 
 thank the Railroad Gazette to gather and present all the individual 
 bits of knowledge (and perhaps of speculation) so tha"t from 
 them we may form a complete and consistent theory. 
 
 " In the issue of the Railroad Gazette of October 12, 1900, C. 
 Herschel Koyl presented a paper bearing the title 'The Cause 
 of Foaming in Locomotive Boilers.' 
 
 "At that time I had had no opportunity to make tests on a 
 locomotive in service, and my statement was based upon theo- 
 retical considerations, laboratory tests, and observations on sta- 
 tionary boilers. 
 
 "During the months of May and June, 1901, however, through 
 the determination of the management of the Rio Grande Western 
 Railroad to learn the possibilities of purification in the matter 
 
126 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 of the extremely bad water of the Colorado desert, I had abundant 
 opportunity to test and demonstrate the correctness of my theory. 
 
 "The distance across the Colorado desert by the line of the 
 R. G. W. R. R. from Helper to Grand Junction is approximately 
 175 miles. At each of the terminal points, Helper and Grand 
 Junction (Ruby), there is one of my water-softening-and-clarifying 
 machines to put into good boiler condition the hard and muddy 
 waters which supply the railroad at these places. At intervals 
 across the division there are some eight or nine other points at 
 which water may be taken. 
 
 " Previous to my visit the locomotives had taken water at any 
 of the different stations as required, and it had been noticed that 
 the boilers generally foamed after taking soft clear water from 
 my machines. Arrangements were made to equip one test locomo- 
 tive with two water-cars of sufficient capacity to carry the locomo- 
 tive with a freight train across the division with softened water 
 only. 
 
 "Before starting the boiler was thoroughly washed at Helper 
 so that all mud and loose scale were taken out (though a nearly 
 uniform coat of hard scale J inch thick remained), then the boiler 
 and the two water-cars were filled with the soft clear water from 
 my machine, and the test began. The run to the other end of 
 the division was made, for the first time in the history of the loco- 
 motive, without the faintest sign of foaming, though the train 
 was heavy and there are numerous grades, and the engine was 
 not spared. At the end of the run, after blowing out the water 
 from the bottom of the boiler to free it from the loosened scale, 
 another supply of softened water was taken on from my machine 
 at Ruby, and the return run was made with equally satisfactory 
 results. 
 
 " Following this the operation was repeated day after day, until 
 it was demonstrated beyond question that the locomotive supplied 
 exclusively with the soft clear water from my water-softening 
 machines could be operated to the limit of her speed and power 
 without foaming, so long as the old scale, which was slowly flaking 
 off, was not allowed to accumulate in the bottom of the boiler. 
 It was found that the first run of 350 miles brought down enough 
 fine scale to make her foam, when, of course, she had to be washed 
 out, but as the old scale in the boiler gradually grew less it came 
 
FOAMING. 127 
 
 down more slowly, and soon we were able to run 1400 miles between 
 washings. 
 
 "Then one day, after the boiler had been thoroughly washed 
 out, I dissolved in the tender- and car-waters almost pure sodium 
 carbonate, to the amount of 300 grains per gallon of water, and 
 started the run with an extra heavy train indeed about the 
 limit of the hauling capacity of the locomotive and there was 
 for several hours no more sign of foaming, up hill or down, than 
 if the alkali had been left out. Before the end of the run, however, 
 large quantities of old scale were loosened and considerable foaming 
 followed. That night we washed out of the boiler more than twice 
 as much loosened scale as usual, and the next day repeated the 
 test with similar results, viz., no foaming due to alkali, but later, 
 plenty of foaming due to loosened scale whipped fine. 
 
 "This was the only demonstration lacking to my paper of 
 October 12, 1900, and I now consider the statement proved beyond 
 question that, ' under ordinary conditions of service, boiler foaming 
 takes place only in the presence of particles of matter suspended 
 in the water in the boiler/ J 
 
 Foaming is the cause of much waste of fuel and water, and 
 also puts a very uncertain danger element right before you, for 
 the height of the water in the boiler is not known to any degree 
 of certainty, and foaming must be kept out of a boiler or the danger 
 of explosion will be present to a very uncertain degree. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 OIL. 
 
 IN studying the efficiencies of all types of steam-engines it is 
 found that with a very few exceptions all of the steam that is ex- 
 hausted from them contains oil that has served its useful purpose 
 as a lubricator, and this oil passing to the boiler, if the steam 
 is condensed and returned as feed-water, is capable of doing great 
 harm in the boiler by causing burnt plates and aiding corrosion. 
 
 It looks as though the steam-turbine would prove the most 
 economical steam-engine now in the market, and with its low rate 
 of steam-consumption per horse-power-hour when it is operated, 
 condensing, we should bear in mind that no oil gets in the steam 
 passages. A surface-condenser can be used in connection with it 
 and the exhaust steam be returned to the boiler as pure feed-water 
 without the necessity of using and maintaining any oil separators. 
 
 The use of a steam-turbine would result in a boiler plant of 
 minimum size, and a much greater life in the boilers themselves, 
 which latter benefit can only be fully appreciated by those who 
 have had the troubles from the oil required to lubricate " oil-fed " 
 engines. 
 
 The cost of maintenance and interest would also be very much 
 less, in fact the above remarks will apply in a measure to all steam- 
 plants using but little oil, and be the more applicable as the quan- 
 tity becomes less and less. 
 
 L. F. Lyne * in testing two different boilers of 100 H.P. each for 
 the efficiency of scale prevention used kerosene oil in one and 
 petroleum in the other. Some of the results follow. 
 
 * Trans. A. S. M. E., Vol. X. 
 
 128 
 
OIL. 
 
 129 
 
 
 Kerosene. 
 
 Crude Oil. 
 
 After using one gallon 
 each week for one 
 month 
 
 No dirt or scale 
 
 Considerable loose scale. 
 
 Four months afterward. 
 
 Clean 
 
 One bushel of hard scale. Groov- 
 ing in top of water-gauge glass 
 and corrosion. 
 
 Corrosive action with loose, hard scales appeared always when 
 the crude petroleum was used and disappearing while kerosene 
 was used. The tar and wax in crude petroleum combine with the 
 sediment in steam-boilers and form a paste that successfully keeps 
 the water from reaching the sheet and it burns out. 
 
 Avoid bringing a torch too near a boiler which has had kerosene 
 used in it, as the gas from the oil is liable to explode if a light is 
 brought near its vent outlet. 
 
 Prof. R. C. Carpenter * in 1889 used refined kerosene in boilers 
 badly scaled. The custom at this plant had been to knock off 
 the scale, which was J inch thick, with a hammer and scaling-tools, 
 at an annual cost of $18 to $25, and then two-thirds of the heating- 
 surface, being inaccessible, was not cleaned. 
 
 For tubular boilers 4 feet in diameter by 12 feet long the 
 best results were obtained by using 2 quarts or ^ gallon of kerosene 
 per boiler per week. The oil, which cost $2 per annum, loosened 
 the scale. 
 
 The artesian well-water used in the boilers had this analysis: 
 
 CaCO 3 206 parts in 1,000,000 
 
 MgC0 3 78 " " 
 
 Fe 2 CO 3 22 " " " 
 
 and traces of sulphates and chlorides of potash and soda. 
 
 C. W. Nason,* with a boiler 5 ft. in diameter by 16 ft. long, used 
 half of the above quantity of crude petroleum to remove scale 
 to J of an inch in thickness, which in a month 's time it did 
 thoroughly, all being loosened up and falling to the bottom of 
 the shell in large flakes. 
 
 In cases where it is necessary to use water in which the total 
 solid residue is large, a heavy petroleum oil free from tar or wax, 
 
 5 Trans. A. S. M. R, Vol. XI, p. 937. 
 
130 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 which is not acted upon by acids or alkalies, not having sufficient 
 wax in it to cause saponification and which has a vaporizing- 
 point at nearly 600 F. 7 will give the best results in preventing 
 boiler-scale. 
 
 The action of this oil is to form a thin greasy film over the 
 boiler-linings, protecting them largely from the action of acids 
 in the water, and so greasing the sediment which falls as to pre- 
 vent the formation of scale and keeping the solid residue from 
 the evaporation of the water in such a plastic, suspended condition 
 that it can be easily ejected from the boiler by the usual method 
 of blowing-off. 
 
 If the water is not blown off sufficiently often, this sediment 
 forms a kind of " putty " that will necessitate the cleaning of the 
 boilers.* 
 
 Deposits of grease on a boiler-shell, especially fatty substances 
 readily decomposed by heating, seriously interfere with the trans- 
 mission of heat. In Blechynden's and Durston's experiments it 
 was found that the slightest trace of grease on a boiler-plate caused 
 a decided fall in the rate of heat transmission. 
 
 The practice (1893) of W. A. Doble, of the Technical Society 
 of the Pacific Coast, is to wash out the boiler, and when refilled 
 with water add two quarts of the cheapest grade of oil, which 
 generally has a fire test of 1 10 F. Below the suction-pipe of the 
 injector and connected with it by means of a T and two cocks is 
 a well holding about two quarts of the oil. In three or four days 
 this well is filled with oil, and the feed-water passing over the con- 
 nection gradually displaces the oil and carries it to the boiler, 
 usually taking three or four hours to displace it all. This opera- 
 tion is repeated. Its effect is not to prevent the precipitation of 
 the lime in the water, but to cause it to settle in the form of a 
 loose powder that can be easily blown off. 
 
 From a pamphlet on " Oil," by the Standard Oil Company, who 
 prepare "emerald boiler oil," we learn these facts: 
 
 " Crude oil is objectionable in that it contains naphtha or 
 volatile properties, which leave in it an element of danger from 
 manipulation; it likewise contains a residual product still more 
 objectionable when inside a boiler. 
 
 * Trans. A. I. M. R, Vol. XVII. 
 
OIL. 131 
 
 " Kerosene is not open to the same objections, as the volatile 
 properties have been removed in the process of refining; its fire 
 test is not high enough to make it available. 
 
 " Illuminating-oil in most States stands 150 F. fire test, while 
 the boiling-point of water or its steam-point is 212 F., which is 
 increased as steam pressure raises. 
 
 " Emerald oil when produced does not contain the volatile 
 properties, but is said to retain certain features that assist in scale 
 prevention or removal. Its fire test is high, and there is no 
 danger of formation of a gas at high temperatures, as in the 
 case of kerosene oil. It holds impurities in suspension so that 
 they may be removed by a skimmer. It is said to soften old 
 scale, prevent pitting and corrosion." 
 
 Oil should be fed to a boiler drop by drop through a sight-feed 
 or lubricator adapted to the purpose; special oil-feeders, however, 
 have been designed for this purpose. 
 
 Mr. Jasper E. Cooper, in an article in Cassier's Magazine* 
 ;says: " An analysis of a filter deposit from engines without internal 
 lubrication has shown that about 20 per cent of the deposit is 
 fatty matter. This no doubt enters the cylinder and so becomes 
 associated with the steam from piston- and valve-rods. When a 
 number of auxiliary machines are exhausting into the condenser 
 the quantity of oil trapped becomes greater. Engines of the 
 enclosed type, in which the cranks work in a bath of oil, are by 
 far the most troublesome in this respect. 
 
 Oil after being deposited in a boiler does not retain its original 
 appearance. It is distilled or burned off, leaving a deposit which 
 from appearances one would say was quite harmless. It is, how- 
 ever, a very poor conductor of heat, and consequently if allowed 
 to remain will very probably cause overheating. One would natu- 
 rally think that oil, being lighter than water, would remain on 
 the surface; but it is evident that such is not the case. The 
 reason is that the oil, coming in contact with small particles of 
 lime and sticking to them, soon becomes as heavy as the water, 
 and so is circulated about with it until it comes into contact with 
 a tube or plate and sticks to the surface. 
 
 In this way the under sides of the tubes are just as liable to 
 
 * August 1903, p. 312. 
 
132 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 become incrustated as the upper sides, and in the same manner, 
 also, it differs from the ordinary boiler incrustation. 
 
 Experiments by Sir John Durston,* 1893, with a fire tempera- 
 ture from 2190 to 2500 F., the temperature of the metal at the 
 bottom of an iron vessel J inch thick when the surface was 
 clean was 280 F.; on mixing 5 per cent of mineral oil with the 
 water it rose to 310 F., and when the bottom of the vessel had 
 a coating of grease ^ inch thick it rose to 518 F. 
 
 Mineral oils form a brown varnish when deposited in a boiler- 
 plate, are bad conductors of heat and readily cause overheating 
 of the metal. 
 
 Bagging of Plates. Effect of scale in steam-boilers resulting 
 in distortion due to overheating was discussed by C. E. Stromeyer 
 
 
 
 (Fidelity & Casualty Co.) 
 
 FIG. 28. A Bagged Plate. 
 
 before the Inst. of Naval Archs. in 1902. He found, in the case 
 of a flue-boiler where some well-water was used, that the furnace- 
 sheet bulged in two places, and the scale over one bulge not broken 
 through retained the original shape without fracture; steam- 
 pressure was 40 pounds by gauge. 
 
 Between the scale and bulged sheet he thinks was super- 
 heated steam, which was a bad conductor of heat, allowing the 
 plate to get red-hot. The scale was hard and J inch thick. 
 * Trans. Inst. Nav. Engr., Vol. 34, 130. 
 
OIL. 133 
 
 A thin film of oil or simply a drop of oil on the sheet may cause 
 bagging by preventing any water from reaching the sheet. 
 
 This is one of the baneful results from the use of oil as a scale- 
 preventative or boiler-cleanser. 
 
 Extraction of Oil. A common method for the extraction of 
 oil from condensed high-pressure engine-steam is by adding to the 
 water condensed two substances, which by their combination form 
 a flocculent precipitate, which precipitate is then thoroughly stirred 
 through the water so that it gathers up the fine particles of oil and 
 carries them to the bottom by the subsequent settling. 
 
 The cheapest and best substances for this purpose are sodium 
 hydroxide and ferrous sulphate. 
 
 This process was patented by C. H. Koyl in 1900. 
 
 There are mechanical methods aiming at oil extraction, but 
 they frequently, if not always, leave a trace of oil, as in the results 
 given by the following paragraph: 
 
 One case gives 0.07 grain of oil from 58,318 grains of water; 
 another, oil "trace"; another, 0.10 grain of oil from 58,318 grains 
 of water; another, 0.023 grain of oil from 58,318 grains of water. 
 These amounts are credited to the use of the Bundy oil-separator. 
 
 Some tests were conducted at the Brooklyn Navy-yard on a 
 250 H.P. Ball steam-engine, under the direction of Prof. F. R. 
 Button, with a "Utility oil-separator" connected to a 12-inch 
 exhaust-pipe between the engine and the surface-condenser; 
 samples of water were taken from the condensed water and steam 
 to find amount of oil still remaining. In the first test 90 per cent 
 of the oil was caught in the separator, and in the mixture of water 
 and oil issuing from the condenser 8 parts per million by weight 
 were oil. 
 
 This last statement may not indicate clearly how much oil 
 gets into the boiler if the condensed mixture is used as feed-water. 
 
 If a boiler develops 350 boiler horse-power during twelve hours 
 it will have had one pound of oil fed to it in that length of time. 
 
 Mr. Chas. Ekstraud says that an experience of fifteen years 
 indicates that the higher the temperature of exhaust steam the 
 less oil can be separated no matter what the device is that is em- 
 ployed. 
 
 He uses an open tank with four compartments, filled with hay, 
 charcoal, coke, or other filtering material. 
 
134 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Dividing plates are so arranged that the water flows over one, 
 under the next, and repeats. The air-pump discharges into one 
 end of the tank, water is passed out by gravity at the other end 
 to suction-reservoir of the feed-pump. 
 
 Surface-condenser is boiled out with caustic soda annually. 
 
 Mr. W. T. Bonner says ammonia-alum type of filters, unless 
 carefully watched, give trouble, and feed-pipes were badly eaten 
 out and tubes badly pitted. 
 
 A boiler inspector who has examined a great many boilers 
 using condensed exhaust-steam as part of the feed-water says, 
 that while many separators remove part of the oil returning with 
 the steam "there is still enough left to be very objectionable." 
 
 Another says that 4000 separators of one make, in use now, 
 meet the approval of the boiler-insurance company, that is, the 
 water passing through them is allowed as boiler feed-water. 
 
 In the Trans. A. S. M. E., Vol. 24, p. 345, an English device 
 called the W. J. Baker separator is described and illustrated. 
 
 It is of the closed-tank type, with baffles of wood, and by its 
 use from 98 to 99 per cent of the oil in steam is separated. 
 
 Mr. Baker insists on a large area for the steam, reducing its 
 velocity. 
 
 Abroad the Rankin, Harris & Edmuston filters are used largely 
 in naval and merchant marine vessels, this last has a mate in this 
 country in the Ross filter, in which coarse towelling is used as the 
 filtering medium. 
 
 In an article on "Marine Water Filtering,"* by N. Sinclair, 
 he gives the materials used as turkish towelling and pine sawdust 
 in a wire cage in the water-pipe. For area of the filtering passage 
 the Glasgow Patents Company requires for filters between pump 
 and heater 
 
 water having 3 filtrations, 33 times area of feed-pipe 
 
 it o (i /, t c it it (i 
 
 " 1 filtration, 99 " " " 
 
 Another firm thinks 200 times area of feed-pipe for one filtra- 
 tion is needed. 
 
 The Reeves Company give 3 inches diameter of chamber for 
 every J-inch diameter of feed-pipe. 
 
 * Cassier's Mag., Oct. 1897. 
 
For turkish towelling as a filtering medium, at a common 
 water velocity of 400 to 500 feet per minute, the Glasgow Patents 
 Company rule would give: 
 
 for 3 filtrations, 12 to 15 feet per minute through cloths 
 (t 2 " 6 " 7i tt tt u (i it 
 
 " 1 filtration, 4 " 5 " " 
 
 Rankine quotes a case as low as 2J feet per minute through 
 cloths, and others do not give over 2 feet per minute, as in mer- 
 chant steamship practice. 
 
 Oil Separation by Electricity. This has been accomplished by 
 Messrs. Davis and Perrett of London, Eng.,* by passing the 
 water through a wooden tank 12 feet long, 30 inches wide, and 
 27 inches deep, the water flowing in parallel streams through the 
 three compartments into which the tank was divided. The flow 
 of water takes place between iron electrodes, maintained at 50 
 volts potential between adjacent plates, or 150 volts across the 
 three in series. 
 
 When this device handled 2000 to 3000 gallons of water per 
 hour it is said to have reduced from 1.07 to 0.01 grain the oil per 
 gallon of water, and at an expenditure of 20 amperes of current. 
 0.01 grain per English gallon equals 1 part in 7,000,000 by weight. 
 
 Use of Crude Oil Under Steam-boilers. At the meeting of the 
 Southwestern Gas, Electric and Street Railway Association at 
 San Antonio, Tex., in 1902, it was stated that no deleterious effects 
 had been observed from the use of oil where proper care had been 
 exercised in installing and operating the burning apparatus. No 
 extraordinary pitting of tubes and shells had been noted, which 
 may be accounted for by the fact that the amount of sulphur 
 liberated per thousand heat-units is less with oil than with coal. 
 One danger is haste in raising steam from cold boilers. Oil is 
 high in B.T.U.; a large amount can be burned under a boiler in 
 a short time, so boilers equipped in this way are easily forced 
 beyond their rated horse-power and they become more liable to 
 overheating and similar troubles. 
 
 Grease and Scale in Boilers. In a paper before the Institute 
 of Naval Architects by Mr. C. E. Stromeyer, of Manchester, England, 
 on " Distortion in Boilers due to Overheating," he states that a 
 
 * Electrical Engineer. 
 
1 36 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 film of grease 0.01 inch thick, a layer of scale 0.1 inch thick, and 
 a steel boiler-plate 10 inches thick offer equal resistance to the 
 passage of heat. In other words, grease offers about one thousand 
 times and scale about one hundred times the resistance of steel 
 plates to the passage of heat, equal thickness being considered. 
 This means also that where the evaporation of 3 pounds of 
 water per square foot of heating-surface per hour requires a dif- 
 ference of only 3 F. between the fire side and the water side of a 
 clean ^-inch furnace-sheet, a layer of scale 0.1 inch thick would 
 necessitate a temperature difference of 60 F. A film of grease 
 would necessitate a still greater temperature difference, and the 
 boiler then would have a greatly diminished efficiency as a steam 
 producer than when its surfaces were clean. 
 
 Grease. Concerning the influence of grease in boilers some 
 curious facts have been developed: 
 
 There is no doubt that the introduction of grease will cause 
 furnaces to bulge and tubes to burst, but at the same time an 
 examination of the injured parts shows grease to be absent from 
 them although present in other parts of the boiler. 
 
 It would also appear that grease has a more marked effect 
 in otherwise clean boilers than in those covered with scale, and 
 it is far more injurious where forced draft is used than with 
 natural draft. 
 
 It is just possible that grease undergoes a chemical change 
 in the boiler, rendering it a far worse conductor of heat than when 
 in its natural state. 
 
 Mr. Stromeyer suggests the influence of retarded ebullition 
 and the action of hammer-blows, but collapses due to grease occur 
 gradually, not suddenly. Stromeyer and Barren say the peculiarity 
 of grease deposits in boilers is that their effect is out of all proportion 
 to their thicknesses. We have seen that scale of J inch thickness 
 will raise the temperature of furnace-plates about 300 F. As 
 grease offers ten times more resistance to heat, one would expect 
 that -g^ inch would have the same effect as this thickness of scale, 
 but experience shows that the merest trace of grease, certainly 
 less than TWS mcn or one-tenth of the above, can cause far more 
 serious injury than scale. Various explanations have been 
 attempted. According to one of these, thin films of grease form 
 tough bubbles on the heating-surface and prevent the water from 
 
GREASE. 137 
 
 keeping it cool. Another view is that the grease, either alone or 
 joined to mineral matter, forms an impalpable powder like oxalate 
 of lime and other precipitates, and, like these, retards ebullition. 
 In support of these views we find a fairly well-founded belief that 
 grease in boilers is more injurious if these boilers are clean than 
 if they are coated with mineral scale, and against this view we 
 have the undoubted experience that land boilers with scale at 
 once give trouble if condensed water is used instead of natural 
 water. Increase of pressure above 110 pounds seems to accentuate 
 this evil; perhaps this may be due to decomposition of magnesium 
 carbonate when this temperature is reached. 
 
 In any case it is highly desirable to remove every trace of 
 grease from the feed-water. This cannot be done by filters, and 
 grease-separators which appear to be rather more efficient do not 
 remove the last trace of grease. 
 
 Grease in the boilers of the St. Paul, Minn., City Hospital 
 entered, even though a steam-separator was part of the system 
 for preventing this very thing. The sheets of two or three boilers 
 were said to have been badly damaged. 
 
 Care of apparatus prevents damage, when careless reliance on 
 machines does not. 
 
 To clean a boiler containing too much grease use sal-soda or 
 soda-ash, 10 to 25 pounds to a boiler. Grease and soda form 
 soap, and soap is very readily blown out of a boiler. After soda 
 has been dissolved and put in a boiler, boil up the water, firing 
 until, say, 5 pounds pressure is reached, holding it there for a 
 couple of days, then blow off slowly, cooling gradually. If any 
 grease is left, not enough soda was used or boiling was carried 
 on for too brief a period. 
 
 Zinc. Dr. Kossman says that the use of zinc in boilers for 
 the prevention of scale is useful in selenitic waters, but as against 
 the carbonates of lime, magnesia, and iron is of little value, the 
 zinc being quickly rendered brittle and porous and reduced to a 
 powder. 
 
 Dr. G. E. Moore, after analyzing scale and zinc from Sound 
 boats, says the most important results from its use is the pro- 
 tection of the plates, etc., from the hydrochloric acid evolved 
 from the chloride of magnesium of the sea-water. Zinc slabs, 
 blocks, or shavings inclosed in a perforated vessel should be 
 
138 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 hung in the water-space throughout its length, the utmost care 
 being taken to insure perfect contact between the zinc and the 
 boiler-shell. Do not place zinc directly over the furnace, as the 
 zinc oxide falling on the crown sheet causes overheating of the 
 sheet. 
 
 One square inch of surface of zinc is suggested for every 50 
 pounds of water capacity in the boiler, but, of course, should be 
 regulated in accordance with the hardness of the water used. 
 
 The British Admiralty recommends the renewing of the blocks 
 whenever the decay of the zinc has penetrated to a depth of 
 } inch in the slab. 
 
 Dr. Corbigny gives this hypothesis: " That the two metals, iron 
 and zinc, surrounded by water at a high temperature form a 
 voltaic pile with a single liquid, which slowly decomposes the 
 water. 
 
 " The liberated oxygen combines with the most oxidizable metal, 
 the zinc, and its hydrogen equivalent is disengaged at the surface 
 of the iron. There is thus generated over the whole extent of 
 the iron influenced a very feeble but continuous current of hydro- 
 gen, and the bubbles of this gas isolate at each instant the metal- 
 lic surface from the scale-forming substance. If there is but little 
 of the latter, it is penetrated by these bubbles and reduced to 
 mud; if there is more, coherent scale is produced, which being 
 kept off by the intervening stratum of hydrogen, takes the form 
 of the iron surface without adhering to it." 
 
 W. F. Worthington thinks that zinc used in marine boilers 
 has considerable effect in neutralizing the oxygen in the water. 
 
 After either cast- or rolled-zinc plates have been suspended 
 in a boiler under steam for some months, the plates are frequently 
 found brittle and to have an earthy fracture; chemical analysis 
 shows that the zinc has been converted to an oxide which must 
 have obtained its oxygen from the water. 
 
 3.2 pounds of oxygen in 1 ton of water would require 13 pounds 
 of zinc resulting in ZnO. 
 
 In marine boilers, in some instances, the use of zinc plates has 
 been found to cause harder scale and more adherent scale than 
 ever before. 
 
 In boilers in which fresh water is used and where calcareous 
 scale forms, giving much trouble, zinc plates have proved ineffectual. 
 
ZINC. 139 
 
 A. M. Hannay devised over twenty years ago a zinc ball with 
 a copper conductor running through it, the copper being amalga- 
 mated with the zinc at its junction with it, forming brass, so that 
 no corrosion could form between the metals and shut off the gal- 
 vanic current. 
 
 Galvanic Action. Marine Steam, says: " Formerly nearly all 
 corrosion in boilers was attributed to this cause, and zinc slabs 
 were suspended everywhere possible within the water-space. The 
 position of zinc relative to that of iron in the scale of electro- 
 positive metals causes it to be attacked instead of the metals 
 of the boiler, when galvanic action takes place. 
 
 " To afford protection by the use of zinc, however, there must 
 be positive metallic contact between the zinc and iron. 
 
 " Practically, it is impossible to maintain this contact with the 
 usual methods of installation, and it has been shown that no gal- 
 vanic current exists after a few hours of steaming in the arrange- 
 ments ordinarily employed. 
 
 " The use of zinc, however, should not be abandoned on this 
 account as it appears still a very important element of protection 
 against corrosion due to air in feed-water. Its suspension in drums 
 and points within the boiler near the entrance of the feed is recom- 
 mended as of positive benefit, and, indeed, as long as zinc slabs 
 continue to disintegrate and oxidize in a boiler they deflect to 
 themselves from the iron just that amount of harmful action." 
 
 Electrolytic Action. In the U. S. Navy the rapid destruction 
 of copper piping in several vessels has already caused serious em- 
 barrassment, and the reason for this deterioration has not yet 
 been determined to an absolute certainty. As it always happens to 
 a copper pipe, conveying or surrounded by salt water, and as the 
 injection or delivery-pipe to a pump of the coil of a fresh-water 
 distiller is the part attacked, and as the deterioration occurs only 
 in steel ships fitted with dynamos it is thought that the injury 
 may be caused by electrolytic action; for the copper of which 
 the pipes are made is known to be of the very best quality, abso- 
 lutely free from foreign matter, and therefore not affected by the 
 corrosive action of salt water. In fact, precisely similar pipes 
 made of the same material last almost indefinitely in iron vessels, 
 like the Alert or Ranger, which have no dynamos. 
 
 Mr. Chas. H. Haswell was the first to suggest and use the gal- 
 
140 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 vanic properties of zinc to prevent corrosion in marine boilers 
 using sea-water. He used zinc thirty years before English en- 
 gineers advocated its use as a new thing. 
 
 Removing Boiler-scale. Mr. S. M. Green, in Power, 1896, says: 
 " I have been using a device that is comparatively new, and I think 
 that a description of the apparatus and the work it has accom- 
 plished may be of interest to your readers. 
 
 " The device consists essentially of a cylinder of cast iron, about 
 12 inches in diameter, and of a length varying according to the 
 amount of water to be handled. Contained within this cylinder 
 are a succession of perforated copper and zinc plates, arranged in 
 alternate layers, and through which the feed-water passes. This 
 device was brought to my attention about two years ago, and I 
 was induced to place it upon a plant of four Manning upright 
 boilers, where I had been having some trouble with scale collecting 
 around the base of the tubes, on the crown-sheet. It has now 
 been in active service for about eighteen months, and I have used 
 no scale resolvent of any kind in these boilers. They are abso- 
 lutely clean. The galvanic action affects the scale, forming prop- 
 erties contained in the water, preventing the formation of scale, 
 but making a deposit in the boiler of soft mud, which is readily 
 removed by blowing and washing. 
 
 "In one case the water used is from an artesian well, and is 
 very hard, the analysis showing 31 grains per gallon of solids con- 
 sisting of calcium sulphate, and carbonate, sodium chloride, mag- 
 nesium chloride, and organic matter. This water has been used 
 in the boiler for six months, and the boiler is as clean as when new. 
 It has been washed out every six weeks, and all impurities have 
 come out as mud." 
 
 Mr. William Thomson, in a paper before the Manchester (Eng.) 
 Society of Engineers, says: "When iron combines with oxygen, as 
 much energy in the form of electricity and heat is liberated as was 
 required to be expended in tearing the two apart in the process of 
 smelting. For rusting to take place it is necessary to have another 
 substance which is electronegative to the iron to be in contact 
 with it, so that the current of electricity liberated by the oxidation 
 of the iron passes away to the metal or other material which acts 
 as the electronegative element. In this way the iron acts as one 
 of the elements of a voltaic cell. 
 
ZINC. 141 
 
 " If you examine a piece of iron which has become corroded by 
 oxidation you will observe that the corrosion has taken place in 
 small holes or pits, and this is technically known as 'pitting. 1 
 These are produced by some impurity existing in the iron, which 
 ultimately forms under favorable conditions the center of the pit. 
 This may be a piece of carbon, a minute portion or speck of 
 manganese or other substance, which is electronegative to the 
 iron, which latter being electropositive becomes oxidized. It is 
 curious that when rust begins to form on iron it usually attacks 
 it at certain minute points and extends like spots of mould, the 
 oxide of iron itself acting as an electronegative element to the 
 iron upon which it rests, so that when a piece of iron has become 
 rusty it is very difficult after cleaning to prevent it from again 
 becoming rusty, unless every particle of rust can be most carefully 
 removed from it, each particle forming an electronegative element 
 around and under which the electropositive iron begins to oxidize 
 and produce a small hole or pit." 
 
 This is a very clear exposition of the galvanic action produced 
 on iron by other elements. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 HARDNESS OF WATER. 
 
 TEMPORARY hardness is that due to calcium and magnesium 
 carbonates held in solution by excess of carbon dioxide in the 
 water. This can be removed by boiling when the carbon dioxide 
 is driven off and the carbonates are precipitated. 
 
 Permanent hardness is caused by the presence of magnesium 
 chloride or calcium sulphate, the latter is not precipitated by boil- 
 ing. 
 
 STANDARDS OF HARDNESS. 
 
 French Milligrams of calcium carbonate in 100 grams of water or 
 
 parts per 100,000 of water. 
 German Milligrams of lime in 100 grams of water or parts per 100,CCO 
 
 of water. 
 English Grains of calcium carbonate per "imperial" gallon of 70,000 
 
 grains. 
 American Grains of calcium carbonate per "U. S." gallon of 58,381 
 
 grains. 
 
 HARDNESS. 
 
 Method of Determination of Hardness. 1. By Soap (Clark's 
 Method) . When potassium or sodium soap is added to water con- 
 taining calcium and magnesium salts the soap is decomposed and 
 insoluble compounds with the fatty acids are produced. 
 
 Upon this decomposition of soap is based the method for the 
 determination of lt lime salts " which was perfected and patented 
 by Thomas Clark * in 1841. Variously modified by French, Ger- 
 man, and English chemists, the principles formulated proved of 
 
 * Clark's Process, Repertory Patent Inventions, 1841. 
 
 142 
 
HARDNESS OF WATER. 143 
 
 general application. He employed sixteen standard calcium-car- 
 bonate solutions, containing from one to sixteen " degrees of hard- 
 ness," one degree meaning one grain of calcium carbonate to the 
 imperial gallon. The soap solution was prepared by dissolving hard 
 soap in proof spirits and making up to such a strength that 100 
 test measures of the standard calcium-carbonate solution of 16 
 degrees of hardness should take 32 test measures of soap solution, 
 a test measure being T -jjVo- P ar t of a gallon. 
 
 Hardness may be temporary, caused by the presence of bicar- 
 bonates which are decomposed by boiling heat, with the liberation 
 of carbon dioxide (carbonic acid), or permanent, caused by com- 
 pounds other than the bicarbonates. In the Clark process the 
 total hardness is determined on the unboiled water and the per- 
 manent on the boiled, the difference being the temporary hardness. 
 The total hardness only is given in the results tabulated in the 
 State Board of Health Reports.* 
 
 The solutions used in the laboratory for water analysis are 
 made as follows: 
 
 A standard calcium-chloride solution is prepared by dissolving 0.2 
 gram of Iceland spar in dilute hydrochloric acid in a platinum dish 
 and evaporating to dryness, redissolving in a small amount of 
 water and again evaporating to dryness. This is repeated several 
 times, until all the free acid is removed and a perfectly neutral 
 salt remains, which is dissolved in water and made up to one liter. 
 One cubic centimeter then contains calcium-chloride equivalent to 
 0.0002 gram calcium carbonate. 
 
 For the preparation of the standard soap solution 100 grams 
 of the best quality of dry white castile soap is cut into thin shav- 
 ngs dissolved in dilute alcohol (500 cubic centimeters 96 per 
 cent alcohol and 500 cubic centimeters of distilled water) and 
 allowed to stand overnight to settle; 100 cubic centimeters of the 
 clear liquid are then made up to 2 liters, enough alcohol being 
 used to keep all of the soap in solution. 50 cubic centimeters of 
 the standard solution of calcium chloride, which, according to 
 the table, should take exactly 14.25 cubic centimeters of standard 
 soap, are used to test its strength. The solution thus prepared 
 does not change perceptibly if air has no access to it, and if used 
 
 * Mass. State. Board of Health, 37th Annual Report. 
 
144 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 with a siphon burette attached to the bottle will keep for five 
 or six weeks or longer. It contains 5.2 grams of castile soap to 
 the liter. 
 
 For the standardization of the soap and for the determination 
 of the ,hardness of any water, 50 cubic centimeters of the water 
 to be tested or of the standard calcium-chloride solution are placed 
 in a flask or bottle of 200 cubic centimeters capacity and of a 
 convenient shape, and the soap solution added, two or three- 
 tenths of a cubic centimeter at a time, shaking well after each 
 addition, until a lather is obtained which is permanent for five 
 minutes and covers the entire surface of the liquid with the bottle 
 placed on its side. 
 
 The table opposite gives the hardness corresponding to the 
 number of cubic centimeters of soap solution used in the 
 analyses. 
 
 The importance of adding the soap solution in small quantities 
 cannot be too strongly emphasized, especially in the presence 
 of magnesium compounds. If much carbonic acid be liberated, 
 it is well to follow the original directions and remove it by suction. 
 It will be observed that the table does not admit of the determina- 
 tion of hardness above 12.5 parts. In case the water under exam- 
 ination requires more than 10 cubic centimeters of the standard 
 soap solution, a smaller portion of 25 cubic centimeters, 10 cubic 
 centimeters, or even 2 cubic centimeters, as the case may require, 
 is measured out and made up to a volume of 50 cubic centimeters 
 with recently distilled water. This will keep the results compar- 
 able with each other, although the element of dilution introduces 
 a slight error into the calculation. 
 
 2. By Acid (Hehner's Method). Attempts have been made to 
 determine the calcium and magnesium salts by means of standard 
 acid and alkaline solutions instead of by soap. An exhaustive 
 study of the relative practical value of one of these, as compared 
 with the soap method, was made in 1890 in the laboratory of the 
 Massachusetts State Eoard of Health. A condensed summary of 
 the results is given on pages 147 and 148. 
 
 The standard solutions used are sodium carbonate, 1.06 grams 
 to the liter, 1 cubic centimeter corresponding to 0.0001 gram 
 calcium carbonate, and sulphuric acid of such a strength that 1 
 cubic centimeter will exactly neutralize 1 cubic centimeter of 
 
HARDNESS OF WATER. 
 
 145 
 
 the standard sodium carbonate (0.98 gram of sulphuric acid to 
 1 liter). 
 
 TABLE OF HARDNESS IN PARTS PER 100,000, 50 CUBIC CENTIMETERS 
 OF WATER USED. 
 
 C.c. of 
 
 Soap 
 Solu- 
 tion. 
 
 CaCO 3 
 per 
 100,000. 
 
 C.c. of 
 
 Soap 
 Solu- 
 tion. 
 
 CaCO 3 
 per 
 100,000. 
 
 C.c. of 
 Soap 
 Solu- 
 tion. 
 
 CaCO 3 
 100,000. 
 
 C.c. of 
 
 Soap 
 Solu- 
 tion. 
 
 CaCO 3 
 100,000. 
 
 C.c. of 
 Soap 
 Solu- 
 tion. 
 
 CaCO 3 
 100,000. 
 
 .7 
 
 .00 
 
 3.8 
 
 4.29 
 
 6.9 
 
 8.71 
 
 10.0 
 
 13.31 
 
 13.1 
 
 18.17 
 
 .8 
 
 .16 
 
 .9 
 
 .43 
 
 7.0 
 
 .86 
 
 .1 
 
 .46 
 
 .2 
 
 .33 
 
 .9 
 
 .32 
 
 4.0 
 
 .57 
 
 .1 
 
 9.00 
 
 .2 
 
 .61 
 
 .3 
 
 .49 
 
 1.0 
 
 .48 
 
 .1 
 
 .71 
 
 .2 
 
 .14 
 
 .3 
 
 .76 
 
 .4 
 
 .65 
 
 .1 
 
 .63 
 
 .2 
 
 .86 
 
 .3 
 
 .29 
 
 .4 
 
 .91 
 
 .5 
 
 .81 
 
 .2 
 
 .79 
 
 .3 
 
 5. CO 
 
 .4 
 
 .43 
 
 .5 
 
 14.06 
 
 .6 
 
 .97 
 
 .3 
 
 .95 
 
 .4 
 
 .14 
 
 .5 
 
 .57 
 
 .6 
 
 .21 
 
 .7 
 
 19.13 
 
 .4 
 
 1.11 
 
 .5 
 
 .29 
 
 .6 
 
 .71 
 
 .7 
 
 .37 
 
 .8 
 
 .29 
 
 .5 
 
 .27 
 
 .6 
 
 .43 
 
 .7 
 
 .86 
 
 .8 
 
 .52 
 
 .9 
 
 .44 
 
 .6 
 
 .43 
 
 .7 
 
 .57 
 
 .8 
 
 10.00 
 
 .9 
 
 .68 
 
 14.0 
 
 .60 
 
 .7 
 
 .56 
 
 .8 
 
 .71 
 
 .9 
 
 .15 
 
 11.0 
 
 .84 
 
 .1 
 
 .76 
 
 .8 
 
 .69 
 
 .9 
 
 .86 
 
 8.0 
 
 .30 
 
 .1 
 
 15.00 
 
 .2 
 
 .92 
 
 .9 
 
 .82 
 
 5.0 
 
 6.00 
 
 .1 
 
 .45 
 
 .2 
 
 .16 
 
 .3 
 
 20.08 
 
 2.0 
 
 .95 
 
 .1 
 
 .14 
 
 .2 
 
 .60 
 
 .3 
 
 .32 
 
 .4 
 
 .24 
 
 .1 
 
 2.08 
 
 .2 
 
 .29 
 
 .3 
 
 .75 
 
 .4 
 
 .48 
 
 .5 
 
 .40 
 
 .2 
 
 .21 
 
 .3 
 
 .43 
 
 .4 
 
 .90 
 
 .5 
 
 .63 
 
 .6 
 
 .56 
 
 .3 
 
 .34 
 
 .4 
 
 .57 
 
 .5 
 
 11.05 
 
 .6 
 
 .79 
 
 .7 
 
 .71 
 
 .4 
 
 .47 
 
 .5 
 
 .71 
 
 .6 
 
 .20 
 
 .7 
 
 .95 
 
 .8 
 
 .87 
 
 .5 
 
 .CO 
 
 .6 
 
 .86 
 
 .7 
 
 .35 
 
 .8 
 
 16.11 
 
 .9 
 
 22.03 
 
 .6 
 
 .73 
 
 .7 
 
 7.00 
 
 .8 
 
 .50 
 
 .9 
 
 .27 
 
 15.0 
 
 .19 
 
 .7 
 
 .86 
 
 .8 
 
 .14 
 
 .9 
 
 .65 
 
 12.0 
 
 .43 
 
 .1 
 
 .35 
 
 .8 
 
 .99 
 
 .9 
 
 .29 
 
 9.0 
 
 .80 
 
 .1 
 
 .59 
 
 .2 
 
 .51 
 
 .9 
 
 3.12 
 
 6.0 
 
 .43 
 
 .1 
 
 .95 
 
 .2 
 
 .75 
 
 .3 
 
 .68 
 
 3.0 
 
 .25 
 
 .1 
 
 .57 
 
 .2 
 
 12.11 
 
 .3 
 
 .90 
 
 .4 
 
 .85 
 
 .1 
 
 .38 
 
 .2 
 
 .71 
 
 .3 
 
 .26 
 
 .4 
 
 17.06 
 
 .5 
 
 22.02 
 
 .2 
 
 .51 
 
 .3 
 
 .86 
 
 .4 
 
 .41 
 
 .5 
 
 .22 
 
 .6 
 
 .18 
 
 .3 
 
 .64 
 
 .4 
 
 8.00 
 
 .5 
 
 .56 
 
 .6 
 
 .38 
 
 .7 
 
 .35 
 
 .4 
 
 .77 
 
 .5 
 
 .14 
 
 .6 
 
 .71 
 
 .7 
 
 .54 
 
 .8 
 
 .52 
 
 .5 
 
 .90 
 
 .6 
 
 .29 
 
 .7 
 
 .86 
 
 .8 
 
 .70 
 
 .9 
 
 .69 
 
 .6 
 
 4.03 
 
 .7 
 
 .43 
 
 .8 
 
 13.01 
 
 .9 
 
 .86 
 
 16.0 
 
 .86 
 
 .7 
 
 .16 
 
 .8 
 
 .57 
 
 .9 
 
 .16 
 
 13.0 
 
 18.02 
 
 
 
 Clark was the first to introduce the term "degree of hardness," and in 
 Table No. 1 each measure of soap solution =10 grains and each degree of 
 hardness = 1 grain of carbonate of lime or its equivalent of another calcium 
 salt, or equivalent quantities of magnesia or magnesium salts in 70,000 parts 
 ( = 1 gallon English). 
 
 For the determination of the temporary hardness, 100 cubic 
 centimeters of the water to be tested, tinted with lacmoid, which 
 is the best indicator to use with surface waters, are heated in a 
 porcelain dish nearly to boiling and the standard acid added to a 
 
146 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 neutral reaction. Each cubic centimeter of acid corresponds to 
 one part of calcium carbonate per 100,000. 
 
 For the permanent hardness another 100 cubic centimeters 
 of water are taken and enough of the standard sodium-carbonate 
 solution added to more than decompose the salts of calcium and 
 magnesium and the whole evaporated to dryness in a platinum 
 or nickel dish. (Glass and porcelain cannot be used, as too large 
 an error is introduced from the alkali dissolved from these sub- 
 stances.) The residue is first treated with boiling distilled water 
 which has been boiled for a few minutes to remove any carbonic 
 acid, then filtered through a small filter, which must be well 
 washed, the filtrate tinted with lacmoid, and the excess of free 
 alkali determined by the standard acid.* 
 
 The number of cubic centimeters of sodium carbonate used, less 
 the acid used for neutralization, gives the permanent, and the 
 sum of the two gives the total, hardness. 
 
 With alkaline waters, with sewage, and with some sewage 
 effluents a correct on must be made for the excess of alkaline 
 carbonates; but in these cases the results after correction do not 
 compare as closely with the soap method as do those obtained 
 with the natural waters. 
 
 The results given in the table opposite were obtained by the two 
 methods, which were tried on a number of ground- and surface- 
 waters and several samples of sewage, in every case the total 
 hardness being given. 
 
 * Analyst, Vol. VIII, p. 77, 1883. 
 
HARDNESS OF WATER. 
 
 147 
 
 SURFACE-WATERS. 
 
 (Parts per 100,000.) 
 (Report Mass. St. Board of Health.) 
 
 Place of Collection. 
 
 Total 
 Hardness 
 by Soap. 
 
 Total 
 Hardness 
 by Acid. 
 
 Fitchburg Overlook Reservoir 
 
 48 
 
 70 
 
 Springfield, Ludlow Reservoir, 6 feet beneath the surface. 
 " " " at surface,, . . 
 
 0.79 
 79 
 
 1.11 
 1 00 
 
 Quincy reservoir . 
 
 0.79 
 
 80 
 
 Lawrence Merrimac River 
 
 80 
 
 1 11 
 
 Brockton reservoir. , 
 
 0.90 
 
 80 
 
 Quincy inlet to reservoir , 
 
 0.95 
 
 70 
 
 Worcester, Holden Reservoir 
 
 0.95 
 
 1.10 
 
 Millville Blackstone River 
 
 1 10 
 
 1 50 
 
 Boston Water-works, Basin 4, 20 feet beneath the surface 
 n a 4 4 n it it a 
 
 Lawrence Merrimac River 
 
 1.11 
 1.27 
 1 30 
 
 1.11 
 
 1.00 
 1 60 
 
 Boston Water-works, Cold Spring Brook, at head of Reser- 
 voir No 4 . 
 
 1 43 
 
 1 40 
 
 Boston Water-works, R,eservoir No 2. , 
 
 1 46 
 
 1 45 
 
 " " Sudbury River, at head of Reser- 
 voir No 2 
 
 1 56 
 
 1 30 
 
 Boston Water-works Reservoir No 4, near bottom 
 
 1 56 
 
 1 55 
 
 " " " " 3 . 
 
 1 80 
 
 1 90 
 
 Framingham farm pond . .... 
 
 1 95 
 
 1 90 
 
 Marlborough . .... 
 
 2 30 
 
 2 00 
 
 Boston Water-works, Stony Brook, at head of Reservoir 
 No 3 
 
 2 34 
 
 2 35 
 
 Winchester reservoir 
 
 2 60 
 
 2 70 
 
 \Vorcester Blackstone River 
 
 2 86 
 
 2 90 
 
 Poughkeepsie inlet of filter-basin 
 
 4 00 
 
 4 00 
 
 11 " " east filter-bed 
 
 4 00 
 
 4 00 
 
 " et " west " 
 
 4 00 
 
 4 00 
 
 ' ' Hudson River 
 
 4 57 
 
 4 50 
 
 
 
 
 The following two methods were then tried upon three sampl< 
 of sewage, the results of which show wide differences: 
 
 Place of 
 Collection. 
 
 Total 
 Hardness 
 by Soap. 
 
 Total 
 Hardness 
 by Acid. 
 
 No 1 . 
 
 4 20 
 
 5 80 
 
 " 2 
 
 3 90 
 
 7 20 
 
 "3 
 
 3 60 
 
 5 60 
 
 
 
 
 The above three samples were strongly alkaline, in every case 
 the acid method giving the higher results. 
 
148 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 GROUND- WATERS. 
 
 Place of Collection. 
 
 H ardness 
 by Soap. 
 
 Hardness 
 by Acid. 
 
 Place of Collection. 
 
 iardness 
 by Soap. 
 
 I ardness 
 3y Acid. 
 
 Whitman, well .... 
 
 1 80 
 
 1.70 
 
 Woburn, well 
 
 4 90 
 
 4 40 
 
 Whately, well 
 South Deerfield, well. 
 
 Melrose, well 
 
 it 1 1 
 
 2.08 
 2.21 
 2.30 
 2 50 
 
 2.00 
 1.95 
 2.40 
 3 20 
 
 Winchester, well. . . . 
 Hatfield, well 
 
 South Leerfaeld, well. 
 
 tt < i < i 
 
 5.10 
 5.14 
 5.71 
 5 71 
 
 6.80 
 4.70 
 5.40 
 K 40 
 
 Greenfield, well 
 
 2.73 
 
 2.20 
 
 Hatfield, well 
 
 6 00 
 
 6 30 
 
 Melrose, well 
 
 2.90 
 
 3.50 
 
 \\ illiamsburg, well. 
 
 6 29 
 
 8 80 
 
 Framingham, filter- 
 basin 
 
 3 10 
 
 3 10 
 
 \\inter Hill, well. . . 
 Maiden, well 
 
 7. CO 
 7 10 
 
 7.70 
 
 7 30 
 
 Orange well 
 
 3 40 
 
 3 40 
 
 South Framingham 
 
 
 
 Melrose well 
 
 3 50 
 
 4 70 
 
 underdrain 
 
 7 70 
 
 7 70 
 
 Reading well 
 
 3 60 
 
 4 90 
 
 Maiden, well 
 
 7 90 
 
 8 80 
 
 Maiden well 
 
 3 60 
 
 5 60 
 
 Reading, well 
 
 10 00 
 
 10 10 
 
 Cambridge, well. . . . 
 
 Boston, well 
 Williamsburg, well. . 
 Reading well 
 
 4.20 
 4.40 
 4.40 
 4.57 
 4 60 
 
 5.80 
 4.90 
 4.90 
 4.20 
 4.50 
 
 Framingham, well. . 
 Reading, well 
 Amherst, well .... 
 Williamstown, spring 
 Chelsea, well 
 
 10.10 
 11.50 
 12.56 
 34.40 
 17.30 
 
 9.80 
 10.50 
 12.30 
 30.35 
 17 10 
 
 Sauffus well 
 
 4 70 
 
 6 30 
 
 t ( 
 
 17 50 
 
 17 40 
 
 Amherst, well 
 
 4.71 
 
 4.45 
 
 Williamstown, well. 
 
 34.40 
 
 30.35 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hard water can always be told on account of the difficulty in 
 making lather with soap in it. The following table gives the 
 amount of soap required to produce a permanent lather in waters 
 of varying degrees of hardness: 
 
 Degrees, 
 Hardness. 
 
 Pounds Soap 
 Destroyed per 
 1000 Gallons 
 of Water. 
 
 Cost of Soap 
 at 5 Cents 
 per Pound. 
 
 5 
 
 8.5 
 
 $0.41 
 
 10 
 
 17.0 
 
 0.82 
 
 15 
 
 25.5 
 
 1.23 
 
 20 
 
 34.0 
 
 1.64 
 
 25 
 
 42.5 
 
 2.05 
 
 Coagulation by means of alum in mechanical nitration causes 
 some of the carbonate of lime to change to sulphate of lime, setting 
 free carbonic acid, which causes corrosion of the metal of boilers, 
 though it can be obviated by the use of a good protective coating 
 on the metal. The sulphate of lime in steam-boilers results in a 
 scale which attaches itself much more firmly to the boiler surfaces 
 than the carbonate does. 
 
HARDNESS OF WATER. 
 
 149 
 
 
 Raw River- 
 water. 
 
 Filtered 
 Water. 
 
 Temporary hardness (al- 
 kalinity) 
 
 23 
 
 15 
 
 Permanent hardness (in- 
 crusting properties). . . 
 
 Total hardness 
 
 12 
 35 
 
 19 
 34 
 
 From the above table it will be seen that filtration, the object of 
 which is pure drinking-water, adds seven points to the incrusting 
 properties in the water, and from other sources we learn that 
 96.5 to 99.1 per cent of the bacteria are removed by the same 
 process. 
 
 Naturally we would expect more scale and corrosion in the 
 boilers of steam-plants in towns using alum in purifying water. 
 
 A water of which the hardness is entirely " temporary," that 
 is due to the carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia, can 
 be softened with lime alone, which costs, say, $5 per ton or less; 
 but "permanent " hardness, due to sulphate of lime, can be removed 
 only by using alkali, costing at present prices (in 1898) $25 
 per ton. Less than one pound of lime per 1000 gallons of water 
 will remove 10 degrees of temporary hardness, but 1.6 pounds of 
 alkali is required for the removal of 10 degrees of permanent 
 hardness due to sulphate of lime, while sulphate of magnesia is 
 still more expensive to remove. 
 
 Taking quicklime at $5 a ton and alkali at $25 per ton, the 
 cost * of chemicals for softening water is about as follows per 
 thousand gallons: 
 
 For every 10 degrees of temporary hardness 0.22 cents 
 
 " " 10 degrees " permanent " 1.90 " 
 
 Thus permanent hardness is about nine times as expensive to 
 remove as temporary hardness. 
 
 Sulphates. A quick method for determining the sulphates in 
 water, with sufficient exactness for boiler purposes, is one making 
 use of the Jackson f candle turbidimeter. 
 
 * Leonard and Archbutt, Inst. Mech. Engrs., 1898. 
 
 t D. D. Jackson, Dir. Mt. Prospect Laboratory, Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
150 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 The original form of the instrument was first described by 
 its inventor in the Journal of the Amer. Chem. Soc., Nov., 1901 
 but since that time it has been considerably improved upon. 
 
 The accompanying illustration gives 
 a good idea of the present form of 
 the instrument and its use. The ap- 
 paratus consists of a glass tube closed 
 at the bottom and graduated in centi- 
 meters and millimeters depth. This 
 is surrounded by a brass holder open 
 at the bottom and supported by a 
 stand in the center of which is a 
 standard English candle so adjusted 
 that its top rim is just 3 inches below 
 the bottom of the glass tube. 
 
 This instrument is very convenient 
 for use in the laboratory, and as its 
 source of light is the standard candle, 
 it is ready at all times. 
 
 Read the depth of the liquid (using 
 the bottom of the meniscus in reading). 
 Refer this reading to the table opposite 
 to obtain the parts per million or 
 grains per gallon. 
 
 A convenient form of tube is a 
 Nessler jar 2.5 cm. in diameter and 
 17 cm. to the 100-c.c. mark. The 
 brass holder for this tube is open at 
 the bottom so that the glass tube 
 rests on a narrow ring at this point. 
 The candle below is so adjusted by 
 means of a spring that the top edge is 
 always just 3 inches below the bottom 
 of the glass tube. The illustration 
 shows the candle with the regulator 
 cap removed so as to better represent 
 the process. The English standard candle is preferred, but a, 
 common candle of the same size may be used. This candle must 
 always be properly trimmed and the determination must be made 
 
 FIG. 28a. Jackson Turbid- 
 imeter. 
 
HARDNESS OF WATER. 
 
 151 
 
 TABLE FOR CONVERTING READINGS IN DEPTHS BY THE TURBID- 
 IMETER INTO PARTS PER MILLION OR GRAINS PER GALLON 
 OF SULPHATE. (JACKSON.) 
 
 Reading 
 in Centi- 
 meters. 
 
 Parts 
 per 
 Million 
 (S0 8 ). 
 
 Grains 
 
 u pe L 
 
 Gallon 
 (S0 3 ). 
 
 Reading 
 in Centi- 
 meters. 
 
 Parts 
 per 
 Million 
 (S0 3 ). 
 
 Grains 
 
 iTI. 
 
 Gallon 
 (S0 3 ). 
 
 Reading 
 in Centi- 
 meters. 
 
 Parts 
 per 
 Million 
 (SO 3 ). 
 
 Grains 
 per 
 
 U.S. 
 Gallon 
 (S0 3 ). 
 
 .0 
 
 520 
 
 30.5 
 
 5.4 
 
 104 
 
 6.1 
 
 10.8 
 
 53 
 
 3.1 
 
 .1 
 
 480 
 
 28.0 
 
 5.5 
 
 103 
 
 6.0 
 
 11.0 
 
 52 
 
 3.1 
 
 .2 
 
 440 
 
 25.5 
 
 5.6 
 
 101 
 
 5.9 
 
 11.2 
 
 51 
 
 3.0 
 
 .3 
 
 410 
 
 24.0 
 
 5.7 
 
 99 
 
 5.8 
 
 11.4 
 
 50 
 
 3.0 
 
 .4 
 
 385 
 
 22.5 
 
 5.8 
 
 97 
 
 5.7 
 
 11.6 
 
 49 
 
 2.9 
 
 .5 
 
 360 
 
 21.0 
 
 5.9 
 
 96 
 
 5.6 
 
 11.8 
 
 48 
 
 2.8 
 
 .6 
 
 340 
 
 20.0 
 
 6.0 
 
 94 
 
 5.5 
 
 12.0 
 
 47 
 
 2.7 
 
 .7 
 
 320 
 
 18.5 
 
 6.1 
 
 93 
 
 5.4 
 
 12.4 
 
 46 
 
 2.7 
 
 .8 
 
 300 
 
 17.5 
 
 6.2 
 
 91 
 
 5.3 
 
 12.6 
 
 45 
 
 2.6 
 
 .9 
 
 285 
 
 16.5 
 
 6.3 
 
 90 
 
 5.2 
 
 12.8 
 
 44 
 
 2.6 
 
 2.0 
 
 275 
 
 16.0 
 
 6.4 
 
 88 
 
 5.1 
 
 13.0 
 
 43 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.1 
 
 260 
 
 15.0 
 
 6.5 
 
 87 
 
 5.1 
 
 13.5 
 
 42 
 
 2.5 
 
 2.2 
 
 250 
 
 14.5 
 
 6.6 
 
 86 
 
 5.0 
 
 14.0 
 
 41 
 
 2.4 
 
 2.3 
 
 240 
 
 14.0 
 
 6.7 
 
 84 
 
 4.9 
 
 14.5 
 
 39 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.4 
 
 230 
 
 13.5 
 
 6.8 
 
 83 
 
 4.9 
 
 15.0 
 
 38 
 
 2.3 
 
 2.5 
 
 220 
 
 13.0 
 
 6.9 
 
 82 
 
 4.8 
 
 15.5 
 
 37 
 
 2.2 
 
 2.6 
 
 215 
 
 12.5 
 
 7.0 
 
 81 
 
 4.8 
 
 16.0 
 
 36 
 
 2.1 
 
 2.7 
 
 205 
 
 12.0 
 
 7.1 
 
 80 
 
 4.7 
 
 16.5 
 
 35 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.8 
 
 200 
 
 11.7 
 
 7.2 
 
 79 
 
 4.7 
 
 17.0 
 
 34 
 
 2.0 
 
 2.9 
 
 190 
 
 11.1 
 
 7.3 
 
 78 
 
 4.6 
 
 17.5 
 
 33 
 
 1.9 
 
 3.0 
 
 185 
 
 10.8 
 
 7.4 
 
 77 
 
 4.5 
 
 18.0 
 
 32 
 
 .9 
 
 3.1 
 
 180 
 
 10.5 
 
 7.5 
 
 76 
 
 4.4 
 
 18.5 
 
 31 
 
 .8 
 
 3.2 
 
 175 
 
 10.2 
 
 7.6 
 
 75 
 
 4.4 
 
 19.0 
 
 30 
 
 .8 
 
 3.3 
 
 170 
 
 9.9 
 
 7.7 
 
 74 
 
 4.3 
 
 20.0 
 
 29 
 
 .7 
 
 3.4 
 
 165 
 
 9.6 
 
 7.8 
 
 73 
 
 4.3 
 
 21.0 
 
 28 
 
 .7 
 
 3.5 
 
 160 
 
 9.4 
 
 7.9 
 
 72 
 
 4.2 
 
 22.0 
 
 27 
 
 .6 
 
 3.6 
 
 155 
 
 9.1 
 
 8.0 
 
 71 
 
 4.2 
 
 22.5 
 
 26 
 
 .6 
 
 3.7 
 
 150 
 
 8.8 
 
 8.1 
 
 70 
 
 4.1 
 
 23.0 
 
 25 
 
 .5 
 
 3.8 
 
 147 
 
 8.6 
 
 8.2 
 
 69 
 
 4.0 
 
 24.0 
 
 24 
 
 .4 
 
 3.9 
 
 144 
 
 8.4 
 
 8.3 
 
 68 
 
 4.0 
 
 25.0 
 
 23 
 
 .3 
 
 4.0 
 
 140 
 
 8.2 
 
 8.5 
 
 67 
 
 3.9 
 
 26.5 
 
 22 
 
 .3 
 
 4.1 
 
 137 
 
 8.0 
 
 8.6 
 
 66 
 
 3.9 
 
 28.0 
 
 21 
 
 .2 
 
 4.2 
 
 133 
 
 7.8 
 
 8.7 
 
 65 
 
 3.8 
 
 29.0 
 
 20 
 
 .2 
 
 4.3 
 
 131 
 
 7.7 
 
 8.8 
 
 64 
 
 3.8 
 
 31.0 
 
 19 
 
 .1 
 
 4.4 
 
 128 
 
 7.5 
 
 9.0 
 
 63 
 
 3.7 
 
 33.0 
 
 18 
 
 .1 
 
 4.5 
 
 125 
 
 7.3 
 
 9.1 
 
 62 
 
 3.7 
 
 35.0 
 
 17 
 
 .0 
 
 4.6 
 
 122 
 
 7.1 
 
 9.3 
 
 61 
 
 3.6 
 
 37.5 
 
 16 
 
 .0 
 
 4.7 
 
 119 
 
 7.0 
 
 9.5 
 
 60 
 
 3.6 
 
 40.0 
 
 15 
 
 0.9 
 
 4.9 
 
 117 
 
 6.8 
 
 9.7 
 
 59 
 
 3.5 
 
 43.0 
 
 14 
 
 0.9 
 
 4.9 
 
 115 
 
 6.7 
 
 9.8 
 
 58 
 
 3.4 
 
 46.5 
 
 13 
 
 0.8 
 
 5.0 
 
 113 
 
 6.6 
 
 10.0 
 
 57 
 
 3.3 
 
 50.0 
 
 12 
 
 0.7 
 
 5.1 
 
 110 
 
 6.4 
 
 10.2 
 
 56 
 
 3.3 
 
 55.5 
 
 11 
 
 0.6 
 
 5.2 
 
 108 
 
 6.3 
 
 10.4 
 
 55 
 
 3.2 
 
 62.0 
 
 10 
 
 0.6 
 
 5.3 
 
 106 
 
 6.2 
 
 10.6 
 
 54 
 
 3.2 
 
 68.0 
 
 9 
 
 0.5 
 
152 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 rapidly so as not to heat the liquid to any extent. The most 
 accurate work is obtained in the dark-room, and the candle should 
 be so placed as not to be subjected to a draft of air. Care should 
 be taken to keep the bottom of the tube clean both inside and 
 out so as not to cut out any of the light. 
 
 Mr. Jackson gives this method for the determination of sul- 
 phates. 
 
 It has been found that by means of this instrument other 
 determinations than turbidity may be made. If the water is 
 clear or is clarified by a filter, a determination of the sulphate 
 present in the water may be obtained. 
 
 DETERMINATION OF SULPHATE IN WATER BY MEANS OF THE 
 
 TURBIDIMETER. 
 
 The amount of sulphate in natural waters is important on 
 account of the scale-forming action of sulphate of lime in waters 
 used for boiler purposes. If the amount of sulphate is con- 
 siderable the determination may be made by the turbidimeter 
 with a fair degree of accuracy. The method is as follows: 
 
 To 100 c.c. of the water to be tested add 1 c.c. of hydrochloric 
 acid (1-1) and 1 gram of solid barium chloride crystals. If the 
 amount of sulphate is low 200 or 300 c.c. of water must be treated 
 in order to fill the longer tube employed. In this case add 1 c.c. 
 of acid and 1 gram of barium chloride for each 100 c.c. of water 
 taken. 
 
 Allow the mixture to stand for ten minutes with frequent 
 shaking. The shaking is best accomplished if the water is treated 
 in a bottle. The barium sulphate will be precipitated in a finely 
 divided state and the turbidity produced is then read by pour- 
 ing the milky solution into the glass tube and noting the point 
 at which the image of the candle disappears. 
 
 The determinations as made by this method are extremely 
 rough and are mainly used for approximate figures, obtained 
 quickly, and with little labor. 
 
 Calcium. To determine the calcium, the water is rendered 
 slightly ammoniacal and a small quantity of ammonium oxalate 
 crystals is added. 
 
HARDNESS OF WATER. 
 
 153 
 
 When the calcium oxalate is precipitated, and the turbidimeter 
 as above is used, the equivalent calcium may be found by refer- 
 ence to this table. 
 
 TABLE FOR ESTIMATION OF CALCIUM IN WATER IN PARTS PER 
 MILLION WITH JACKSON TURBIDIMETER. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Calcium 
 Equiva- 
 lent. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Calcium 
 Equiva- 
 lent. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Calcium 
 Equiva- 
 lent. 
 
 Depth. 
 
 Calcium 
 Equiva- 
 lent. 
 
 .0 
 
 1150 
 
 4.1 
 
 162 
 
 7.2 
 
 77 
 
 10.6 
 
 50 
 
 .1 
 
 1000 
 
 4.2 
 
 156 
 
 7.3 
 
 76 
 
 10.8 
 
 49 
 
 .2 
 
 890 
 
 4.3 
 
 151 
 
 7.4 
 
 74 
 
 11.0 
 
 48 
 
 .3 
 
 795 
 
 4.4 
 
 146 
 
 7.5 
 
 73 
 
 11.2 
 
 47 
 
 .4 
 
 715 
 
 4.5 
 
 142 
 
 7.6 
 
 72 
 
 11.4 
 
 46 
 
 .5 
 
 650 
 
 4.6 
 
 137 
 
 7.7 
 
 71 
 
 11.7 
 
 45 
 
 1.6 
 
 595 
 
 4.7 
 
 133 
 
 7.8 
 
 70 
 
 11.9 
 
 44 
 
 1.7 
 
 550 
 
 4.8 
 
 130 
 
 7.9 
 
 69 
 
 12.2 
 
 43 
 
 1.8 
 
 505 
 
 4.9 
 
 126 
 
 8.0 
 
 68 
 
 12.4 
 
 42 
 
 1.9 
 
 470 
 
 5.0 
 
 123 
 
 8.1 
 
 67 
 
 12.7 
 
 41 
 
 2.0 
 
 435 
 
 5.1 
 
 119 
 
 8.2 
 
 66 
 
 13.0 
 
 40 
 
 2.1 
 
 410 
 
 5.2 
 
 116 
 
 8.3 
 
 65 
 
 13.3 
 
 39 
 
 2.2 
 
 380 
 
 5.3 
 
 113 
 
 8.4 
 
 64 
 
 13.7 
 
 38 
 
 2.3 
 
 360 
 
 5.4 
 
 110 
 
 8.5 
 
 64 
 
 14.0 
 
 37 
 
 2.4 
 
 340 
 
 5.5 
 
 107 
 
 8.6 
 
 63 
 
 14.4 
 
 36 
 
 2.5 
 
 320 
 
 5.6 
 
 105 
 
 8.7 
 
 62 
 
 14.8 
 
 35 
 
 2.6 
 
 305 
 
 5.7 
 
 102 
 
 8.8 
 
 61 
 
 15.3 
 
 34 
 
 2.7 
 
 288 
 
 5.8 
 
 100 
 
 8.9 
 
 60 
 
 15.7 
 
 33 
 
 2.8 
 
 274 
 
 5.9 
 
 98 
 
 9.0 
 
 60 
 
 16.2 
 
 32 
 
 2.9 
 
 261 
 
 6.0 
 
 96 
 
 9.1 
 
 59 
 
 16.7 
 
 31 
 
 3.0 
 
 248 
 
 6.1. 
 
 94 
 
 9.2 
 
 58 
 
 17.3 
 
 30 
 
 3.1 
 
 238 
 
 6.2 
 
 92 
 
 9.3 
 
 57 
 
 17.9 
 
 29 
 
 3.2 
 
 228 
 
 6.3 
 
 90 
 
 9.4 
 
 57 
 
 18.5 
 
 28 
 
 3.3 
 
 218 
 
 6.4 
 
 88 
 
 9.5 
 
 56 
 
 19.2 
 
 27 
 
 3.4 
 
 209 
 
 6.5 
 
 87 
 
 9.6 
 
 55 
 
 20.0 
 
 26 
 
 3.5 
 
 200 
 
 6.6 
 
 85 
 
 9.7 
 
 55 
 
 20.8 
 
 25 
 
 3.6 
 
 194 
 
 6.7 
 
 84 
 
 9.8 
 
 54 
 
 21.7 
 
 24 
 
 3.7 
 
 186 
 
 6.8 . 
 
 82 
 
 9.9 
 
 54 
 
 22.7 
 
 23 
 
 3.8 
 
 179 
 
 6.9 
 
 81 
 
 10.0 
 
 53 
 
 23.8 
 
 22 
 
 3.9 
 
 173 
 
 7.0 
 
 80 
 
 10.2 
 
 52 
 
 24.0 
 
 21 
 
 4.0 
 
 167 
 
 7.1 
 
 78 
 
 10.4 
 
 51 
 
 25.2 
 
 20 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 FEED-WATER HEATERS.* 
 
 THE time to purify all boiler feed-water is before it ever gets 
 to the boiler, never in the boiler. It is very much more desirable 
 that one has a lot of trouble keeping feed-water heaters and 
 purifiers clean than to have the stuff get in the boiler. 
 
 A new "tray" heater was put in a Pennsylvania power-plant 
 not so long ago, and when the steam-engineer was asked how 
 it suited him he said that there was entirely too much " stuff " on 
 the trays; in fact, it necessitated his cleaning them every day, 
 which was not the condition of things with his old heater. 
 
 Here was an absolute lack of recognition of the great benefit 
 to the boiler, in that purer water would give the boiler a longer 
 life and a higher rate of evaporation, less liability to explosion, 
 and altogether resulting in a much more economical steam-plant 
 and a much less expense account. 
 
 When we were considering the treatment of water chemically, 
 we had in mind only that one general method of preparation and 
 purification. 
 
 Boiler feed-water is derived from two general sources, namely: 
 
 a. New water supplie . 
 
 b. Condensed steam. 
 
 The first, a, may be treated or untreated water, and be simply 
 passed through a tubular-feed heater, where certain impurities 
 insoluble at, say, 210 F., will eeparate out and settle to the mud- 
 drum of the heater, leaving: the other substances in solution, 
 which are still more harmful to the boiler. 
 
 * A considerable portion of this chapter appeared originally as an article 
 on " Feed-water Heaters " in Gassier' s Magazine in 1903. 
 
 154 
 
FEED-WATER HEATERS. 155 
 
 The second, 6, is that derived from condensed steam of any 
 kind, as from drips or water from a surface-condenser. 
 
 FIG. 29. Wainwright Surface-condenser. 
 
 This water may be passed through a feed-heater and purifier 
 on its way to the boiler, where there is any likelihood of the presence 
 of oil in the condensed water it should be passed through an oil- 
 separator or filter this also applies to condensed steam from 
 engines which may or may not have been through a tubular feaa- 
 heater. 
 
 FEED-WATER HEATERS. 
 The writer would classify feed-water heaters thus: 
 
 / Steam-tube. 
 
 Closed heaters (indirect) \ , TT , 
 
 I Water-tube. 
 
 , ,. , N / Atmospheric. 
 
 Open heaters (direct) *\ . 
 
 ( Vacuum. 
 
 Flue-gas heaters Economizers. 
 
 Closed heaters are those in which the steam to be utilized is 
 separated from the water by a metal wall, usually copper or brass, 
 as pipes, which material is the most desirable. This type of 
 heater is used where the water is least contaminated, and is con- 
 sidered a good feed-water. 
 
156 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 The efficiency of these heaters is a direct function of the ability 
 of the metal walls to transmit the heat from the steam to the 
 water and the amount of circulation or breaking up which the 
 water receives in passing through the heater. In cases where 
 the steam used is exhaust from the engine, and at atmospheric 
 pressure, the highest temperature it is possible to give the feed- 
 water is 210 to 212 F. 
 
 Sheet-iron or steel shells are used for the steam-tube heaters, 
 with water going through the shell under boiler pressure; cast 
 iron is used for the shells of water-tube heaters, as it is less liable 
 to galvanic action and pitting from grease and action of water 
 and steam in the shell. 
 
 / The water-tube type of the closed heater is one which gives the 
 same heating-surface in less .space than is possible in the steam- 
 tube type. 
 
 In the closed heaters as above the steam condensing in them 
 is a total waste as boiler-feed, or when clean hot water can be 
 utilized, unless it is passed through a filter which will remove the 
 oil and other matters in suspension. 
 
 Open heaters are those into which the steam is exhausted in 
 direct contact with and intermingling with the water. 
 
 They are especially useful where the water is full of lime and 
 other scale-forming elements; they are fully equipped with devices 
 for aiding the precipitation of the salts, and separating and filter- 
 ing out the oil, delivering a pure boiler feed- water. 
 
 This type of heater may be so controlled in its action as to have 
 the water take up all the heat in all the steam, and may raise the 
 temperature of the water to slightly beyond 212 F. 
 
 Two things are very essential to the successful working of all 
 heaters: they must be kept clean and sufficient exhaust steam be 
 sent to them to furnish the necessary heat or the water regulated 
 so as not to lower the temperature in the heater below 212 F. 
 
 Of the many heaters on the rrarket a few representative de- 
 signs are shown and their features described. 
 
 The Patterson-Berryman water-tube heater, Fig. 30, is of the 
 pressure type, and consists of an iron shell and setting-chamber 
 with U-shaped brass tubes expanded in a heavy cast-iron tube- 
 head. In this type the water passes in and through a nest of tubes, 
 and then, owing to partitions set in the settling-chamber, clearly 
 
FEED-WATER HEATERS. 
 
 157 
 
 seen in the sketch, the water passes through another nest of tubes 
 and finally out to the boiler. The steam is exhausted into the 
 
 FIG 30. Sectional View of the Patterson-Berryman Heater. 
 
 steel and outside of the nests of tubes, and usually the steam passes 
 out at the top to the atmosphere or elsewhere as desired. 
 
 i/The Goubert heater, Figs. 31 and 32, is another of the pressure 
 type which has had a large field of usefulness. The water in en- 
 
158 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 tering the heater passes through a sleeve against a saucer-like 
 deflector, then down into a mud-drum, and finally up through the 
 tubes, each tube-end being expanded into curved or dished flue- 
 
 Differential Expansion 
 
 ween Tube and Shell 
 
 i/ 16 of an inch in 10 feet 
 
 Enlarged View of. 
 Expansion Joint 
 
 FIG. 31. Section of the 
 Goubert Heater. 
 
 FIG. 32. Elevation of a Goubert Heater 
 and Connections. 
 
 heads. The upper water-chamber is an invert of the lower one. 
 A feature of this heater is a flexible joint between the outer shell 
 and inner tubes and their bonnet at the top. This joint is made 
 up of a loose flange, three gaskets, one of soft annealed copper and 
 
FEED-WATER HEATERS. 
 
 159 
 
 two of special packing with wire cloth impeded in them, and the 
 flange which is a part of the cast-iron body of the heater. 
 
 The Wainright heater, Fig. 33, is of the closed type, and is made 
 
 (The Taunton Locomotive Co., Makers.") 
 
 FIG. 33. The Wainwright Heater. 
 
 with steam-tubes or water-tubes, and is built either vertical or 
 horizontal, a remark applying to practically all closed heaters. 
 The special feature of this heater is the tubes, which are of brass 
 
160 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 and corrugated, and also in the use of a long shell or body of com- 
 paratively small diameter rather than a short shell of large diam- 
 eter. 
 
 The water-spaces are so designed that they may give an even 
 flow at a rapid rate of travel, which aids materially a high rate of 
 convection of heat through the tubes to the water. 
 
 Tests made of heaters having different types of tubes tend to 
 show that if water is broken up and travels at a rapid rate of speed 
 it will take the greatest number of heat-units from the steam per 
 unit of time. The cold core or zone in a body of water passing 
 through a straight tube having parallel sides is found by experi- 
 ment to give way to a more evenly heated body of water in the 
 
 FIG. 34. Section of Tube-plate, Bottom of Da vis -Berry man Heater. 
 
 corrugated tube, because of the more thorough mixing resulting 
 from the presence of the corrugations on the tube. 
 
 In the Davis-Berryman heater the body is made of "shell steel " 
 and the head of "flange steel." The tubes, tested to 500 pounds 
 per square inch, are bent fl shape and expanded into a cast-iron 
 tube-head. 
 
 This head is conical, as shown by Fig. 34, aiding the sediment 
 to pass immediately to the discharge mud-blowpipe outlet. 
 
 This is the steam-tube type, with the water-inlet high enough 
 at the side not to disturb the sediment, and the water-outlet is 
 at the proper distance below the top level of the water to prevent 
 the scum going over with the water. A valve is provided for the 
 removal of scum. 
 
 One of the many forms of Baragwanath heaters is known as a 
 steam-jacket heater. 
 
FEED-WATER HEATERS. 
 
 161 
 
 The tubes, as shown in Fig. 35, are expanded into tube-sheets 
 at top and bottom. The exhaust steam enters at the bottom, 
 passes up through the tubes and returns on the outside of the 
 inner shell, the water being between the pipes and the inner shell. 
 
 FIG. 35. Baragwanath Steam-jacket Heater. 
 
 The water-inlet is at the bottom of the shell and the outlet at 
 the top. The same makers build a horizontal open heater with a 
 screen for separation of oil and trays for sedimentation. 
 
 In the Wheeler heater, Fig. 36, there are tube-heads at both 
 ends; the tubes are enlarged at one end and made fast by a screw 
 
162 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 end. The other end is made fast by a brass outer ferrule and as- 
 bestos packing, which go in a special pocket formed in the tube- 
 head for the purpose. 
 
 The tubes are free to expand or contract as the ferrule is not 
 
 FIG. 36. Heater made by the Wheeler Condenser and Engineering Co. 
 
 rigidly attached to the tube. These heaters are also made at 
 both ends of the tubes with ferrule and asbestos packing. 
 
 The quality of the tubes is the best seamless brass, tinned and 
 tested to 700 pounds pressure per square inch. 
 
 The same company make a double-tube horizontal heater for 
 marine service. The exhaust steam in this type passes through 
 
FEED-WATER HEATERS. 
 
 163 
 
 the inner tubes, then returns through the annu- 
 lar space between them and the larger tubes, and 
 then is exhausted. 
 
 The feed-water enters the shell at the bot- 
 tom and travels between and about the exterior 
 cf the tubes and then out at the top and to the 
 boilers. 
 
 One of the early designs of feed-water heaters 
 s of the coil type. This was developed in Great 
 Britain, and is virtually an enlarged exhaust 
 pipe; in fact, it is a portion of the length of 
 the exhaust pipe, from the top of which cast- 
 iron body drops a perpendicular feed-water pipe 
 having a copper-coil pipe winding upward from 
 its lower end and out through the top head, as 
 shown in Fig. 37. 
 
 If the feed-water is pure this would prove 
 a very desirable heater, as its principle of long 
 travel of water in ample steam-space is good. 
 
 The American development of this heater is 
 shown in another line of water-tube heaters, con- 
 sisting of copper or brass coils bent spirally and FIG 37. Copper- 
 
 / coil Heater by 
 
 set inside a riveted-steel, cast-iron, or steel shell. Yates and Thorn, 
 
 The Whitlock, Fig. 38, is so built and con- England. 
 
 Engine Room Level 
 x From Main Engine 
 
 (Whitlock Coil Pipe Co.) 
 
 FIG. 38. Arrangement of Primary and Auxiliary Heaters. 
 
164 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 sists of a steel-shell body, riveted to cast-iron flanges top and bot- 
 tom to which the heads are bolted. Inside of this heater, all of 
 whose shell- joints are brazed, are copper coils, tested before use to 
 600 pounds per square inch. 
 
 FIG. 39. Pipe-coil Heater by Harrisburg Pipe Bending Co. 
 In the Harrisburg heaters, Fig. 39, the connection of water-pipe 
 to coils is accomplished by using a special fitting, to which the 
 coils of three or less pipes are connected top and bottom inside the 
 
FEED-WATER HEATERS. 
 
 165 
 
 shell, and by means of flanges and threaded ends outside the shell. 
 
 Another type of closed-pressure heater is the " Mul to-Current " 
 feed-water heater, designed by the Blake and Knowles Steam Pump 
 Co. In this heater the ends of the tubes are firmly expanded and 
 secured in the two heads, one of which is rigid and part of the 
 main-shell casting. The other head is bolted to a steel plate or 
 diaphragm, the periphery of which is attached to the flange of the 
 heater-shell. This arrangement takes care of the unequal expan- 
 sion between the tubes and the shell under all conditions of tempera- 
 ture and pressure. 
 
 The tubes are arranged in six nests and the flow of water 
 through them is controlled by partitions in the water-chambers at 
 each end of the heater, so that the water 
 will pass through each nest in turn, thus 
 traversing the heater six times. The cir- 
 culation is positive and the heater is de- 
 signed to give an even distribution of 
 water. The exhaust-steam is thoroughly 
 and evenly distributed by means of par- 
 titions in the heater-shell and the flow 
 is so diverted as to pass three times 
 through the heater and circulate freely 
 among the tubes. The absence of stuf- 
 fing boxes and packings of any kind in 
 this heater does away entirely with the 
 possibility of leakage and loss of feed- 
 water. The cross-sectional area between 
 the tubes is greater than the area of the 
 exhaust pipe, offering no obstruction to 
 the flow of the steam and eliminating 
 back pressure. 
 
 Access to the heater is had by re- 
 moving the heads; the tubes of the ver- p IG . 39a. Vertical Multi- 
 
 tical heaters can be cleaned from the top current Feed-water Heater 
 
 of 800 Horse-pover. (De- 
 and the horizontal heaters from either signed and built by the 
 
 end. Mud-blows are provided to keep Blake-Knowles Steam- 
 
 pump Works, New York.) 
 
 the heater clean and free from sediment. 
 
 Every heater is tested under 250 pounds pressure per square inch, 
 giving a safe working pressure of 175 pounds. 
 
166 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 The makers say that the number of British thermal units passing 
 through a square foot of thin copper per hour, with a difference of 1 
 F., between the warmer and colder mediums, is in the case of a high- 
 pressure steam feed-water heater or evaporator, 400 units when the 
 steam and water move at the appropriate speed, but only 200 to 240 
 units when the steam and water remain quiet during the heating 
 process. In low-pressure steam apparatus-like condensers, feed- 
 water heaters and vacuum evaporators, the figures are 360 units 
 when the steam and water move at the right speeds and 120 units 
 when the steam and water are quiet. In apparatus heated by 
 hot water, such as sterilizers, 200 B.T.U. are transmitted per 
 hour when the water is moved in the correct manner and 40 to 
 60 B.T.U. when the water remains quiet. 
 
 The following results were obtained in a test of one of these 
 heaters of the vertical pattern rated at 125 horse-power. 
 
 Exhaust openings, inches diameter 8 
 
 Feed openings, inches diameter 1 
 
 Exposed tube surface, square feet 24.05 
 
 Total quantity of feed-water passed through 
 
 heater per hour, pounds 6857 
 
 Initial temperature of feed-water at entrance, 
 
 F 55 
 
 Temperature of feed after passing through first 
 
 nest of tubes, F 118 
 
 Temperature of feed after passing through 
 
 second nest of tubes, F 155 
 
 Temperature of feed after passing through 
 
 third nest of tubes, F 170 
 
 Temperature of feed after passing through 
 
 fourth nest of tubes, F 190 
 
 Temperature of feed after passing through 
 
 fifth nest of tubes, F 195.8 
 
 Final temperature of feed after passing through 
 
 sixth nest, F , 203 
 
 Rise in temperature of feed-water, F 148 
 
 Temperature of steam leaving the heater 206 
 
 Heat absorbed by the feed-water per hour, 
 
 B.T.U 1 ,014,836 
 
 Heat absorbed per square foot of tube surface 
 
 per hour, B.T.U 42,186 
 
 Velocity of water through tubes per minute, ft. 125 
 
 On the basis of the ordinary commercial rating of 1 horse- 
 power capacity per every 30 pounds feed-water heated, this test 
 
FEED- WATER HEATERS. 167 
 
 shows that a heater containing 24.05 square feet of the tube sur- 
 face is capable of handling 228 horse-power. This would reduce 
 to 9.5 horse-power per square foot of tube surface which is over 
 three times better than the commercial rating of 3 horse-power 
 per square foot. 
 
 Steam.Entrance 
 at \ Top. 
 
 \ 
 
 Baffle extends 
 from Top near ty 
 v \ to Bottom. 
 
 'From Bottom 
 nearly to Top 
 
 Water\ Entrance 
 
 FIG. 39&. Baffle Plates in Steam-space. Partitions in Heads Connected to 
 
 Water-tubes. 
 
 Diagrams illustrating Flow of Fluids in Feed-water Heater. 
 
 The B.T.U.'s per degree difference of temperature of entering 
 water and heated water for this case are 816, occupying on Mr. H. 
 L. Hepburn's diagram a position midway between the corrugated 
 and the plain-tube heater. 
 
 It should be kept in mind that the water travels six times the 
 length of the heater, while in some pressure heaters never more 
 than twice the length. 
 
 We now come to a more useful type of heater, as far as the 
 completeness of throwing down scale-forming substances from 
 the water is concerned the open heater and purifier/ 
 
 In this class we have the Cochrane heater, which consists of a 
 cast-iron box, made in sections, bolted together at the flanges. 
 
 The upper parts, as shown by Fig. 40 and Fig. 41, contain 
 trays with serrated edges to break up the water as it passes down 
 through or over them. 
 
 These trays are all set in the path of the incoming exhaust- 
 steam, are inclined in opposite directions, and also vary in number 
 and size as is required by the work to be done by the heater and 
 the character of the water fed to the heater. The trays are 
 readily removed through the doors provided for the purpose, and 
 are likewise prevented by guides from rattling, apt to be caused 
 by the pulsations of the entering exhaust-steam. The cold water 
 
16S 
 
 BOILER- WATERS. 
 
 entering the heater is regulated in amount by means of a balance 
 valve operated by a copper-ball float in the lower part of the 
 heater. Just above the water level is a skimmer, which is also an 
 overflow, draining to a trap. Eelow this outlet there is a filter- 
 bed of coke. The outflow of the feed-water is through this coke 
 and under a shield which keeps the coke away from the outlet. 
 
 FIG 40. A Cochrane Heater. 
 
 The heater is also fitted with an oil-separator, gauge-glass, 
 blow-off, and all fittings necessary to make it a complete heater 
 and purifier. It is installed with the exhaust issuing from the top 
 of the heater or a vent out of the top, and drawing the exhaust- 
 steam through the regular side inlet, wasting what is not required 
 for heating. This method is used where there is a surplus of ex- 
 haust-steam. 
 
FEED-WATER HEATERS. 169 
 
 The Webster "vacuum" heater, Fig. 42, is one of the so-called 
 open heaters; it is however sealed from the atmosphere, so that 
 in case the exhaust-steam from the engine decreases from its 
 usual quantity the heater will draw from the exhaust pipe all 
 that is possible to obtain in that way, and should the steam be 
 less than is required to produce a certain temperature in the feed- 
 water, a partial vacuum will result and the heater for a time be- 
 comes a sort of condenser. 
 
 FIG. 41 Half -section, Half -elevation Cochrane Heater. 
 
 The standard heater and purifier of this make has a cast-iron 
 shell exhaust inlet near the top and fitted with a weighted safety- 
 valve. The exhaust-steam is directed over a series of inclined 
 copper trays, where it meets the water which is allowed to trickle 
 over and down from one tray to the next. The water then falls 
 to the settling-chamber at the highest temperature and from that 
 chamber it is pumped to the bo lers. An apron across the entire 
 settling-chamber in front of the submerged outlet prevents scum 
 or other light impurities from passing to the boiler. The heater 
 
170 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 may also be provided with a filtering compartment where condi- 
 tions require it. 
 
 (Warren Webster & Co.) 
 
 FIG. 42. Feed-water Heater, Purifier, and Filter. 
 
 In the Victor Manufacturing Company's cast-iron feed-water 
 heater and purifier, Fig. 43, the water enters a balanced valve 
 on top of the heater and runs into a circular water-box, the upper 
 
FEED-WATER HEATERS. 
 
 171 
 
 edge of which is surrated, from which it runs into the pans under- 
 neath in very thin sheets if properly regulated; each alternate pan 
 has a hole in its center. 
 
 The steam enters the side of the heater and circulates about 
 the pans and passes out of the top of the heater. After leaving 
 the pans the water passes down through a pipe to a settling- 
 chamber, where sediment, etc., can be blown off. The water 
 
 FIG. 43. Vertical Section of Victor Heater. 
 
 filters upward through the filter-bed and flows to a suction pipe. 
 The filter perforated plates can be easily removed. The incoming 
 water is regulated by means of a copper-ball float connected to 
 the inlet valve. 
 
 The Hoppes live steam purifier, Fig. 44, consists of a cylindrical 
 shell, in which are arranged horizontal pans, one over the other, 
 so as to be readily removed. These pans receive the feed-water, 
 and through contact of the steam with the water the heavier 
 
1 72 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 solids settle, while carbonates, sulphates, silica, and other scale- 
 forming substances adhere to the under sides. The elastic feature 
 of the trays enables them to be twisted and distorted and the hard 
 substance can be easily removed from them. 
 
 The Hoppes heater, though similar to the purifier in so far as 
 the form of the pans is concerned, consists of a steel cylinder, cast- 
 iron heads easily opened for cleaning the trays. The exhaust-steam 
 after passing through an oil-separator enters the heater at the rear 
 
 FIG. 44 Heater Made by the Hoppes Mfg. Co. 
 
 end and leaves the shell at the front, that is such portion of it as 
 has not been condensed. 
 
 The Still well heater and purifier, Fig. 45, is similar in operation 
 to other open heaters. It is built with a riveted-steel shell, and 
 is equipped with flat strainers, located midway of its height, with 
 a filtering chamber at the bottom. 
 
 Steam is admitted to a cast-iron hood-piece opposite the trays 
 in the bottom of which the entrained oil is collected and from 
 which it is discharged. The steam then passes up through the 
 
FEED-WATER HEATERS. 
 
 173 
 
 filter compartment, then over a partition to a pure-water pocket, 
 and then out at the bottom. The rating of an open heater is a 
 matter in which little has been recorded. 
 
 A common rule for a pressure or closed-tube heater is to allow 
 J square foot of heating-surface for one boiler horse-power, water 
 
 FIG. 45. The Stillwell Combined Heater and Filter. 
 
 heated to 210-212 F. In designing a heater, however, the 
 heating-surface should be made large enough or ample to transmit 
 the maximum number of heat-units per unit of time, and then 
 the water velocity should be adjusted to suit the required capacity. 
 One heater manufacturer bases his sizes on 350 B.T.U. as 
 the maximum transmitted, while for some types we should take 
 
174 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 not more than 150 to 200 B.T.U. as the maximum. For open 
 heaters the capacity is limited only by the amount of steam and 
 water that can be brought together in a unit of time and thor- 
 oughly mixed and is necessarily determined by the experience of 
 the maker with the results obtained by his machine in many 
 localities. 
 
 From a large experience with feed-water heaters, Mr. J. M. 
 Duncan has given this information : 
 
 ANALYSES OF WATERS. 
 (Grains per Gallon.) 
 
 
 Artesian 
 Well. 
 
 A. 
 
 Ponds and 
 Springs. 
 
 B. 
 
 To Boiler. 
 C. 
 
 City 
 Water. 
 
 D 
 
 Artesian 
 Well. 
 
 E. 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 ' ' ' ' magnesia 
 Sulphate of lime 
 
 2.90 
 9.40 
 11 65 
 
 8.81 
 6.49 
 83 
 
 3.75 
 
 2.58 
 58 
 
 } 8.56 
 18 42 
 
 9.44 
 6 46 
 
 Sodium chloride 
 
 76.40 
 
 
 
 65 52 
 
 5 27 
 
 Alumina 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 
 
 Iron oxide 
 
 
 
 
 
 93 
 
 Organic matter 
 
 Trace 
 
 
 
 22 23 
 
 5 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 100 87 
 
 16.13 
 
 6 91 
 
 114 73 
 
 27 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 A. N. Y. & Queens Co. R.R. Co. Power Station, Astoria, L. I. 
 
 B. Union Car Co., Depew, N. Y. 
 
 C. Same after passing through open heater, where 10 Ibs. soda-ash were 
 added to water per day. 
 
 Boiler plant, 1000 H.P. Root boilers. 
 
 Deposit, 1 to 1 bbls. of soft sludge removed every two weeks. 
 
 D and E. Astoria, L. I., Silk-mills. 
 
 D. Requires 1 Ib. trisodium phosphate for each 50 boiler H.P. per day. 
 
 Fuel Economizers. Another form of feed-water heaters obtains 
 the heat from the flue-gases after they leave the boiler or furnace 
 on their way to the chimney or other outlet. They are in reality 
 sectional feed-water heaters, consist : ng of a great number of cast- 
 iron pipes or tubes about 4 inches in diameter by 9 or 10 feet long, 
 set in rows and connected together by the necessary headers. 
 The water is pumped into them at the end farthest from the 
 boiler up-take and taken out where the gases are the hottest. 
 Each tube is provided with a geared scraper which is moved 
 
FEED- WATER HEATERS. 
 
 175 
 
 FIG. 46. Green Fuel Economizer. 
 
176 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 up and down the outside of the pipe, removing all soot as fast 
 as it accumulates. A small amount of power from engine or motor 
 does this work. 
 
 The tubes are tested to a pressure of 500 pounds per square 
 inch; the water in them when in use is at boiler pressure. 
 
 The whole apparatus should be encased in a brick wall or other 
 non-conducting covering. The pipes should be blown-off once 
 each day, as otherwise the scale will accumulate in them, and they 
 should have more care than ordinary feed-water heaters. 
 
 Fig. 46 shows a Green fuel economizer. Economizers mate- 
 rially add to the efficiency of many steam-plants. These figures 
 are from one actual case: 
 
 Boiler horse-power 1200 
 
 Heating-surface in economizer 6400 sq. ft. 
 
 Flue area for economizer 6400 sq. in. 
 
 Economizer tube surface per boiler H.P 5.33 sq. ft. 
 
 Cost, erected, per square foot of economizer 
 
 surface 80 cents 
 
 Cost, erected, per H.P. of boilers $4 to $6 
 
 The draft in a chimney is reduced by passing the gases 
 through an economizer, for the temperature is reduced from 
 400-500 F. to 265-300 F., or even lower. 
 
 Water is heated in the economizer to a much higher degree 
 than in a steam-heater, depending on the temperature of the 
 escaping gases as to its higher limit. 
 
 Carbonate of lime, and in some cases chloride of magnesium 
 and calcium sulphate, are removed from the water passing through 
 economizers. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 SOFTENED water is water which has been freed from the salts 
 of lime and magnesia, iron, and aluminium. It cannot produce 
 scale nor corrosion. Dr. Clark, chemist, invented the first soften- 
 ing process about sixty years ago in England, treating water with 
 lime to remove the carbonic acid and lime and magnesia car- 
 bonates. Then came Dr. Porter's process of using soda-ash to 
 remove the sulphates of calcium and magnesia. Following this 
 has come the Porter-Clark process, which is a combination of the 
 two just mentioned. 
 
 The use of alum for purification dates to early times in China 
 and India. 
 
 Water can be softened down to 3 to 4 grains of scale-forming 
 ingredients per gallon, but if the quantity is reduced to 5 to 7 
 grains it will give satisfactory results. 
 
 Chemistry of Softening Water. Softening of water is accom- 
 plished by chemical precipitation. To remove carbonates lime is 
 used. On adding lime the carbonic acid unites with it, resulting 
 in the formation of calcium carbonate. This is the reaction: 
 
 CaC0 3 + CO 2 + Ca(OH) 2 = CaCO 3 + H 2 O. 
 
 Being but slightly soluble, it is precipitated. 
 
 The reaction for carbonate of magnesia is something like this: 
 
 MgCO 3 + CO 2 + Ca(OH) 2 = MgCO 3 + CaCO 3 + H 2 O ; 
 
 but magnesium carbonate being quite soluble, a further quantity 
 of lime must be added: 
 
 MgC0 3 + Ca(OH) 2 =Mg(OH) 2 +CaC0 3 ; 
 
 then the hydrate is precipitated. 
 
 177 
 
178 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Sulphates are removed by the use of sodium carbonate; lime 
 is required for magnesium sulphate: 
 
 CaSO 4 + NaC0 3 = CaCO 3 + Na 2 S0 4 
 
 ^ 
 
 and 
 
 MgSO 4 + Ca(OH) 2 + Na 2 C0 3 = Mg(OH) 2 + CaCO 3 + Na 2 S0 4 . 
 
 Sodium sulphate is quite soluble and an unobjectionable sub- 
 stance in quantity usually found in water. Chlorides and nitrates 
 may be removed in a manner similar to the sulphates. 
 
 Carbonate Waters. Where carbonate of lime alone is present, 
 for each grain per gallon of carbonate of lime found in the water 
 4 ounces of pure caustic lime per 1000 gallons of water will be 
 required to precipitate the lime as carbonate. 
 
 Sulphate Waters. Where there is only the sulphate of lime 
 present, for every grain of sulphate of lime per gallon found in the 
 water, If ounces of pure carbonate of soda (soda-ash) are required 
 per 1000 gallons of water treated. 
 
 Carbonate and Sulphate Waters. The carbonate and sulphate 
 of lime both being present, as is the case in some waters, caustic 
 soda alone is all that is needed to precipitate both of the salts. 
 
 For water containing 6 grains of the carbonate per gallon of 
 water, use 9 ounces of pure caustic soda per 1000 gallons of water 
 to be treated, which quantity should also eliminate 8.16 grains of 
 the sulphate. A water containing 14.16 grains of the two kinds 
 of salts per gallon, of which 6 grains were carbonate and 8.16 sul- 
 phate, would be treated by adding caustic soda as above. 
 
 The cost of any process or method of treatment depends to a 
 great extent upon the chemistry of the water to be treated, of 
 which the following tables * will give some idea. 
 
 One pound of "carbonate of lime" requires for its precipita- 
 tion: 
 
 . 56 lb. of lime at I cent per pound $0 .0014 
 
 or .80 " " caustic soda at 2 cents per pound. . . .0160 
 or 3.15 Ibs. " barium hydrate at 1\ cents per lb.. . .0787 
 or 2.18 " " sodium phosphate at 4 cents per 
 
 pound 0872 
 
 or 11.92 " " tannin extract, 27%, at 2f cents 
 
 per pound 3278 
 
 or 2 . 28 " ' ' sugar at 5 cents per pound 1 140 
 
 * Kennicott Water-softener Co. 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 179 
 
 One pound of "sulphate of lime" requires for its precipitation: 
 
 .85 Ib. of soda-ash at 1 cent per pound $0.0085 
 
 or 1 .94 Ibs. " sal-soda at .65 cent per pound 0126 
 
 or 1.53 " " barium chloride at 2 cents per Ib. . . .0306 
 or 1.60 " " sodium phosphate at 4 cents per 
 
 pound 0640 
 
 or 8.76 " " tannin extract, 27%, at 2| cents... 
 
 pei pound 2409 
 
 or 1 . 68 " " sugar at 5 cents per pound 0840 
 
 And such other reagents as may be found necessary. 
 
 The method of softening as employed by the Industrial Water 
 Co. is that in use on the Pennsylvania Lines west of Pittsburgh, 
 Northwest System, at Middlepoint, Ohio, where a machine of 
 capacity to soften 10,000 gallons of water an hour is in use.* The 
 water to be treated is a particularly bad one, yet the softening and 
 purification are practically complete, as will be seen from the fol- 
 lowing analysis (grains per U. S. gallon). 
 
 
 Raw 
 Water. 
 
 Treated 
 
 Water. 
 
 Calcium carbonate, CaCO 3 
 
 16 50 
 
 2 14 
 
 ' ' sulphate, CaSO 4 
 
 16 08 
 
 
 Magnesium carbonate MgOO* 
 
 
 1 32 
 
 ' ' sulphate MgSO 4 
 
 19 65 
 
 
 " chloride, MgCl 2 
 
 1 61 
 
 
 Sodium carbonate, Na 2 CO 3 . 
 
 
 21 
 
 ' ' sulphate, Na 2 SO 4 
 
 3 76 
 
 43 81 
 
 ' ' chloride, NaCl 
 
 
 2 64 
 
 Silica SiO 
 
 65 
 
 58 
 
 Oxides of iron and aluminium, Fe 2 O 3 , A1 2 O 3 
 Volatile and organic matter 
 
 0.19 
 
 7 46 
 
 0.19 
 1 23 
 
 Total solids . . 
 
 63 52 
 
 51 61 
 
 Scale-forming solids 
 
 54 68 
 
 4 23 
 
 
 
 
 Besides the impurities shown in this analysis, the raw water is 
 impregnated with sulphureted hydrogen, which renders it espe- 
 cially corrosive to the brass fittings. 
 
 The chemicals used are fresh lime and soda-ash, and this par- 
 ticular water requires for treatment approximately 4.75 pounds of 
 lime and 4.5 pounds of soda per thousand gallons. Running at 
 full capacity, 1744 pounds of incrusting calcium and magnesium 
 salts are removed per day. 
 
 * Railroad Gazette, 1903. 
 
180 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Referring to the sectional view, the water enters the inlet 7 
 and passes to the overshot water-wheel W, which furnishes the 
 
 FIG. 47. Water-softening Plant, Middlepoint, Ohio Pennsylvania Lines 
 West of Pittsburgh. 
 
 power to drive the stirring-devices. Once in twenty-four hours 
 lime is slaked in the box Ib and dropped through the pipe Ip to 
 the bottom of the lime-tank L, where it is kept in suspension as 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 181 
 
182 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 milk of lime by the rotation of the agitator L5. Through the gate 
 LI, in the bottom of the water-wheel box, a definite proportion of 
 raw water flows by the chute L2 and the bowl L3 down the pipe L4 
 and ascends' through the suspended milk of lime. In its slow up- 
 ward progress it dissolves a sufficiency of calcium hydroxide and 
 becomes saturated lime-water. Owing to the absence of agitators 
 in the upper portion of this tank, the liquid there is comparatively 
 quiet, and by the time the exit L6 is reached, all the heavy parti- 
 cles of milk of lime have been left behind by the lime-water, which 
 issues clear and is of constant strength. Flowing through the chute 
 L6 it meets the main body of raw water from the gate Rl as well 
 as the proper proportion of soda-ash solution which has previously 
 been prepared in the box sb. The soda solution is fed by means of 
 the valve SV, which is so constructed and automatically operated 
 that the flow of solution is always proportional to the amount of 
 water to be treated. The water and the reagents then pass down- 
 ward through the reaction-pipe R2 into the reaction-tank R. This 
 tank is of such a size as to permit the water to remain in it for a 
 period of half an hour, during which time it is very thoroughly 
 agitated by means of the stirrer-bars on three vertical shafts, R3, 
 R3, R3, actuated from the water-wheel by beveled gearing and 
 chain transmission. When it is ready to pass out at R4 and 
 through the downtake D into the settling-tank S, all the reactions 
 are completed and the precipitate is in such condition that it will 
 settle very readily. The precipitate subsides to the bottom of the 
 settling-tank S; the treated water rises slowly and passes through 
 the wood-fiber filter F, where the very small quantity of matter 
 which is carried in suspension is deposited. The water then flows 
 clear and soft from the outlet to the storage- tank. At intervals 
 the precipitates which have settled to the bottom of the tanks are 
 disposed of by opening the valves V, V, V. In washing the filter 
 and disposing of the precipitates, approximately 3 per cent of the 
 total amount of water treated daily is used. When required, water 
 is supplied to the lime-box Ib and the soda-box sb through the 
 piping P. This also supplies water for operating the brake-con- 
 trolled chemical hoist H, which has capacity to raise 200 pounds 
 of reagents in 10 seconds. By means of the trolley crane TC and 
 the receiving platform RP the chemicals are conveniently distrib- 
 uted to their respective boxes. 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 183 
 
 Another plant installed by the same company, whose system is 
 one of continuous operation, combined with automatic regulation 
 of the supply of chemicals, is at Ivorydale, Ohio, at the works of the 
 Proctor & Gamble Co., with a capacity of 35,000 gallons per 
 hour. It purifies all the water used for feed purposes in their 
 boiler-house, which supplies the steam used in the manufacture of 
 
 FIG. 49. Water-softening Plant of Proctor and Gamble Co., 
 Ivorydale, Ohio. 
 
 soap and candles, as well as that required in the refining of cotton- 
 seed-oil and glycerin. In addition, softened water is also supplied 
 to the boilers of the company's electric-lighting plant, and also 
 to the locomotives of the Ivorydale & Millcreek Valley R.R. 
 
 The plant installed is shown by the view, Fig. 49, and by the 
 plan and sections, Figs. 50 and 51. It consists of a lime-tank, a 
 reaction-tank and two settling-tanks, with a wood-fiber filter at 
 
184 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 1 
 
 E 
 
 I 
 I 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 185 
 
186 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 the top of each settling-tank through which the water passes in 
 its upward flow. In addition there are two small vats for slak- 
 ing lime and two similar ones for preparing soda-ash solution, all 
 supported on the lime-tank. 
 
 The untreated water first passes to the overshot wheel, located 
 over the reaction-tank, as shown in Figs. 50 and 51. After 
 serving its purpose here, by driving agitators in the reaction- 
 tank, the water is divided into two parts: The main part 
 goes into the reaction-tank and a definite portion flows to the 
 bottom of the lime-tank through a central inlet pipe. Milk of 
 lime is prepared once in twelve hours in the lime-slaking vats, 
 and admitted to the bottom of the lime-tank, where the lime is 
 kept in suspension by the rotating agitator shown in Figs. 50 and 
 51. In its slow upward progress through the milk of lime the 
 untreated water dissolves a sufficiency of calcium hydroxide and 
 becomes saturated lime-water. Owing to the absence of agita- 
 tors in the upper portion of this tank the liquid there is compara- 
 tively quiet, and by the tune the exit is reached all the heavy 
 particles of milk of lime have been left behind by the lime-water, 
 which issues clear and of constant strength. Flowing through 
 the chute it meets the main body of raw water issuing from the 
 gate in the bottom of the wheel-box, as well as the proper pro- 
 portion of soda-ash solution which has previously been prepared 
 in the soda-vats. 
 
 The plant was designed to have ample capacity to ensure: 
 (1) The use of nothing but clear saturated lime-water; (2) Com- 
 plete reaction of the chemicals; (3) Thorough settling, with an 
 upward rise of water at so slow a rate that almost none of the pre- 
 cipitate reaches the wood-fiber filter; thus rendering it unneces- 
 sary to renew the wood fiber except at very long intervals. 
 
 An analysis of water before and after treatment, by Froehling 
 & Robertson, of Richmond, Va., is given on the next page. 
 
 This particular water requires for treatment approximately 
 4 pounds of fresh lime and 0.5 pound soda ash per 1000 gallons. 
 When running at full capacity 2006 pounds per day of incrusting 
 calcium and magnesium salts are removed by this plant. 
 
 The soda solution is fed by means of a valve and connections 
 which are so constructed and automatically operated that the 
 flow of solution is always proportional to the amount of water to 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 187 
 
 
 Grains per 
 
 U. S. Gal. 
 
 
 Raw Water. 
 
 Treated 
 Water. 
 
 Silica 
 
 . 7523 
 
 . 2099 
 
 Alumina and iron oxid6 
 
 0641 
 
 0641 
 
 Calcium carbonate 
 
 13 3140 
 
 7990 
 
 ' ' sulphate . ... 
 
 1750 
 
 5190 
 
 Magnesium sulphate 
 
 3 0384 
 
 1 2072 
 
 ' ' carbonate . , 
 
 3 1142 
 
 3966 
 
 Sodium chloride 
 
 1.2772 
 
 1 3297 
 
 ' ' sulphate 
 
 4141 
 
 1 7962 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 22 1493 
 
 6 3217 
 
 
 
 
 Eng. News, Vol. 51. 
 
 be treated. The water and the reagents then pass downward 
 through a pipe into the reaction-tank. This tank is of such size 
 as to permit the water to remain in it for a period of one hour, 
 during which time it is thoroughly agitated by means of the stirrer 
 bars on five vertical shafts, actuated from the water-wheel by 
 beveled gearing and chain transmission. When the water is 
 ready to pass to and through the downtakes into the settling- 
 tanks, all the reactions are completed and the precipitate is in 
 such condition that it will settle very readily. The precipitate 
 subsides to the bottom of the settling-tanks; the treated water 
 rises slowly and passes through the wood-fiber filters, where the 
 very small quantity of matter which is carried in suspension is 
 deposited. The water then flows clear and soft from the outlets 
 to the various boiler houses. 
 
 At intervals the precipitates which have settled to the bottom 
 of the settling-tanks are disposed of by opening the valves con- 
 nected with the sludge piping, located at the bottom of the settling- 
 tanks. 
 
 In washing the filter and disposing of the precipitates, approxi- 
 mately 2 per cent of the total amount of water treated daily is used 
 
 Hoisting apparatus is provided to raise the various reagents 
 from the ground level to the lime- and the soda-mixing vate. 
 
 Mr. E. J. Yard, chief engineer of the Denver & Rio Grande, 
 says: We have three purifying plants in use on this system. Two 
 were put in by the Industrial Company one at Ruby and one 
 at Helper, and one by the Tweeddale Company at Thompson's 
 
188 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Springs. The estimated cost of chemicals per 1000 gallons at 
 Ruby and Helper is approximately 1 cent; the cost for operating 
 the plant, including labor and chemicals, averages about 4 cents. 
 The cost of the chemicals per 1000 gallons of water treated at 
 Thompson's by the Tweeddale system is 7.6 cents; labor, fuel 
 and incidentals bring up the total cost of treatment to 11 J cents. 
 
 The Pennsylvania Lines West of Pittsburgh report two plants, 
 put in by the Industrial Company at Washington and Middlepoint, 
 Ohio, respectively, and in service since June. 
 
 The figures for Washington are: Total cost per 1000 gallons 
 2.238 cents; average scale- forming material in raw water, 29.04; 
 average degree of hardness of treated water, 4.97. For Middlepoint : 
 Total cost per 1000 gallons 6.052 cents; average scale-forming 
 material in raw water, 54.17; average degree of hardness of treated 
 water, 5.98. 
 
 The Chicago and Northwestern Railway furnishes some figures 
 on the cost of operating 16 purifying plants on the North Western 
 during July, 1903, giving the cost of pumping water without 
 softening, and the cost of softening. The former ranges from 1.59 
 to 8.17 cents per 1000 gallons, and the latter from 0.73 to 6.33 
 cents per 1000 gallons, for the different stations. The cost of 
 chemicals ranged from 0.47 to 6.94 cents per 1000 gallons. 
 
 Figs. 52, 53, and 54 illustrate the Kennicott water-softener. It 
 consists of a tall cylindrical tank with a platform at its top, on 
 which is located the apparatus for dissolving the reagents and 
 automatically varying their inlet to the raw water. 
 
 In the center of the tank is a conical downtake, within which 
 is the lime-water saturator; the mixing-tank for this is in its top. 
 
 After reagents and raw water are thoroughly mixed, the scale- 
 forming substances are deposited at the bottom, from which they 
 are blown off or run off to sewer. After the water comes down 
 the central tube it rises through the perforated baffle plates, upon 
 which plates any remaining precipitate is gathered, after which it 
 falls off to bottom. These plates never have to be cleaned. At 
 the top the water finally passes through a wood-fiber filter, where 
 any precipitate which has gotten through the baffle plates is taken 
 up; the water then passes through the overflow outlet to the 
 proper supply lines. 
 
 The power for mixing reagents and water is supplied by the 
 
WATER-SOFTEN ING. 
 
 189 
 
 .FiG. 52. Kennicott Water-softener. 
 
190 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 water passing over a water-wheel in a casing, shown in the illus- 
 tration. The lime and soda-ash are lifted by the same power; 
 a drum on the water-wheel shaft, loose fit, is engaged by a clutch 
 and operates a rope, also shown in the illustration. 
 
 The water flows from the "hard-water box," top of Fig. 54, 
 into the softener over the encased water-wheel; one or more of 
 the reagent boxes like the one shown at the bottom of Fig. 54 are 
 provided as needed. 
 
 FIG. 53. Kennicott Automatic Hoisting Apparatus. 
 
 As the amount of the water pumped into the softener varies 
 the head of water in hard-water box it raises or lowers the float 
 in it. This float is connected to the lift-pipe, so that the head of 
 the reagent over the opening in the lift-pipe is at all times the same 
 as the head of hard water over opening in hard-water box. 
 
 The Union Pacific Railroad has eleven Kennicott softeners, 
 varying in capacity from 8000 to 20,000 gallons per hour. Twenty- 
 five more are now under erection at the rate of three per month. 
 The cost of chemicals varies from 0.3 to 3.6 cents per 1000 gallons. 
 The ten plants now in operation treat 1,441,000 gallons per day 
 at an average cost of 1 J cent sper 1000 gallons. The chief engineer 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 191 
 
 says: "The saving in boiler repairs certainly warrants the ex- 
 penditure of the amount necessary to treat the waters at all points 
 where we either have, or are erecting, softeners. Another saving 
 is in locomotive fuel, which will be no small item. ... In the ten 
 plants we are removing 2790 pounds of solids per day. Cost of 
 chemicals for this work is 58 cents per 100 pounds of incrusting 
 
 FIG. 54. Kennicott Automatic-regulating Device. 
 
 solids removed. Even though this figure were doubled it would 
 still be an economy, as any experienced man knows that 100 pounds 
 t of scale cannot be removed from boilers for any such figure." 
 
 The Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis & Omaha has four Helwig 
 and one Kennicott softener. The average cost for chemicals 
 per 1000 gallons is given at 3 cents. 
 
192 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 FIG. 55. Kennicott Water-softener, Union Pacific R R., Columbus, Neb. 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 193 
 
 In general, it may be stated that there are two systems of 
 water softening, the intermittent and the automatic apparatus; 
 the one now about to be described and the two preceding belong 
 to the latter classification, the remainder to the intermittent type. 
 
 The N. Y. Continental Jewell Filtration Company's scientific- 
 automatic water-softening apparatus is so called because the raw 
 water flows into the apparatus in a continuous stream at the point 
 of the inlet, the purified water likewise flowing continuously from 
 the point of outlet. The apparatus comprises one main settling- 
 tank, smaller auxiliary tanks for chemical solutions, mixing, etc. 
 The water enters the inlet or controlling-tank through a valve at 
 the top, and is automatically controlled by a system of floats. 
 It then flows over a water-wheel, furnishing power for the mix- 
 ing devices, thence to a lower vessel in which the flow is divided 
 by means of an adjustable gate; the larger portion goes to mix- 
 ing-tank, the balance to solution-tank where it dissolves the 
 reagent, the solution being carried to mixing-tank, encountering 
 the steam of raw water. Here it is thoroughly mixed by a con- 
 tinuously revolving mechanical agitator. From here it passes to 
 the bottom of a large settling-tank, where it slowly rises to the 
 top, the heavier particles settling. In the top of the tank is a 
 bed of filtering material, intercepting the lighter particles and 
 allowing the softened water to flow from the top outlet bright 
 and clear. 
 
 Another system of water-softening apparatus, designed by the 
 N. Y. Continental Jewell Filtration Company, is known as the 
 Intermittent type, so called because each tank of a series is filled, 
 treated according to its individual requirements, and the water 
 is entirely consumed before allowing any more raw water to enter 
 the tank. 
 
 Tank A is filled with raw water, then the proper weight of 
 chemical reagents are added and the mechanical agitator is set 
 in operation until we obtain a complete mixture of the chemicals 
 and water; the stirring is then stopped and the water comes to 
 a state of rest, and must remain so for the complete precipitation 
 of all the heavy particles of sediment to the bottom of the tank. 
 
 The water is drawn off near the surface by means of a floating 
 outlet pipe; this water then flows through connecting piping to a 
 filter, after passing which it is clear and ready for consumption. 
 
194 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 195 
 
196 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 While this process has been going on in tank A tank B has 
 been furnishing the water for consumption. 
 
 The operation is thus continued ; first one tank then the other. 
 
 In one plant using this company's system of softening the 
 analysis of water before and after treatment is: 
 
 
 Grains p< 
 
 jr Gallon. 
 
 
 Before. 
 
 After. 
 
 Oxide of iron. . . 
 Carbonate of lime 
 ' ' ' ' magnesia. . . 
 Hydrate of magnesia. . . . 
 Sulphate of soda 
 " ' ' lime 
 
 .630 
 10.768 
 
 4.777 
 
 1 725 
 
 1.450 
 
 .870 
 1.802 
 
 Chloride of sodium 
 
 2.080 
 
 2.000 
 
 Grains per U. S. gallon. . . 
 Hardness, Clark, degs. F. 
 
 19.981 
 17.5 
 
 6.172 
 3.00 
 
 A typical installation of the We-fu-go system is that at the 
 Lorain Steel Company's works, Lorain, Ohio. 
 
 FIG. 58. -Operating Floor of the We-fu-go System (12,000 B.H.P). 
 Lorain Steel Co., Lorain, Ohio. 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 197 
 
 In this plant the water supply first enters the settling- or 
 chemical-treatment tank. A two-armed paddle near the bottom 
 of this tank thoroughly mixes the chemicals and water. Water 
 from the hot well of the blower-engine condensing-plant hastens 
 the chemical reactions. From the treating-tank the water flows 
 by gravity to the filters, where all impure solid matter which 
 did not settle in treating-tank is removed. From here the water 
 passes by gravity to the clean-water reservoir for storage, from 
 which it is pumped to the heaters and steam-boilers. 
 
 A We-fu-go plant at Bloomington, 111., on the Chicago & Alton 
 K.R. is reported to soften water at a cost of about 6 cents per 
 1000 gallons. 
 
 A large plant, ultimately to soften from 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 
 gallons of water a day has been furnished the Tennessee Coal & 
 Iron R.R. Company at Ensley, Ala., by the Pittsburg Filter Manu- 
 facturing Company; it treats water from village creek, which is 
 especially bad duing the dry weather, as can be seen from this 
 analysis : 
 
 Grains per U. S. Gallon. 
 
 Sodium chloride 3 . 67 
 
 Calcium sulphate 12 . 47 
 
 Magnesium sulphate 11 .00 
 
 Silica 4 .02 
 
 Iron sulphate 6 . 53 
 
 Organic matter 1 . 92 
 
 Free sulphuric acid 9.81 
 
 The free sulphuric acid is due to pollution by manufacturing 
 plants and may be nil in winter and early spring. Lime and soda- 
 ash are the chemicals employed, and they are prepared sepa- 
 rately in 600-gal. tanks; tanks are in duplicate. The solutions 
 are run to the raw-water or precipitating tank, which after being 
 filled is stirred up by compressed air at 10 to 20 pounds pressure, 
 and after standing from one to four hours the clarified water is 
 drawn down to 12 inches deep at the shallowest part. Sludge is 
 flushed out to sewer as necessary. Two mechanical pressure-filters 
 20 feet in diameter by 8 feet high are used in this plant. The 
 filters are washed out about once a week. Underneath the filters 
 is a clear-water reservoir with a capacity of 18,000 gallons, from 
 which the clear water for cleansing the filters is lifted by the cen- 
 trifugal pumps. 
 
198 
 
 WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 199 
 
 (Pittsburgh Filter Manufacturing Co.) 
 
 FIG. 60. Continuous Water-softener. 
 
200 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 As an example of municipal water-softening, one of the largest, 
 if not the largest, plant now in operation is that designed by the 
 Pittsburgh Testing Laboratory, Limited, at Winnipeg, Manitoba. 
 Mr. James O. Handy, Chief Engineer of the laboratory, has fur- 
 nished the following notes concerning it. The plant is illustrated 
 by Figs. 60a, 606, and 60c. 
 
 The Winnipeg Softening-plant. The artesian-well water sup- 
 plied to Winnipeg contains in its natural state the following ele- 
 ments in the amounts stated: 
 
 Carbonate of lime 16.0 gra ns per imperial gallon 
 
 ' ' ' ' magnesium ..8.5' ' ' 
 
 Sulphate of magnesium. ..12.0' ' ' 
 
 " sodium 5.5 ' 
 
 Carbonate of sodium 3.0* ' ' 
 
 Chloride of sodium 27.5 ' 
 
 Other compounds are present in minute amounts and are of no 
 significance in this connection. The constituents mentioned have 
 remained almost constant in kind and in quantity for over 2J years. 
 Of the constituents mentioned, only the first three cause the 
 water to be hard. Of these three compounds, the softening process 
 removes only the first two, i.e., the carbonates of lime and mag- 
 nesium. 
 
 Sulphate of magnesium, while acting to some extent on soap, 
 does not form any scale in boilers. In order to remove it from 
 the water it would be necessary to add soda-ash as well as lime. 
 This would involve expense and other objections out of propor- 
 tion to the benefit gained. 
 
 The removal of the carbonates of lime and magnesium from 
 the water eliminates a little over two-thirds of the hardening 
 substances from the water. As explained above, the hardening 
 substance which remains is the least harmful, so that the water 
 is in reality more thoroughly softened than would at first appear 
 to be the case. 
 
 For carrying out the softening process the arrangement is as 
 follows: The hard water is delivered through a 16-inch pipe to a 
 weir-box, or measuring device, at a point about 30 feet above the 
 prairie level. Here the water divides automatically into two parts f 
 always in the same ratio to each other. The smaller part is mixed 
 continuously with cream of lime and made into lime-water, which 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 201 
 
202 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 203 
 
 n n c 
 
 s * 
 1 1 1 
 
 c 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 3 
 
 [ 
 
 [_. 
 
 ^4 
 
 f 
 
 2- 
 
 b-i 
 
 8 S 
 
 ? 
 
 .t I 
 
 0) ~ 
 
 - o 
 x 
 
 > 
 
 s 
 
204 BOILER- WATERS. 
 
 afterwards mixes with the hard water and softens it. As the making 
 of the lime-water requires a little time, it is so arranged that the 
 water just starting to be made into lime-water forces forward in a 
 constant stream to mix with the hard water an exact equivalent 
 amount of lime-water already formed. In other words, the water 
 to be made into lime-water, as soon as it falls over the weir dis- 
 places lime-water already made. Mixed with cream of lime, it 
 flows in at the bottom of the lime-water tanks, where it rises 
 steadily and clarifies, and eventually flows forward to mix with 
 the hard water. There is thus a steady stream of clarified lime- 
 water being forced out of the lime-water tanks by the water which 
 is entering below, and the amount of this stream is always pro- 
 portional to the hard water which it is to soften. It is necessary, 
 however, that the lime-water is always of the proper strength. 
 Measured samples of lime-water are tested with a standard acid 
 solution. If found under strength, cream of lime is supplied at 
 a higher rate. If found over strength, the supply of cream of 
 lime is diminished. Two gauges are on the side of the weir-box- 
 One shows how much hard water is being pumped to the plant; 
 the other shows how much cream of lime is being used for making 
 lime-water. The amounts shown on the two gauges must be kept 
 in a simple ratio to each other. When this is done very little test- 
 ing is required. 
 
 The apparatus for preparing and pumping up the lime-cream 
 consists of a slaking-bed, a mixing-well, and a ball-valve pump. 
 The speed of the purr^ is regulated from the operating platform. 
 The lime-water is mixed thoroughly with the hard water in a 
 baffle-channel. Thence the turbid soft water flows to the bottom 
 of two 20'x30' tanks, where it deposits nearly all of its suspended 
 matter, or sludge. Rising slowly to the top, it flows off through 
 floating discharge-pipes to the filters, which give it its final clarifica- 
 tion. The softened water then flows to the carbonating box, where 
 it meets purified carbonic-acid gas and absorbs it. This carbo- 
 nated water flows into a 300,000-gallon reservoir, whence it is 
 pumped to the city. 
 
 There are seven filters, each one containing about 1450 square 
 feet of filter-cloth surface. Each filter runs about twenty-four 
 hours. It is then opened and the cloths are removed, washed, 
 and replaced. 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 205 
 
 Sludge Recovery. On account of the high price of good lime 
 in Winnipeg, the recovery of the waste lime from the softening 
 process is being seriously considered. This would require a plant 
 for purifying the sludge by removing the magnesia. Presses, 
 drying apparatus, and special kilns would also be needed. It 
 
 FIG. 61. Tweeddale System. Section and Elevation. 
 
 'ir Compressor or Inj'ecror 
 ~%'5team Pipe 
 
 Top Plan. 
 
 FIG. 62. Tweeddale System. Plan. 
 
 would be possible, however, to make high-grade lime for about 
 one-third of what it is now costing. 
 
 The Tweeddale System, the invention of the late Wm. Tweed- 
 dale, of Topeka, Kan., is of the intermittent type, and is not 
 automatic in its action, which features are said by its makers to 
 
206 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 conduce to greater efficiency and likewise uniformity in results 
 obtained. The process requires no pumps or machinery and needs 
 a small amount of attention in every six hours when introducing 
 the chemical solution and putting the aerating jets in action. The 
 construction and arrangement are shown by Fig. 61. Two wooden 
 tanks are used for treating purposes, while the other is pumped 
 from or running to supply. Each holds 6 to 8 hours' supply; two 
 50,000-gallon tanks are used for a 2000 horse-power boiler capacity. 
 Raw water enters the bottom of tank and passes to a filtering- 
 chamber filled with coke and iron, then through 4 radial pipes 
 with curved ends. When the tank is nearly full, air at 45 pounds 
 pressure is forced through radial arms and a J-inch hole in the 
 top (air may be supplied by compressor or steam- jet), which 
 causes violent agitation of the water, and volatile and organic 
 matter is said to be removed. After 5 minutes chemical reagents 
 are poured in and agitated 15 minutes, then coagulant is added 
 and 1 .to 2 hours allowed for sedimentation. The sludge is allowed 
 to accumulate to 5 or 6 inches in thickness, when it is washed out 
 say once in two or three weeks. It is also claimed that the 
 stirring of the sludge by the air aids the settling. Treated water 
 is removed from the top by means of a floating or swinging pipe 
 fitted with a float. For railway plants this system uses one treat- 
 ing-tank only, the place of a second tank being taken by the rail- 
 way regular supply-tank, into which the treated water is pumped 
 after each batch of water has been purified. 
 
 Water at Topeka, Kan., Edison Illuminating Company's Sta- 
 tion treated by this process gave results as follows: 
 
 
 Grains per Gallon. 
 
 Before. 
 
 After. 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 17.20 
 
 10.05 
 15.26 
 0.00 
 0.56 
 4.42 
 0.00 
 3.03 
 20.33 
 
 2.23 
 1.45 
 0.00 
 0.51 
 0.00 
 0.61 
 0.09 
 0.00 
 21.51 
 
 ' ' magnesia 
 Sulphate of lime 
 
 " " magnesia 
 " " iron 
 
 Silica 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 Organic matter 
 
 Alkali solids 
 
 Total solids 
 
 70.85 
 50.52 
 
 26.40 
 4.89 
 
 Total incrusting solids. . . . 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 207 
 
 In the Scaife System the feed-water first enters the heater, 
 when it is heated to 200-210 F. A portion of the free car- 
 bonic acid is driven off by the heat; the bicarbonates of calcium 
 and magnesia are precipitated as carbonates of these elements, 
 the precipitation taking place on the heater trays or pans. A 
 pump forces this hot water into a precipitating-tank, where the 
 chemicals are introduced by means of two small pumps. Some- 
 times these chemicals are introduced into the feed-water on its 
 way to the precipitation-tank. The scale-forming substances which 
 
 FIG. 63. The Scaife System. 
 
 are precipitated in this tank sink to the bottom, from whence they 
 are removed. Lighter substances pass on to the filters, which 
 remove all suspended matter and gaseous or foul odors. 
 
 This system can be used with the closed type of heater, but in 
 that event less of the carbonic acid can be removed than is the 
 case with the open heater, which is to be preferred for use in con- 
 nection with this system. 
 
 A system extensively used abroad and controlled here by its 
 inventor, Mr. Halvor Breda, of Berlin, Germany, known as the 
 Breda System, employs as chemical reagents slaked lime and soda. 
 
208 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Its distinctive feature, however, is in the heating of all water 
 before treatment. Other features are automatic control of the 
 flow of chemical solutions, design of lime-water saturator, and 
 the independent mechanical filter. One of these plants, with a 
 capacity of 1050 gallons per day, is installed at the factory of 
 Wm. Demuth & Co., Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 
 FIG. 64. The We-fu-go Continuous System. 
 
 All the water enters the top of the distributor (Figs. 67, 68, 
 and 69), when it is broken up by a perforated plate and sent its 
 several ways. From the bottom of the water-heater and the top 
 of the lime-saturator it goes to the central mixing compartment 
 of settling-tank. The chemically charged water now goes to bot- 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 209 
 
 FIG. 65. Sludge and Old Scale from Boilers Using Water from 
 Scaife Softener. 
 
 FIG. 66. Section Through Filter of Breda System. 
 
210 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 torn of settling- tank, then slowly up the outer clearing compart- 
 ment, over a notched circular collecting-weir, and through pipe to 
 
 FIG. 67. 
 
 FIG. 68. 
 
 FIG. 69. 
 FIGS. 67, 68, and 69. Breda System of Water Softening. 
 
 filter. By means of a tilting-basin, a soda solution is discharged 
 five or six times per minute into the lime-tank. The filter is a 
 fine gravel, mechanical-type filter (Fig. 66). 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 
 
 211 
 
 The Bruun-Lowener Water-softener (Figs. 70 and 71), manu- 
 factured by the American Water Softener Co., Philadephia, Pa., 
 is one of the automatic type, requiring no motive power; it is also 
 
 FIG. 70. Bruun-Lowener Softener 
 
 A. 
 
 FIG. 71. Bruun-Lowener Softener. 
 
 one in which the relative proportion of chemicals to crude water 
 remains the same at all times. 
 
 The apparatus is entirely self-contained. Crude water enters 
 
212 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 one of the chambers of the oscillating receiver C through the 
 pipe K. A semi-circular tank D above C contains the chemicals, 
 soda-ash, and lime; a valve in the bottom of D allows the chemi- 
 cals to fall into the chamber of C, the oscillating receiver. The 
 oscillation of this receiver by means of levers actuates the valve- 
 outlet in D. The levers are provided with means of regulation of 
 a quantity of chemicals. When one chamber of receiver C is 
 filled, its center of gravity changes and the receiver tips and 
 empties the water into the mixing-tank below, at the same time 
 the other chamber is brought under the outlet of inlet-pipe K', 
 when it fills the same operation is gone through with. 
 
 The lime-mi k used in this system is of 10 per cent strength; 
 this is kept in constant motion by an agitator operated from oscil- 
 lating receiver C. A plate $ attached to the bottom of the receiver 
 C keeps water and chemicals in mixing-tank B in motion. The 
 mixture then passes to a heating-chamber H, where it is heated 
 to, say, 140 F., to encourage precipitation of some scale-forming 
 materials. 
 
 Where it is necessary to soften the water while cold, a larger 
 settling-tank is required. The water runs from heating-chamber 
 through by-pass G into settling-tank A, where precipitation is 
 effected. Tefore the water leaves the softener it passes through 
 the filter I, made of excelsior tightly packed between two rows o^ 
 wooden bars, after which it runs to storage- tank and is drawn 
 off as required from pipe L. A ball valve P on pipe K regulates 
 the flow of water to the oscillating receiver C. 
 
 Water for Locomotives.* The Chicago, Milwaukee & St. 
 Paul R.R. experimented for many years (1900) upon water for 
 locomotives, and their chemists obtained results as follows. 
 
 Varieties of water may be classified by either of two 
 methods : 
 
 1. By their chemical composition. 
 
 2. By their effect in use. 
 
 The second (2) is what interests steam users most. 
 In the first class (1) are placed 
 
 a. Alkaline waters. 
 
 b. Non-alkaline, bad and good. 
 
 * Stillman's Engrg. Chemistry. 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 213 
 
 In the second class (2) 
 
 a. Those causing foaming and corrosion but non-crusting. 
 
 6. Hard or incrusting. 
 
 c. Soft, non-alkaline and good. 
 
 These two classes are related in this wise: a of class 1," alkaline" 
 waters will produce the trouble mentioned in a of class 2; that 
 is foaming, and in certain cases corrosion. 
 
 It is, however, impossible to set hard and fast limits for each 
 class, one merging into the other, and what would be considered 
 good water in the West might be thought bad in the East. 
 
 In the non-incrusting group is formed a variety of actions. 
 A well-known property of alkali in water is to cause foaming and 
 priming when sudden reduction of pressure occurs upon opening 
 the throttle. The point at which this action begins to be apparent 
 depends upon a number of circumstances. 
 
 With a boiler overworked and foul from mud it appears sooner 
 than in one having ample heating-surface with moderate train load, 
 uniform resistance and consequent regular consumption of steam. 
 
 With the non-incrusting salts are associated a few that are 
 readily decomposed in contact with iron and attack it, causing 
 gradual corrosion. 
 
 These are usually magnesium chlorides and sulphates, a very 
 small amount of which, say 10 grains per gallon, should condemn 
 the water. 
 
 Organic matter is supposed also to have this corrosive action, 
 but in the presence of alkali the danger is not great and with 
 frequent blowing out but little attention need be given it. 
 
 The water may be classified as follows : 
 
 1 to 10 grains of solids per gallon soft water. 
 10 " 20 " ?' " " " moderately hard water. 
 Above 25 " " " " " very hard water. 
 
 "Boiler compounds" are used by this railroad company. Total 
 alkali, including that in the " compound/' is kept under 50 grains 
 per gallon or trouble is liable to happen from foaming. 
 
 This " compound" is one part caustic soda and one-half part 
 sodium carbonate. This water is surface water, in the forest 
 region of Wisconsin at Wauvau. 
 
214 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 Grains per Gallon. 
 
 (Oxide of iron. . . 23 
 Calcium carbonate 2 . 26 
 ' ' sulphate . 46 
 
 Total 2.95 
 
 Non-incrusting matter. { ^gamc an ? volatile 3 ' 15 
 
 1 Alkaline chlorides 0.68 
 
 Total 3.83 
 
 Total residue, solid 6 . 78 
 
 A Very Bad Boiler Feed-water. The following is a non- 
 alkaline, badly incrusting water from Lenox Creek, Dakota: 
 
 Grains per Gallon. 
 
 Incrusting matter. . . . ( Calcium c ^bonate 40 . 31 
 
 ( Magnesium carbonate. . . 7.17 
 
 Total 47.48 
 
 f Organic and volatile. ... 14.34 
 
 Non-incrusting matter, -j Magnesium sulphate. ... 46.07 
 i- Alkaline chlorides 1 . 31 
 
 Total 61 . 72 
 
 Total residue, solid 109 .20 
 
 This water is a difficult one to purify and soften, and is also 
 high in organic matter. 
 
 We now give examples of an artesian well-water that is worth- 
 less for boiler-feed purposes: 
 
 M. N. 
 
 f Calcium carbonate 61 . 85 180 . 00 
 
 Incrusting matter j " sulphate 41 .44 35.46 
 
 I Oxides 5.00 
 
 Total 103.29 220.46 
 
 f Alkaline sulphates 64 . 83 150 . 92 
 
 Non-incrusting matter. chlorides 13.94 1.14 
 
 Magnesium sulphate 20 . 90 
 
 [ Organic and volatile 23 . 42 
 
 Total 78.77 196.38 
 
 Total residue, solid. 182 .06 416 . 84 
 
 M is from Kimball, Dakota. 
 
 N is from a 130-foot well at Fargo, N. Dak. 
 
WATER-SOFTENING. 215 
 
 On the western divisions of this road frequency of washing-out 
 boilers is increased, doing so as often as once in 300 to 400 
 miles run. Hot water is always used, and the boiler is filled again 
 with hot water a very good practice. Fully 75 per cent of the 
 number of cracked fire-box sheets are saved by this practice alone, 
 and, of course, repairs are reduced and mileage of locomotive in- 
 creased. 
 
 A water-softener producing 30,000 pounds of water per hour 
 for locomotive feeding actually saved in fuel 5 tons of coal per 
 week at $5 per ton; it also saved $750 repairs in six months. 
 
 Mr. W. H. Maw gives as an advantage of water-softening the 
 ability to use "a pure water and to use boilers of the locomotive, 
 multi-tubular and water-tube types." This advantage he considers 
 as outweighing any question of the cost of softening. Filtration 
 has been found to be most satisfactorily carried out when the 
 filters were operated under atmospheric pressure. When working 
 under pressure filters are liable to get choked, then the water 
 penetrates the mass at the point of least resistance, and when the 
 current of water is reversed for purposes of washing the same set 
 of happenings are found. 
 
 Stromeyer and Barren are agreed that filters do not remove 
 all the precipitated carbonate of lime in softening apparatus. 
 
 In one case a 6-inch diameter pipe conveyed 9000 gallons of 
 water per hour on a cold-water service. This pipe soon had but a 
 3-inch diameter hole left in it from carbonate of lime incrusting 
 the metal. 
 
 Mr. Wm. Brown, of Siemens Bros. & Co., says, that with 
 feed-waters worked with exhaust steam, distributed zig-zag trays, 
 so placed that a great deal of surface of the water was acted on 
 by the steam and from which water was fed to the boilers at 
 nearly steam temperature, they collected 2200 pounds of dry 
 powder (calcium carbonate) for 2,600,000 English gallons of 
 water (26,000,000 pounds) passed through between the clean- 
 ings. 
 
 Chipping and scraping of each boiler was thus delayed from a 
 seven- week period to a twenty-one-week period, merely brushing 
 them out at seven and fourteen weeks. 
 
 Water-softening by Boiling. Tests to soften water by boil- 
 ing under pressure, made under the direction of Mr. Nicholas 
 
216 BOILER-WATERS 
 
 Knight,* show that the precipitation of calcium carbonate is 
 the same, whether water is boiled under normal atmospheric 
 pressure or under a pressure of six or seven atmospheres. 
 
 Precipitation of magnesium carbonate is increased at the 
 greater pressure. 
 
 Lime-water, 6 to 1, removes 71.42 per cent of temporary hard- 
 ness, while boiling under pressure removes only 63.5 per cent. 
 
 *Eng. News, Vol. 53, p. 311. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 TABLES. 
 
 TABLE I.* 
 
 CONVERSION OF MILLIGRAMMES PER KILOGRAMME INTO GRAINS 
 
 PER U. S. GALLON OF 231 CUBIC INCHES. 
 
 One U. S. gallon of pure water at 60 F., weighed in air at 60 F., at 
 atmospheric pressure of 30 inches of mercury, weighs 58,334.94640743 grains.f 
 
 Parts per 
 Million. 
 
 Grains per 
 U. S. Gallon. 
 
 Parts per 
 Million. 
 
 Grains per 
 U. S. Gallon. 
 
 Parts per 
 Million. 
 
 Grains per 
 U. S. Gallon. 
 
 1 
 
 0.058335 
 
 36 
 
 2.100058 
 
 71 
 
 4.141781 
 
 2 
 
 0.116670 
 
 37 
 
 2.158393 
 
 72 
 
 4.200116 
 
 3 
 
 0.175005 
 
 38 
 
 2.216728 
 
 73 
 
 4.258451 
 
 4 
 
 . 233340 
 
 39 
 
 2.275063 
 
 74 
 
 4.316786 
 
 5 
 
 0.291675 
 
 40 
 
 2.333398 
 
 75 
 
 4.375121 
 
 6 
 
 0.350010 
 
 41 
 
 2.391733 
 
 76 
 
 4.433456 
 
 7 
 
 0.408344 
 
 42 
 
 2.450068 
 
 77 
 
 4.491791 
 
 8 
 
 0.466679 
 
 43 
 
 2 . 508402 
 
 78 
 
 4.550126 
 
 9 
 
 0.525014 
 
 44 
 
 2.566737 
 
 79 
 
 4.608461 
 
 10 
 
 0.583349 
 
 45 
 
 2.625072 
 
 80 
 
 4.666796 
 
 11 
 
 0.641684 
 
 46 
 
 2.683407 
 
 81 
 
 4.725130 
 
 12 
 
 0.700019 
 
 47 
 
 2.741742 
 
 82 
 
 4.783465 
 
 13 
 
 . 758354 
 
 48 
 
 2.800077 
 
 83 
 
 4.841800 
 
 14 
 
 0.816689 
 
 49 
 
 2.858412 
 
 84 
 
 4.900135 
 
 15 
 
 0.875024 
 
 50 
 
 2.916747 
 
 85 
 
 4.958470 
 
 16 
 
 0.933359 
 
 51 
 
 2.975082 
 
 86 
 
 5.016805 
 
 17 
 
 0.991694 
 
 52 
 
 3.033417 
 
 87 
 
 5.075140 
 
 18 
 
 1.050029 
 
 53 
 
 3.091752 
 
 88 
 
 5.133475 
 
 19 
 
 1 . 108364 
 
 54 
 
 3.150087 
 
 89 
 
 5.191810 
 
 20 
 
 1.166699 
 
 55 
 
 3.208422 
 
 90 
 
 5.250145 
 
 21 
 
 1.225034 
 
 56 
 
 3.266757 
 
 91 
 
 5.308480 
 
 22 
 
 . 283369 
 
 57 
 
 3.325092 
 
 92 
 
 5.366815 
 
 23 
 
 .341704 
 
 58 
 
 3.383427 
 
 93 
 
 5.425150 
 
 24 
 
 . 400039 
 
 59 
 
 3.441762 
 
 94 
 
 5.483485 
 
 25 
 
 .458373 
 
 GO 
 
 3 . 500097 
 
 95 
 
 5.541820 
 
 26 
 
 .516708 
 
 61 
 
 3 558432 
 
 96 
 
 5.600155 
 
 27 
 
 .575043 
 
 62 
 
 3.616766 
 
 97 
 
 5.658490 
 
 28 
 
 .633378 
 
 C3 
 
 3.675101 
 
 98 
 
 5.716825 
 
 29 
 
 .691713 
 
 64 
 
 3.733436 
 
 99 
 
 5.775159 
 
 30 
 
 .750048 
 
 G5 
 
 3.791771 
 
 100 
 
 5.833494 
 
 31 
 
 .808383 
 
 66 
 
 3.850106 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 .866718 
 
 67 
 
 3.908441 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 .925053 
 
 68 
 
 3.966776 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 1.983388 
 
 09 
 
 4.025111 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 2.041723 
 
 70 
 
 4.083446 
 
 
 
 * Examination of Water. Wm. P. Mason 
 t See article by Mason on " The U S. Gallon 
 
 in Am. Druggist, January, 1888. 
 217 
 
218 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 TABLE II. 
 
 SAVING FROM HEATING FEED-WATER. 
 
 II 
 
 Temperature of Water Entering Boiler. 
 
 
 
 
 as 
 
 
 IB 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S& 
 
 120 
 
 130 
 
 140 
 
 150 
 
 160 
 
 170 
 
 180 
 
 190 
 
 200 
 
 210 
 
 220 
 
 250 
 
 35 
 
 7.24 
 
 8.09 
 
 8.95 
 
 9.89 
 
 10.66 
 
 11.52 
 
 12.38 
 
 13.24 
 
 14.09 
 
 14.95 
 
 15.81 
 
 19.40 
 
 40 
 
 3.84 
 
 7.69 
 
 8.56 
 
 9.42 
 
 10.28 
 
 11.14 
 
 12.00 
 
 12.87 
 
 13.73 
 
 14.59 
 
 15.45 
 
 18.89 
 
 45 
 
 6.44 
 
 7.30 
 
 8.16 
 
 9.03 
 
 9.90 
 
 10.76 
 
 11.62 
 
 12.49 
 
 13.36 
 
 14.22 
 
 15.09 
 
 18.37 
 
 50 
 
 3.03 
 
 8.89 
 
 7.76 
 
 8.64 
 
 9.51 
 
 10.38 
 
 11.24 
 
 12.11 
 
 12.98 
 
 13.85 
 
 14.72 
 
 17.87 
 
 55 
 
 5.63 
 
 3.49 
 
 7.37 
 
 8.24 
 
 9.11 
 
 9.99 
 
 10.85 
 
 11.73 
 
 12.60 
 
 13.48 
 
 14.35 
 
 17.38 
 
 60 
 
 5.21 
 
 3.08 
 
 6.96 
 
 7.84 
 
 8'. 72 
 
 9.60 
 
 10.47 
 
 11.34 
 
 12.22 
 
 13.10 
 
 13.98 
 
 16.86 
 
 65 
 
 4.80 
 
 5.67 
 
 6.56 
 
 7.44 
 
 8.32 
 
 9.20 
 
 10.08 
 
 10. 9C 
 
 11.84 
 
 12.72 
 
 13.60 
 
 16.35 
 
 70 
 
 4.38 
 
 5.26 
 
 6.15 
 
 7.03 
 
 7.92 
 
 8.80 
 
 9.68 
 
 10.57 
 
 11.45 
 
 12.34 
 
 13.22 
 
 15.84 
 
 75 
 
 3.9" 
 
 4.84 
 
 5.73 
 
 ^.62 
 
 7.51 
 
 8.40 
 
 9.28 
 
 10.17 
 
 11. Of 
 
 11.95 
 
 12.84 
 
 15.33 
 
 80 
 
 3.54 
 
 4.42 
 
 5.32 
 
 6.21 
 
 7.11 
 
 8.00 
 
 8.88 
 
 9.78 
 
 10.67 
 
 11.57 
 
 12. 4e 
 
 14.82 
 
 85 
 
 3.11 
 
 4.00 
 
 4.90 
 
 5.80 
 
 6.70 
 
 7.59 
 
 8.48 
 
 9.38 
 
 10.28 
 
 11.18 
 
 12.07 
 
 14.32 
 
 90 
 
 2.68 
 
 3 58 
 
 4.48 
 
 5.38 
 
 6.28 
 
 7.18 
 
 8.07 
 
 8.98 
 
 9.88 
 
 10.78 
 
 11.68 
 
 13.81 
 
 95 
 
 2 25 
 
 3.15 
 
 4.05 
 
 4.9" 
 
 5.86 
 
 6.77 
 
 7.66 
 
 8.57 
 
 9.47 
 
 10.38 
 
 11.29 
 
 13.31 
 
 100 
 
 1.81 
 
 2.7] 
 
 3.62 
 
 4.53 
 
 5.44 
 
 6.35 
 
 7.25 
 
 s.ie 
 
 9.07 
 
 9.98 
 
 10.88 
 
 12.80 
 
TABLES. 
 
 219 
 
 TABLE III. 
 
 FACTORS OF EVAPORATION. 
 
 Temp, of 
 Feed. 
 
 Gauge Pressure, Pounds. 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 30 40 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 54 
 
 212 F. 
 
 1.0003 
 
 1.0088 
 
 1.0149 1.0197 1.0237 
 
 1.0254 
 
 1.0271 
 
 1.0277 
 
 1.0283 
 
 209 
 
 1.0035 
 
 1.0120 
 
 1.0180J 1.0228 1.0268 
 
 1.0286 
 
 1.0302 
 
 1.0309 
 
 1.0315 
 
 206 
 
 1.0066 
 
 1.0151 
 
 1.0212 
 
 1.0260 1.0299 
 
 1.0317 
 
 1.0334 
 
 1 .0340 
 
 1.0346- 
 
 203 
 
 1.0098 
 
 1.0183 
 
 1.0243 
 
 1.0291 1.0331 
 
 1.0349 
 
 1.0365 
 
 1.0372 
 
 1.0378 
 
 200 
 
 1.0129 
 
 1.0214 1.0275 
 
 1.0323 1.0362 
 
 1.0380 
 
 1.0397 
 
 1.0403 
 
 1.0409 
 
 197 
 
 1.0160 
 
 1.0246 
 
 1.0306 
 
 1.0344 
 
 1.0394 
 
 1.0412 
 
 1.0428 
 
 1.0434 1.0441 
 
 194 
 
 1.0192 
 
 1.0277 
 
 1.0338 
 
 1.0385 
 
 1.0425 
 
 1.0443 
 
 1.0460 
 
 1.0466 1.0472 
 
 191 
 
 1.0223 
 
 1.0308 
 
 1.0369 
 
 1.0417 
 
 1.0457 
 
 1.0474 
 
 1.0491 
 
 1.0497 1.0503 
 
 188 
 
 1.0255 
 
 1.0340 
 
 1.0400 
 
 1.0448 
 
 1.0488 
 
 1.0506 
 
 1.0522 
 
 1.0528 1.0535 
 
 185 
 
 1.0286 
 
 1.0371 
 
 1.0432 
 
 1.0480 
 
 1.0519 
 
 1.0537 
 
 1.0554 
 
 1.0560 1.0566 
 
 182 
 
 1.0317 
 
 1.0403 
 
 1.0463 
 
 1.0511 
 
 1.0551 
 
 1.0568 
 
 1.0585 
 
 1.0591 1.0598 
 
 179 
 
 1.0349 1.0434 
 
 1.0495 
 
 1.0542 
 
 1.0582 
 
 1.0600 
 
 1.0616 
 
 1.0623 1.0629 
 
 176 
 
 1.0380 1.0465 
 
 1.0526 
 
 1.0574 
 
 1.0613 
 
 1.0631 
 
 1.0648 
 
 1.0654 1.0660 
 
 173 
 
 1.0411 
 
 1.0497 
 
 1.0557 
 
 1.0605 
 
 1.0645 
 
 1.0663 
 
 1.0679 
 
 1.0685 1.0692 
 
 170 
 
 1.0443 
 
 1.0528 
 
 1.0589 
 
 1.0636 
 
 1.0676 
 
 1.0694 
 
 1.0710 
 
 1.0717 1.0723 
 
 167 
 
 1.0474 
 
 1.0559 
 
 1.0620! 1.0668 
 
 1.0707 
 
 1.0725 
 
 1.0742 
 
 1.0748 1.0754 
 
 164 
 
 1.0505 
 
 1.0591 
 
 1.0651 
 
 1.0699 
 
 1.0739 
 
 1.0756 
 
 1.0773 
 
 1.0780 1.0786 
 
 161 
 
 1.0537 
 
 1.0622 
 
 1.0682 
 
 1.0730 
 
 1.0770 
 
 1.0788 
 
 1.0804 
 
 1.0811 1.0817 
 
 158 
 
 1.0568 
 
 1.0653 
 
 1.0714 
 
 1.0762 
 
 1.0801 
 
 1.0819 
 
 1.0836 
 
 1.0842 1.0848 
 
 155 
 
 1.0599 
 
 1.0684 
 
 1.0745 
 
 1.0793 
 
 1.0833 
 
 1.0850 
 
 1.0867 
 
 1.0873 1.0880 
 
 152 
 
 1.0631 
 
 1.0716 
 
 1.0776 
 
 1.0824 
 
 1.0864 
 
 1.0882 
 
 1.0898 
 
 1.0905 1.0911 
 
 149 1.0662 
 
 1.0747 
 
 1.0808 
 
 1.0855 
 
 1.0895 
 
 1.0913 
 
 1.0930 
 
 1.0936 1.0942 
 
 146 1.0693 
 
 1.0778 
 
 1.0839 
 
 1.0887 
 
 1.0926 
 
 1.0944 
 
 1.0961 
 
 1.1967 1.0973 
 
 143 1.0724 
 
 1.0810 
 
 1.0870 
 
 1.0918 
 
 1.0958 
 
 1.0975 
 
 1.0992 
 
 1.0998 1.1005 
 
 140 
 
 1.0756 
 
 1.0841 
 
 1.0901 
 
 1.0949 1.0989 
 
 1 . 1007 
 
 1.1023 
 
 1.1030 1.103ft 
 
 137 
 
 1.0787 
 
 1.0872 
 
 1.0933 
 
 1.0980 
 
 1 . 1020 
 
 1.1038 
 
 1.1055 
 
 1.1061 1.1067 
 
 134 
 
 1.0818 
 
 1.0903 
 
 1.0964 
 
 1.1012 
 
 1.1051 
 
 1.1069 
 
 1.1086 
 
 1.1092 1.1098- 
 
 131 
 
 1.0849 
 
 1.0934 
 
 1.0995 
 
 1 . 1043 
 
 1 . 1083 
 
 1.1100 
 
 1.1117 
 
 1.1123 
 
 1.1130- 
 
 128 
 
 1.0881 
 
 1.0966 
 
 1 . 1026 
 
 1 . 1074 
 
 1.1114 
 
 1.1132 
 
 1.1148 
 
 1 . 1 155 
 
 1.1161 
 
 125 
 
 1.0912 
 
 1.0997 
 
 1 . 1057 
 
 1.1105 
 
 1.1145 
 
 1.1163 
 
 1.1179 
 
 1.1186 
 
 1.1192 
 
 122 
 
 1.0943 
 
 1 . 1028 
 
 1 . 1089 
 
 1.1136 
 
 1.1176 
 
 1.1194 
 
 1.1211 
 
 1.1217 
 
 1.1223 
 
 119 
 
 1.0974 
 
 1 . 1059 
 
 1.1120 
 
 1.1168 
 
 1.1207 
 
 1.1225 
 
 1.1242 
 
 1.1248 
 
 1 . 1254 
 
 116 
 
 1 . 1005 
 
 1.1090 
 
 1.1151 
 
 1.1199 
 
 1 . 1239 
 
 1.1256 
 
 1.1273 1.1279 
 
 1.1286 
 
 113 
 
 1 . 1036 
 
 1.1122 
 
 1.1182 
 
 1.1230 
 
 1.1270 
 
 1.1288 
 
 1.1304 1.1310 
 
 1.1317 
 
 110 
 
 1.1068 
 
 1.1153 
 
 1.1213 
 
 1.1261 
 
 1.1301 
 
 1.1319 
 
 1.1335 1.1342 
 
 1.1348 
 
 107 
 
 1 . 1099 
 
 1.1184 
 
 1 . 1245 
 
 1.1292 
 
 1 . 1332 
 
 1.1350 
 
 1.1366 1.1373 
 
 1.1379 
 
 104 
 
 1.1130 
 
 1.1215 
 
 1.1276 
 
 1 . 1323 
 
 1.1363 
 
 1.1381 
 
 1.1398 1.1404 
 
 1.1410 
 
 101 
 
 1.1161 
 
 1 . 1246 
 
 1.1307 
 
 1.1355 
 
 1.1394 
 
 1.1412 
 
 1.1429 1.1435 
 
 1.1441 
 
 98 
 
 1.1192 
 
 1 . 1277 
 
 1 . 1338 
 
 1.1386 
 
 1.1426 
 
 1.1443 
 
 1.1460 1.1466 
 
 1.1473 
 
 96 
 
 1.1223 
 
 1.1309 
 
 1.1369 
 
 1.1417 
 
 1.1457 
 
 1.1475 
 
 1.1491 1.1497 
 
 1.1504 
 
 92 
 
 1.1255 
 
 1.1340 
 
 1.1400 
 
 1 . 1448 
 
 1.1488 
 
 1.1506 
 
 1.1522 1.1529 
 
 1 . 1535 
 
 89 
 
 1 . 1286 
 
 1.1371 
 
 1.1431 
 
 1.1479 
 
 1.1519 
 
 1.1537 
 
 1.1553 1.1560 
 
 1 . 1566 
 
 86 
 
 1.1317 
 
 1.1402 
 
 1.1463 
 
 1.1510 
 
 1.1550 
 
 1.1568 
 
 1.1584 1.1591 
 
 1.1597 
 
 83 
 
 1.1348 
 
 1.1433 
 
 1.1494 
 
 1.1541 
 
 1.158 
 
 1.1599 
 
 1.1616 1.1622 
 
 1.1628 
 
 80 
 
 1.1379 
 
 1.1464 
 
 1 . 1525 
 
 1.1573 
 
 1.1612 
 
 1.1630 
 
 1.1647 1.1653 
 
 1.1659 
 
 77 
 
 1.1410 
 
 1.1495 
 
 1.1556 
 
 1.1604 
 
 1.1644 
 
 1.1661 
 
 1.1678 1.1684 
 
 1.1690 
 
 74 
 
 1.1441 
 
 1 . 1526 
 
 1 . 1587 
 
 1.1635 
 
 1.1675 
 
 1 . 1692 
 
 1.1709 1.1715 
 
 1.1722 
 
 71 
 
 1.1472 
 
 1.1558 
 
 1.1618 
 
 1.1666 
 
 1.1706 
 
 1.1723 
 
 1.1740 1.1746 
 
 1.1753 
 
 68 
 
 1 . 1504 
 
 1 . 1589 
 
 1 . 164S 
 
 1.1697 
 
 1.1737 
 
 1.1755 
 
 1.1771 1.1778 
 
 1.1784 
 
 65 
 
 1 . 1535 
 
 1.1620 
 
 1 . 168C 
 
 1.1728 
 
 1.1768 
 
 1.1786 
 
 1.1802 1.1809 
 
 1.1815 
 
 62 
 
 1.1566 
 
 1.1651 
 
 1.1711 
 
 1.1759 
 
 1.1799 
 
 1.1817 
 
 1.1833 1.1840 
 
 1.1846 
 
 59 
 
 1 . 1597 
 
 1.1682 
 
 1.1742 
 
 1.1790 
 
 1.1830 
 
 1.1848 
 
 1.1864 1.1871 
 
 1.1877 
 
 56 
 
 1.1628 
 
 1.1713 
 
 1.1774 
 
 1.1821 
 
 1.1861 
 
 1.1879 
 
 1.1896 1.1902 
 
 1.1908 
 
 53 
 
 1.1659 
 
 1.1744 
 
 1.1806 
 
 1 . 1852 
 
 1 . 1892 
 
 1.1910 
 
 1.1927 1.1933 
 
 1.1939 
 
 50 
 
 1.1690 
 
 1.1775 
 
 1.1836 1.1884 
 
 1.1923 
 
 1.1941 
 
 1.1958 
 
 1 . 1964 
 
 1.1970 
 
 47 
 
 1.1721 
 
 1.1806 
 
 1.1867 1.1915 
 
 1.1954 
 
 1.1972 
 
 1.1989 
 
 1.1995 
 
 1.2001 
 
 44 
 
 1.1752 
 
 1.1837 
 
 1.1898 1.1946, 1.1986 
 
 1.2003 
 
 1.2020 
 
 1.2026 
 
 1.2032 
 
 41 
 
 1.1783 
 
 1.1868 
 
 1.1929 1.1977 1.2017 
 
 1.2034 
 
 1.2051 
 
 1.2057 
 
 1.2064 
 
 38 1.1814 
 
 1.190C 
 
 1.1960 1.2008 1.2048 
 
 1.2065 
 
 1.2082 
 
 1.2088 
 
 1.2095 
 
 35 1.1845 
 
 1.1931 
 
 1.1991 1.2039 1.2079 
 
 1.2096 
 
 1.2113 
 
 1.2119 
 
 1.2126 
 
 32 1.1876 
 
 1 . 1962 
 
 1.2022 
 
 1.2070 
 
 1.2110 
 
 1.2128 
 
 1.2144 
 
 1.2151 
 
 1.2157 
 
220 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 FACTORS OF EVAPORATION Continued. 
 
 Temp. 
 
 Gauge Pressure, Pounds. 
 
 of 
 Feed. 
 
 56 
 
 58 
 
 60 
 
 65 
 
 70 
 
 75 
 
 80 
 
 85 
 
 90 
 
 95 
 
 212 F. 
 
 1.0290 
 
 1.0295 
 
 .0301 
 
 1.0315 
 
 1.0329 
 
 .0341 
 
 .0353 
 
 .0365 
 
 1.0376 1.0387 
 
 209 
 
 1.0321 
 
 1.0327 
 
 .0333 
 
 1.0346 
 
 1.0360 
 
 .0372 
 
 .0385 
 
 .0397 
 
 1.0408 1.0419 
 
 206 
 
 1.0352 
 
 1.0358 
 
 .0364 
 
 1.0378 
 
 1.0391 
 
 .0403 
 
 .0416 
 
 .0428 
 
 1.0439 1.0450 
 
 203 
 
 1.0384 
 
 1.0390 
 
 .0396 
 
 .0410 
 
 1.0423 
 
 .0435 
 
 .0448 
 
 .0460 
 
 .0471 1.0482 
 
 200 
 
 1.0415 
 
 1.0421 
 
 .0427 
 
 .0441 
 
 1.0454 
 
 .0466 
 
 .0479 
 
 .0491 
 
 .0502 1.0513 
 
 197 
 
 1.0447 
 
 1.0453 
 
 .0458 
 
 .0477 
 
 1.0486 
 
 .0498 
 
 .0511 
 
 1.0522 
 
 .0533 1.0544 
 
 194 
 
 1.0478 
 
 .0484 
 
 .0490 
 
 .0504 
 
 .0517 
 
 .0529 
 
 .0542 
 
 1.0553 
 
 .0565 1.0576 
 
 191 
 
 .0510 
 
 .0515 
 
 .0521 
 
 .0535 
 
 .0549 
 
 .0561 
 
 .0573 
 
 1.0585 
 
 .0596, 1.0607 
 
 188 
 
 .0541 
 
 .0547 
 
 .0553 
 
 .0566 
 
 .0580 
 
 .0592 
 
 .0605 
 
 1.0616 
 
 1.0628, 1.0639 
 
 185 
 
 .0572 
 
 .0578 
 
 .0584 
 
 .0598 
 
 .0611 
 
 .0623 
 
 .0636 
 
 1.0648 
 
 1.0659 1.0670 
 
 182 
 
 .0604 
 
 .0610 
 
 .0615 
 
 .0629 
 
 .0643 
 
 .0655 
 
 .0668 
 
 1.0679 
 
 1.0690 
 
 1.0701 
 
 179 
 
 .0635 
 
 .0641 
 
 .0647 
 
 .0660 
 
 .0674 
 
 .0686 
 
 .0699 
 
 1.0710 
 
 .0722 
 
 1.0733 
 
 176 
 
 .0666 
 
 .0672 
 
 .0678 
 
 .0692 
 
 .0705 
 
 .0717 
 
 .0730 
 
 .0742 
 
 1.0753 
 
 1.0764 
 
 173 
 
 .0698 
 
 .0704 
 
 .0709 
 
 .0723 
 
 1.0737 
 
 .0749 
 
 1.0762 
 
 .0773 
 
 1.0784 
 
 1.0795 
 
 170 
 
 .0729 
 
 .0735 
 
 .0741 
 
 .0754 
 
 1.0768 
 
 .0780 
 
 1.0793 
 
 .0804 
 
 1.0816 
 
 .0827 
 
 167 
 
 .0760 
 
 .0766 
 
 .0772 
 
 .0786 
 
 1.0799 
 
 .0811 
 
 1.0824 
 
 .0336 
 
 1.0847 
 
 .0858 
 
 164 
 
 .0792 
 
 .0798 
 
 .0803 
 
 .0817 
 
 1.0831 
 
 .0843 
 
 1.0856 
 
 .08G7 
 
 .0878 
 
 .0889 
 
 161 
 
 .0823 
 
 .0329 
 
 .0835 
 
 .0848 
 
 1.0862 
 
 .0874 
 
 1.0887 
 
 .0898 
 
 .0910 
 
 .0921 
 
 158 
 
 .0854 
 
 .0860 
 
 .0866 
 
 .0880 
 
 1.0893 
 
 .0905 
 
 1.0918 
 
 .0929 
 
 .0941 
 
 .0952 
 
 155 
 
 .0886 
 
 .0892 
 
 .0897 
 
 .0911 
 
 1.0925 
 
 .0937 
 
 1.0949 
 
 .0961 
 
 .0972 
 
 .0983 
 
 152 
 
 .0917 
 
 .0923 
 
 .0929 
 
 .0942 
 
 .0956 
 
 1.0968 
 
 .0981 
 
 .0992 
 
 .1004 
 
 .1015 
 
 149 
 
 1.0948 
 
 .0954 
 
 .0960 
 
 .0974 
 
 .0987 
 
 1.0999 
 
 .1012 
 
 . 1023 
 
 . 1035 
 
 .1046 
 
 146 
 
 1.0979 
 
 1.0985 
 
 .0991 
 
 .1005 
 
 .1018 
 
 1.1030 
 
 .1043 
 
 .1055 
 
 .1066 
 
 .1077 
 
 143 
 
 1.1011 
 
 1.1017 
 
 .1022 
 
 .1036 
 
 .1050 
 
 1.1062 
 
 .1074 
 
 .1036 
 
 .1097 
 
 .1108 
 
 140 
 
 1.1042 
 
 1.1048 
 
 .1054 
 
 .1067 
 
 .1081 
 
 1.1093 
 
 .1106 
 
 .1117 
 
 .1129 
 
 .1140 
 
 137 
 
 1 . 1073 
 
 1.1079 
 
 . 1085 
 
 .1099 
 
 .1112 
 
 1.1124 
 
 .1137 
 
 .1148 
 
 .1160 
 
 .1171 
 
 134 
 
 1.1104 
 
 1.1110 
 
 .1116 
 
 .1130 
 
 .1143 
 
 .1155 
 
 .1168 
 
 .1180 
 
 .1191 
 
 .1202 
 
 131 
 
 1.1136 
 
 1.1142 
 
 .1147 
 
 .1161 
 
 .1175 
 
 .1187 
 
 .1199 
 
 .1210 
 
 .1222 
 
 .1233 
 
 126 
 
 1.1167 
 
 1.1173 
 
 .1179 
 
 .1192 
 
 . 1206 
 
 .1218 
 
 .1231 
 
 .1242 
 
 .1253 
 
 .1264 
 
 125 
 
 1.1198 
 
 1.1204 
 
 .1210 
 
 .1223 
 
 .1237 
 
 .1249 
 
 .1262 
 
 1.1273 
 
 .1285 
 
 .1296 
 
 122 
 
 1 . 1229 
 
 1.1235 
 
 .1241 
 
 .1255 
 
 .1268 
 
 .1280 
 
 .1293 
 
 1.1294 
 
 .1316 
 
 .1327 
 
 119 
 
 1 . 1260 
 
 1.1266 
 
 .1272 
 
 .1286 
 
 .1299 
 
 1.1311 
 
 .1324 
 
 1.1336 
 
 .1347 
 
 .1358 
 
 116 
 
 1.1292 
 
 1.1298 
 
 .1303 
 
 .1317 
 
 .1331 
 
 1.1343 
 
 .1355 
 
 1.1366 
 
 .1378 
 
 .1389 
 
 113 
 
 1.1323 
 
 1.1329 
 
 .1334 
 
 .1348 
 
 .1362 
 
 1.1374 
 
 .1387 
 
 1.1398 
 
 .1409 
 
 .1420 
 
 110 
 
 1.1354 
 
 1 . 1360 
 
 .1366 
 
 .1374 
 
 .1393 
 
 1.1405 
 
 .1418 
 
 1.1429 
 
 .1441 
 
 .1452 
 
 107 
 
 1.1385 
 
 1.1391 
 
 .1397 
 
 .1411 
 
 .1424 
 
 1.1436 
 
 .1449 
 
 1.1460 
 
 .1472 
 
 .1483 
 
 104 
 
 1.1416 
 
 1.1422 
 
 .1428 
 
 .1442 
 
 .1455 
 
 1.1467 
 
 .1480 
 
 1.1491 
 
 .1503 
 
 1.1514 
 
 101 
 
 1 . 1447 
 
 1.1453 
 
 .1459 
 
 .1473 
 
 .1436 
 
 1.1498 
 
 .1511 
 
 .1523 
 
 .1534 
 
 1.1545 
 
 98 
 
 1.1479 
 
 1.1485 
 
 .1490 
 
 .1504 
 
 .1518 
 
 1 . 1530 
 
 .1542 
 
 .1554 
 
 .1565 
 
 1.1576 
 
 95 
 
 1.1510 
 
 1.1516 
 
 .1521 
 
 .1535 
 
 .1549 
 
 1.1561 
 
 .1574 
 
 . 1583 
 
 .1596 
 
 1.1607 
 
 92 
 
 1.1541 
 
 1.1547 
 
 .1553 
 
 .1566 
 
 .1580 
 
 1.1592 
 
 .1605 
 
 .1616 
 
 .1628 
 
 1.1639 
 
 89 
 
 1.1572 
 
 1.1578 
 
 .1584 
 
 .1598 
 
 .1611 
 
 1.1623 
 
 .1636 
 
 .1647 
 
 .1659 
 
 1.1670 
 
 86 
 
 1.1603 
 
 1.1609 
 
 .1615 
 
 .1629 
 
 .1642 
 
 1.1654 
 
 .1667 
 
 .1678 
 
 .1690 
 
 .1701 
 
 83 
 
 1.1634 
 
 1 . 1640 
 
 .1646 
 
 .1660 
 
 .1673 
 
 1.1685 
 
 .1698 
 
 .1709 
 
 .1721 
 
 .1732 
 
 80 
 
 1.1665 
 
 1.1671 
 
 .1677 
 
 .1691 
 
 .1704 
 
 1.1716 
 
 .1729 
 
 .1741 
 
 .1752 
 
 .1763 
 
 77 
 
 1.1696 
 
 1.1702 
 
 .1708 
 
 .1722 
 
 .1735 
 
 1.1747 
 
 .1760 
 
 .1772 
 
 .1783 
 
 .1794 
 
 74 
 
 1.1728 
 
 1.1734 
 
 .1739 
 
 1.1753 
 
 .1767 
 
 .1779 
 
 .1791 
 
 .1803 
 
 .1814 
 
 .1825 
 
 71 
 
 1.1759 
 
 1.1765 
 
 .1770 
 
 1.1784 
 
 .1798 
 
 .1810 
 
 .1823 
 
 . 1834 
 
 .1845 
 
 .1856 
 
 68 
 
 1.1790 
 
 1.1796 
 
 .1802 
 
 1.1815 
 
 .1829 
 
 .1841 
 
 .1854 
 
 .1865 
 
 .1877 
 
 .1888 
 
 65 
 
 1.1821 
 
 1.1827 
 
 .1833 
 
 1.1846 
 
 .1860 
 
 .1872 
 
 .1885 
 
 .1896 
 
 .1908 
 
 .1919 
 
 62 
 
 1.1852 
 
 1.1858 
 
 .1864 
 
 1.1877 
 
 .1891 
 
 .1903 
 
 .1916 
 
 .1927 
 
 .1939 
 
 .1950 
 
 59 
 
 1.1883 
 
 1 . 1889 
 
 .1895 
 
 1 . 1909 
 
 .1922 
 
 .1934 
 
 .1947 
 
 1.1958 
 
 .1970 
 
 .1981 
 
 56 
 
 1.1914 
 
 1 . 1920 
 
 .1926 
 
 1.1940 
 
 .1953 
 
 .1965 
 
 .1978 
 
 1.1989 
 
 .2001 
 
 .2012 
 
 53 
 
 1.1945 
 
 1.1951 
 
 .1957 
 
 1.1971 
 
 .1984 
 
 .1996 
 
 .2009 
 
 1.2020 
 
 .2032 
 
 .2043 
 
 50 
 
 1.1976 
 
 1.1982 
 
 1.1988 
 
 .2002 
 
 .2015 
 
 .2027 
 
 .2040 
 
 1.2052 
 
 .2063 
 
 .2074 
 
 47 
 
 1.2007 
 
 1.2013 
 
 1.2019 
 
 1.2033 
 
 .2046 
 
 .2058 
 
 .2071 
 
 1.2083 
 
 .2094 
 
 .2105 
 
 44 
 
 1.2039 
 
 1.2044 
 
 1.2050 
 
 .2064 
 
 .2078 
 
 .2090 
 
 .2102 
 
 1.2114 
 
 .2125 
 
 .2136 
 
 41 
 
 1.2070 
 
 1.2076 
 
 1.2081 
 
 .2095 
 
 .2109 
 
 1.2121 
 
 .2133 
 
 1.2145 
 
 .2156 
 
 .21C7 
 
 38 
 
 1.2101 
 
 1.2107 
 
 1.2112 
 
 .2126 
 
 .2140 
 
 1.2162 
 
 .2164 
 
 1.2176 
 
 .2187 
 
 .2198 
 
 35 
 
 1.2132 
 
 1.2138 
 
 1.2143 
 
 .2157 
 
 1.2171 
 
 1.2183 
 
 .2196 
 
 1.2207 
 
 1.2118 
 
 .2229 
 
 32 
 
 1.2163 
 
 1.2169 
 
 1.2175 
 
 1.2188 
 
 1.2202 
 
 1.2214 
 
 .2227 
 
 1.2239 
 
 1.2249 
 
 .2260 
 
TABLES. 
 
 221 
 
 FACTORS OF EVAPORATION Continued. 
 
 Temp, of 
 Feed. 
 
 Gauge Pressure. Pounds. 
 
 100 
 
 105 
 
 115 
 
 125 
 
 135 
 
 145 
 
 155 
 
 165 
 
 185 
 
 212 F. 
 
 1.0397 
 
 1 . 1407 
 
 1 . 1427 
 
 .0445 
 
 1.0462 
 
 1.0478 
 
 1.0493 
 
 .0509 
 
 .0536 
 
 209 
 
 1.0429 
 
 1.0438 
 
 1.0458 
 
 .0476 
 
 1.0493 
 
 .0509 
 
 1.0524 
 
 .C540 
 
 .0567 
 
 206 
 
 1.0460 
 
 1.0470 
 
 1.0489 
 
 .0510 
 
 1.0527 
 
 .0543 
 
 1.0558 
 
 .C574 
 
 .0601 
 
 203 
 
 1.0492 
 
 1.0502 
 
 1.0521 
 
 .0540 
 
 1 . 0557 
 
 .0573 
 
 .0588 
 
 .0604 
 
 .0631 
 
 200 
 
 1.0523 
 
 1.0533 
 
 1.0552 
 
 .0571 
 
 1.0588 
 
 .0604 
 
 .0619 
 
 .0635 
 
 .0662 
 
 097 
 
 1.0555 
 
 1.0565 
 
 1.0584 
 
 .0602 
 
 1.0619 
 
 .0635 
 
 .0650 
 
 .0666 
 
 .0693 
 
 194 
 
 1.0586 
 
 1.0596 
 
 1.0615 
 
 .0635 
 
 1.0652 
 
 .0668 
 
 .0683 
 
 .0699 
 
 .0726 
 
 191 
 
 1.0617 
 
 1.0627 
 
 1.0647 
 
 .0665 
 
 1.0682 
 
 .0698 
 
 .0713 
 
 .0729, .0756 
 
 188 
 
 1.0649 
 
 1.0659 
 
 1.0678 
 
 .0696 
 
 1.0713 
 
 .0729 
 
 .0744 
 
 .0760 .0787 
 
 185 
 
 1.0680 
 
 1.0690 
 
 1.0709 
 
 .0728 
 
 1.0745 
 
 .0761 
 
 .0776 
 
 .0792 .0819 
 
 182 
 
 1.0712 
 
 1.0722 
 
 1.0741 
 
 .0759 
 
 1.0776 
 
 .0792 
 
 .0807j .0823 .0850 
 
 179 
 
 1.0743 
 
 1.0753 
 
 1.0772 
 
 .0790 
 
 1.0807 
 
 .0823 
 
 .0838 .0854 .0881 
 
 176 
 
 1.0774 
 
 1.0784 
 
 1.0803 
 
 .0822 
 
 1.0839 
 
 .0855 
 
 .C870 .0886 .0913 
 
 173 
 
 1.0806 
 
 1.0816 
 
 1.0835 
 
 t0853 
 
 1.0870 
 
 .0886 
 
 .0901 .0917! .0944 
 
 170 
 
 1.0837 
 
 1.0847 
 
 1.0866 
 
 .0884 
 
 1.0901 
 
 .0917 
 
 .C932 .0948 1 .0975 
 
 167 
 
 1.0868 
 
 1.0878 
 
 1.0897 
 
 .0916 
 
 1.0933 
 
 .0949 
 
 .C964 
 
 .0980 .1007 
 
 164 
 
 1.0900 
 
 1.0910 
 
 1.0929 
 
 .0946 
 
 1 . 0963 
 
 .0979 
 
 .0994 
 
 .1010 
 
 .1037 
 
 161 
 
 1.0931 
 
 1.0941 
 
 1.0960 .0979 
 
 1.0996 
 
 .1012 
 
 .1027 
 
 .1043 
 
 .1070 
 
 158 
 
 1.0962 
 
 1.0972 
 
 1.0991 .1010 
 
 1.1027 
 
 .1043 
 
 .1058 
 
 .1074 .1101 
 
 155 
 
 1.0993 
 
 1.1003 
 
 1 . 1023 
 
 .1041 
 
 1.1058 
 
 .1074 
 
 .1C89 
 
 .1105 
 
 .1132 
 
 152 
 
 1.1025 
 
 1.1035 
 
 1 . 1054 
 
 .1073 
 
 1.1090 
 
 .1107 
 
 .1122 
 
 .1138 
 
 .1165 
 
 149 
 
 1.1056 
 
 1.1066 
 
 1.1085 
 
 .1103 
 
 1.1120 
 
 .1136 
 
 .1151 
 
 .1167 .1194 
 
 146 
 
 1.1087 
 
 1.1097 
 
 1.1116 
 
 .1135 
 
 1.1152 
 
 .1168 
 
 .1183 
 
 .1199 
 
 .1226 
 
 143 
 
 1.1118 
 
 1.1129 
 
 1.1148 
 
 .1166 
 
 1.1183 
 
 .1199 
 
 .1214 
 
 .1230 
 
 .1257 
 
 140 
 
 1.1150 
 
 1.1160 
 
 1.1179 
 
 .1197 
 
 1.1214 
 
 .1230 
 
 .1245 
 
 .1261 
 
 .1288 
 
 137 
 
 1.1181 
 
 1.1191 
 
 1.1210 
 
 .1228 
 
 1.1245 
 
 .1262 
 
 .1277 
 
 .1293 
 
 .1320 
 
 134 
 
 1.1212 
 
 1.1222 
 
 1.1241 
 
 .1260 
 
 1.1277 
 
 .1293 
 
 .1308 
 
 .1324 
 
 .1351 
 
 131 
 
 1.1243 
 
 1.1253 
 
 1.1273 
 
 .1291 
 
 1.1308 
 
 .1324 
 
 .1339 
 
 .1355 
 
 .1382 
 
 128 
 
 1.1275 
 
 1 . 1285 
 
 1.1304 
 
 .1322 
 
 1.1339 
 
 .1355 
 
 .1370 
 
 .1386 
 
 .1413 
 
 125 
 
 1.1306 
 
 1.1316 
 
 1.1335 
 
 . 1353 
 
 1.1370 
 
 .13^6 
 
 .1401 
 
 .1417 
 
 .1444 
 
 122 
 
 1.1337 
 
 1.1347 
 
 1.1366 
 
 .1384 
 
 1.1401 
 
 .1417 
 
 .1438 
 
 .1448 
 
 .1475 
 
 119 
 
 1.1368 
 
 1.1378 
 
 1.1397 
 
 .1415 
 
 1.1432 
 
 .1449 
 
 .1464 
 
 .1480 
 
 .1507 
 
 116 
 
 1.1399 
 
 1.1409 
 
 1.1429 
 
 .1447 
 
 1.1464 
 
 .1480 
 
 .1495 
 
 .1511 
 
 .1538 
 
 113 
 
 1.1431 
 
 1.1441 
 
 1.1460 
 
 .1478 
 
 1.1495 
 
 .1511 
 
 .1526 
 
 .1542 
 
 .1569 
 
 110 
 
 1.1462 
 
 1.1472 
 
 1.1491 
 
 .1509 
 
 1.1516 
 
 .1542 
 
 .1557 
 
 .1573 
 
 .1600 
 
 107 
 
 1 . 1493 
 
 1.1503 
 
 1.1522 
 
 .1540 
 
 1.1557 
 
 .1573 
 
 .1588 
 
 .1604 
 
 .1631 
 
 104 
 
 1 . 1524 
 
 1.1534 
 
 1.1553 
 
 .1571 
 
 1.1588 
 
 .1605 
 
 .1619 
 
 .1635 
 
 .1662 
 
 101 
 
 1.1555 
 
 1.1565 
 
 1.1584 
 
 .1602 
 
 1.1620 
 
 .1636 
 
 .1652 
 
 .1668 
 
 .1695 
 
 98 
 
 1.1586 
 
 1.1596 
 
 1.1616 
 
 .1634 
 
 1.1651 
 
 .1667 
 
 .1683 
 
 .1699 
 
 . 1726 
 
 95 
 
 1.1618 
 
 1.1628 
 
 1 . 1647 
 
 .1665 
 
 1.1682 
 
 .1698 
 
 .1713 
 
 .1729 
 
 .1756 
 
 92 
 
 1.1649 
 
 1.1660 
 
 1.1678 
 
 .1696 
 
 1.1713 
 
 .1729 
 
 .1744 
 
 .1760 
 
 .1787 
 
 89 
 
 1.1680 
 
 1 . 1690 
 
 1.1709 
 
 .1727 
 
 1.1744 
 
 .1760 
 
 .1775 
 
 .1791 
 
 .1818 
 
 86 
 
 1.1711 
 
 1.1721 
 
 1.1740 
 
 .1758 
 
 1.1775 
 
 .1791 
 
 .1806 
 
 .1822 
 
 .1849 
 
 83 
 
 1.1742 
 
 1 . 1752 
 
 1.1771 
 
 .1789 
 
 1.1806 
 
 .1823 
 
 .1837 
 
 .1853 
 
 .1880 
 
 80 
 
 1.1773 
 
 1.1783 
 
 1.1802 
 
 .1820 
 
 1.1837 
 
 .1854 
 
 .1869 
 
 .1885 
 
 .1912 
 
 77 
 
 1.1804 
 
 1.1814 
 
 1.1834 
 
 .1852 
 
 1.1869 
 
 . 1 885 
 
 .1900 
 
 .1916 
 
 .1943 
 
 74 
 
 1.1835 
 
 1.1845 
 
 1.1865 
 
 .1883 
 
 1.1900 
 
 .1916 
 
 .1932 
 
 .1948 
 
 .1975 
 
 71 
 
 1.1867 
 
 1.1877 
 
 1.1896 
 
 .1914 
 
 1.1931 
 
 .1947 
 
 .1961 
 
 .1977 
 
 .2004 
 
 68 
 
 1.1898 
 
 1.1908 
 
 1.1927 
 
 .1945 
 
 1.1962 
 
 .1978 
 
 .1993 
 
 .2C09 
 
 .2036 
 
 65 
 
 1.1929 
 
 1.1939 
 
 1.1958 
 
 .1976 
 
 1.1993 
 
 .2009 
 
 .2024 
 
 .2040 
 
 .2067 
 
 62 
 
 1 . 1960 
 
 1.1970 
 
 1.198S 
 
 .2007 
 
 1 . 2024 
 
 .2040 
 
 .2055 
 
 .2071 
 
 .2098 
 
 59 
 
 1.1991 
 
 1.2001 
 
 1.202C 
 
 .2038 
 
 1.2055 
 
 .2071 
 
 .2086 
 
 .2102 
 
 .2129 
 
 56 
 
 1.2022 
 
 1.2032 
 
 1.2051 
 
 .2069 
 
 1 . 2086 
 
 .2102 
 
 .2117 
 
 .2133 
 
 .2160 
 
 53 
 
 1.2053 
 
 1.2063 
 
 1.2082 
 
 .2100 
 
 1.2117 
 
 .2134 
 
 .2148 
 
 .2164 
 
 .2191 
 
 50 
 
 1.2084 
 
 1.2094 
 
 1.2113 
 
 .2131 
 
 1.2148 
 
 .2165 
 
 .2180 
 
 .2196 
 
 .2223 
 
 47 
 
 1.2115 
 
 1.2125 
 
 1.2144 
 
 1.2163 
 
 1.2180 
 
 .2196 
 
 .2211 
 
 .2227 
 
 .2254 
 
 44 
 
 1.2146 
 
 1.2156 
 
 1.2176 
 
 1.2194 
 
 1.2211 
 
 .2227 
 
 .2242 
 
 .2258 
 
 .2285 
 
 41 
 
 1.2177 
 
 1.2187 
 
 1.2207 
 
 1.2225 
 
 1.2242 
 
 .2258 
 
 .2273 
 
 .2289 
 
 .2316 
 
 38 
 
 1.2208 
 
 1.2219 
 
 1.2238 
 
 1.2256 
 
 1.2273 
 
 .2289 
 
 .2304 
 
 .2320 
 
 1.2347 
 
 35 
 
 1.2240 
 
 1.2250 
 
 1.2269 
 
 1.2287 
 
 1.2304 
 
 1.2320 
 
 1.2335 
 
 .2351 
 
 1.2378 
 
 32 
 
 1.2271 
 
 1.2281 
 
 1.2300 
 
 1.2318 
 
 1.2335 
 
 1.2351 
 
 1.2366 
 
 .2382 
 
 1.24C9 
 
222 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 TABLE IV. 
 
 PROPERTIES OP SATURATED STEAM. 
 
 Pounds per 
 Square Inch 
 
 h 
 
 Heat Units in One Pound 
 above 32 F. 
 
 Volume. 
 
 g 
 
 i 
 
 S 
 
 03 Q 
 
 3 a 
 
 
 
 -s .Sg 
 
 Relative 
 
 Specific. 
 
 | 
 
 || 
 
 -S a 
 
 as 
 
 si 
 
 1||| 
 
 ?13* 
 
 Cu. Feet in 
 1 Cu. Foot 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 in 1 Pound 
 
 |l| 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 P 
 
 .si 
 
 ^ 
 
 tti 
 
 of Water. 
 
 of Steam. 
 
 f 
 
 
 1 
 
 102 
 
 70.1 
 
 1042.9 
 
 1113.0 
 
 20623 
 
 330.4 
 
 .0030 
 
 
 2 
 
 126.2 
 
 94.4 
 
 1026.0 
 
 1120.4 
 
 10730 
 
 171.9 
 
 .0058 
 
 
 3 
 
 141.6 
 
 109.8 
 
 1015.2 
 
 1125.1 
 
 7325 
 
 117.3 
 
 .0085 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 153.0 
 
 121.4 
 
 1007.2 
 
 1128. C 
 
 5588 
 
 89.51 
 
 .0112 
 
 
 5 
 
 162.3 
 
 130.7 
 
 1000 . 7 
 
 1131.4 
 
 4530 
 
 72.56 
 
 .0138 
 
 
 6 
 
 170.1 
 
 138.5 
 
 995.2 
 
 1133.8 
 
 3816 
 
 61.14 
 
 .0164 
 
 
 7 
 
 176.9 
 
 145.4 
 
 990.4 
 
 1135.8 
 
 3302 
 
 52.89 
 
 .0189 
 
 
 8 
 
 182.9 
 
 151.4 
 
 986.2 
 
 1137.7 
 
 2912 
 
 46.65 
 
 0214 
 
 
 9 
 
 188 3 
 
 156.9 
 
 982 4 
 
 1139 3 
 
 2607 
 
 41.77 
 
 .0239 
 
 
 10 
 
 193.2 
 
 161.9 
 
 978.9 
 
 1140.8 
 
 2361 
 
 37.83 
 
 .0264 
 
 
 11 
 
 197.7 
 
 166.5 
 
 975.7 
 
 1142.2 
 
 2159 
 
 34.59 
 
 .0289 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 201.9 
 
 170.7 
 
 972.8 
 
 1143.5 
 
 1990 
 
 31.87 
 
 .0314 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 205.8 
 
 174.7 
 
 970.0 
 
 1144.7 
 
 1845 
 
 29.56 
 
 .0338 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 209.5 
 
 178.4 
 
 937.4 
 
 1145.8 
 
 1721 
 
 27 . 58 
 
 .0363 
 
 ' .304 
 
 15 
 
 213 
 
 181.9 
 
 934.9 
 
 1146.9 
 
 1614 
 
 25.85 
 
 .0387 
 
 1.3 
 
 16 
 
 216.3 
 
 185.2 
 
 932.6 
 
 1147.9 
 
 1519 
 
 24.33 
 
 .0411 
 
 2.3 
 
 17 
 
 219.4 
 
 188.4 
 
 930.4 
 
 1148.8 
 
 1434 
 
 22.98 
 
 .0435 
 
 3.3 
 
 18 
 
 222 3 
 
 191.4 
 
 958.3 
 
 1149.7 
 
 1359 
 
 21.72 
 
 .0459 
 
 4.3 
 
 19 
 
 225 2 
 
 194.2 
 
 953.3 
 
 1150. ( 
 
 1202 
 
 20.70 
 
 .0483 
 
 5.3 
 
 20 
 
 227.9 
 
 197.0 
 
 954.4 
 
 1151.4 
 
 1231 
 
 19.73 
 
 .0507 
 
 6.3 
 
 21 
 
 230 5 
 
 199. G 
 
 952.5 
 
 1152.2 
 
 1176 
 
 18.84 
 
 .0531 
 
 7.3 
 
 22 
 
 233.0 
 
 202.2 
 
 95J.8 
 
 1153. ( 
 
 1120 
 
 18.04 
 
 .0554 
 
 8.3 
 
 23 
 
 235.4 
 
 204.0 
 
 949.0 
 
 1153.7 
 
 1080 
 
 17 30 
 
 .0578 
 
 9.3 
 
 24 
 
 237 7 
 
 207.0 
 
 947.4 
 
 1154.4 
 
 1038 
 
 16.62 
 
 .0602 
 
 10.3 
 
 25 
 
 240.0 
 
 209.3 
 
 945.8 
 
 1155.1 
 
 998.4 
 
 16.00 
 
 .0625 
 
 11.3 
 
 26 
 
 242.1 
 
 211.5 
 
 944.2 
 
 1155.8 
 
 962.3 
 
 15.42 
 
 .0649 
 
 12 3 
 
 27 
 
 244.2 
 
 213.6 
 
 942.7 
 
 1153.4 
 
 928.8 
 
 14.88 
 
 .0672 
 
 13.3 
 
 28 
 
 246.3 
 
 215.7 
 
 941.3 
 
 1157.0 
 
 897.6 
 
 14.38 
 
 .0695 
 
 14.3 
 
 29 
 
 248.3 
 
 217.7 
 
 939.9 
 
 1157.6 
 
 868.5 
 
 13.91 
 
 .0719 
 
 15.3 
 
 30 
 
 250.2 
 
 219.7 
 
 938.9 
 
 1158.2 
 
 841.3 
 
 13.48 
 
 .0742 
 
 16.3 
 
 31 
 
 252.1 
 
 221.6 
 
 937.1 
 
 1158.8 
 
 815.8 
 
 13.07 
 
 .0765 
 
 17.3 
 
 32 
 
 253.9 
 
 223.5 
 
 935.9 
 
 1159.3 
 
 791.8 
 
 12.68 
 
 .0788 
 
 18.3 
 
 33 
 
 255.7 
 
 225.3 
 
 934.6 
 
 1159.9 
 
 769.2 
 
 12.32 
 
 .0812 
 
 19.3 
 
 34 
 
 257.4 
 
 227.1 
 
 933.3 
 
 11G0.4 
 
 748.0 
 
 11.98 
 
 .0835 
 
 20.3 
 
 35 
 
 259.1 
 
 228.8 
 
 932 . 1 
 
 1160.9 
 
 727.9 
 
 11.66 
 
 .0858 
 
 21.3 
 
 33 
 
 230.8 
 
 230.5 
 
 931.0 
 
 1161.5 
 
 708.8 
 
 11.37 ; .0881 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2?. 3 
 
 37 
 
 262.4 
 
 232.1 
 
 929.8 
 
 1161.9 
 
 690.8 
 
 11.07 
 
 .0904 
 
 23.3 
 
 38 
 
 234.0 
 
 233.8 
 
 9^8.6 
 
 1162.4 
 
 673.7 
 
 10.79 
 
 .0027 
 
 24.3 
 
 39 
 
 265.6 
 
 235 3 
 
 927.5 
 
 1162.9 
 
 657.5 
 
 10.53 ! .0949 
 
 25.3 
 
 40 267.1 
 
 236.9 
 
 926.4 
 
 1163.4 
 
 642.0 
 
 10.28 .0972 
 
 26.3 
 
 41 268 . 6 
 
 238.4 9^5.4 
 
 1163.8 
 
 627.3 
 
 10.05 .0995 
 
 27.3 
 
 42 ; 270.0 
 
 239.9 914.3 
 
 1164.3 
 
 613.3 
 
 9.826 .1018 
 
TABLES. 
 
 PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM Continued. 
 
 223 
 
 Pounds per 
 
 
 Heat Units in One Pound 
 
 Volume. 
 
 
 Square Inch. 
 
 E* 
 
 above 32 F. 
 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 J 
 
 if 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 Relative. 
 
 Specific. 
 
 O-*> 
 
 |1 
 
 l| 
 
 2 
 P 
 
 ll 
 
 mi 
 
 ill! 
 
 Cu. Feet in 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 
 ^.2 S 
 
 
 
 
 ts 
 
 S 
 
 JjhO N 
 
 11 H WOQ 
 
 1 Cu. Foot 
 
 in 1 Pound 
 
 'SOoa 
 
 o 
 
 * 
 
 H 
 
 * 
 
 ^ 
 
 SI 
 
 of Water. 
 
 of Steam. 
 
 
 
 28.3 
 
 43 
 
 271.5 
 
 241.4 
 
 923.3 
 
 1164.7 
 
 599.9 
 
 9.609 
 
 .1041 
 
 29.3 
 
 44 
 
 272.9 
 
 242.8 
 
 922.3 
 
 1165.1 
 
 587.0 
 
 9.403 
 
 .1063 
 
 30.3 
 
 45 
 
 274.3 
 
 244.2 
 
 921.3 
 
 1165.6 
 
 574.7 
 
 9.207 
 
 .1086 
 
 31.3 
 
 46 
 
 275.6 
 
 245.6 
 
 920.3 
 
 1166.0 
 
 563.0 
 
 9.018 
 
 .1109 
 
 32.3 
 
 47 
 
 276.9 
 
 247.0 
 
 919.4 
 
 1166.4 
 
 551.7 
 
 8.838 
 
 .1131 
 
 33.3 
 
 48 
 
 278.2 
 
 248.3 
 
 918.4 
 
 1166.8 
 
 540.9 
 
 8.665 
 
 .1154 
 
 34.3 
 
 49 
 
 279.5 
 
 249.6 
 
 917.5 
 
 1167.2 
 
 530.5 
 
 8.498 
 
 .1171 
 
 35.3 
 
 50 
 
 280.8 
 
 250.9 
 
 916.6 
 
 1167. C 
 
 520.5 
 
 8.338 
 
 .1199 
 
 36.3 
 
 51 
 
 282.1 
 
 252.2 
 
 915.7 
 
 1167.9 
 
 510.9 
 
 8.185 
 
 .1222 
 
 37.3 
 
 52 
 
 283.3 
 
 253.5 
 
 914.8 
 
 1168.3 
 
 501.7 
 
 8.037 
 
 .1244 
 
 38.3 
 
 53 
 
 284.5 
 
 254.7 
 
 913.9 
 
 1168.7 
 
 492.8 
 
 7.894 
 
 .1267 
 
 39.3 
 
 54 
 
 285.7 
 
 255.9 
 
 913.1 
 
 1169.0 
 
 484.2 
 
 7.756 
 
 .1289 
 
 40.3 
 
 55 
 
 286.9 
 
 257.1 
 
 912.2 
 
 1169.4 
 
 475.9 
 
 7.624 
 
 .1312 
 
 41.3 
 
 58 
 
 288.0 
 
 258.3 
 
 911.4 
 
 1169.7 
 
 467.9 
 
 7.496 
 
 .1334 
 
 42.3 
 
 57 
 
 289.1 
 
 259.5 
 
 910.6 
 
 1170.1 
 
 460.2 
 
 7.372 
 
 . 1357 
 
 43.3 
 
 58 
 
 290.3 
 
 260.6 
 
 909.8 
 
 1170.4 
 
 452.7 
 
 7.252 
 
 .1379 
 
 44.3 
 
 59 
 
 291.4 
 
 261.7 
 
 909.0 
 
 1170.8 
 
 445.5 
 
 7.136 
 
 .1401 
 
 45.3 
 
 60 
 
 292.5 
 
 262.9 
 
 908.2 
 
 1171.1 
 
 438.5 
 
 7.024 
 
 .1424 
 
 46.3 
 
 61 
 
 293.6 
 
 234.0 
 
 907.4 
 
 1171.4 
 
 431.7 
 
 6.916 
 
 .1446 
 
 47.3 
 
 62 
 
 294.6 
 
 265.1 
 
 906.7 
 
 1171.8 
 
 425.2 
 
 6.811 
 
 .1468 
 
 48.3 
 
 63 
 
 295.7 
 
 236.1 
 
 905.9 
 
 1172.1 
 
 418.8 
 
 6.709 
 
 .1491 
 
 49.3 
 
 64 
 
 293.7 
 
 237.2 
 
 905.2 
 
 1172.4 
 
 412.6 
 
 6.610 
 
 .1513 
 
 50.3 
 
 65 
 
 297.7 
 
 238.3 
 
 904.4 
 
 1172.7 
 
 406.6 
 
 6.515 
 
 .1535 
 
 51.3 
 
 66 
 
 298.7 
 
 289.3 
 
 903.7 
 
 1173.0 
 
 400.8 
 
 6.422 
 
 .1557 
 
 52.3 
 
 67 
 
 299.7 
 
 270.3 
 
 903.0 
 
 1173.3 
 
 395.2 
 
 6.332 
 
 .1579 
 
 53.3 
 
 68 
 
 300.7 
 
 271.3 
 
 902.3 
 
 1173.6 
 
 389.8 
 
 6.244 
 
 .1602 
 
 54.3 
 
 69 
 
 301.7 
 
 272.3 
 
 901.5 
 
 1173.9 
 
 384.5 
 
 6.159 
 
 .1624 
 
 55.3 
 
 70 
 
 302.7 
 
 273.3 
 
 900.9 
 
 1174.2 
 
 379.3 
 
 6.076 
 
 .1646 
 
 53.3 
 
 71 
 
 303.6 
 
 274.3 
 
 900.2 
 
 1174.5 
 
 374.3 
 
 5.995 
 
 . 1668 
 
 57.3 
 
 72 
 
 304.6 
 
 275.3 
 
 899.5 
 
 1174.8 
 
 369.4 
 
 5.917 
 
 .1690 
 
 58.3 
 
 73 
 
 305.5 
 
 276.2 
 
 898.8 
 
 1175.1 
 
 364.6 
 
 5.841 
 
 .1712 
 
 59.3 
 
 74 
 
 306.4 
 
 277.2 
 
 898.1 
 
 1175.4 
 
 360.0 
 
 5.767 
 
 .1734 
 
 60.3 
 
 75 
 
 307.3 
 
 278.1 
 
 897.5 
 
 1175.6 
 
 355.5 
 
 5.694 
 
 .1756 
 
 61.3 
 
 76 
 
 308.2 
 
 279.0 
 
 893.8 
 
 1175.9 
 
 351.1 
 
 5.624 
 
 .1778 
 
 62.3 
 
 77 
 
 309.1 
 
 280.0 
 
 896.2 
 
 1176.2 
 
 346.8 
 
 5.555 
 
 .1800 
 
 63.3 
 
 78 
 
 310.0 
 
 280.9 
 
 895.5 
 
 1176.5 
 
 342.6 
 
 5.488 
 
 .1822 
 
 64.3 
 
 79 
 
 310.9 
 
 281.8 
 
 894.9 
 
 1176.7 
 
 338.5 
 
 5.422 
 
 .1844 
 
 65.3 
 
 80 
 
 311.8 
 
 282.7 
 
 894.3 
 
 1177.0 
 
 334.5 
 
 5.358 
 
 .1866 
 
 66.3 
 
 81 
 
 312.6 
 
 283.5 
 
 893.7 
 
 1177.3 
 
 330.6 
 
 5.296 
 
 .1888 
 
 67.3 
 
 82 
 
 313.5 
 
 284.4 
 
 893.1 
 
 1177.5 
 
 326.8 
 
 5.235 
 
 .1910 
 
 C8.3 
 
 83 
 
 314.3 
 
 285.3 
 
 892.4 
 
 1177.8 
 
 323.1 
 
 5.176 
 
 .1932 
 
 C9.3 
 
 84 
 
 315 1 
 
 233 . 1 
 
 891.8 
 
 1178.0 
 
 319.5 
 
 5.118 
 
 .1954 
 
224 
 
 BOILER- WATERS. 
 
 PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM Continued. 
 
 Pounds per 
 
 Heat Units in One Pound 
 
 Volume 
 
 
 Square Inch. 
 
 to 
 
 above 32 F. 
 
 
 ft 
 
 
 
 Y 
 
 
 
 
 o*> 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 Q) 3 
 
 -Hi 
 
 03 0) 
 
 (J 
 
 c^'Ed 
 
 ^ 
 
 .Relative. 
 
 Specific. 
 
 "si . 
 
 ll 
 
 
 l& 
 
 11 
 
 f||J 
 
 K^-g 2_0) 
 
 Cu. Feet in 
 
 ?ubic Feet 
 
 |l| 
 
 
 J 
 
 $ 
 
 a* 
 
 _.-'' N 
 
 II E-iEoQ 
 
 . Cu. Foot 
 
 in 1 Pound 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 H 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ttl 
 
 of Water. 
 
 of Steam. 
 
 
 
 70.3 
 
 85 
 
 316.0 
 
 287.0 
 
 891.2 
 
 1178.3 
 
 315.9 
 
 5.061 
 
 . 1976 
 
 71.3 
 
 86 
 
 316.8 
 
 287.8 
 
 890.6 
 
 1178.5 
 
 312.5 
 
 5.006 
 
 .1698 
 
 72.3 
 
 87 
 
 317.6 
 
 288.7 
 
 890.1 
 
 1178.8 
 
 309.1 
 
 4.851 
 
 .2020 
 
 73.3 
 
 88 
 
 318.4 
 
 289.5 
 
 889.5 
 
 1179.0 
 
 305.8 
 
 4.868 
 
 .2042 
 
 74.3 
 
 89 
 
 319.2 
 
 290.3 
 
 888.9 
 
 1179.3 
 
 302.5 
 
 4.846 
 
 .2063 
 
 75.3 
 
 90 
 
 320.0 
 
 291.1 
 
 888.3 
 
 1179.5 
 
 299.4 
 
 4.766 
 
 .2085 
 
 76.3 
 
 91 
 
 320.8 
 
 291.9 
 
 887.8 
 
 1179.8 
 
 266.3 
 
 4.746 
 
 .2107 
 
 77.3 
 
 92 
 
 321.6 
 
 292.7 
 
 887.2 
 
 1180.0 
 
 283.2 
 
 4.687 
 
 .2129 
 
 78.3 
 
 93 
 
 322.3 
 
 293.5 
 
 886.6 
 
 1180.2 
 
 260.2 
 
 4.650 
 
 .2151 
 
 79.3 
 
 94 
 
 323.1 
 
 294.3 
 
 886.1 
 
 1180.4 
 
 287.3 
 
 4.603 
 
 .2173 
 
 80.3 
 
 95 
 
 323.8 
 
 295.1 
 
 885.5 
 
 1180.7 
 
 284.5 
 
 4.557 
 
 .2194 
 
 81.3 
 
 98 
 
 324.6 
 
 295.9 
 
 885.0 
 
 1180.9 
 
 281.7 
 
 4.513 
 
 .2216 
 
 82.3 
 
 97 
 
 325.3 
 
 296.6 
 
 884.5 
 
 1181.1 
 
 279.0 
 
 4.469 
 
 .2238 
 
 83.3 
 
 98 
 
 326.1 
 
 297.4 
 
 883.9 
 
 1181.4 
 
 2V6.3 
 
 4.426 
 
 .2260 
 
 84.3 
 
 99 
 
 326.8 
 
 298.1 
 
 883.4 
 
 1181.6 
 
 273.7 
 
 4.384 
 
 .2281 
 
 85.3 
 
 100 
 
 327.5 
 
 298.9 
 
 882.9 
 
 1181.8 
 
 271.1 
 
 4.342 
 
 .2303 
 
 86.3 
 
 101 
 
 328.2 
 
 299.6 
 
 882.3 
 
 1182.0 
 
 268.5 
 
 4.302 
 
 .2325 
 
 87.3 
 
 102 
 
 329.0 
 
 300.4 
 
 881.8 
 
 1182.2 
 
 266.0 
 
 4.262 
 
 .2346 
 
 88.3 
 
 103 
 
 329.7 
 
 301.1 
 
 881.3 
 
 1182.5 
 
 263.6 
 
 4.223 
 
 .2368 
 
 89.3 
 
 104 
 
 330.4 
 
 301.8 
 
 880.8 
 
 1182.7 
 
 261.2 
 
 4.185 
 
 .2360 
 
 90.3 
 
 105 
 
 331.1 
 
 302.5 
 
 880.3 
 
 1182. 
 
 258.9 
 
 4.147 
 
 .2411 
 
 91.3 
 
 106 
 
 331.8 
 
 303.3 
 
 879.8 
 
 1183. 
 
 256.6 
 
 4.110 
 
 .2433 
 
 92.3 
 
 107 
 
 332.4 
 
 304.0 
 
 879.3 
 
 1183. 
 
 254.3 
 
 4.074 
 
 .2455 
 
 93.3 
 
 108 
 
 333.1 
 
 304.7 
 
 878.8 
 
 1183. 
 
 252.1 
 
 4.038 
 
 .2476 
 
 94.3 
 
 109 
 
 333.8 
 
 305.4 
 
 878.3 
 
 1183. 
 
 249.9 
 
 4.003 
 
 .2488 
 
 95.3 
 
 110 
 
 334.5 
 
 306.1 
 
 877.8 
 
 1183. 
 
 247.8 
 
 3.669 
 
 .2519 
 
 93.3 
 
 111 
 
 335.1 
 
 306.8 
 
 877. 3 
 
 1184. 
 
 245.7 
 
 3.835 
 
 .2541 
 
 97.3 
 
 112 
 
 335.8 
 
 307.4 
 
 876.9 
 
 1184. 
 
 243.6 
 
 3.602 
 
 .2563 
 
 98.3 
 
 113 
 
 336.5 
 
 308.1 
 
 876.4 
 
 1184. 
 
 241.6 
 
 3.870 
 
 .2584 
 
 99.3 
 
 114 
 
 337.1 
 
 308.8 
 
 875.9 
 
 1184.7 
 
 239.6 
 
 3.838 
 
 .2606 
 
 100.3 
 
 115 
 
 337.8 
 
 309.5 
 
 875.4 
 
 1184.9 
 
 237.6 
 
 3.806 
 
 .2627 
 
 101.3 
 
 116 
 
 338.4 
 
 310.1 
 
 875.0 
 
 1185.1 
 
 235.7 
 
 3.775 
 
 .2649 
 
 102.3 
 
 117 
 
 339.1 
 
 310.8 
 
 874.5 
 
 1185.3 
 
 233.8 
 
 3.745 
 
 .2670 
 
 103.3 
 
 118 
 
 339.7 
 
 311.4 
 
 874.0 
 
 1185.5 
 
 231.9 
 
 3.715 
 
 .2692 
 
 104.3 
 
 119 
 
 340.3 
 
 312.1 
 
 873.6 
 
 1185.7 
 
 230.1 
 
 3.685 
 
 .2713 
 
 105.3 
 
 120 
 
 340.9 
 
 312.7 
 
 873.1 
 
 1185.9 
 
 228.3 
 
 3.656 
 
 .2735 
 
 106.3 
 
 121 
 
 341.6 
 
 313.4 
 
 872.7 
 
 1186.1 
 
 226.5 
 
 3.628 
 
 .2757 
 
 107.3 
 
 122 
 
 342.2 
 
 314.0 
 
 872.5 
 
 1186.3 
 
 224.7 
 
 3.600 
 
 .2778 
 
 108.o 
 
 123 
 
 342.8 
 
 314.7 
 
 871.8 
 
 1186.5 
 
 223.0 
 
 3.572 
 
 .2800 
 
 109.3 
 
 124 
 
 343.4 
 
 315.3 
 
 871.3 
 
 1186.6 
 
 221.3 
 
 3.545 
 
 .2821 
 
 110.3 
 
 125 
 
 344.0 
 
 315.9 
 
 870.9 
 
 1186.8 
 
 219.6 
 
 3.518 
 
 .2842 
 
 111.3 
 
 126 
 
 344.6 
 
 316.6 
 
 870.4 
 
 1187 
 
 218.0 
 
 3.492 
 
 .2864 
 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
TABLES. 
 
 PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM Continued. 
 
 225 
 
 Pounds per 
 
 
 Heat Units in One Pound 
 
 Volume. 
 
 
 Square Inch. 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 above 32 F. 
 
 
 So 
 
 S 
 
 ~3 
 
 g 
 
 CJ 3 
 
 11 
 
 
 2*0 _ 
 
 a 
 
 Relative. 
 
 Specific. 
 
 l 
 
 os< . 
 
 a! 
 
 3 GO 
 
 P 
 
 l| 
 
 liil 
 
 +3-3! 
 
 nS8| 
 
 Cu. Feet in 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 
 .^.2 S 
 
 -E- a? 
 
 t* 3 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 I* ' 
 
 .E 
 
 ^W> 
 
 IIHEoQ 
 
 1 Cu. Foot 
 
 in 1 Pound 
 
 'SOOQ 
 
 
 <j 
 
 H 
 
 -< 
 
 *q 
 
 &3 
 
 of Water. 
 
 of Steam. 
 
 
 
 112.3 
 
 127 
 
 345.2 
 
 317.2 
 
 870.0 
 
 1187.2 
 
 216.4 
 
 3.466 
 
 .2885 
 
 113.3 
 
 128 
 
 345.8 
 
 317.8 
 
 869.6 
 
 1187.4 
 
 214.8 
 
 3.440 
 
 .2907 
 
 114.3 
 
 129 
 
 313.4 
 
 318.4 
 
 869.1 
 
 1187.6 
 
 213.2 
 
 3.415 
 
 .2928 
 
 115.3 
 
 130 
 
 347 
 
 319.0 
 
 868.7 
 
 1187.8 
 
 211.6 
 
 3.390 
 
 .2950 
 
 116.3 
 
 131 
 
 347.6 
 
 319.6 
 
 868.3 
 
 1187.9 
 
 210.1 
 
 3.366 
 
 .2971 
 
 117.3 
 
 132 
 
 348.2 
 
 320.2 
 
 867.8 
 
 1188.1 
 
 208.6 
 
 3.342 
 
 .2992 
 
 118.3 
 
 133 
 
 348.8 
 
 320.8 
 
 867.4 
 
 1188.3 
 
 207.1 
 
 3.318 
 
 .3014 
 
 119.3 
 
 134 
 
 349.3 
 
 321.4 
 
 867.0 
 
 1188.5 
 
 205.7 
 
 3.295 
 
 .3035 
 
 120.3 
 
 135 
 
 349.9 
 
 322.0 
 
 866.6 
 
 1188.6 
 
 204.2 
 
 3.272 
 
 .3057 
 
 121.3 
 
 136 
 
 350.5 
 
 322.6 
 
 866.2 
 
 1188.8 
 
 202.8 
 
 3.249 
 
 .3078 
 
 122.3 
 
 137 
 
 351.0 
 
 323.2 
 
 865.7 
 
 1189.0 
 
 201.4 
 
 3.227 
 
 .3099 
 
 123.3 
 
 138 
 
 351.7 
 
 323.8 
 
 865.3 
 
 1189.1 
 
 200.0 
 
 3.204 
 
 .3121 
 
 124.3 
 
 139 
 
 352.2 
 
 324.3 
 
 864.9 
 
 1189.3 
 
 198.7 
 
 3.182 
 
 .3142 
 
 125.3 
 
 140 
 
 352.7 
 
 324.9 
 
 864.5 
 
 1189.5 
 
 197.3 
 
 3.161 
 
 .3163 
 
 126.3 
 
 141 
 
 353.3 
 
 325.5 
 
 864.1 
 
 1189.7 
 
 196.0 
 
 3.140 
 
 .3185 
 
 127.3 
 
 142 
 
 353.8 
 
 326.1 
 
 863.7 
 
 1189.8 
 
 194.7 
 
 3.119 
 
 .3206 
 
 128.3 
 
 143 
 
 354.4 
 
 326.8 
 
 863.3 
 
 1190.0 
 
 193.4 
 
 3.099 
 
 .3227 
 
 129.3 
 
 144 
 
 354.9 
 
 327.2 
 
 862.9 
 
 1190.2 
 
 192.2 
 
 3.078 
 
 .3249 
 
 130.3 
 
 145 
 
 355.5 
 
 327.8 
 
 862.5 
 
 1190.3 
 
 190.9 
 
 3.058 
 
 .3270 
 
 131.3 
 
 146 
 
 356.0 
 
 328.3 
 
 862.1 
 
 1190.4 
 
 189.7 
 
 3.038 
 
 .3291 
 
 132.3 
 
 147 
 
 355.5 
 
 328.9 
 
 861.7 
 
 1190.6 
 
 188.5 
 
 3.019 
 
 .3313 
 
 133.3 
 
 148 
 
 357.1 
 
 329.4 
 
 861.4 
 
 1190.8 
 
 187.3 
 
 3.000 
 
 .3334 
 
 134.3 
 
 149 
 
 357.6 
 
 330.0 
 
 861.0 
 
 1191.0 
 
 186.1 
 
 2.981 
 
 .3355 
 
 135.3 
 
 150 
 
 358.1 
 
 330.5 
 
 860.6 
 
 1191.1 
 
 184.9 
 
 2.962 
 
 .3376 
 
 136.3 
 
 151 
 
 358.6 
 
 331.1 
 
 860.2 
 
 1191.3 
 
 183.7 
 
 2.943 
 
 .3398 
 
 137.3 
 
 152 
 
 359.2 
 
 331.0 
 
 859.8 
 
 1191.4 
 
 182.6 
 
 2.925 
 
 .3419 
 
 138.3 
 
 153 
 
 359.7 
 
 332.2 
 
 859.4 
 
 1191.6 
 
 181.5 
 
 2.908 
 
 .3439 
 
 139.3 
 
 154 
 
 360.2 
 
 332.7 
 
 859.1 
 
 1191.8 
 
 180.4 
 
 2.890 
 
 .3460 
 
 140.3 
 
 155 
 
 360.7 
 
 333.2 
 
 858.7 
 
 1191.9 
 
 179.2 
 
 2.870 
 
 .3484 
 
 141.3 
 
 156 
 
 361.2 
 
 333.7 
 
 858.3 
 
 1192.1 
 
 178.1 
 
 2.853 
 
 .3505 
 
 142.3 
 
 157 
 
 361.7 
 
 334.3 
 
 857.9 
 
 1192.2 
 
 177.0 
 
 2.835 
 
 .3526 
 
 143.3 
 
 158 
 
 362.2 
 
 334.8 
 
 857.6 
 
 1192.4 
 
 176.0 
 
 2.819 
 
 .3547 
 
 144.3 
 
 159 
 
 362.7 
 
 335.3 
 
 857.2 
 
 1192.5 
 
 174.9 
 
 2.802 
 
 .3568 
 
 145.3 
 
 160 
 
 363.2 
 
 335.8 
 
 856.8 
 
 1192.7 
 
 173.9 
 
 2.786 
 
 .3589 
 
 146.3 
 
 161 
 
 363.7 
 
 336.3 
 
 856.5 
 
 1192.8 
 
 172.9 
 
 2.770 
 
 .3610 
 
 147.3 
 
 162 
 
 364.2 
 
 336.9 
 
 856.1 
 
 1193.0 
 
 171.9 
 
 2.754 
 
 .3631 
 
 148.3 
 
 163 
 
 364.7 
 
 337.4 
 
 855.7 
 
 1193.1 
 
 171.0 
 
 2.739 
 
 .3650 
 
 149.3 
 
 164 
 
 365.2 
 
 337.9 
 
 855.4 
 
 1193.3 
 
 170.0 
 
 2.723 
 
 .3672 
 
 150.3 
 
 165 
 
 365.7 
 
 338.4 
 
 855.0 
 
 1193.5 
 
 169.0 
 
 2.707 
 
 .3693 
 
 151.3 
 
 166 
 
 366.2 
 
 338.9 
 
 854.7 
 
 1193.6 
 
 168.1 
 
 2.693 
 
 .3714 
 
 152.3 
 
 167 
 
 366.7 
 
 339.4 
 
 854.3 
 
 1193.7 
 
 167.1 
 
 2.677 
 
 . 3735 
 
 153.3 
 
 168 
 
 367.1 
 
 339.9 
 
 853.9 
 
 1193.9 
 
 166.2 
 
 2.662 
 
 .3756 
 
226 BOILfift-WATERS. 
 
 PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM Ctffltitiutd. 
 
 Pounds per 
 
 
 Heat Units in One Pound 
 
 Volume. 
 
 
 Square Inch. 
 
 6 . 
 
 above 32 F. 
 
 
 r 
 
 2 
 
 | 
 
 f 
 
 
 u ! 
 
 ^ . c 
 
 Relative. 
 
 Specific. 
 
 
 
 jj 
 
 11 
 
 || 
 
 ll 
 
 111 
 
 +||| 
 
 Cu. Feet in 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 
 5 
 
 J 
 
 73 &H 
 
 Q "J| 
 
 HJI 
 
 hJK>^ 
 
 11 HffiM 
 
 1 Cu. Foot 
 
 in 1 Pound 
 
 so 
 
 
 3 
 
 P 
 
 j 
 
 * 
 
 i 
 
 of Water- 
 
 of Steam. 
 
 ^ 
 
 151.3 
 
 169 
 
 367.6 
 
 340.4 
 
 853.6 
 
 1194.0 
 
 165.3 
 
 2.648 
 
 .37 
 
 155.3 
 
 170 
 
 368.1 
 
 340.9 
 
 853.2 
 
 1194.2 
 
 164.3 
 
 2.632 
 
 .37' 
 
 153.3 
 
 171 
 
 368.6 
 
 341.4 
 
 852.9 
 
 1194.3 
 
 163.4 
 
 2.617 
 
 .38 
 
 157.3 
 
 172 
 
 369.1 
 
 341.9 
 
 852.6 
 
 1194.5 
 
 162.5 
 
 2.603 
 
 .38 
 
 158.3 
 
 173 
 
 369.5 
 
 342.4 
 
 852.2 
 
 1194.6 
 
 161.6 
 
 2.588 
 
 .38 
 
 159.3 
 
 174 
 
 370.0 
 
 342.8 
 
 851.9 
 
 1194.8 
 
 160.7 
 
 2.574 
 
 .38 
 
 160.3 
 
 175 
 
 370.5 
 
 343.3 
 
 851.5 
 
 1194 9 
 
 159.8 
 
 2.560 
 
 .39 
 
 161.3 
 
 176 
 
 370.9 
 
 343.8 
 
 851.2 
 
 1195.0 
 
 158.9 
 
 2.545 
 
 .39 
 
 162.3 
 
 177 
 
 371.4 
 
 344.3 
 
 850.8 
 
 1195.2 
 
 158.1 
 
 2.533 
 
 .39 
 
 163.3 
 
 178 
 
 371.9 
 
 344.8 
 
 850.5 
 
 1195.3 
 
 157.2 
 
 2.518 
 
 .39 
 
 164.3 
 
 179 
 
 372.3 
 
 345.3 
 
 850.2 
 
 1195.5 
 
 156.4 
 
 2.505 
 
 .39 
 
 1G5.3 
 
 180 
 
 372.8 
 
 345.7 
 
 849.8 
 
 1195.6 
 
 155.6 
 
 2.493 
 
 .40 
 
 166.3 
 
 181 
 
 373.2 
 
 346.2 
 
 849.5 
 
 1195.7 
 
 154.8 
 
 2.480 
 
 .40 
 
 167.3 
 
 182 
 
 373.7 
 
 346.7 
 
 849.2 
 
 1195.9 
 
 154.0 
 
 2.467 
 
 .40 
 
 168.3 
 
 183 
 
 374.1 
 
 347.1 
 
 848.8 
 
 1196.0 
 
 153.2 
 
 2.455 
 
 .40 
 
 169.3 
 
 184 
 
 374.6 
 
 347.6 
 
 848.5 
 
 1196.2 
 
 152.4 
 
 2.441 
 
 .40 
 
 170.3 
 
 185 
 
 375.0 
 
 348.1 
 
 848.2 
 
 1196.3 
 
 151.6 
 
 2.428 
 
 .41 
 
 171.3 
 
 186 
 
 375.5 
 
 348.6 
 
 847.8 
 
 1196.4 
 
 150.8 
 
 2.416 
 
 .41 
 
 172.3 
 
 187 
 
 375.9 
 
 349.0 
 
 847.5 
 
 1196.6 
 
 150.0 
 
 2.403 
 
 .41 
 
 173.3 
 
 188 
 
 376.4 
 
 349.5 
 
 847.2 
 
 1196.7 
 
 149.2 
 
 2.390 
 
 .41 
 
 174.3 
 
 189 
 
 376.8 
 
 349.9 
 
 846.9 
 
 1196.8 
 
 148.5 
 
 2.379 
 
 .42 
 
 175.3 
 
 190 
 
 377.2 
 
 350.4 
 
 846.5 
 
 1197.0 
 
 147.8 
 
 2.367 
 
 .42 
 
 170. 3 
 
 191 
 
 377.7 
 
 350.8 
 
 846.2 
 
 1197.1 
 
 147.0 
 
 2.355 
 
 .42 
 
 177.3 
 
 192 
 
 378.1 
 
 351.3 
 
 845.9 
 
 1197.2 
 
 146.3 
 
 2.344 
 
 .42 
 
 178.3 
 
 193 
 
 378.5 
 
 351.7 
 
 845.6 
 
 1197.4 
 
 145.6 
 
 2.332 
 
 .42 
 
 179.3 
 
 194 
 
 379.0 
 
 352.2 
 
 845.3 
 
 1197.5 
 
 144.9 
 
 2.321 
 
 .43 
 
 180.3 
 
 195 
 
 379.4 
 
 352.6 
 
 845.0 
 
 1197.6 
 
 144.2 
 
 2.310 
 
 .43 
 
 181.3 
 
 196 
 
 379.9 
 
 353.1 
 
 844.6 
 
 1197.8 
 
 143.5 
 
 2.299 
 
 .43 
 
 182.3 
 
 197 
 
 380.3 
 
 353.5 
 
 844.3 
 
 1197.9 
 
 142.8 
 
 2.287 
 
 .43 
 
 183.3 
 
 198 
 
 380.7 
 
 354.0 
 
 844.0 
 
 1198.0 
 
 142.1 
 
 2.276 
 
 .43 
 
 184.3 
 
 199 
 
 381.1 
 
 354.4 
 
 843.7 
 
 1198.1 
 
 141.4 
 
 2.265 
 
 .44 
 
 185.3 
 
 200 
 
 381.5 
 
 354.8 
 
 843.4 
 
 1198.3 
 
 140.8 
 
 2.255 
 
 .44 
 
 186.3 
 
 201 
 
 381.9 
 
 355.3 
 
 843.1 
 
 1198.4 
 
 140.1 
 
 2.244 
 
 .44 
 
 187.3 
 
 202 
 
 382.4 
 
 355.7 
 
 842.8 
 
 1198.5 
 
 139.5 
 
 2.235 
 
 .44 
 
 188.3 
 
 203 
 
 382.8 
 
 356.1 
 
 842.5 
 
 1198.7 
 
 138.8 
 
 2.223 
 
 .44 
 
 189.3 
 
 204 
 
 383.2 
 
 356.6 
 
 842.2 
 
 1198.8 
 
 138.1 
 
 2.212 
 
 .45 
 
 190.3 
 
 205 
 
 383.6 
 
 357.0 
 
 841.8 
 
 1198.9 
 
 137.5 
 
 2.203 
 
 .45 
 
 191.3 
 
 206 
 
 384.0 
 
 357.4 
 
 841.5 
 
 1199.0 
 
 136.9 
 
 2.193 
 
 .45 
 
 192.3 
 
 207 
 
 384.4 
 
 357.9 
 
 841.2 
 
 1199.2 
 
 136.3 
 
 2.183 
 
 .45 
 
 193.3 
 
 208 
 
 384.8 
 
 358.3 
 
 841.0 
 
 1199.3 
 
 135 7 
 
 2.174 
 
 .46 
 
 194.3 
 
 209 
 
 385.2 
 
 358.7 
 
 840.7 
 
 1199.4 
 
 135.1 
 
 2.164 
 
 .46 
 
 195.3 
 
 210 
 
 385.6 
 
 359.1 
 
 840.4 
 
 1199.5 
 
 134.5 
 
 2.154 
 
 .46 
 
TABLES. 
 PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM Continued. 
 
 227 
 
 Pounds per 
 
 
 Heat Units in One Pound 
 
 Volume. 
 
 
 Square Inch. 
 
 
 
 above 32 F. 
 
 
 SJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 fil 
 
 11 
 
 jj 
 
 ^.i - 
 
 .* . 
 
 Relative. 
 
 Specific. 
 
 "ol 
 
 if 
 
 % z 
 2. 
 
 E (H 
 
 Ii 
 
 |||| 
 
 ill! 
 
 ?u. Feet in 
 
 ^ubic Feet 
 
 111 
 
 p 
 
 | 
 
 5 "S 
 
 && 
 
 _,- tf 
 
 ife-WOQ 
 
 1 Cu. Foot 
 
 in 1 Pound 
 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 s 
 
 * 
 
 *4 
 
 55 
 
 of Water. 
 
 of Steam. 
 
 f 
 
 196.3 
 
 211 
 
 386.1 
 
 359.6 
 
 840.1 
 
 1199.7 
 
 133.9 
 
 2.145 
 
 .4663 
 
 197.3 
 
 212 
 
 386.5 
 
 360.0 
 
 839.8 
 
 1199.8 
 
 133.3 
 
 2.135 
 
 .4684 
 
 198.3 
 
 213 
 
 386.9 
 
 360.4 
 
 839.5 
 
 1199.1, 
 
 132.8 
 
 2.126 
 
 .4705 
 
 199.3 
 
 214 
 
 387.3 
 
 360.9 
 
 839.2 
 
 1200.1 
 
 132.2 
 
 2.117 
 
 .4726 
 
 200.3 
 
 215 
 
 387.7 
 
 361.3 
 
 838.9 
 
 1200.2 
 
 131.6 
 
 2.108 
 
 .4747 
 
 201.3 
 
 216 
 
 388.1 
 
 361.7 
 
 838.6 
 
 1200.3 
 
 131.0 
 
 2.098 
 
 .4768 
 
 202.3 
 
 217 
 
 388.5 
 
 362.1 
 
 838.3 
 
 1200.4 
 
 130.4 
 
 2.089 
 
 .4789 
 
 203.3 
 
 218 
 
 388.9 
 
 362.5 
 
 838.0 
 
 1200.5 
 
 129.9 
 
 2.080 
 
 .4810 
 
 204.3 
 
 219 
 
 389.3 
 
 362.9 
 
 837.8 
 
 1200.7 
 
 129.3 
 
 2.070 
 
 .4831 
 
 205.3 
 
 220 
 
 389.6 
 
 363.3 
 
 837.5 
 
 1200.8 
 
 128.7 
 
 2.061 
 
 .4852 
 
 206.3 
 
 221 
 
 390.1 
 
 363.7 
 
 837.3 
 
 1201.0 
 
 128.1 
 
 2.052 
 
 .4873 
 
 207.3 
 
 222 
 
 390.5 
 
 364.1 
 
 837.0 
 
 1201.1 
 
 127.6 
 
 2.043 
 
 .4894 
 
 208.3 
 
 223 
 
 390.8 
 
 364.5 
 
 836.7 
 
 1201.2 
 
 127.0 
 
 2.035 
 
 . 4915 
 
 209.3 
 
 224 
 
 391.2 
 
 364.9 
 
 836.4 
 
 1201.3 
 
 126.5 
 
 2.027 
 
 .4936 
 
 210.3 
 
 225 
 
 391.6 
 
 365.3 
 
 836.1 
 
 1201.4 
 
 126.0 
 
 2.018 
 
 .4956 
 
 211.3 
 
 226 
 
 392.0 
 
 365.8 
 
 835.8 
 
 1201.6 
 
 125.4 
 
 2.010 
 
 .4977 
 
 212.3 
 
 227 
 
 392.4 
 
 366.1 
 
 835.6 
 
 1201.7 
 
 124.9 
 
 2.002 
 
 .4998 
 
 213.3 
 
 228 
 
 392.8 
 
 366.5 
 
 835.3 
 
 1201.8 
 
 124.4 
 
 1.993 
 
 .5019 
 
 214.3 
 
 229 
 
 393.2 
 
 366.9 
 
 835.0 
 
 1201. S 
 
 123.9 
 
 1.984 
 
 .5040 
 
 215.3 
 
 230 
 
 393.5 
 
 367.3 
 
 834.7 
 
 1202.0 
 
 123.3 
 
 1.976 
 
 .5061 
 
 216.3 
 
 231 
 
 393.9 
 
 367.7 
 
 834.4 
 
 1202.1 
 
 122.9 
 
 1.968 
 
 .5082 
 
 217.3 
 
 232 
 
 394.3 
 
 368.1 
 
 834.1 
 
 1202.2 
 
 122.4 
 
 1.960 
 
 .5103 
 
 218.3 
 
 233 
 
 394.7 
 
 368.5 
 
 833.9 
 
 1202.4 
 
 121.9 
 
 1.952 
 
 .5124 
 
 219.3 
 
 234 
 
 395.1 
 
 338.9 
 
 833.6 
 
 1202.5 
 
 121.4 
 
 1.944 
 
 .5145 
 
 220.3 
 
 235 
 
 395.5 
 
 369.2 
 
 833.4 
 
 1202.6 
 
 120.9 
 
 .936 
 
 .5165 
 
 221.3 
 
 236 
 
 395.9 
 
 369.6 
 
 833.1 
 
 1202.7 
 
 120.4 
 
 .928 
 
 .5186 
 
 222.3 
 
 237 
 
 396.3 
 
 832.8 
 
 370.0 
 
 1202.8 
 
 119.9 
 
 .921 
 
 .5207 
 
 223.3 
 
 238 
 
 396.6 
 
 832.5 
 
 370.4 
 
 1202.9 
 
 119.4 
 
 .913 
 
 .5228 
 
 224.3 
 
 239 
 
 397.0 
 
 832.2 
 
 370.8 
 
 1203.0 
 
 119.0 
 
 .905 
 
 .5249 
 
 225.3 
 
 240 
 
 397.4 
 
 832.0 
 
 371.1 
 
 1203.1 
 
 il8.5 
 
 .898 
 
 .5270 
 
 226.3 
 
 241 
 
 397.8 
 
 831.7 
 
 371.5 
 
 1203.2 
 
 118.0 
 
 .891 
 
 .5291 
 
 227.3 
 
 242 
 
 398.1 
 
 831.4 
 
 371.9 
 
 1203.3 
 
 117.5 
 
 .884 
 
 .5312 
 
 228.3 
 
 243 
 
 398.5 
 
 831.1 
 
 372.3 
 
 1203.4 
 
 117.1 
 
 .857 
 
 .5332 
 
 229.3 
 
 244 
 
 398.9 
 
 830.8 
 
 372.7 
 
 1203.5 
 
 116.7 
 
 .868 
 
 .5353 
 
 230.3 
 
 245 
 
 399.2 
 
 830.6 
 
 373.1 
 
 1203.7 
 
 116.2 
 
 .861 
 
 . 5374 
 
 231.3 
 
 246 
 
 399.6 
 
 830.4 
 
 373.4 
 
 1203.8 
 
 115.7 
 
 .853 
 
 .5395 
 
 232.3 
 
 247 
 
 400.0 
 
 830.1 
 
 373.8 
 
 1203.9 
 
 115.3 
 
 .846 
 
 .5416 
 
 233.3 
 
 248 
 
 400.3 
 
 829.8 
 
 374.2 
 
 1204.0 
 
 114.9 
 
 .839 
 
 .5436 
 
 234.3 
 
 249 
 
 400.7 
 
 829.5 
 
 374.6 
 
 1204.1 
 
 114.4 
 
 .832 
 
 .5457 
 
 235.3 
 
 250 
 
 401.1 
 
 829.2 
 
 375.0 
 
 1204.2 
 
 114.0 
 
 .825 
 
 .5478 
 
 238 . 3 
 
 253 
 
 402.1 
 
 828.5 
 
 376.0 
 
 1204.5 
 
 112.7 
 
 .806 
 
 .5540 
 
 241.3 
 
 256 
 
 403.1 
 
 827.9 
 
 377.0 
 
 1204.9 
 
 111.4 
 
 .785 
 
 .5603 
 
228 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM Continued. 
 
 Pounds per 
 Square Inch. 
 
 
 
 Heat Units in One Pound 
 above 32 F. 
 
 Volume. 
 
 %*3 
 "o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 _ , 
 
 c . 
 
 Relative. 
 
 Specific. 
 
 o . 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 (H* 
 
 
 "~ e 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 fc* 
 
 II 
 
 || ,2 
 
 Slis 
 
 Cu. Feet in 
 
 Cubic Feet 
 
 Ill 
 
 3 &H 
 
 _D^ 
 
 E c4 
 
 jj|P 
 
 _ ,-- N 
 
 II HE 02 
 
 1 Cu. Foot 
 
 in 1 Pounc 
 
 
 d 
 
 < 
 
 h 
 
 * 
 
 ^ 
 
 35 
 
 of Water. 
 
 of Steam . 
 
 ^ 
 
 244.3 
 
 259 
 
 404.2 
 
 827.1 
 
 378.1 
 
 1205.2 
 
 110.2 
 
 1.766 
 
 .5665 
 
 247.3 
 
 262 
 
 405.2 
 
 826.3 
 
 379.2 
 
 1205.5 
 
 109.2 
 
 1.746 
 
 .5727 
 
 250.3 
 
 265 
 
 406.1 
 
 825.6 
 
 380.2 
 
 1205.8 
 
 107.8 
 
 1.728 
 
 .5789 
 
 253.3 
 
 268 
 
 407.2 
 
 824.9 
 
 381.2 
 
 1206.1 
 
 106.7 
 
 1.709 
 
 .5852 
 
 256.3 
 
 271 
 
 408.1 
 
 824.1 
 
 382.3 
 
 1206.4 
 
 105.6 
 
 .691 
 
 .5914 
 
 259.3 
 
 274 
 
 409.1 
 
 823.4 
 
 383.3 
 
 1206.7 
 
 104.5 
 
 .673 
 
 . 5976 
 
 262.3 
 
 277 
 
 410.0 
 
 822.7 
 
 384.3 
 
 1207.0 
 
 103.4 
 
 .656 
 
 . 6039 
 
 265.3 
 
 280 
 
 411.1 
 
 822.0 
 
 385.3 
 
 1207.3 
 
 102.3 
 
 .639 
 
 .6101 
 
 268.3 
 
 283 
 
 412.1 
 
 821.3 
 
 386.3 
 
 1207.6 
 
 101.3 
 
 .621 
 
 .6164 
 
 271.3 
 
 286 
 
 413.0 
 
 820.6 
 
 387 . 3 
 
 1207.9 
 
 100.3 
 
 .606 
 
 .6226 
 
 274.3 
 
 289 
 
 414.0 
 
 819.9 
 
 388.3 
 
 1208.2 
 
 99.3 
 
 .591 
 
 .6288 
 
 277.3 
 
 292 
 
 415.0 
 
 389.2 
 
 819.3 
 
 1208.5 
 
 98.35 
 
 .575 
 
 .6350 
 
 280.3 
 
 295 
 
 415.9 
 
 390.2 
 
 818.6 
 
 1208.8 
 
 97.42 
 
 1.560 
 
 .6412 
 
 283.3 
 
 298 
 
 416.9 
 
 391.1 
 
 818.0 
 
 1209.1 
 
 96.47 
 
 1 . 545 
 
 .6474 
 
 285.3 
 
 300 
 
 417.4 
 
 391.9 
 
 817.4 
 
 1209.3 
 
 95.8 
 
 1.535 
 
 .6515 
 
 290.3 
 
 305 
 
 418.9 
 
 394.5 
 
 815.2 
 
 1209.7 
 
 94.37 
 
 1.510 
 
 .6618 
 
 295.3 
 
 310 
 
 420.5 
 
 396.0 
 
 814.2 
 
 1210.2 
 
 92.92 
 
 .488 
 
 .6721 
 
 300.3 
 
 315 
 
 421.9 
 
 397.6 
 
 813.0 
 
 1210.6 
 
 91.52 
 
 .465 
 
 .6824 
 
 305.3 
 
 320 
 
 423.4 
 
 399.1 
 
 812.0 
 
 1211.1 
 
 90.16 
 
 .443 
 
 .6927 
 
 310.3 
 
 325 
 
 424.8 
 
 400.6 
 
 810.9 
 
 1211.5 
 
 88.84 
 
 .422 
 
 .7130 
 
 315.3 
 
 330 
 
 426.3 
 
 402.1 
 
 809.8 
 
 1211.9 
 
 87 . 55 
 
 .401 
 
 .7133 
 
 320.3 
 
 335 
 
 427.7 
 
 403.6 
 
 808.8 
 
 1212.4 
 
 86.31 
 
 .382 
 
 .7236 
 
 325.3 
 
 340 
 
 429.1 
 
 404.8 
 
 808.1 
 
 1212.9 
 
 85.10 
 
 .394 
 
 .7339 
 
 330.3 
 
 345 
 
 430.5 
 
 406 . 
 
 807.2 
 
 1213.3 
 
 83.92 
 
 .343 
 
 .7442 
 
 335.3 
 
 350 
 
 431 . 90 
 
 407.3 
 
 806.4 
 
 1213.7 
 
 82.71 
 
 1.325 
 
 .7545 
 
 385.3 
 
 400 
 
 444.9 
 
 420.8 
 
 796.9 
 
 1217.7 
 
 72.8 
 
 1.167 
 
 .8572 
 
 435.3 
 
 450 
 
 456.6 
 
 433.2 
 
 788.1 
 
 1221.3 
 
 65.1 
 
 1.042 
 
 .9595 
 
 485.3 
 
 500 
 
 467.4 
 
 444.5 
 
 780.0 
 
 1224.5 
 
 58.8 
 
 .942 
 
 1.0617 
 
 535.3 
 
 550 
 
 477.5 
 
 455.1 
 
 772.5 
 
 1227.6 
 
 53.6 
 
 .859 
 
 1.1638 
 
 585.3 
 
 600 
 
 486.9 
 
 465.2 
 
 765.3 
 
 1230.5 
 
 49.3 
 
 .790 
 
 1 . 2659 
 
 635.3 
 
 650 
 
 495.7 
 
 474.6 
 
 758.6 
 
 1233.2 
 
 45.6 
 
 .731 
 
 1.3679 
 
 685.3 
 
 700 
 
 504.1 
 
 483.4 
 
 752.3 
 
 1235.7 
 
 42.4 
 
 .680 
 
 1.4699 
 
 735.3 
 
 750 
 
 512.1 
 
 491.9 
 
 746.1 
 
 1238.0 
 
 39.6 
 
 .636 
 
 1 . 5720 
 
 785.3 
 
 800 
 
 519.6 
 
 499.9 
 
 740.4 
 
 1240.3 
 
 37.1 
 
 .597 
 
 1 . 6740 
 
 835.3 
 
 850 
 
 526.8 
 
 507.7 
 
 734.8 
 
 1242.5 
 
 34.9 
 
 .563 
 
 1.7760 
 
 885.3 
 
 900 
 
 533.7 
 
 515.0 
 
 729.7 
 
 1244.7 
 
 33.0 
 
 .532 
 
 1.8780 
 
 935.3 
 
 950 
 
 540.3 
 
 523.3 
 
 723.4 
 
 1246 7 
 
 31.4 
 
 .505 
 
 .9800 
 
 985.3 
 
 1000 
 
 546.8 
 
 529.3 
 
 719.4 
 
 1248.7 
 
 30.0 
 
 .480 
 
 2.0820 
 
TABLES. 229 
 
 TABLE V. 
 
 EXPANSION AND WEIGHT OF WATER AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES. 
 
 (BUTTON.) 
 
 Temper- 
 ature . 
 
 Relative 
 Volume 
 by Expan- 
 sion. 
 
 Weight 
 of One 
 Cubic 
 Foot. 
 
 Weight 
 of One 
 Gallon. 
 English. 
 
 Temper- 
 ature. 
 
 Relative 
 Volume 
 by Expan- 
 sion. 
 
 Weight 
 of One 
 Cubic 
 Foot, 
 
 Weight 
 of One 
 Gallon. 
 English. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 
 Ib. 
 
 Ib. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 
 Ib. 
 
 Ib. 
 
 32 
 
 1.00000 
 
 62.418 
 
 10.0101 
 
 100 
 
 1.00639 
 
 62.022 
 
 9.947 
 
 35 
 
 0.99993 
 
 62.422 
 
 10.0102 
 
 105 
 
 1.00739 
 
 61.960 
 
 9.937 
 
 
 
 
 
 110 
 
 1.00889 
 
 61.868 
 
 9.922 
 
 
 { 
 
 62.425 
 
 1 
 
 115 
 
 .00989 
 
 61.807 
 
 9.913 
 
 39.1 
 
 0. 99989 <j 
 
 Maximum 
 
 }- 10.0112 
 
 120 
 
 .01139 
 
 61.715 
 
 9.897 
 
 
 1 
 
 density 
 
 J 
 
 125 
 
 .01239 
 
 61.654 
 
 9.887 
 
 40 
 
 0.99989 
 
 62.425 
 
 10.0112 
 
 130 
 
 .01390 
 
 61.563 
 
 9.873 
 
 45 
 
 0.99993 
 
 62.422 
 
 10.0103 
 
 135 
 
 .01539 
 
 61.472 
 
 9.859 
 
 46 
 
 1.00000 
 
 62.418 
 
 10.0101 
 
 140 
 
 1.01690 
 
 61.381 
 
 9! 844 
 
 50 
 
 1.00015 
 
 62.409 
 
 10.0087 
 
 145 
 
 1.01839 
 
 61.291 
 
 9.829 
 
 
 
 ?O A AA 
 
 
 150 
 
 1.01989 
 
 61.201 
 
 9.815 
 
 52.3 
 
 1.00029- 
 
 62 . 400 
 for ordi- 
 
 10.0072 
 
 155 
 160 
 
 1.02164 
 1.02340 
 
 61.096 
 60.991 
 
 9.799 
 9.781 
 
 
 
 nary cal" 
 culations 
 
 
 165 
 170 
 
 1.02589 
 1.02690 
 
 60.843 
 60.783 
 
 9.757 
 9.748 
 
 65 
 
 1.00038 
 
 62.394 
 
 10.0063 
 
 175 
 
 1.02906 
 
 60.665 
 
 9.728 
 
 60 
 
 1.00074 
 
 62.372 
 
 10.0053 
 
 180 
 
 1.03100 
 
 60.548 
 
 9.711 
 
 62 1 
 
 
 
 
 185 
 
 1.03300 
 
 60.430 
 
 9.691 
 
 Mean 
 
 
 
 
 190 
 
 1.03500 
 
 60.314 
 
 9.672 
 
 tern- \ 
 
 1.00101 
 
 62.355 
 
 10.000C 
 
 195 
 
 1.03700 
 
 60.198 
 
 9.654 
 
 pera- 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 1.03889 
 
 60.081 
 
 9.635 
 
 ture J 
 
 
 
 
 205 
 
 1.0414 
 
 59.93 
 
 9.611 
 
 65 
 
 1.00119 
 
 62.344 
 
 9.9982 
 
 210 
 
 1.0434 
 
 59.82 
 
 9.594 
 
 70 
 
 1.00160 
 
 62.313 
 
 9.9933 
 
 212 
 
 1.0466 
 
 59.64 
 
 9.565 
 
 75 
 
 1.00239 
 
 62.275 
 
 9.9871 
 
 230 
 
 1.0529 
 
 59.36 
 
 9.520 
 
 80 
 
 1.00299 
 
 62.232 
 
 9.980 
 
 250 
 
 1.06243 
 
 58.75 
 
 9.422 
 
 85 
 
 1.00379 
 
 62.182 
 
 9.972 
 
 300 
 
 1.09563 
 
 59.97 
 
 9.136 
 
 90 
 
 1.00459 
 
 62.133 
 
 9.964 
 
 400 
 
 1.15056 
 
 54.25 
 
 8.700 
 
 95 
 
 1.00554 
 
 62.074 
 
 9.955 
 
 500 
 
 1.22005 
 
 51.16 
 
 8.204 
 
 To change weight of one gallon English to weight of one gallon 
 United States multiply the figures given above by 0.83295. 
 
230 
 
 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 TABLE VI. 
 
 TEMPERATURE OF BOILING, BAROMETER, ALTITUDE. 
 
 Boiling- 
 point 
 in Deg. 
 Fan. 
 
 Barom- 
 eter, 
 Inches. 
 
 Altitude 
 above 
 Sea-level, 
 Feet. 
 
 Boiling- 
 point 
 in Deg. 
 Fah 
 
 Barom- 
 eter, 
 Inches. 
 
 Altitude 
 Above 
 Sea-level, 
 Feet. 
 
 Boiling- 
 point 
 in Deg. 
 Fah. 
 
 Barom- 
 eter, 
 Inches. 
 
 Altitude 
 above 
 Sea-level. 
 Feet. 
 
 184 
 
 16.79 
 
 15,221 
 
 196 
 
 21.71 
 
 8,481 
 
 208.0 
 
 27.73 
 
 2,C63 
 
 185 
 
 17.16 
 
 14,649 
 
 197 
 
 22.17 
 
 7,932 
 
 208.5 
 
 28.00 
 
 1,809 
 
 186 
 
 17.54 
 
 14,075 
 
 198 
 
 22.64 
 
 7,381 
 
 209 
 
 28.29 
 
 1,539 
 
 18V 
 
 17.93 
 
 13,498 
 
 199 
 
 23.11 
 
 6,843 
 
 209.5 
 
 28.56 
 
 1,290 
 
 188 
 
 18.32 
 
 12,934 
 
 200 
 
 23.59 
 
 6,304 
 
 210 
 
 28.85 
 
 1,025 
 
 189 
 
 18.72 
 
 12,367 
 
 201 
 
 24. OS 
 
 5,764 
 
 210.5 
 
 29.15 
 
 754 
 
 190 
 
 19.13 
 
 11,799 
 
 202 
 
 24.58 
 
 5,225 
 
 211 
 
 29.42 
 
 512 
 
 191 
 
 19.54 
 
 11,243 
 
 203 
 
 25.08 
 
 4,697 
 
 211.5 
 
 29 71 
 
 255 
 
 192 
 
 19.96 
 
 10,685 
 
 204 
 
 25.59 
 
 4,169 
 
 212 
 
 30.00 
 
 S L, = 
 
 193 
 
 20.39 
 
 10,127 
 
 205 
 
 26.11 
 
 3,642 
 
 212.5 
 
 30.30 
 
 -261 
 
 194 
 
 20.82 
 
 9,579 
 
 206 
 
 26.64 
 
 3,115 
 
 213 
 
 30.59 
 
 -511 
 
 195 
 
 21.26 
 
 9,031 
 
 207 
 
 27.18 
 
 2,589 
 
 
 
 
 CORRECTIONS FOR TEMPERATURE. 
 
 Mean temp. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 F. in shade 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 Multiply by 
 
 .933 
 
 .954 
 
 .975 
 
 .996 
 
 1.016 
 
 1.036 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.079 
 
 1.100 
 
 1.121 
 
 1.142 
 
 At the level of the sea, water boils and steam is made at 212 F., 
 and the higher the altitude above sea-level the more easily water 
 boils and steam is made; the lower down in the earth we descend 
 the more difficult it is to make steam. 
 
TABLES. 231 
 
 TABLE VII. 
 
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SUBSTANCES WITH SYMBOLS. 
 Substance Composition. 
 
 Acetic acid C 2 H 4 C>2 
 
 Alcohol C 2 H 6 OH 
 
 Alkali waste CaS 
 
 Alum .K 2 SO 4 Al23SO 4 
 
 Alumina A1 2 O 3 
 
 Ammonia NH 3 
 
 Ammonium carbonate (NH 4 ) 2 CO 3 
 
 Aqua regia HNO 3 +3HC1 
 
 Barium carbonate BaCO 3 
 
 Barium chloride BaCl 2 
 
 Bauxite A1 2 O 3 +2H 2 Q 
 
 Bitter earth MgO 
 
 Black ash Na 2 CO 3 +CaS 
 
 Bleaching-powder CaOCl 2 
 
 Bone-ash .'.. Ca 3 (PO 4 ) 2 
 
 Borax Na 2 B 4 O 7 + 10H 2 O 
 
 Boracic acid BO 3 H 3 
 
 Boric acid H 2 B 2 O 4 
 
 Calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO 3 ) 2 
 
 Calcium carbonate CaCO 3 
 
 Calcium chloride CaCl 2 
 
 Calcium hydrate Ca(HO) 2 
 
 Calcium sulphate CaSO 4 
 
 Calc-spar CaCO 3 
 
 Carbonic acid CO 2 
 
 Carbonic oxide CO. 
 
 Caustic lime Ca(OH) 2 
 
 Caustic potash KHO 
 
 Caustic soda NaHO 
 
 Chalk CaCOa 
 
 Copperas FeSO 4 + 7H 2 O 
 
 Corrosive sublimate HgCl> 
 
 Cream of tartar KHC 4 H 4 O 6 
 
 Dolomite MgCO 3 +CaCO 3 
 
 Epsom salts MgSO 4 +7H 2 O 
 
 Ferric oxide '. Fe 2 O 3 
 
 Ferric sulphate Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 +9H 2 O 
 
 Ferrous carbonate FeCOs 
 
 Ferrous oxide FeO 
 
 Ferrous sulphate FeSO 4 + 7H 2 O 
 
 Glauber's salt NaaSO 4 + 10H 2 O 
 
 Gypsum. ,. CaSO 4 +2H 2 O 
 
 Hematite Fe 2 O 3 
 
 Hydrochloric acid HC1 
 
 Iron-rust. . 2FeO 3 +3H 2 O 
 
 Iron pyrites. FeS 2 
 
 Kaolin Al ? O 3 +2S fi O 2 +2H 2 6 
 
232 BOILER-WATERS. 
 
 CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SUBSTANCES WITH SYMBOLS Continued. 
 
 Substance. Composition. 
 
 Lime CaO 
 
 Lime (slaked) Ca(HO) 2 
 
 Limestone CaCO 3 
 
 Magnesium hydrate Mg(OH) v 
 
 Magnesium bicarbonate Mg( BCO 3 ), 
 
 Magnesium carbonate. . MgCO 3 
 
 Magnesium chloride MgCl 3 
 
 Magnesium sulphate MgSO 4 
 
 Marble CaCO 2 
 
 Mortar Ca(OH 2 ) + 4SiO, 
 
 Nitre KNO 3 
 
 Nitric acid HNO 3 
 
 Ozone, O 3 
 
 Pearlash K 2 CO 3 + 2H 2 O 
 
 Permanganic acid HMnO 4 
 
 Plaster of Paris CaSO 4 
 
 Potash. , , KHO 
 
 Potash alum. . , . , K 2 A1 2 (SO 4 ) 4 + 24H 2 O 
 
 Potassium bicarbonate KHCO 2 
 
 Potassium carbonate K 2 CO 3 
 
 Potassium permanganate KMnO 4 
 
 Quartz SiO 2 
 
 Quicklime. CaO 
 
 Rock salt NaCl 
 
 Sal ammoniac. . , NH 4 C1 
 
 Salt (common) NaCl 
 
 Salt cake Na 2 SO 4 
 
 'Saltpetre KNO 3 
 
 Sandstone SiO 3 
 
 Silica SiO 2 
 
 Soda Na 2 CO 3 
 
 Soda ash Na 2 CO 3 
 
 Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO 3 
 
 Sodium carbonate Na 2 CO 3 
 
 Sodium chloride NaCl 
 
 Sodium sulphate Na 2 SO 4 
 
 Sugar-cane C, 2H 22 Oi t 
 
 Sulphuric acid H 2 SO 4 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen H^ 
 
 Talc : MgO 
 
 Tannic acid C, 4 H O 9 
 
 Tri-sodium phosphate Na 3 PO 4 
 
 Vitriol, Blue CuSO 4 + 5H 2 O 
 
 Vitriol, Green FeSO 4 + 7H 2 O 
 
 Vitriol, Oil of H ? SO 4 
 
 Vitriol, White ZnSO 4 + 7H 2 O 
 
 Wad H 2 MnO 3 
 
 Water(pure) H 2 O 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Acids, 15, 19 
 
 Acids, tables of formation of, 90, 91 
 
 Acids test tor, 17 
 
 Alum 'filters, 134 
 
 Analyses, scale, 46, 63, 64 
 
 Analyses, scale, silicate, 65 
 
 Analyses of water: 
 
 containing oil, 46 
 
 general, 32, 33 
 
 New England States, 30 
 
 New York Central lines, 29 
 
 New York State Canal, 49 
 
 Pennsylvania, 30 
 
 Scaife & Sons Co., 34 
 
 Texas, 31 
 Archbutt's method of analysis, 25 
 
 Bagged and ruptured sheet, 40 
 Bagged plate, from oil, 132 
 Barium carbonate, 14 
 Barometer and boiling temperature, 
 
 230 
 
 Bio wing-off, 23, 115 
 Blow-off pipe, ruptured, 103 
 Blow-off pipe, side elevation, 104 
 Boiler compounds, 15, 213 
 Boiler destruction from oxidation of 
 
 iron, 88 
 Boiler scale, 39 
 Bottle, graduated, 84 
 Brass pipe, corroded, 107 
 Brass pipe, when to be used, 109 
 Brass tubes, effect of electrolysis, 106 
 
 Calcium, to determine by turbidim- 
 
 eter, 153 
 
 Calcium carbonate, 9 
 Calcium carbonate, precipitation, 10 
 Calcium sulphate, 7 
 Calcium sulphate, solubility, 8 
 Carbonate and sulphate waters, 178 
 Carbonate waters, 178 
 
 Carbonic acid, test for, 17 
 Carbonic-acid gas, 7 
 Caustic baryta, 14 
 Chemical analysis, 16 
 
 alkaline or acid, 17 
 
 Archbutt's method, 25 
 
 carbonic acid, 17 
 
 copper, 19 
 
 hard or soft water, 17 
 
 iron, 19 
 
 lead, 18 
 
 magnesia, 18 
 
 sulphate of lime, 18 
 
 sulphur combinations, 19 
 Chemical composition of various 
 
 substances, with symbols, 231 
 Compressibility of water, 4 
 Condenser, surface, 155 
 Condenser-tubes, 104 
 Conductivity, thermal, 61 
 Conductivity of scale, 55 
 Conductivity of solids, 56 
 Conversion, milligrammes to grains, 
 
 217 
 
 Cooling down of boilers, 115 
 Copper, test for, 19 
 Corroded boiler-head, 76 
 Corroded brace, 75 
 Corroded plate, 91 
 Corroded rivet, 75 
 Corrosion, 68 
 
 around stay-bolts, 97 
 
 effect of galvanic action, 102 
 
 effect of stress in metals, 102 
 
 explosion due to, 88, 89 
 
 followed by scale formation, 85 
 
 from air on wet tubes, 83 
 
 from ashes, 69 
 
 from rain-water, 74 
 
 iron and steel, 72 
 
 of condenser-tubes, 104 
 
 of tubes, 91, 92, 93, 94 
 
 233 
 
234 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Corrosion, of tubes, nickel-steel, 94, 
 
 95 
 
 pipe, 109 
 Thwaite's rule, 101 
 
 Corrosive action of chloride of mag- 
 nesium, 77 
 
 Corrosive action of sea- water, 81, 83 
 
 Corrosive action of water on metals, 
 80 
 
 Corrosive salts, 7 
 
 Corrosiveness, testing for, 83 
 
 Economizers, 174 
 Electrolysis on brass tubes, 106 
 Electrolytic action, copper pipes, 139 
 Erfmann Boiler-water Controller, 21 
 Expansion and weight of water, 
 
 table, 229 
 Extraction of oil, 133 
 
 Factors of evaporation, 219 
 Feed-water, causing pitting, 98 
 Feed-water, classification as to scale- 
 forming, 37 
 
 Feed-water, saving from heating, 218 
 Feed-water, very bad, 214 
 Feed- water heaters, 154 
 
 Baragwanath, 161 
 
 Blake-Knowles, 165 
 
 classification, 155 
 
 Cochrane, 168, 169 
 
 copper coil, 163 
 
 Goubert, 158 
 
 Harrisburg, 164 
 
 Hoppes, 172 
 
 multicurrent, 165 
 
 Patterson-Berry man, 157 
 
 Stillwell, 173 
 
 test of, 166, 174 
 
 Victor, 171 
 
 Wain wright, 159 
 
 Webster, 170 
 
 Wheeler, 162 
 
 Whitlock, 163 
 Feed-water pipes, 103 
 Feed-water testing, Holland, 20 
 Filters, 134 
 Foaming, 117-119 
 
 Foaming, tests on various boilers, 119 
 Fuel economizers, 174, 175 
 
 Galvanic action, 139 
 
 Gases, absorption of, in water, 5 
 
 Glycerine, 14 
 
 Grease, 136 
 
 Grooved and pitted plate, 77 
 
 Gypsum, test for, 18 
 
 Hardness, Clark's method of deter- 
 mination, 142 
 
 Hardness, Hehner's method of deter- 
 mination, 144 
 Hardness of water, 142 
 
 classification, 37 
 
 ground- waters, 148 
 
 surface-waters, 147 
 
 table, 145 
 Heat, conduction of, 51, 55, 61 
 
 conduction of, solids, 56 
 
 resistance, various metals, 11 
 
 transmission of, 52 
 
 transmission, scale-covered tubes, 
 
 57 
 Heat-absorbing power of boiler, 55 
 
 Iron, test for, 19 
 
 Iron and aluminium oxides, 14 
 
 Jackson turbidimeter, 150 
 Kerosene oil, 128 
 
 Lead, test for, 18 
 
 Locomotive boilers, cooling and 
 
 washing, 44 
 Locomotive boilers, tests of scaled, 
 
 59, 60, 61 
 
 Locomotive tubes, tests, 57, 58 
 Locomotives, water for, 212 
 
 Magnesia, test for, 18 
 Magnesium carbonate, 11 
 Magnesium chloride, 12 
 Magnesium chloride, corrosive action 
 
 of, 77 
 
 Magnesium sulphate, 11 
 Mud-cleaner, locomotive, 114 
 Mud-drums, 98, 99, 100 
 
 Oil, 128 
 
 burned under boilers, 135 
 
 crude, 130 
 
 extraction of, 133 
 
 mineral, deposits formed, 132 
 
 use of crude, under boiler, 135 
 Oil separation by electricity, 135 
 Oxygen dissolved in water, 5 
 
 Pitted pipe, 89 
 Pitted plate, 77, 97 
 Pitted tube, 89 
 Pitting, 73-77, 96, 98 
 Pittsburgh experiments, 65 
 Prevention of scale, 50 
 Priming and foaming, 117 
 
INDEX. 
 
 235 
 
 Priming and foaming, locomotive, 
 
 118 
 Properties of saturated steam, 22 
 
 Removal of scale, 50, 140 
 
 Salt water as feed-water, 89 
 Scale, 39 
 
 accumulation in flue ends, 45 
 
 calcium sulphate, 11 
 
 effect on evaporation, 52, 55 
 
 effect on evaportaion, locomotive 
 boiler, 58 
 
 Exhibit 1, 42 
 
 Exhibit 2, 38 
 
 Exhibit 3, 42 
 
 Exhibit 4, 43 
 
 Exhibit 5, 44 
 
 from weak soda-liquor water, 47 
 
 removing, 50, 140 
 Scale-forming solids, 7, 61 
 Scale-oil, comparative heat resist- 
 ance, 136 
 Sea-water, 4, 7, 31 
 Sea- water, action on cast iron, 83 
 Sediment collected in boilers, 62 
 Silica.. 14 
 Silicic acid, 14 
 Soap required for permanent lather, 
 
 148 
 
 Soda, how to add, 23 
 Sodium carbonate, 12 
 Sodium chloride, 13 
 Sodium chloride, solubility, 13 
 Sodium sulphate, 12 
 Sodium sulphate, solubility, 12 
 Softener, automaticor continuous, 193 
 Softener, intermittent, 180, 193 
 Softening, 177 
 
 by boiling, 215 
 
 chemistry of, 177 
 
 locomotive practice, 187, 188 
 Softening plant: 
 
 Breda system, 209, 210 
 
 Bruun-Lowener, 211 
 
 Kennicott, 189, 190, 191, 192 
 
 N. Y. Continental Jewell, 193, 194, 
 195 
 
 Ohio, 180, 181, 183, 184, 185 
 
 Softening plant! 
 
 Pittsburg filter Mfg. Co., 197, 198 
 
 Scaife system, 207 
 
 Scaife system, scale from, 209 
 
 Tweeddale system, 205 
 
 We-fu-go, 196, 208 
 
 Winnipeg, 201, 202, 203 
 Solubility, 15 
 
 Steam, properties of, table, 222 
 Sulphate waters, 178 
 Sulphates, 149 
 
 Sulphates, Jackson's method of deter- 
 mination, 149, 152 
 Sweet's mud-catcher, 112 
 Sweet's setting for horizontal tubular 
 boilers, 113 
 
 Tables, mathematical, 217 
 Temperature, gas-emission curve, 6 
 Temperature of boiling at various 
 
 altitudes, 230 
 Test-tubes, 18 
 Troubles due to water, prevention 
 
 and cure, 37 
 Tubes, damaged, 92 
 Turbidimeter, Jackson, 150 
 
 Water: 
 
 bad for steam purposes, 36 
 
 compressibility, 4 
 
 expansion and weight of, 229 
 
 for locomotives, 212 
 
 impurities in natural, 3 
 
 its properties, 1, 
 
 mineral, 31 
 
 polluted river, 2 
 
 rain, 2 
 
 softening, 177 
 
 spring, 4 
 
 Well-water, analysis, 3, 80 
 Winnipeg softening plant, 200 
 Witherite, 14 
 Wood extracts, 15 
 Wrought-iron pipe: 
 
 corroded, 111 
 
 durability, 109 
 
 versus steel, 110 
 
 Zinc, 137 
 
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