Ex Libris 
 C. K. OGDEN 
 
 1
 
 ACCOUNT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 MOBE 
 
 OF 
 
 RAINING LAND 
 
 ACCORDING TO YlIE SYSXfeM PRACTISED BY 
 
 MR. JOSEPH ELKINGTON. 
 
 THIRD EDITION, 
 
 CORRECTED AND ENLARGED. 
 
 DRAWN UP FOR THE CONSIDERATION OF 
 
 THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, 
 BY JOHN JOHNSTONE, 
 
 LAND SUUVEYOR. 
 
 Humidiorem agrum fossil concidi atque siccari, 
 Utilissimum est plin. nat. hist. 
 
 LONDON: 
 PRINTED FOR RICHARD PHILLIPS, 
 
 BRIDGE STREET. 
 
 By T. Gillet, Crown-court. 
 
 e. 
 
 1808. 
 
 l^Price Twelve Shillings in Boards.^
 
 ADVERTISEMENT 
 
 to THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 THE Board of Agriculture had 
 Jiardly been established, before it received 
 iiitelHgence from various parts of England, 
 of the singular success Av^ith which Mr. Jo- 
 seph Elkington, a Warwicksliire Farmer, 
 practised the Art of Draining Land ; the 
 publication or discovery of which was re- 
 presented to be one of the greatest means 
 of promoting the improvement of this 
 Country that could be suggested. It is 
 unnecessary to trace the various steps taken 
 by the Board, for attaining so important 
 an object. It may be sufficient to mention, 
 that in consequence of a motion made by 
 its President, on the 10th of June, 1795, 
 the House of Comnions voted an Address, 
 
 2G0G4.87
 
 ( vi ) 
 
 " That His Majesty would be graciously 
 pleased to give directions for issuing to- 
 Mr. Joseph Elkington, as an inducement 
 to discover his Mode of Draining, such 
 sum as His Majesty in his wisdom shall 
 think proper, not exceeding the sum of 
 10001. sterling ; and to assure His Majesty 
 that this House will make good the same 
 to His ^Majesty." 
 
 Mr. Elkington's health being extremely 
 precarious, there was a risk that the public 
 mioht lose the benefit of the knowledoe he 
 had acquired, by the experience of above 
 thirty years, in a species of Improvement, 
 which, in these kingdoms, ought to be con- 
 sidered as the basis of every other. To 
 prevent so unfortunate a circumstance, the 
 Board resolved to send ]\Ir. John John- 
 stone, to visit, in company with Mr. El- 
 kington, the principal Drainages he was 
 executing, and to take Drawings thereof. 
 It is to be hoped that the following Re- 
 port, the result of that journey, with the
 
 ( vii ) 
 
 annexed Views and Sections, • will furnish 
 the Reader with very satisfactory informa- 
 tion upon the subject of this Art, and will 
 sufficiently explain the various Modes of 
 Draining Land, whether practised by Mr. 
 Elkington, or others. 
 
 London, May \1^1,
 
 PKEFACE. 
 
 THE Writer having, by appointment of 
 the Board of Agriculture, and of the 
 Highland Society of Scotland, accom- 
 panied Mr. Elkington on a Survey through 
 those counties of England where he was 
 executing the most remarkable Drainages 
 at that time (in Summer 1796), for the 
 purpose of acquiring a knowledge of his 
 Art; and having thus had an opportunity 
 of seeing the operation carried on ia all its 
 stages, he hopes the following pages will be 
 found to contain the fullest and most cor- 
 rect Narrative of that useful Discovery, 
 hitherto laid before the Public: — a Dis- 
 covery by which many thousand acres o^ 
 the southern part of this island have been 
 already so much improved.
 
 ( X ) 
 
 When the Writer has ventured to pro- 
 pJo.^e any thing new, or that does not come 
 within tlie bounds of Mr. Elkington's 
 practice, he has done so, not Avith a view 
 of recommending^ his awn, but from a desire 
 of giving hints that may be useful to others. 
 The observations lie has ventured to sug- 
 gest, with regard to the importance of the 
 object he is describing, and the real ad- 
 vantages to be derived from ]\Ir. Elking- 
 ton's Mode of Draining, he has endea- 
 voured to establish, by authentic quota- 
 tions from the Agricultural Reports of 
 those counties in England Vrhere these ad- 
 vantages are taken notice of, and from 
 other satisfactory sources of information. 
 =^Jt cannot be expected that he is to enter 
 into a learned disquisition on the nature of 
 springs, a physical inquiry into the cause 
 and formation of bogs, or into a chemical 
 examination of the qualities of soil: — these 
 are researches that come not within the 
 limits of his knowled<:fe, althou2;h in some
 
 ( xi' ) 
 
 degree connected Avith the subject, lie 
 will content himself with briefly stating 
 facts, so far as to explain the principles of 
 the Art, and will endeavour to convey its 
 meaning in the best language 'he can, so 
 far as the nature of the subject will admit. 
 Where he has used provincial words, which 
 are almost unavoidable in a Georgical 
 Treatise of this kind, he has done so, be- 
 cause they are the terms of expression com- 
 monly applitid ; but he has also added such 
 explanation as will render their meaning 
 generally understood. 
 
 Being avrare that, uilrhout the help of 
 explanatory vSketches, it would have been 
 impossible to convey a just idea of the 
 nature and principles upon which the sys- 
 tem is founded ; he has therefore given 
 such Plans of the various situations, and 
 Sections representing the inclination of 
 those internal Strata, that produce Springs 
 and Wetness in ground, r.s he hopes will 
 be useful in facilitating the acquirement of
 
 ( xii ) 
 
 that knowledge. The origin of this dis- 
 covery lie has thought proper to explain ; 
 which, although immaterial in itself, may 
 serve as a proof of the circumstances that 
 first led Mr. Elkington to a knowledge of 
 the Art. 
 
 To the drainage of bogs, and other wet 
 ground caused by springs, he has confine^ 
 the subject of this Report, more than to 
 that of soils that are injured only by rain- 
 water stagnating on the surface ; the former 
 being a branch of the system that has hi- 
 therto been less known or attended to, and 
 as the latter is a part of it more generally 
 understood, and not so much the object of 
 Mr. Elkington*s practice. 
 
 The mode, however, of Draining some 
 soils, the wetness of which does not pro- 
 ceed from continual sprifigs, and where the 
 auger is seldom applied, he has endeavour- 
 ed to point out out in a manner whereby 
 it may be accomplished by means of much 
 less cutting and expence than what has
 
 ( xili ) 
 
 formerly been practised. He lias also, in 
 the Second Part of the Work, given a par- 
 ticular description of all the different modes 
 of Hollow and Surface-draining, as more 
 especially practised in the eastern counties 
 of England ; and, in the Appendix, has 
 offered hints, which he hopes may be useful 
 in directing t\\Q further improvement of bogs, 
 &c. after being drained. 
 
 As the former Edition of this Work was 
 written under circumstances not so favour- 
 able to perspicuity and detail, it is now 
 offered to the review of the Public, with 
 such Corrections and Additions as the 
 Writer's practice and experience has en- 
 abled him to make ; and which he hopes 
 will render it more useful. The Plates have 
 likewise been revised, and, for the sake of 
 further illustration, several new ones have 
 been added ; and the whole is now arrang- 
 ed in a better manner. 
 
 To the Board of Agriculture, &c. 
 it is hun^bly offered, with a view to faci-
 
 ( xiv ) 
 
 Iitate the acquisition of this useful Art ; 
 and if, through its means, a desire to pro- 
 secute the improvement it recommends 
 should be excited, the Writer will feel a 
 satisfaction, by having, in some degree, 
 contributed to establish that important ob- 
 ject ; hoping that, by the influence of that 
 Honourable Board, and of the Society^ 
 under whose patronage he attended Mr. 
 Elkington, the knowledge of it will be so 
 much extended, as to render the practice of 
 it general, in every situation where it may 
 be applied with, advantage. 
 
 When it comes into the hands of some 
 of those intelligent Gentlemen who have 
 seen, and are acquainted with the nature 
 and method of Mr. Elkington's system, 
 the Writer hopes they will pass over any 
 imperfections that this Account may con- 
 tain, and will not hesitate to correct its 
 errors, or to supply its defects.
 
 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 
 
 OF 
 
 THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURR. 
 
 Which maybe had of the Publisher of this yolumc 
 
 Keport of the Comraittee of the Board of Agiicul- £. s. cL 
 ture on the Culture and Use of Potatoes, -i to. ^ J G 
 
 Report on the Size of Farms, by Dr. Robertson 5 o 
 
 Account of Experiments tried by the Board of 
 Agriculture on the Composition of various Sorts of 
 Bread, 4t.o - - - - - 2 
 
 Letter from the Earl of Winchilse.a, on the Ad- 
 vantages of Cottagers renting Land, 4to. - 1^ 
 
 Elrington's Mode oi Draining, by Joiixstone, 
 
 8vo. - - - ' - - 0120 
 
 A General View of the Agriculture of the County of 
 Argyie, by John Smith, D. D. one of the Minis- 
 ters of Campbelton, Svo. Second Edition - 9 O 
 
 ' of Cheshire, by Henry 1-Ioll.\N-d, 
 
 Esq. 8vo, - - ' - - 10 tJ 
 
 of Clydesdale, by Johv Naismitii, 
 
 8vo. Second Edition - - - 7 O 
 
 of Devonshire, by Charles Va::- 
 
 couvRE, Svo. - - - - 15 "0 
 
 of East Lothian, froTh the Papers o( 
 
 the late R. Somervile, Esq. Svo. - - O 6 O 
 
 of Essex, by the Secketary of the 
 
 Board, 2 vols. Svo. - - - 110 
 
 of Fife, by John Thomson, D. D. 
 
 Ivlinister at r^Iarkinch, Svo. - - O 7 O 
 
 of Gloucestershire, by Mr. Rudge, 
 
 Svo. - - - - -000 
 
 of Hertfordshire, by the SecretaPxY 
 
 of the Board, Svo. - - - O 7 O 
 
 of Herefordshire, by John Dl'.v- 
 
 CUMBE, A. M. 8vo. - - - 060 
 
 — of Inverness-shire, by James Ro- 
 
 bertson-, D. D. Minister at Callander, Svo O 14 O 
 
 of Kent, by John' Boys, of Bet- 
 
 shanger. Farmer, 8vo. Secoiid Edition - O 7 O 
 
 of Lancashire, by Mr. John Hclt, 
 
 of Walton, near Liverpool, Svo. - - 6 O 
 
 of Lincolnshire, b^^ the Secretary 
 
 of the Board, Svo. - - - O 10 G
 
 Puhliculions of the Board of Agriculture. 
 
 A General View of the Agriculture of the Coimty £.. s. d. 
 of Middlesex, by John Middleton, Esq. of West 
 Barn Farm, jVIerton, and of Laiiibeth, Surrey, 
 Laud Surveyor, 8vo. Second Edition - 14 O 
 
 • — _ of Mid-Eothian, by George Ro- 
 bertson, Farrucr at Granton, near Edinburgh, 
 8vo. - - - - .070 
 
 of the County of Norfolk, by Na- 
 
 thaniel Kent, Esq. of Fuiham, Middlesex, 
 8vo. - - - - - O 6 
 
 of the County of Norfolk, by the 
 
 Secretary of the Board, Svo. - - 
 
 of Northumberland, Cumberland, and 
 
 Westmoreland, by Messrs. Bailey, Culley, and 
 Pringle, Svo. - - - - 9 
 
 of Nottingham, by Robert Lowe, 
 
 Esq. of Oxton, Svo. - - - 5 
 
 of Perth, by James Robertson", 
 
 D. D. Minister at Callander, Svo. - - 7 
 
 of Ptoxburgh and Selkirk, by the 
 
 Rev. Robert Douglas, D. D. Minister at Gala- 
 shields, Svo. - - - - 
 of Salop, by the Rev. Joseph Plym- 
 
 leYj M. a. Archdeacon of Salop, in the Dio- 
 cese of Hereford, and Honorary Member of tlie 
 Board, Svo. - - - - 9 
 
 of Somerset, by John Blllikgs- 
 
 ley, Esq. of Ashwick Grove, near Shepton 
 Mallet, Svo. - - - - 7 
 
 of Stafford, by W. Pitt, of Pende- 
 
 ford, near Wolverhampton, Svo. Second Edition O 9 
 of SutFolk, by the Secretary of the 
 
 Board, Svo. Second Edition - - 8 
 
 of Sussex, by the Rev, Arthur 
 
 Young, Svo. - - - - 14 
 
 of Yorkshire (the West Riding) by 
 
 Robert Bkown. Farmer at Markle, near Had- 
 dington, Scotland, Svo. - - - - O 7 
 of "i'orkshire (the North Pvidiug) by 
 
 John Tuke, Land Surveyor, Svo. - - 9 O 
 Communications to the Board of Agriculture, on 
 Subjects relative to the Husbandry and internal 
 
 Improvement of the Country. Vul. L 4to. 1 1 O 
 Ditto, Vol, IL - - - -110 
 
 Ditto, Vol. IIL - - - - 18 O 
 
 Ditto, Vol, IV. - - - - O 18 O 
 
 Ditto, Vol. V. Part I. - - - 12 O
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGF 
 
 Introduction - - . _ . . _ i 
 
 PART I. 
 
 Chap. I. An Account of the Origin of the Discovery, 
 and Means that first led Mr, Elkington Lo a Know- 
 ledge of the Art - - - - - 7 
 
 Chap. II. On the Principles of Mr. Elkington's Mode 
 of Draining - - - - - 14 
 
 Chap. III. Drainage of Bogs, and other Wet Gruund, 
 caused by Springs - - - - 2f> 
 
 Chap. IV. Drainage of Hills and Sheep-pastures, with 
 Observations on the Means of procuring and raising 
 Water for Wells, &c. - - - - 4a 
 
 Chap. V. Drainage of Bogs, and other Wet Ground, 
 by perforating through a retentive to a porous Sub- 
 stratum - - - - - 5S 
 
 Chap. VI. Drainage of Soils composed of alternate 
 Beds of Clay and Sand - - . - 73 
 
 Chap. VII. Drainage of Soils porous above and reten- 
 tive below, &:c. - - - - - 80 
 
 Chap. VIII, Drainage of Ground lying along the side 
 of Rivers, and artificial Leads of Water - - So 
 
 Chap. IX. Drainage of Mines, Quarries, Marl-pits, &c. 02 
 
 Chap. X. Observations on the Use of the Spirit-level, 
 with Directions for using it in the marking out of 
 Drains -_-.__ jqs 
 
 Chap. XI. Description of the Auger, and Manner of 
 using it, &c. - _ - _ . lOQ 
 
 Chap. XII. Extracts from some of the Agricultural 
 Reports of those Counties in England where Mr. El- 
 kington has executed the most remarkable Drainages, 
 &c. tending to authenticate the Advantages derived 
 from his Practice « - - - H5
 
 SM CONTEN-TS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 OB-iERVATIOKS ON* HOLLOW AND SCRFACE-DR AIXIJJO IP^' 
 GENERAL. 
 
 Introduction - - - - - 131 
 
 Sect. I. Antiquity of the PiMclice of Hollow-draining 132 
 Sect. II. When first used in England « - . is-l 
 
 Sect. III. Nature of the jNIoisture or Wetness against 
 
 which they are chiefly used - - - 156 
 
 Sect. IV. Of the Soils m which they act, and of those 
 
 on which they have been found to fail - - - i^7 
 Sect. V. By what Rules tlieir Direction is marked l,Tf) 
 
 Sect. VI. Season for executing the Work - 142 
 
 Sect, VII. Islanner in which Drains are partly opened 
 
 by the Plough - - - - - l-H 
 
 Sect. VIII. Depth and Width - - - 146 
 
 Sect. IX. Tools emploj'ed . _ - i4s 
 
 Sect. X. Of digging Hollow Drains _ - - i4f; 
 
 Sect. XI. Opening Drains by the Plough only - l.'A) 
 
 Sect. XII. Materials with which they are filled - 152 
 
 Sect. XIII. Mode of filling - - - l6vO 
 
 Sect. XIV. Of the Expence - - - l62 
 
 Sect. XV. Of Sod or Pipe-drains - - - l64 
 
 Sect. XVI. Duration of Covered Drains - - l68 
 
 Sect. XVII. Drainage of stiff and retentive Soils by 
 open Cuts, and the proper formation of Ridge and 
 FuiTow - - - - - 1/0 
 
 Sect. XVIII. Mode of draining Clay Soils, practised by 
 Sir Henry Fletcher, Bart. ^Member of the Board of 
 Agriculture - - - - - 177 
 
 Sect. XIX. Of Open Drains - - - ISO 
 
 Sect. XX. Of the Benefit derived from the Practice of 
 Draining in general - - - - 184 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 Hints for the Improvement of Bogs, Sec after being 
 
 drained - _ _ _ _ _ igi 
 
 Conclusion - - - - - - 212
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 OF all the arts that have excited the atten- 
 tion, or called forth the exertions of mankind, 
 none has been discovered so valiiable, or so gene- 
 rally useful, as Agriculture; not only by reward- 
 ing t»ie skill dnd industry of the individual, but 
 by exalting the prosperity of a nation. 
 
 It is, undoubtedly, the most ancient, and the 
 foundation on which all the other arts depend ; a 
 foundation everyday becoming stronger and more 
 respectable, by acquiring support and encourage- 
 ment from the first characters in this kingdom. 
 Having now attained that degree of respectability 
 which its nature and utility, as a great national 
 object, deserves, it cannot fail of exciting a very 
 general attention to the practice of it ; a practice 
 by which the permanent interests of the kingdom 
 may be so much advanced. Agricultural pursuits
 
 S INTRODUCTION. 
 
 are^ of all others^ the most conducive to health 
 and vigour. The study, or theory of it, enlarges 
 the intellectual, and its practice employs in use- 
 ful exercise the active powers of man. By much 
 the greatest part of this island, both with regard 
 to soil and climate, is very favourable to Agricul- 
 ture, and capable of much improvement ; the 
 means of which are almost every where at hand. 
 It is not, however, the intention of this Treatise 
 to shew what are the general improvements con- 
 nected with Agriculture, but to explain and de- 
 scribe that branch of it alone which may not onlj 
 be reckoned the most important^ but one upon 
 the practice of which most of the others, in cer- 
 tain situations, depend. It is surprising, that so 
 few attempts have been made to reclaim and im- 
 prove some of the many extensive tracts of wet 
 ioggij land, that are every where to be met with 
 in this country ; which, in the language of a late 
 writer,* are ^'^ at present a reproach to the age, 
 a disgrace to the country, and a nuisance to the 
 occupiers. "f — Tn point of local advantages, land 
 
 * Mr. Boswell, on Water Meadows. 
 
 f In an Address by the President to the Board of Agri- 
 culture, on the Culti\ation and Improvement of the Waste
 
 INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 of this description has a preference to every other 
 kind of waste ground, by being more productive 
 when improved, and often lying in situations 
 more sheltered, and accessible to improvement, 
 than many parts of barren land, which, although 
 dry, are in other respects less favourable to cul- 
 tivation. Draining is the first step towards the 
 improvement of these, as well as of every other 
 species of wet land. It is in every respect the 
 most essential method by which their improve- 
 ment or cultivation can be accomplished; and, 
 when executed with judgment, the advantages 
 derived from it are not only immediate, but sure 
 and permanent. If land be in tillage, and remain 
 wet, every manure that can be applied to it loses 
 its effect, and fails to produce so abundant a crop 
 as a much less quantity would yield, were tho 
 
 Lands of Great Britain, printed in December 1/95, he says, 
 '■ a considerable proportion of tiie wastes of Great Britain 
 consists of lands of a wet and boggy nature, which it has been 
 yet. supposed was the most difficuh to improve and cultivate. 
 Fortunately, however, discoveries have been made in the art 
 of draining such bog?, by Mr. Joseph Elkington, a farmer of 
 the county of Warwick, as renders the improvement of swampy 
 land a matter of much less difficulty or expence than for- 
 merly." 
 
 b2
 
 4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 land dry. If in pasture^ the grass it produces 
 is of a coarse unhealthy nature^ fit neither for 
 feeding' of stocky nor for being converted into 
 hay. In sheep-walks^, the bad eflfects of wetness 
 are often severely felt. The rot;, that destructive 
 malady among sheep;, chiefly proceeds from the 
 nature of the herbage^ which too much noxious 
 moisture produces ; and as it is a disease hitherto 
 deemed incurable, it can only be p)' evented by 
 means of Draining. 
 
 The effects of Draining, on the climate, arc also 
 considerable. In hot weather, the exhalations 
 that arise from large tracts of moss and marshy 
 ground must increase the humidity of the climate, 
 and render it unsalubrious to the inhabitants, as 
 well as injurious both to animal and vegetable 
 life; hence, in such situations, animals are un- 
 healthy, and every kind of grain is longer in 
 coming to maturity ; its harvest precarious, and 
 the quality of its produce inferior ; occasioned by 
 the dampness of the soil, and impurity of the 
 atmo^here. 
 
 The Draining of one large tract of land may
 
 INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 furnish water for the accommodation of another ; 
 which, if collected in sufficient quantities, may be 
 converted to its improvement by irrigation. By 
 the same means, a more abundant and regular 
 supply of water may be obtained to drive mills, 
 and other machinery constructed for various pur- 
 poses, and for supplying canals, or artificial navi- 
 gations, houses, tish-ponds, inclosures, &c. li 
 may also be applied, with great advantage, in the 
 case of mines, by diminishing the quantity of 
 water found in working them, as shall afterwards 
 be shewn.
 
 AN ACCOUNT 
 
 OF THE 
 
 MOST APPROVED MODE 
 
 OF 
 
 DRAINING LAND, 
 
 PART I. 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE DISCOVERY M\DE BY MR. ELKING- 
 TON^ AND THE MEANS THAT FIRST LED HIM TO 
 A KNOWLEDGE OF THE ART. 
 
 THE reason for introducing the subject of 
 this chapter has been stated in the Preface. It 
 may be necessary to add^ that the annexed plan 
 was taken on the spot/in presence of Mr. Elking- 
 ton, for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of 
 the original discovery, and the explanation and 
 information relating to it having been also re- 
 ceived from Mr, Elkington there, and from others 
 of respectability in that neighbourhood, the ve-
 
 8 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 racity of il may be depended on. In the year 
 1763, Mr. Elkington ^yas left by his father the 
 possession of a farm called Priucethorpj in 
 the parish of Stretton upon Dunsraore, and 
 county of Warwick. The soil of this farm was 
 very poor, and in many places so extremely wet, 
 that it had been the cause of rotting several hun- 
 dred sheep ; which was the first means that de- 
 termined him^ if possible, to drain it, which he 
 began to do in 1764.* The field in which he 
 began was of a wet clay soil, rendered almost a 
 swamp ( and, indeed, in some places, a shaking 
 hog) J by the springs issuing from a bank of gravel 
 and sand adjoining it, and overflowing the sur- 
 face of the clav in the manner described in the 
 annexed plan, which is a true representation of it. 
 In order to drain this field, he cut a trench 
 about four or five feet deep, a little below the 
 upper side of the bog, or where the wetness began 
 to make its appearance ; and after proceeding 
 with it so far in this direction, and at this depth, 
 he found it did not reach the main body ofsuhja- 
 cent iiatcr, from v, hence the evil proceeded. 
 On discovering this IVIr. Elkington was at a loss 
 how to proceed. At this time, while he was 
 considering what was next to be done, one of his 
 servants accidentally came to the field w here the 
 drain was making, with an iron crow, or bar, 
 
 * Alter the drainage of this licld was completed, Mr. Elk- 
 inston's fiock was never afterwards affected with that disease.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 9 
 
 which the farmers in that country use in makin 
 holes for fixing their sheep-hurdles. Mr. E!k- 
 ington having a suspicion that this drain was not 
 deep enough^ and a desire to know what kind of 
 strata lay under the bottom of it, took the iron bar 
 from the servant, and after having forced it down 
 about four feet below the bottom of the trench, 
 on pulling it out, to his astonishment, a great 
 quantity of water burst up through the hole he 
 had thus made, and ran down the drain. This, 
 at once, led him to the knowledge of wetness 
 being often produced by water confined farther 
 .below the surface of the ground than it was pos- 
 sible for the usual depth of drains to reach, and 
 induced him to think of applying an auger, as a 
 proper instrument in such cases. Thus did the 
 discovery originate from chance, the parent of 
 many other useful arts ! Fortunate it is for so- 
 ciety, when such accidents happen to persons 
 who have sense and judgment to avail themselves 
 of the hints thus fortuitously given ! In this man- 
 ner, he not only accomplished the drainage of this 
 field, which soon rendered it completely sound, 
 but likewise all the other wet ground on his 
 farm. 
 
 The success of this experiment soon extended 
 Mr. Elkington's fame, in the knowledge of drain- 
 ing, from one part of the country to another; and 
 after having drained several farms in his ncigh- 
 jbourhood with equal success, he at last came to
 
 10 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 be Tery generally employed ; has been since^ and 
 is now, in various parts of the kingdom^ which 
 <hall be more particularly taken notice of in the 
 sequel. It is^ indeed^ now impossible for him to 
 execute half the employment he has in hand;, or 
 to accept the numerous offers that are every day 
 made to him. From his long practice and ex- 
 perience, he is now so successful in the works 
 which he undertakes, and also in judging of the 
 internal strata of the earth, and nature of springs, 
 that he can, with remarkable precision, judge 
 where to find water, and where to trace the 
 course of springs that make no appearance on the 
 surface of the ground. The rules on which he 
 acts, with regard to these discoveries, will be af- 
 terwards explained, in treating of the nature of 
 wet ground caused by springs. 
 
 Lastly, within these few years past, since hi§ 
 practice has been so widely extended, and so ge- 
 nerally successful, he has drained in various parts 
 of England, particularly in the midland counties, 
 many thousand acres of land ; which, from being 
 originally of little or no value, is now as produc- 
 tive as any in the kingdom, capable of producing 
 the most valuable kinds of grain, or of feeding 
 the best and healthiest species of stock. 
 
 Some have erroneously entertained an idea that 
 Mr. Elkington's sole skill lies in applying the 
 auger for the tapping of springs, without attach- 
 ing any merit to his method of conducting ther
 
 APPROTED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 11 
 
 drains. The accidental circumstance above 
 stated;, gave him the first notion of using an 
 auger^, and directed his attention to the practice 
 of draining; in the course of which he has made 
 various useful discoveries^, which are herein af- 
 terwards more fully explained. It will be suffi- 
 cient here to remark^ that draining, according to 
 his principles, depends upon three points : — 1st, 
 Upon finding out the main spring, or cause of the 
 mischief; without which nothing effectual can 
 be done. 2d, Upon taking the level of that 
 spring, and ascertaining its subterraneous bear- 
 ings ; a measure never practised by any, till Mr. 
 Elkington discovered the advantage to be derived 
 from it ; for, if the drain is cut a yard beyond 
 ilie line of the spring, you can never reach the 
 water that issues from it; and, by ascertaining 
 that line, by means of levelling, you can cut off 
 the spring effectually, and consequently drain the 
 land in the cheapest and most eligible manner; 
 The manner in which this is done, will be after- 
 wards described. And 3dly, By making use of 
 the auger to reach or tap the spring, when the 
 depth of the drain is not sufficient for that pur- 
 pose. 
 
 In regard to the use of the auger, though there 
 is every reason to believe Mr. Elkington was led 
 to employ that instrument from the accidental 
 circumstance stated above, and did not derive it 
 from any other channel; yet there is no doubt
 
 12 APPROVED MODE ep DRAINING LAND. 
 
 that others have hit upon the same idea^ without 
 being indebted for it to him. It is said^ that in 
 attempting to discover mines by means of an au- 
 ger, springs have been tapped, and the adjacent 
 wet ground thereby drained^ either by letting the 
 water down, or giving it vent to the surface. 
 The augur has also been made use of in bringing 
 water into wells, by boring in the bottom of 
 them, to save the expence of digging, especially 
 in Italv, where it is probable that the practice is 
 very ancient. But tliat it has been used in drain- 
 ing land, before Mr. Elkington made this disco- 
 ver i/, no one has ventured to assert. 
 
 In Dr. Nugent's Travels through Germany, 
 printed anno 1768 (of which an extract will be 
 found in Chapter V.), there is an account of a 
 mode of draining land, on principles, in some re- 
 spects, of a similar nature; not indeed by the use 
 of the auger, but by making pits : and in a pub- 
 lication by Dr. James Anderson, entitled, " Es- 
 says on Agriculture and Rural Affairs," printed 
 anno 1775, after describing a mode of tapping 
 the Doctor had adopted, by sinking small pits, he 
 adds : '' I have often imagined that the expence 
 of digging these pits might be saved, by boring a 
 bole through this solid stratum of clay, with a 
 wimble made on purpose ; but as I have never 
 experienced tiiis, I cannot say whether it would 
 answer the desired end exactly." 
 
 Mr. Elkington, however, made use of the auger
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 13 
 
 prior to the date of these publications;, or to any 
 hint he could possibly derive from any publication 
 in the English language ; though it is probable 
 that, in so Tar as regarded tapping of springs for 
 wells, the use of the auger was well known in 
 some parts of Italy. Buffon states^ ^"^that, in th« 
 city of Modena, and four miles round, whatever 
 partis dug, when we reach the depth of sixty- 
 three feet^ and bore five feet deeper with an 
 auger, the water springs out with such force, that 
 the well is filled in a very short space of time. 
 This water flows continually, and neither dimi- 
 nishes nor increases by the rain or drought." — ■ 
 Mentioning the different strata that are to be 
 met with to this depth, he adds : '' These succes- 
 sive beds of fenny or marshy earth and chalk, are 
 always found in the same order, wherever we dig; 
 and very often the auger meets with large trunks 
 of trees, which it bores through, but which give 
 great trouble to the workmen : bones, coals, flint, 
 and pieces of iron, are also found. Ramazzini, 
 who relates these facts," &c. — Bzijfon's Nat. Hist.
 
 14 APPROTED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 CHAP. II. 
 
 ON THE PRINCIPLES OF MR. ELRINGTON's MODE OF 
 DRAINING. 
 
 IT is remarkable that the principles on which 
 the draini.:g of land depcads, being" so great a 
 desideratum in agricultuie, should have been so 
 little known or attended to ; or that the practice 
 of it;, according to these obvious principles^, should 
 have been so much confined, while improvements 
 in the other branches of husbandry have been 
 carried almost to the highest possible perfection. 
 However intricate or abstruse it may hitherto have 
 been considered^ even by those who were other- 
 v^'ise well informed in the theory of agriculturcj 
 of which it forms the most important branch ; yet 
 it will appear^ from the following observations, 
 to be founded on circumstances the most plain 
 and rational, and which, when reduced to prac- 
 tice, produce those effects which a simple know- 
 \eCige of the cause naturally points out. 
 
 Wetness in land proceeds from two causes, as 
 diftcrent in themselves as the effects which they 
 produce. 
 
 It proceeds either from rain water stagnant on 
 the surface, or from the water of springs issuing 
 o\er, or confined under it. On clay soils, that 
 have DO natural descent^, wetness is commonly
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 13 
 
 produced by the first of these causes ; but,, in a 
 Tariety of situations, it may proceed from the 
 latter.*—But, 
 
 The principles of Mr. Elkington's art are so 
 closely connected with the nature of springs, 
 that, without a knowledge of these, and the causes 
 producing them, it is impossible to practise it 
 either with success or advantage ; for surface 
 draining, where the wetness proceeds from sub- 
 jacent water, is only alleviating the effect, in 
 place of removing the cause. It will therefore 
 be necessary, in the first place, so far to ascertain 
 the nature of springs, and their connection with 
 the formation of bogs, as to enable the practical 
 drainer more easily to comprehend the theoretical 
 part of Mr. Elkington's system. 
 
 From its general external appearance, and by 
 the perforations that have been made in it hy 
 quarries, wells, and other subterraneous pits, the 
 earth is known to be composed of various strata, 
 which, being in their nature of opposite consist- 
 ence, are distinguished by the names oi porous 
 
 * Wetness ofland is sometimes occasioned by the stagnation 
 of water in the surrounding ditches, or in some adjoining hol- 
 low, where, for want of declivity in the former, and owing to 
 the higher situation of the latter, it oozes out upon the lower 
 ground, and finds its way into the open parts of the soil. This 
 is frequently the case where water is conveyed in a lead, or 
 artificial channel, the land lying lower and adjoining to ii, 
 being very often wet from that cause. The remedy lor these 
 Itiiids of wetness is simple, and points out itself.
 
 16 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 and impervious. Those strata, wliicli, from their' 
 more open composition, are porous, and capable 
 of receiving the rain that falls on them, include 
 rock, gravel, sand, and such marls as are of an 
 absorbent quality. Clay, and a certain kind of 
 gravel having a proportion of clay in its compo- 
 sition, which, by binding and cementing the 
 small stones together, render it equally close and 
 tenacious as clay itself; with such rock as is of a 
 close and compact nature, without any fissures in 
 it, are the principal strata that most resist the 
 reception of water, and that are capable of re- 
 taining it on their surface till exhaled by the 
 sun, or carried off" by suitable drains, and are 
 termed impervious. 
 
 Springs, therefore, originate from rain water 
 falling upon such porous "and absorbent sur- 
 faces, and subsiding downwards through such, 
 till, in its passage, it meets a body of clay or 
 other impenetrable sjiibstance, which obstructs 
 its farther descent, and here, forming a reservoir 
 or considerable collection of water, it is forced 
 either to filtrate along such body, or rise to some 
 part of the surface, where it oozes out in all those 
 different appearances that are so frequently met 
 with. This is evident from the immediate disap- 
 pearance of the rain water, as it falls, on some 
 parts of the ground, while it remains stagnant on 
 others, till carried off" by evaporation; and from 
 the strength of springs being greater in wet than
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 17 
 
 in dry seasons. Hence, after incessant rains, 
 thej are observed to break out in higber situa- 
 tions, and, as tbe weatber becomes dryer, give 
 over running out, unless at their lowest outlets. 
 The strength of springs also, or quantity of water 
 which they issue, depends chiefly on the extent 
 of high ground that receives and retains the rain, 
 forming large reservoirs, which affords them a 
 more regular sup ply. Thus, bogsprings, or those 
 that rise in valleys and low situations, are much 
 stronger, and have a more regular discharge, 
 than those which break out on higher ground, or 
 on the sides of hills. 
 
 Independent of these causes, there are certainly 
 great springs contained in the bowels of the earth ; 
 otherwise, how could the many rivers that inter- 
 sect it, be supplied with such vast quantities of 
 water as they discharge, the rains falling on its 
 surface, or the dews that descend, not being ade- 
 quate for that purpose? But, as this may be 
 considered among those arcana of Nature which 
 have not yet been sufficiently explored, and lying 
 at too great a depth to affect the surface, it comes 
 not within the limits of the present inquiry. 
 
 With the nature and cause of springs, that of 
 bogs is intimately connected; for, where springs 
 breaking out in the manner above described, run 
 over a flat surface of clay, and cannot get off* with 
 sufficient rapidity, or are not confined to a narrow 
 channel, the superabundance of water must 
 
 c
 
 IS APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LA>D. 
 
 cause the dissolution of all the coarse vegetables 
 it produces, which, together with part of the na- 
 tural soil itself, is formed into a peat earth, every 
 year increasing in depth; and the extent of such 
 bog or morass, is accordiiig to the quantity of 
 water, and to that of the flat ground on which it 
 is formed.* The great object of Mr. Elkington's 
 system, is that of draining such bogs, by cutting 
 oft' entirely the source of the springs or subterrane- 
 ous water which causes the wetness, either by flow- 
 ing over the surface, or by its being long confined 
 under it. If the springs have a natural outlet, 
 the object of the drain is, to lower and enlarge 
 it, which, by giving the water a more free and 
 easy channel, will sooner discharge and draw it 
 off, or will reduce it to a level so far below the 
 surface, as to prevent its overflowing it. 
 
 \V here the?springs have no apparent outlet^ 
 but are either confined so far below the surface, 
 as to mjure it by constant moisture, or by oozing 
 out imperceptibly through any small pores of the 
 upper soil; the object of the drain is, to give a 
 
 * ?vlany and various are the conjectures respecting the origin 
 of peat bogs: into the merits ot which, it would be needless to 
 inquire. Some suppose them to have been /ormed at the time 
 of the general deluge, from the huge trees that are found in 
 them, anS from a variety of other circumstaiices that led to tliaC 
 suppobitionj but it is not so much the subject of this treatise to 
 explain their probable-origin, as the means by which springs or 
 other accumulated water may be most easily cut off, from pre- 
 «en ing them in their present unproductive state.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. ID 
 
 proper vent to that water, and to extract more 
 quickly and more eftectuallj what has before 
 ^een pent up in the bosom of the soil. The ob- 
 ject of the auger, which, in many instances, is the 
 sine qua non of the business, is simply to reach 
 or tap the spring, and to give vent to the water 
 thus pent up, when the depth of the drain does 
 not reach it, where the level of the outlet will not 
 admit its being cut to that depth, and where the 
 expence of cutting so deep would be very great, 
 and the execution of it very difficult. 
 
 According to these principles, this system of 
 draining has been attended with extraordinary 
 consequences in the course of Mr. Elkington's 
 practice, which shall be more fully explained in 
 the after part ol' this report. By it, not only 
 the land in the immediate vicinity of the drain^ 
 but also springs, wells, and wet ground, at a con- 
 siderable distance, have been made dry, with 
 which there was no apparent communication. 
 
 As the whole depends upon the situation of the 
 ground to bedrained, and the natureand inclination 
 of the strata of which the adjacent country is com- 
 posed ; as much knowledge as possible must be 
 obtained of these, before the proper course of a 
 drain can be ascertained, or any specific rules 
 given for its direction or execution. But all these 
 circumstances will be more particularly explain- 
 ed in describing the parts of tlt^ operation with 
 which thev are connected.
 
 ( 20 ) 
 
 CHAP. III. 
 
 BRAINAOE 01 BOGS, AND OTHER WET GROUND 
 CAUSED BY SPRINGS. 
 
 THE draining of extensive bogS;, or tracts of 
 marshy ground injured by springs, is a part of 
 the system deserving greater attention than any 
 other, and is in every point of viesv the most im- 
 portant ; because many extensive tracts of ground 
 of this description are at present lost to every 
 useful purpose to which they might be converted, 
 from the mistaken notion of those to whom they 
 belong, that their nature is such, as to render them 
 incapable of being drained. But however im- 
 practicable the drainage of such bogs may appear, 
 yet, by attention to Mr. Elkington's mode, they 
 are not only easily drained, and at little expence, 
 but, when they are made dry, are by far the most 
 valuable of any. The cause and formation of 
 these bogs has been pointed out in the preceding 
 chapter. They may be divided into two classes, 
 according to their situation, and the different 
 methods of draining them. Those of the first 
 class are easily distinguished by the springs rising 
 out of the adjoining higher ground, in a regular 
 line along the upper side of the wet surface; 
 which, tcgethei with the proper line of the drain, 
 are delineated on the annexed Plan (class 1st).
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 21 
 
 The second class of spring bogs'^ have the appear- 
 ance of being still more difficult to reclaim, 
 although^ in several respects^ th-'j are less so than 
 he former. 
 
 In these, the many springs that appear are not 
 confined to one regular direction along the upper 
 side, but burst out promiscuously over the whole 
 surface (especially towards the lower side), form- 
 ing quagmires that shake all around, and bend 
 under foot like a suspended cloth, over which it is 
 dangerous for the lightest cattle to pass, and 
 which shew themselves at a distance, by the ver- 
 dure of the grass which the quags, or s])ots imme- 
 diately round the springs, produce. Of this luxu 
 riant grass, sheep are remarkably fond, and, de- 
 vouring it greedily, never fail being attacked with 
 that incurable disease, the rot. This is mention- 
 ed the more particularly, not only as a sufficient 
 motiveto recommend their drainage insheep-walks, 
 but, (as has already been noticed) being one of 
 the principal causes that first induced Mr. Elk- 
 ington to attempt the drainage of a similar bog, 
 in which he fortunately made that discovery 
 which was the basis of his future practice. Un-^ 
 der the peat earth, that for ten or more feet forms 
 the upper part of these bogs, is found a bed of 
 clay, seldom of great depth, and under that a 
 
 * So called, in contradistinction to those grounds thai are 
 wet and boggy, by retaining suriace-water ; and also to sLich 
 peat bcj^s, or mosbcs, tliat do not originate iVoai springs.
 
 22 APPROTED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 stratum of sand, gravel, or rock, if fhe adjacent 
 eminences bs composed of such. The clay bed 
 immediately above and between this and the p«at, 
 bein^ in many places very thin, and in some de- 
 gree porous, the constant pressure of water con- 
 tained in the high grounds above, forces that 
 under the bog, M^ith which it is connected, 
 through these ipore porous parts of the clay and 
 peat, where it bursts up, forming those appear- 
 ances just mentioned; which., together with the 
 situation and course of the drain, are more clearly 
 elucidated by the Plan (class 2d). Such are the 
 general appearances that distinguish these two 
 classes of bogs: but there is a variety of wet 
 ground injured by springs, which neither being 
 so extensive, nor so much inclined to peat, to 
 these the term bog^* cannot so properly be ap- 
 plied; but, with regard to the mode of draining 
 them, the same directions are equally applicable. 
 
 As there are a variety of circumstances that 
 lead to a discovery of the proper line of the 
 springs, and that must guide the direction of the 
 trenches in draining these bogs, as well as every 
 other description of wet ground proceeding from 
 the same cause; it will be proper to arrange them 
 
 * Bog, properly signifies a quagmire covered with grass ; in 
 which sense, it differs from moss, the latter being covered witJi 
 heath, and ver)- often having no verdure at all on the surface : 
 the greater abundance of springs in the former, also constitute 
 a material difference in their nature.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. ^5 
 
 in the order in which they follow, previous to the 
 execution of the work. 
 
 The first thing to be observed is^ carefully to 
 examine the adjoining high grounds, in order to 
 discover what strata they are composed of^ and 
 also to ascertain as nearly as possible, the inclina- 
 tion of these strata, and their connection with the 
 ground to be drained ; and to judge at what place 
 the level of the same spj^ing comes nearest to that 
 where the water can be discharged By this 
 means the length of cutting, and in some measure 
 the quantity of water that the drain will issue, if 
 it be wanted for any particular purpose, may be 
 nearly ascertained; for, the greater the extent of 
 the high ground contiguous to the bog, the more 
 constant and more abundant will be the discharge ; 
 and if only a small hill or narrow bank, little water 
 can be expected to run from it in dry seasons, 
 ■when the porous strata can receive no supply from 
 the rains. 
 
 The surest way of ascertaining the inclination 
 and Ijje of the different strata, is by examining the 
 bed of the nearest rivers, and the sides of the 
 banks cut through by them, and any pits, wells, 
 or quarries that may have been dug in the neigh- 
 bourhood. Rushes and other coarse aquatics* 
 
 * Small alder bushes, being of the same nature as rashes, 
 and which grow naturally only on very wet soils, are sure 
 symptonns of the line of the springs, as they either grow np 
 ipiitiediately over the spring or below it, seldom higher, unless
 
 24 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 appearing on the surface, may facilitate the inves- 
 tigation ; but these being often produced by stag- 
 nant rain water, where there is no spring, cannot 
 be trusted to in cases where more minute precision 
 is necessary. 
 
 If the resisting stratum immediately under the 
 porous one, lie horizontally through the hill or 
 bank, the surface below that level will be wet and 
 rushy on both sides, and the upper side of the wet 
 ground will be found varying very little from a 
 level all the way round. When this is the case, 
 which frequently happens, a drain properly con- 
 ducted on the one side of thehill, will carry off the 
 water that causes the wetness on both. See Plan, 
 No. 4. 
 
 If the resisting stratum dip or incline more to 
 the one side than to the other, the springs will 
 issue onl}' at the lower side of that stratum, con- 
 sequently^ the one side of the hill will be wet, and 
 the other dr3'. 
 
 It is of material consequence to ascertain which 
 of the different outlets that may appear on the 
 
 where the water backs up to, when the spring is full. The 
 best time for ascertaining the true direction of drains, and 
 likewise for executing the work, is, when the ground is in 
 pasture, and has been for some time j as the rushes and other 
 aquatics make their appearance on the wet part of the surface : 
 or, when the ground is in fallow, the water is then seen oozing 
 up in the furrows, along the line in which the drain should be 
 cut, and the soil all below will retain a darker and wet appear- 
 ance, when that above is dry.
 
 APPUOVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 25 
 
 surface, is the main spring, or that from which 
 these outlets are supplied; for, by cutting olf 
 that, the others become dry, and isj therefore, one 
 of the principal circumstances upon which the 
 true direction of the drain depends. If, on the 
 bank or sloping surface from whence the springs 
 proceed, they be found to break out at different 
 levels, according to the wetness of the season; 
 and if those lowest down continue running while 
 those above be dry, it is a sure sign that all the 
 different outlets are connected with, and proceed 
 from, the same spring, and along the level of this 
 under one the line of the drain should be directed, 
 which, if properly executed, all those above will 
 afterwards continue dry. This is vnWad the main 
 spring, and those above, the overflowings of it.* 
 
 * In many cases, it may be known whether the channel of 
 the water He deep or not, by the appearance of the surface. If 
 the land be dry immediately above the place where the water 
 springs up, it is an evidence that the channel or reservoir lies 
 deep, and that the water is issuing perpendicularly j but, on 
 the contrary, if the land be wet for some distance above the 
 principal outlet of the spring, it is a sure sign that the water is 
 flowing in a channel near the surface, and that it is the over- 
 Jlowings of it that causes this wetness. It would be a certain 
 evidence of this, if there be only one spring in the wet ground; 
 but if the internal strata do not lye hori/ontally or regularly, 
 and several springs appear, arising from water running in dif- 
 ferent channels, the land above the largest or principal spring 
 may be wet, not from the bdclcing iq) of that spring, or its 
 channel being near the surfiice, but Ijy the breakingout of lesser 
 springs, in their descent, the chaiiuel oi whose waters has thus
 
 20 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 If the drain was to be cut along* the line of the 
 uppermost of these outlets^ and the depth of it not 
 reaching the level of those below, the overflow- 
 ings would only be carried off, the main spring 
 still continuing to flow, and injure the ground 
 belovv' the bottom of the drain, having a natural 
 vent lower. Such has been the coiuinon practice 
 hitherto of draining ground in this situation^, 
 where Mr. Elkington's method is not understood, 
 and which was reckoned the most eifectual and 
 most approved mode. ^\hercver the uppermost 
 springs made their appearance, there a trench 
 was cut, between the wet and the dry, as it is term- 
 ed, which not being sufficiently deep to intercept 
 the water, otiiers of the same kind were cut, one 
 below another, the whole way down the decli- 
 vity; and, being: filled with loose stones nearlv to 
 the top, each carried off a portion of surface water 
 only, without ever affecting the spring that caused 
 the mischief. The consequence of such drains is, 
 that thej render the surface drier while they con- 
 tinue to run; but soon choaking up, and burst- 
 found a vent to the surface, higher than that of the larger 
 spring, [t is in cases of this kind that draining is attended 
 with most difficulty ; and where all the cutting, Sec. necessarj 
 cannot so easily be ascertained at first, till such time as what is 
 absolutely requisite be executed, which will lead to a discoverj 
 of what more is wanted, and in what manner it should be done, 
 by exposing to view the subsoil, or strata, in which the water 
 flows. Making er/)7orflior?/ fcores with the anger, is usefalin 
 tiiis, and in all other difficult cases.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 27 
 
 ing o t in different parts, the j^roiind soon be- 
 comes equally wet^ or more so than before they 
 were made. It is more dir.cult to drain this 
 ground a second time, even in the proper manner* 
 as the surface, by means of the former drains, 
 being so much altered from its natural appear- 
 ance, the true situation of the springs cannot so 
 easily be hit on; and the frequent bursts of the 
 old drains increase the perplexity. 
 
 It frequently happens that the uppermost (if 
 the strongest outlets) ave the main springs, and 
 those below only leakages.* 
 
 Therefore the same caution is necessary to as- 
 certain this, before proceeding to maik out the 
 drain, as from the main spring onlij the level 
 must be taken, in the manner described in Chap- 
 ter IX. 
 
 In irregular banks, where the ground, owing 
 to the perpendicular situation, or pressure of 
 water behind, has slipt, or fallen down, the drain 
 must be carried higher up the declivity than 
 where the water has its apparent outlet, to the 
 sound ground that has undergone no change, 
 and where the r.cal spring will be intercepted; 
 the water in the slipt sand below, being only 
 
 * This term implies, that some of the water from the main 
 spring finds a passage through some opening in the i/pper soil 
 near the surface, and breaks out lower than the main spring, 
 when it meets with resistance from any bed of clay. By cut- 
 ting off the main spring, this of course becomes drv.
 
 S8 ArrnoTED mode of draining land. 
 
 leakages from that above, but ^vhich is apt to 
 deceive in cutting the upright trench.* AVhen 
 the main spring- rises in a steep bank a consider- 
 able height above the level of the brook, or place 
 where the drain is to discharge itself, it is unne- 
 cessary to cut a deep trench,, or to lay a covered 
 drain all the wslv from the biook up to it; for 
 the descent being too rapidj and if deep cut, bv 
 crossing veins of sand that are alwaj's met with 
 in such situations, the bricks or stones with which 
 the sough or conduit of the drain is laid, would 
 be underinincd by the rapidity of the current, 
 which would also carry down a great quantity of 
 the loose sand; but it should be begun only so 
 far down the bank, as, by cutting in level, the 
 drain may be six or seven feet lower than the 
 outlet of the spring, or whatever depth is neces- 
 sary for drawing down the water to such a level, 
 as it may discharge itself without rising to the 
 surface, or injuring the ground adjoining it. 
 The remaining part of the cut down to the brook, 
 either in a straight or sloping direction, may be 
 left open, and need not be deep, but guarded 
 from the cattle, and from the ploigh, when the 
 field is in tillage. If covered, it need not be 
 deeper than two feet; and there is no occasion 
 
 * The upright trench is the drain from the outlet up to the 
 cross one, along the line of ihe springs.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. ^9 
 
 for boring in any part of it. See fig. 2, and 3, 
 Plan, No. 5. 
 
 If there be any difficulty in ascertaing'the CKact 
 line of the spring, and that of the cross drain, 
 where it does not appear on the surface, or whea 
 there is no apparent outlet from whence to take 
 the levelj in bringing up the leading drain for 
 carrying off the water, it can be then, discovered 
 when it crosses the proper line; and, withouf 
 cutting any further up, the cross drain must be^ 
 carried on that level, so far to each side along the 
 tail, or termination of the rock or sand containing 
 the water, as the situation of the ground, and other 
 circumstances, may require: and if, in cutting 
 the cross drain^ the line marked out by the spirit- 
 level should be found in some places to be behuv 
 that of thp springs; and i^^ in boring along that 
 line, no water be found, then small cuts must be 
 made of the same depth, from the drain up to 
 where the spring lies, as iit the letters A in lig. I, 
 of Plan 5; for if the drain be cut bcluio the line of 
 the spring, ail possibility of reaching it, even by 
 the auger, i.s lost, as boring can have no etfect 
 where the sub-strata is clay, and where there is no 
 under w&ter ; and if it be cat above th£ line of 
 the spring, it will require deeper cutting* and 
 boring to reach it, as there, for the most part, the 
 ground rises higher, and that part of the porous 
 *tfat* below <he drain may contain as much water
 
 so APPROVED MODE OP DRAINING LAND. 
 
 as injures the ground, and which may easil}' pass 
 under the bottom of the trench, between the auger 
 holcsj and find vent below it. If the expanse of 
 the valley, or bog betwixt two banks, be so nar- 
 row, that the sratum of rock or sand, containing 
 the springs, unites within reach of the auger be- 
 low the clav, one trench up the middle, with au- 
 ger holes, will do the business, without any cross 
 -(•*r branch drains (See Plan, No. 6). Although 
 the springs th.it injure ground in this situation 
 break out of the banks all round nearly on the 
 same level, yet the reservoir from whence they 
 proceed may be hit on in the middle of the valley, 
 by boring through the superincumbent body of 
 clay that forces the water to rise and ooze out 
 along the upper edge of it, at itsjunction with the 
 higher porous ground. The drain beiiig cut in 
 the hollow part of the ground, and the spring 
 below bored into, it is evident, that the depth of 
 the drain b*.!ing so much lower than the natural 
 outlet of the springs, the pressure of water above 
 that level (bottom of drain) will force that under 
 the trench through the auger holes; or even, for 
 some time, until the water subside, it might be 
 made to rise higher than the level of its naturar 
 outlet. The consequence of this will be, thattlie 
 vvater of the spring having found, by means of 
 the drain and boring, a new and easier channel, 
 will soon abandon its former outlets, .and cease
 
 APPROVED MODE OP DRAINING LAND. 31 
 
 to overflow the ground that formerly lay belo\r 
 if.* 
 
 But bogs, or wet ground^ in similar situations,, 
 may proceed from different causes, and conse- 
 quently require dilfcrent treatment. The first 
 thing to be considered, in examining the ground, 
 is, whether the springs proceed from one side 
 only, from both sides, or lie in the middle of the 
 bos:. According to these circumstances, the line 
 of drain must be directed. To ascertain this, it 
 will be necessar}' to use the- spirit-level. If the 
 bog have a descent from the side A A to the side 
 B B(see Plan, No. 6), although wetness appear 
 all round, it is evident that the water proceeds 
 only from the higher side A A, and, passing over 
 and ulider the surface, part of it is absorbed by 
 the dry ground along the lower .sideBB; from, 
 whence, if the level was not previously ascertain- 
 ed, it might be supposed also to proceed. In this 
 case, one drain cut along the upper side A A, will 
 be sufficient to keep it dry. If the bog have a 
 
 * In a valley belonging to Mr. Eccleston, of Scarisbrick, m 
 Lancashire, Mr. Elkington hai executed a very remarkable 
 drainage of tlie above kind. The ground was a meie bog, so 
 soft, that neither horse nor nian could walk over it. It con- 
 tained sixty acres, which, after tlie drainage, gave 301. of addi- 
 tional yearly rent ; and the expence of executing the drain* 
 did not much exceed tliat sum. An account of'ihis drainagt 
 has been communicated to ths Board of Agriculture, by Mr, 
 'Eccleston himself.
 
 32 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 descent from both sides to the middle, or be per- 
 fectiv level, the springs may proceed from both 
 sides ; and will therefore require a drain on each, 
 if they do not unite in the same stratum below 
 the middle of the bog, and can be hit on by boring 
 in or>e drain cut in the centre, as already de- 
 scribed. 
 
 Where a bog of this nature, between two hills, 
 is of great extent, it may be requisite to have thice 
 diffeicut drains ; one on each side, and one in the 
 middle. This last must be an open drain, to re- 
 ceive all surface water, as well as to cut off any 
 springs that may arise in that j)art of the bog. 
 In all cases of this kind, where there is any diffi- 
 culty of discovering from whence the principal 
 springs proceed, or what is the nature and incli- 
 nation of the sub-strata, the auger may be applied. 
 
 In very wet swamps, or bogs of great extent, 
 it is necessary to have other cuts than those that 
 carry off tlie springs ; for although the upper 
 springs, which are the principal cause, be cut off, 
 there may be veins of sand or gravel lower than 
 these, out of which it is also necessary to extract 
 the water. If the ground be to be divided into 
 inclosures, the open ditches may be so directed as 
 to hit on these lower collections of subjacent 
 water, as well as to carry off any that might stag- 
 nate in the hollow parts of the surface. 
 
 The next thing to be considered, is the conduct- 
 ing of the drain, after the levels have been taken.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. S3 
 
 and the true line of it fixed; and whether it 
 should be covered^ or open. 
 
 If the land be to be inclosed, and as the line of 
 the trench may serve as a proper division of the 
 ground^ it may be made an open cut, or sunk 
 fence ; if not, a covered drain : but it is first ne- 
 cessary to ascertain which, as the depth, width, 
 and other circumstances, may be regulated ac- 
 cordingly. 
 
 After finding the nearest outlet where the water 
 collected in the drain can be discharged, from that 
 a trench must be brought up to the cross one that 
 is to be carried along the line of the spring; al- 
 lowing a small declivity, of a few inches, in every 
 ten yards, for the water to run. 
 
 Iff cutting the drain that is to carry off the 
 spring, if, after passing the clay, there be a stra- 
 tum of hard gravel betwixt that and the sand 
 containing the water ; it is preferable to lay the 
 sough there, being a more solid foundation for it, 
 and either to perforate the gravel with the punchy 
 or open small pits through it with the spade; by 
 means of which the water will flow up, and run 
 as speedily off, and with more safety, than if the 
 sough had been laid in the sand itself, which 
 would not only increase the depth and difficulty 
 of working it, but, in many cases^ the level of 
 the orifice will not admit of the drain's being cut 
 to that depth. Also, if, in cutting the trench 
 along the tail of the rock, the level of the orifice 
 
 D
 
 34 APPROTED MODE OF GRAINING LAND. 
 
 will not admit of its being cut so deep as to touclj 
 the rock^ the clay, or impervious stratum that lies 
 immediately above it, must be bored through, 
 when the water will flow up through the fissures 
 of the stone, and through the auger holes 
 into the sough; but it is preferable, in cases 
 where the level will admit, to dig the drain 
 through the clay, and'so far into the rock as wil 
 furnish stones for laying the sough ; and then the 
 water will meet with less resistance, and have a 
 freer issue, than if the stone had not been opened 
 nor broken. This will increase the expence o 
 cutting the drain, but lessen that of quarrying the 
 stones elsewhere, and of carrying them to the 
 place w here the drain is made. Although, in the 
 ground to be drained, there may be a ditch, or 
 other old w ater-course, in which it may be prac- 
 ticable, by means of boring, to tap the spring, yet 
 it is better to make a new trench, in which the 
 water of the spring only can have admittance; 
 and where this must cross any ditch, or old 
 water-course, it must be securedhy puddling with 
 clay, or conveyed in a wooden trough, so as not to 
 receive any surface water ; which, by being aug- 
 mented in time of floods, might soon blow up 
 and destroy the sough. 
 
 As the water thus obtained by means of boring, 
 may be converted to several useful purposes, as 
 those of irrigation, serving small mills, canals, 
 houses, fish-ponds, pasture-fields, &c. caution i»
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 35 
 
 necessary in using the auger, lest the water 
 procured in one part of the drain may be lost at 
 another, in the same manner in which it was 
 found, and inthe endeavouring to procure a greater 
 supply; for, as mentioned in Chapter VI. it may, 
 by that means, be let do~jon from a wet into a dry 
 porous sub-stratum. 
 
 Such are the chief objects that require conside- 
 ration, before beginning to cut the drains : the 
 following directions will be useful in guiding the 
 execution of them. 
 
 If the drain be to be cut through a soft boggy 
 soil, it is better to be open than covered, espe- 
 cially where it may receive other water than that 
 collected from below, and can at the same time 
 serve as the side of an inclosure, or division be- 
 twixt the upland and low grounds. Stones laid 
 in such drains are soon apt to sink, owing to the 
 softness of the bottom, and the sough may also be 
 soon choaked up. The width of a covered drain 
 may be from three to four feet at top, and one 
 and a half or two feet wide at bottom, thus al- 
 lowing six or nine inches for each side stone, and 
 six inches between, for the passage of the water, 
 forming a square conduit,* being only six or nine 
 inches in height. Or, when the quantity of water 
 collected, or to be conveyed in the drain, is small, 
 
 * This part of the drain is called the sou^nh^ rominonly pro- 
 nounced the surf. 
 
 d2
 
 36 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 it maj onlv be coupled at bottom. This is a con- 
 siderable saving, both in materials and labour, 
 requiring fewer stones, and less time to lay them. 
 It is equally secure when the bottom is solid, the 
 stones good and properly laid, and well packed 
 at the sides, to prevent them from shifting. It is 
 also a saving in cutting the drain, as it requires 
 less width at bottom for this manner of laying the 
 stones, than it does for any square conduit. In 
 most cases, however, where circumstances are fa- 
 vourable, the other method should be preferred. 
 The depth is regulated by the level of the place 
 where the drain is to empty itself, and the nature 
 of the ground through which it is cut, commonly 
 four or five feet, and never less than three.* In 
 
 * When the drain is only to act as a conductor for the water 
 brought up by the borer where the soil is all clay, its depth 
 may only be three feet, which will be sufficient to allow a 
 proper depth of earth above the stones laid for the conduit at 
 bottom, which need not exceed, nor should ever be less, than 
 one and a half, or two feet. I have seen a drain, in ground 
 apparently very wet on the surface, cut to the depth of three, 
 and even four feet, and several hundred feet in length, without 
 any water being collected by it, and when the borer has been 
 applied, and boies put down at the distance of six yards apart, 
 and ■ ight or ten feet deep a con.-iderable stream of water has 
 been p'-ocured, and which still continues to flow. In one in- 
 stance. Is rc-ly, I directed a drain to be cut in a veiy retentiva 
 clay !-i.U, M hich ai the . 'eptb of four leet found no water. This 
 ga. e occasioi. lo the vorknien to say, and the proprietor to 
 think, that he was lading oul his money to serve no good pur-
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 37 
 
 soft, boggj soils, it is often necessary ( if the 
 drain be to be covered) to cut to a much greater 
 depth, or to the bottom of the moss, in order to 
 have a secure foundation for the stones, and as a 
 great part of the water is always lodged between 
 the moss and the next stratum. In digging the 
 drain, it is best to cut the whole length to the depth 
 oftwo or three feet, at which there is no risk of its 
 falling in, and when the ground near it by 
 that means has become more firm, and the 
 stones have been laid down by the side of it, then 
 cut to the depth required. In this way the stones 
 are at hand, and ready to lay so soon as the 
 proper depth is dug, and the laying should be 
 begun at the upper side, proceeding downwards, 
 smoothing and clearing the bottom of the drain. 
 
 pose 3 but they were soon convinced of the contrary. As the 
 drain had a smooth and uniform slope in the bottom, in order to 
 expedite the work, several men were employed to lay the 
 stones, beginning at the lower end, and proceeding upwards, 
 while others were engaged in boring at the upper end, to pro- 
 ceed downwards. When those below began their work, the 
 drain was quite dry, and no appearance of water, eitlier from 
 the sides or bottom ; but by the time they had proceeded a few 
 yards, and two or three holes were made above, an unexpected 
 stream of water made its appearance, to their no small asto- 
 nishment j and which has since had the eftiict oflayingdrya 
 piece of very wet ground. This shews, that without the use 
 of the auger in like cases, many drains may be cut to an ex- 
 pensive depth, without etfecting the desired end, or without 
 piaking any material change on the appearance of the ground,
 
 SS APPROTED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 B}- this means, the fall of the water will be seen 
 and keptj as there is a danger (when begun at 
 the lower end, and laying upwards, in level 
 ground), of digging too deep in clearing the 
 bottom, and thereby causing a stagnation of water, 
 and sludge in the sough, which ought carefully 
 to be avoided. In opening the drain, the turf 
 should be first pared off thin, and laid to one side 
 for after-use, and all the mould thrown out to the 
 other. The most difficult part of the work is 
 laying the sough in running sands, where it is 
 necessary to have the sides of the trench support- 
 ed with flat boards and props, which are removed 
 forwards as they proceed in working, and which 
 keep the sides from falling in, and the loose sand 
 from falling amongst the stones with which the 
 conduit is laid. If the sough or conduit be laid 
 with brick, a small aperture must be left betwixt 
 each, to admit the water from the sides of the 
 drain, and the thin turfs must be laid above, grass 
 side downwards, to prevent the mould from get- 
 ting through tlie openings. 
 
 The turfs arc laid, grass side downwards, imme- 
 diately above the stones, without any loose stones 
 above the laid ones, as the water is all collected 
 from the bottom of the drain, very little from the 
 sides of it, and none admitted from the top. Un- 
 less, in such cases where the stratum containing 
 the water, or that may receive it in time of rains, 
 is cut through to a greater depth than the height
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 59 
 
 of the conduit;, then small stones must be laid 
 above the conduit or cover stone, to the height 
 of such stratum, or as far up as the water ap- 
 pears to ooze out. These small stones admit the 
 water to subside through their interstices to the 
 conduit or soiigliheloWj and thus prevent the bad 
 effects that would otherwise proceed from its con- 
 finement so near the surface. 
 
 In quick or runing sands, turfs must also be 
 laid in the bottom of the drain, under the sough, 
 to prevent the loose sand from flowing up, and to 
 render the foundation of the bricks or stone 
 more secure, in case of their sinking. 
 
 Before boring, it is proper to lay the side stones 
 of the conduit ; after which the holes may be put 
 down, at the distance of every four or six yards. 
 But if the water, on withdrawing the auger, rush 
 up with violence, and continue to have a boiling 
 appearance, it indicates a strong body of water 
 confined below, and therefore requires a greater 
 number of openings to give it a speedy and suffi- 
 cient vent. When the force of the water is great, 
 the width of the holes enlarges, and consequently 
 the discharge is increased. By a careful exami- 
 nation of the adjoining ground, it is sometimes 
 possible to say at what depth the stratum con- 
 taining the spring lies, and consequently how 
 deep the bores must be made ; but the general 
 rule is, to go down till the water rise immediately 
 Qn withdrawing the auger. Mr. JElkington
 
 40 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 has bored thirty feet, before the water flowed 
 plentifully.* 
 
 In quick-sands, it is better to dig a little into 
 the sides of the trench, off the line of the sough, 
 where the auger is to be used, and, after boring, 
 to cover the places in the same manner as the rest 
 of the sough, leaving out a side stone opposite the 
 hole, as the sand thrown up by the spring can 
 thus be more easily taken out with the hand till 
 it subside, and give over running, and is likewise 
 off the main current coming down the middle of 
 the drain. This is shewn by Fig, 1, of Plan No. 
 7, in which the dotted lines represent the width of 
 the drain at bottom, &c. and Fig. 2 is a Section 
 of it. 
 
 That part of the sough ahave the auger holes 
 should be left uncovered till the sand is all thrown 
 up, and the openings clear ; but, till then, the 
 sand must be taken out, and the sough may af- 
 terwards be covered up with safety. Above some 
 of the auger holes, or at any other convenient 
 part of the drain, a kind of funnel may be built 
 to the top of the trench, with a flat stone laid over 
 it, whereby it can at any time be looked at, to see 
 if the issue is clear, and if the quantity of water 
 
 * I have experienced the same ; but from ten to fifteen feet 
 may be the average. Mr. E. bored a hole thirty feet deep, 
 near Tannvorth, in Staffordshire, through which water issued, 
 equal to three hogsheads in a minute, and drained a great extent 
 of wet ground in the neighbouihood.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 41 
 
 diminishes or increases. When the circumference 
 of the auger holes is not sufficient to let up the 
 quantity of water which the spring would other- 
 wise issue ; where it is not far from the bottom 
 of the trench to the stratum containing the water, 
 * and where there is a bed of hard gravel interven- 
 ing, impenetrable by the auger ; holes must be 
 dug with the spade, down to the spring, and 
 these holes filled up with loose stones, first putting 
 down a round stake in the middle, which, after 
 the stones are filled in, must be drawn out, and 
 this leaves an opening for the water to flow up. 
 No apprehension need be entertained of the holes 
 made by the auger being filled up, M'hether the 
 drain be open or covered, provided no other water 
 is admitted ; for, such is often the force of the 
 spring, that it will throw up any earth or other 
 sludge that may accidentally get into it, and can 
 be injured only by the admission of great quanti- 
 ties of surface or flood water coming upon it at 
 once. 
 
 When flat stones can be got they are preferable 
 to brick; but there are several kinds of brick, 
 besides the common sort, invented and used solely 
 for the purpose of draining, in several parts of 
 England, where the expence of stone would be- 
 come greater. Of these, the figures in the an- 
 nexed Plate are some of the best kinds. 
 
 Wl;en small drains are wanted, and when the
 
 42 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 water is to be conveved to a house, &c. No. 1 is 
 commonly made use of. 
 
 For larger drains. No. 2 and 3 are well adapt- 
 ed, especially No. 3,* lately invented by Mr. 
 Couchman^ of Boswortli Temple, in Warwick- 
 shire, and with which Mr. Elkington has laid se- 
 veral drains. 
 
 They are laid single, without one reversed 
 tinder ; for, when that is done, the water running 
 on the under one, occasions a kind of sludge, which 
 in time becomes so encrusted on it, as totally to ob- 
 struct the passage of the water, and render the 
 work useless in a few jears. In clay bottoms 
 they may be laid single, or without any thing 
 under; but, in soft sand}' bottoms, a common 
 buildino' brick should be laid under each side, to 
 prevent them from sinking down, and should be 
 so laid as to form a regular arch ( i. e. the side 
 bricks laid with an equal height), the better to 
 support the pressure above from breaking them, 
 or causing them to slip. They may be construct- 
 ed in the above shape to any dimensions suitable 
 to the quantity of water the drain is to convey. 
 
 Although the earth that is thrown out of the 
 drain should, when filled in again, be considerably 
 
 * The tax ought certainly to be taken off such bricks as are 
 vised in draining only, and which cannot be applied to any 
 other purpose, as those above mentioned.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 43 
 
 higher than the surface of the ground on each 
 side, it must remain so ; for, in a year or two, it 
 will subside to the level of the surface on each 
 side. What remains may be spread or laid in 
 some adjoining hollow; for, if levelled, at first, 
 the earth immediately above the drain sinks down, 
 and the rain, by that means lodging in the hol- 
 low, and subsiding downwards, may injure the 
 sough, by carrying part of the earth along with it. 
 While the drain is cutting in very wet peat 
 soils, the surface water, or what may ooze from 
 the sides, before coming to the spring, must be 
 stopped here and there, and when let out to run 
 through the sough, a turf, or bunch of grass, must 
 be laid so as to prevent any sludge which it may 
 bring down from running through along with it, 
 as this might choak the laid part of the drain, and 
 stop the passage of the water. When trees, es- 
 pecially ash, happen to be in the course of the 
 drain, they must be entirely griihhed up, other- 
 wise the roots will get into the sough, and ex- 
 panding through the joints of the stones, will 
 soon put a stop to the passage of the water. 
 
 When the water issued by the drain becomes 
 of a red ochrcy colour, it indicates a stagnation 
 either from the above cause, if amongst planting, 
 or from some part of the sough having fallen m, 
 which should be speedily repaired, other svise 
 the ground will soon become equally wet as 
 before, *
 
 4i APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 Lastly, The mouth of the drain should be care- 
 fully railed iu, or otherwise guarded, to prevent 
 the cattle from trampling it, or choaking it up, 
 being fond of driiiking there, for the sake of the 
 cool water, even although there be watering 
 places in the field ; and w here there is any de- 
 fect of this kind, it should immediately be reme- 
 died. Likev%ise the outlet of the drains where 
 they empty into an open ditch, or run of water, 
 should be often examined and kept clear, as they 
 are very apt to be choaked up with grass and 
 sand, when neglected, in such places. The first 
 symptoms of the drain's having effect, and which 
 soon appear N^henthe spring is properly fr/ppcff, are, 
 that all the surface drains that may have former- 
 ly been made, and also any adjacent pits, ditches, 
 or places to w hich it may have backed up, imme- 
 diately become dry, and remain so afterwards. 
 
 On the whole, it appears from the foregoing 
 observations, that this mode of draining bogs, or 
 laud injured by subterraneous water, is by far the 
 most effectual of any that has yet been suggested; 
 and that such ground may be made completely 
 dry, by cutting off one spring /donC;, with which 
 the particular place to be drained may have no 
 apparent communication, but which may be so 
 connected under ground, that from it all the others 
 derive their source ; and being therefore the 
 principal cause of the whole, to hit on it, seems 
 the chief desiideratum of the business. Of this^
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 45 
 
 there are many instances in Mr. Elkin^ton's prac- 
 tice, where, by a few auger holes hitting on the 
 particular spot where the lowest part of the main 
 spring laij, a considerable extent of ground, with 
 which his drain had seemingly little connection, 
 has been laid dry, to the astonishment of those 
 who have seen it, and furnishing a subject of in- 
 credibility to many who have not. 
 
 At Odstone-hall, in Leicestershire, a very re- 
 markable instance may be seen. A considerable 
 tract of wet marshy ground, of very little value, 
 divided in the middle by a small river, he so com- 
 pletely drained, by making a small trench at one 
 side, and by boring in it, that the part of the 
 marsh on the opposite side of the rivulet, which 
 was at a very considerable distance from the drain, 
 became in a short time equally dry with that 
 where the cut was made; has continued so ever 
 since; and, from being formerly of little or no 
 value, is now converted into excellent wa/ej'-wea- 
 dow, producing, without manure, abundant crops 
 of grass. 
 
 At Madely, near Newcastle, in Staffordshire, 
 there' is a very* considerable bog, of some hun- 
 dred acres; the drainage of which was always 
 deemed impractible, being of so wet and soft a 
 nature, that no cattle could pass over any part of 
 it, till of late Mr. Elkington, having obtained a 
 lease of it for a certain number of years, has, by 
 means of very little cutting and expence, so efi'ec-
 
 45 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 tiially drained it, that it may now be considered 
 not only one of the most wonderful undertakings 
 of the kind so easily accomplished, but is also, 
 from the other improvements making on it, likely 
 soon to become one of the most productive farms 
 in that part of the country. 
 
 At Woburn, in Bedfordshire, he has lately 
 accomplished the drainage of two extensive bogs, 
 belonging to His Grace the Duke of Bedford, in 
 a manner attended with little expence, although 
 they were formerly reckoned irreclaimable.* 
 
 By drains, too, which he has made, pits and 
 wells at a great distance have been laid dry, and 
 distant springs have abandoned their former 
 course. 
 
 Many more instances of remarkable drainages 
 of the same kind, executed by Mr. Elkington in 
 different parts of England, might be mentioned ; 
 but as they are all founded on the principles I have 
 explained, and executed in the same manner, the 
 preceding may suffice as evidences of their suc- 
 cess; being facts no less true than astonishing, 
 and which are taken notice of in the Agricultural 
 
 * One of these bogs was agreed on by a Committee of the 
 Board of Agriculture, as a proper subject for tr)'ing Mr. Elk- 
 ington's skill. Accordingly, he began the drainage in 1795 j 
 and when the autlior saw it in summer following, the intended 
 drains were not then all cut j bat, judging from the effect of those 
 that were, there was every appearance of success, when the 
 whole should be completed.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 47 
 
 Reports of the counties to which they belongs as 
 shall be shewn in the sequel 
 
 In corroboration of these facts, since the publi- 
 cation of the former edition of this work, many 
 extensive and successful drainages have been ac- 
 complished, under the direction of the author, in 
 different parts of Scotland. 
 
 In cases of such similarity, to mention the par- 
 ticulars of each, would be tedious and uninterest- 
 ing; but above others, that in the extensive park 
 of Dalkeith, belonging to the Duke of Buccleuch^ 
 is worthy of being mentioned. In all the parts 
 of the operation, it has been carried on an exact 
 conformity to the true principles of the system, 
 and according to the rules and directions given 
 for the drainage of spring bogs (Class 1st) ; the 
 plan of which is also applicable to its nature and 
 situation. Besides rendering the ground dry, 
 and much more valuable, these drains have like- 
 wise served another useful purpose, that of afford- 
 ing a constant supply of spring-water to diiferenl 
 parts of the park.
 
 ( 48 ) 
 CHAP. IV. 
 
 DRAINING OF HILLS AND SHEEP-PASTURES, WITH 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE MEANS OF PROCURIN© 
 AND RAISING WATER FOR "VVELLS, &C. 
 
 IN hilly countries where sheep are the staple 
 produce^ less attention is paid to the drainage of 
 such parts of their walk as are wet and u produc- 
 tive, than to that of arable ground, although the 
 effects in the one case are equally beneficial with 
 those in the other. This neglect is often attended 
 with considerable loss. From the nature of the 
 herbage, which a superabundance of moisture 
 produces (whether stagnant on the surface, or 
 long confined under it), proceeds that almost 
 incurable malady the rot, to which so many thou- 
 sands of valuable animals fall a sacrifice.- For 
 this, draining is the most infallible preventative; 
 and in such situations it is attended with little 
 expence, as the drains may, for the most part, 
 be left open, with only here and there covered 
 passages, over which the sheep may cross with 
 safety*. 
 
 * It is the practice of many of the southern sheep-farms of 
 Scotland, to cut small open drains in the wet pastures, only one 
 foot in width, and the same depth ; but this has very little ef- 
 fect, either in carrying off the superfluous water, or prevent- 
 ing the rot. One rood of the drain here recommendcl, would 
 answer that purpose more effectually than fifty of tlie other, 
 and, on that account, would not be more expensive.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 49 
 
 And although in places where the depth of the 
 cut does not reach the spring, the auger must be 
 applied;, no apprehension need be entertained of 
 the holes filling up, where the drain is left open; 
 for the force of the spring will, of itself, throw 
 up any sand, or sludge, that may get into them^ 
 provided no great quantity of flood or surface 
 water is admitted : but, the better to secure them 
 against any obstruction, small openings may be 
 made in the upper side of the trench ; and in 
 thes6 the perforations may be made, leaving the 
 mouth of the auger holes about a foot higher 
 than the bottom of the drain, which will be 
 without the reach of the water that may be ac- 
 cumulated in time of rains. See Fig. 3, of Platfi 
 No. 13. 
 
 From the irregular disposition of the compo- 
 nent strata, the sides of many hills are covered 
 with alternate patches of wet and dry soil. By 
 the appearance. of the surface, and by the ve- 
 getables it produces along the declivity, the in- 
 ternal strata, and manner in which they lie, may 
 often be ascertained with such a degree of pre- 
 cision, as to guide the direction of a drain with- 
 out investigating below the surface; for the dif- 
 ficulty or facility with which such ground may 
 be drained^ depends entirely upon the Iije of the 
 different strata of which the hill is composed, 
 and upon the perpendicular and horizontal incli- 
 nation of the rock or body iu which the water is
 
 50 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 contained. If the rock lies in a horizontal di- 
 rcctioHj all the difterent outlets, or springs that 
 appear ou the surface, may proceed from, or be 
 connected with, the same body of water, and 
 may all be dried up, by cutting off, or letting out 
 the main body of water that supplies them, at 
 the lower part of the reservoir, or place where 
 the water would of itself run off more easily, if 
 it was not confined under an iraperviable covering 
 of clay. But, 
 
 - Where the rock lies in a perpendicular man- 
 ner, and contains only partial collections of wa- 
 ter amongst the more opeu fissures of the stone^ 
 which empty themselves at numberless outlets 
 unconnected w ith one another ; it would be pre- 
 posterous to attempt cutting them off by one drain, 
 or by tapping any particular one of them, with- 
 out a drain being cut into each. See Plan marked 
 No. 8, Fig. 1. 
 
 In this manner, it is better to cut the main 
 drain all in the clay, with small cuts up to each 
 outlet, than along the dotted line, or place where 
 the springs break out : as it would in that direc- 
 tion be too much in the rod', and difficult to cut, 
 from the nature and inclination of the stone, 
 V^ here the water issuing out along the dotted 
 line, can, by means of the auger, be hit on in the- 
 main drain, at the points AAA, it will be more 
 effectually cut off; but if that is not practicable, 
 the depth of the small cuts will reduce it to such
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 51 
 
 aleveL as prevent its overflowing or injuring the 
 surface below. 
 
 In many hills composed of alternate strata of 
 rock^ sand, and clay, the surface of the latter is 
 commonly wet and swampy, while that of the 
 former is dry and productive, and therefore re- 
 quires as many cuts to drain it completely, as 
 there are divisions of wet and. dry soil. The 
 highest part of the hiil being, for the most part, 
 composed of porous soil, receives the rain-water 
 which descends through it, till it meets some im- 
 pervious stratum, as clay, which obstructing its 
 percolation any further downwards, it then rises 
 to the surface, and forces itself a passage over 
 that impassable stratum. 
 
 After it has thus overflowed the upper day sur- 
 face, it is immediately absorbed by the next po- 
 rous stratum, and descending into it in like man- 
 ner as above, it again issues at the lower side of it, 
 and injures the surface of the next clay bed, as 
 it did that of the first. 
 
 In this manner the same spring will affect the 
 other similar strata of which the hill is com- 
 posed, down the M'hole declivity, and form at 
 last, in the hollow, a lake or bog, if there is 
 not a proper outlet or descent to carry off the 
 water. 
 
 To drain a hill-side of this description, it is 
 necessary to begin by making a trench along the 
 
 E 2^
 
 5^ APFROVED MODE OF DRAININft LAND. 
 
 upper side of the uppermost rushy soil, which 
 will have the effect of cutting off the highest 
 spring ; but as the rain falling on the next po- 
 rous soil subsides to the lowest parts of it, and 
 forms another spring, and as it may likewise be 
 partly supplied from some other internal source, 
 a second cut is necessary there, to prevent that 
 water from injuring the surface of the next 
 clay bed. Thus similar cuts will be requisite 
 lower down the descent, so far as the same 
 springs and appearances continue to injure the 
 ground, which may produce a quantity of water 
 sufficient to irrigate the lower ground, or which 
 may be useful in some other respect. See Plan, 
 No. i\ 
 
 In some hills, the strata of which they are 
 formed lie so regular, that it is practicable to 
 extract the water from either side on the same 
 level, which would be of very considerable ad- 
 vantage in draining the one side, and procuring 
 water for the other ; for there is often found on 
 the one side a wet swamp, and on the other, the 
 soil too dry. This is owing to the bed of clay 
 that upholds the w ater not lying horizontally, 
 but dipping more to the one side than to the 
 other, and by the one (the dry) side being over- 
 lapt by a covering of clay, whereby the water is 
 forced to issue at the open side ; but, if an out- 
 let is given to it on the drt/ side, by means of a
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 53 
 
 drain, lower than that from which it flows on the 
 wet side, the course of the spring may easily be 
 diverted. 
 
 The opposite side being porous and covered 
 with sand, will act as a reservoir to receive the 
 rain waters, which will afterwards flow through 
 the opening made in the clay. This may be of 
 great use in supplying a house with water that is 
 situated on the dry side of the hill, and save the 
 additional expence of conveying it in another 
 manner*. See Plan marked No. 8. Fig. 2. 
 
 A spring in a low situation adjacent to higher 
 ground may be raised to. supply a house, or for 
 any other useful purpose, although much below 
 that level, by confining it in a pipe or brick 
 chimney. 
 
 The reservoir from whence the spring or out- 
 let of water is supplied, being confined, and pent 
 
 * Care must be taken, in conducting the drain for convey- 
 ing water to supply a house, &;c. not to cut it, nor bore in it, so 
 deep as to reach a porous stratum, otherwise the water that 
 may have been found at one place, may, by ti^e same means, 
 be lost at another. Puddling may in some degree secure it, but 
 not in ever}' case. Another thing should be attended to in 
 digging wells for a permanent supply of water : Although a 
 plentiful flow of water is found in the sand through which the 
 well is digging, before the bottom of that sand is come at, yet 
 for the greater security of always retaining a sufficient supply, 
 it is proper to dig so far into the clay or retaining stratum, by 
 which there will be less risk of the water being lost in dry sea- 
 sons,
 
 54 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 Up between two impervious strata, and the upper 
 part of it extending perhaps to a considerable 
 height and distance in the high ground, it is evi- 
 dent that, if a perforation is made through the 
 superincumbent stratum into the tail, or lowest 
 part of the porous stratum containing the spring, 
 the water may be raised, by confining it, niearlj as 
 high as the level of the head of the reservoir. 
 See Fig. o. 
 
 Of this there are several instances in Mr. El- 
 kington's practice, particularly near Warwick, 
 where he raised the water procured from drain- 
 ing a low meadow, into a mill lead a consider- 
 able height above the level of the drain. The 
 drain is closely built with brick, and puddled 
 above with clay, to prevent the water from 
 oozing through the joints. It then rises through 
 a perpendicular brick chimney to the height of 
 the mill lead, by means of its own pressure in 
 some higher ground. 
 
 The advantages of such operations must be 
 very great in many situations, and may often be 
 accomplished with success, where many would 
 think them impracticable*. 
 
 Of the practicability of this, however, and 
 
 * For an account of experiments in Mr. Elkington's mode 
 of draining, and in procuring water by boring, &c. successfully 
 made by Sir Joseph Ba^ks, see the enlarged Agricultural Re^ 
 port of Lincolnshire.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 55 
 
 that wa'er may often be raised to a very con- 
 siderable height by means of its pressure in dis- 
 tant ground, the following remarkable occur- 
 rence, which happened lately in diggijig a well 
 in the vicinity of London, is a proof: Earl 
 Spencer, for the preservation of his noble man- 
 sion house at ^Vimbledon against fire, and to be 
 well supplied with water, ordered a well to be 
 dug at a little distance from the house, which 
 was sunk to the amazing depth of near six hun- 
 dred feet before any spring was found. It was 
 begun on the 31st of May, 1795; and on the 
 12th of August, 1796, the man who was em- 
 ployed in the undertaking gave a signal to the 
 person above to draw him up, as he had found 
 the spring, and was immersed in water so deep 
 that his life became endangered. In the space of 
 four hours, the water rose to the height of three 
 hundred and fifty feet, and, during two days fol- 
 lowing, its increase Avas more than a foot an 
 hour. The water, proceeding from a rock, is 
 remarkably fine, and from the strata it passes 
 through, is strongly impregnated with mineralic 
 qualities. The sinking of this well aloue, has 
 cost his Lordship about two thousand pounds, 
 but will recompense him by its utility ; as, be- 
 fore it was done, the only supply for the family 
 was either rain water falling during the wet wea- 
 ther, or water procured from the adjoining fish- 
 ponds, As there is no extent of higher ground
 
 56 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 near that where the well is sunk, and as the 
 depth of it is some hundred feet below the bot- 
 tom of the Thames, the source of the reservoir 
 from whence the spring is supplied must be si- 
 tuated at a very great distance, and must contain 
 a very large body of water, to raise it so suddenly 
 to such a height. 
 
 EXPLANATION OF PLAN, NO. 9. 
 
 Springs and wetness are sometimes found on 
 the top of banks and hills, where the ground 
 contiguous is much low^er on all sides ; but they 
 are supplied from higher ground at a distance, 
 by means of the substrate or metals lying in the 
 manner represented by Plan, No. 9. 
 
 The continuation of the strata CD, is supposed 
 to keep on the same rise, in the high ground 
 north side of the rivulet, to a much higher level 
 than the line AB, by which means the springs at 
 E and F, issuing from the crop of the metals^ are 
 supplied. 
 
 By bringing up a cut from the rivulet into the 
 bank at G, an outlet will be obtained for the 
 water, free from that of the rivulet ; and by bor- 
 ing or sinking a pit from H to I, the water flow^ 
 ing through the porous strata from CD, to EFj 
 w ill be reduced to the level of LM, consequently 
 the source of the springs EF, will be intercepted, 
 and the ground on the top and on both sides of
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND, 57 
 
 the declivity become dry ; and the metals^ to that 
 depth, may be ^yrought free of water. 
 
 This could not be effected by boring from the 
 |)ottom of the rivulet, or any run of water, as 
 shewn by the dotted line, for the pressure of the 
 running water above would prevent that below 
 from rising freely, and small stones or sand w ould 
 be lodged in the hole. If the strata K, crop out 
 to the surface, and cause wetness, the pit, or 
 bore, HI, may be continued till it reach it ; but 
 lying at such a depth, and covered with so much 
 clay on the surface, the water contained in it may 
 1^0 po injury to the ground.
 
 ( 58 ) 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF BOGS AND OTHER WET GROUND^ Br 
 
 PERFORATING THROUGH A RETENTIVE TO A PO- 
 ROUS SUBSTRATUM. 
 
 IN manj parts of the country, considerable 
 tracts of land lie waste and uncultivated, owing 
 to wetness in a particular situation, that might 
 hy this means be easily drained, and rendered 
 much more productive. The cause of their wet- 
 ness proceeds, not from springs lying either un- 
 der the surface, nor from the overflowings of 
 any in the adjoining higher grounds ; but from 
 the accumulation of rain water, stagnating on a 
 retentive body of clay or other impervious sub- 
 subtance, through which the water can have no 
 descent ; and being also surrounded with higher 
 ground of the same impervious nature, the water 
 ef itself can have no natural outlet. Such ground, 
 when it becomes boggy, is commonly called land- 
 locked bogs. The situation of these bogs, being 
 often so much lower than the ground that sur- 
 rounds them, the cutting of a main drain, or 
 conductor, through the bank (as represented by 
 the dotted lines in the Plan), for carrying off the 
 water collected by the smaller drains, would, in 
 many cases^ be attended with an ex pence greater
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 59 
 
 than the value of such land when drained. The 
 thickness of the impervious stratum that retains 
 and upholds the water, is often so great, that, 
 although the strata under it be of a porous and 
 open nature, as rock, sand, or gravel, the water 
 can find no passage whereby of itself to descend 
 through the one into the other, and therefore, 
 by its long stagnation above, all the coarse ve- 
 getables that have for a series of years been pro- 
 duced on its surface, and even the upper part of 
 the soil itself, are formed into a body of peat- 
 earth, equally soft, and less productive, than 
 that of any spring bog, and which is only pas- 
 sable by cattle in very dry seasons, when the 
 wind and sun exhale part of its moisture ; but is 
 even then inaccessible to the plough. 
 
 The drainage of these bogs must be effected in 
 a manner different from that of spring bogs, the 
 cause of both not being the same. In the fol- 
 lowing manner it may be done at least expence. 
 The first drain must be made in the middle or 
 lowest part of the ground, and into this all the 
 others must lead. The number and direction of 
 these must depend on its extent. They must be 
 cut through the peat, or^wet spongy upper soil, 
 to the top of the clay or retentive substratum, 
 which must be perforated by the auger, in or- 
 der to give an oulct downwards for the wa- 
 ter, which will be absorbed by the porous strata
 
 60 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 below*. The drains should be cut as nar- 
 row as possible, and, after the auger holes 
 
 * Making one large pit or well in the middle or lowest part 
 of the bog, dug through into the porous substi-ata, with the 
 drains leading into it, would answer equally well, and would 
 save boring along each of the drains. ** If a pit is sunk twenty 
 *' or thirty feet deep, in the middle of a field through the 
 " Hertfordshire red, flinty, and impeiTious clay, into tlie chalk 
 ** below, when the usual quantity of chalk is taken out, the pit 
 ** shaft is filled up with the flints taken out of the chalk and 
 " clay, and the top drainage of this part of the field much 
 • *' shortened for ever afterwards, by making principal drains 
 ** from the part of the field above tlie level of the top of the 
 ** pit terminate therein, and the superabundant moisture will 
 " escape through the flints in the pit shaft to the chalk below. 
 *' And if a drain is carried into a limestone quarry, it is sel- 
 " dom necessary to carry it further, 
 
 *' In dells or hollows of considerable extent, covered with 
 *' an impervious stratum, and from which tliere is no natural 
 *' drainage, such as the valley between Mold, the shire town 
 ** of Flintshire, and the adjoining high land, a pit about four 
 •• feet diameter, and fifteen feet deep, more or less, as the 
 " case may require, is sunk tlirough the impenious superstra- 
 *' turn into a pervious stratum of gravel, and the rain water, 
 " and of some adjoining springs, are carried from the surface 
 " thereby ; the pit is railed round, to prevent cattle firom fall- 
 " ing into it. I must here remark, tliat though in this, as 
 " well as in many other instances that may be given, tlie top 
 ♦' water escaped through the pervious substratum, the efl^ect 
 " might have been directly the contrar)\ I therefore recom-> 
 " mend the impeivious superstratum, in all such cases, to be 
 ^' perforated by bore-rods, and the hole made by them is easily 
 ^* stopped up." J^rkulturai Report ef Hertfordshire., p. 66.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. '61 
 
 have been made, and a condui^ formed on the 
 under stones coupled below^ they should be filled 
 with loose stones to within a foot and a half of 
 the surface ; and this vacuity may be filled up 
 with part of the earth taken out, having a turf, 
 grass side downwards, next the stones. The 
 water and noxious moisture contained in the 
 peat, or upper soil, will be extracted by the 
 drains, and will subside through the auger holes 
 into the porous strata below. If the ground is 
 afterwards ploughed, care must be taken in 
 forming the ridges, and giving them a proper 
 descent towards the main drain, which will 
 greatly assist the others in discharging any heavy 
 falls of rain water. The observations in the an- 
 nexed note from the Roxburgshire Report, may 
 be useful in this respect, as well as to the future 
 improvement of the ground. 
 
 Before proceeding to drain this land in the 
 manner described, the following observation 
 must be attended to : It should be discovered, in 
 the first place, whether the porous strata im- 
 mediately under the clay is dry, and will receive 
 the water when let down into it from above ; or 
 being already saturated with water itself, may, 
 in place of receiving more, throw up a greater 
 quantity to the surface ; and thus, instead of reme- 
 dying the evil, render it worse. This may some- 
 times be the case, and the substrata may contain 
 water that makes no appearance on the surface
 
 62 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING tUfitt, 
 
 « 
 
 at this place, owing to the superincumbent body 
 of clay, but which, being connected with some 
 higher spring, maj flow up when a vent is given 
 to it by the auger. Thus would a greater quan- 
 tity of water be brought to the surface, which, 
 having no outlet through the circumjacent bank, 
 would render the ground much more wet, and 
 might even, in some situations, almost form a 
 lake. If the surrounding high ground declines 
 deeper or lower than the bog, although at some 
 distance, by means of a spirit-level and the ap- 
 pearance of the surface, the nature of the under 
 strata may, in a certain measure, be discovered ; 
 and although it should already contain water, a 
 drain can be there cut to draw off that water, 
 and also what is let down into it from above. 
 See letter K in the section of Plan, No. 10, 
 which will help to elucidate these remarks. 
 
 It very frequently happens, that springs or 
 spouts (as they are commonly called) rise in 
 the middle of a field, at a distance from any 
 ditch or open drain into which the water may be 
 discharged ; so that a covered drain brought 
 from the nearest outlet, would pass so far through 
 dry ground, as to render the expence of con- 
 ducting the water from the spout, greater than 
 the injury done by it. To remedy this, begin 
 by cutting a drain a few yards in length, or by 
 sinking a pit into the perous soil immediately 
 between the lowei^ side of the wet and next dry
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 63 
 
 ground ; aad from that bring an upright drain 
 into the jipper side of the wet ground, from 
 which take a branch to both sides, along the up- 
 per side of the wet., so far as it goes. This up- 
 per drain will cut off the water where it rises to 
 the surface; the upright drain will convey it to 
 that cut along the lower side of the wet ground, 
 where the water will subside into the porous 
 subsoil. An easier method may he, where the 
 reteative substratum is not deep, first to cut the 
 drain along the upper side of the wet ground, 
 and after coming to the stratum in which the 
 water flows, either to bore through the retentive 
 substratum, or cut the drain to that depth, bj 
 which means the water cut off above will be let 
 down into the absorbent stratum below, and thus 
 got rid of more easily than by any other method. 
 But, if the gTOund is steep, and the stratum 
 into which the water is let down, tails out any 
 where below, or lower down on the declivity, 
 the water will again flow out, and cause a si- 
 milar spout, or wet place in the field. This, 
 however, will seldom be the case, and may easily 
 be remedied by being perhaps near the extre- 
 mity or lower side of the field. 
 
 The following extract from Dr. Nugent's 
 Travels through Germany in 1766, will shew the 
 mode of draining marshes in that country, 
 nearly on the same principles as explained in thi* 
 chapter :
 
 64: APPROVED MODE GV DRAINING LAND. 
 
 " The draining of marshes is conducted id 
 much the same mamier as that of lakes ; but 
 here I hare seen the operation performed only 
 on what we call moor or turf grounds. 
 
 '' These aie most easily drained by carrying 
 trenches through those grounds, when the dis- 
 position of the country is such, that the water 
 can be conveyed to some neighbouring stream. 
 
 '' The first thing they do is to carry a ditch 
 to the middle of the moor in a direct line, its 
 depth and breadth adapted to the extent and 
 wetness of the ground ; and thus to the sup- 
 posed quantity which is to be carried off. Every 
 six, eight, or ten perches, as the ground is more 
 or less swampy, cross trenches on both sides are 
 drawn in a direct line, and communicating on 
 both sides with the main trench. But, in case 
 of water coming from any neighbouring emi- 
 nences, they dig a trench round the whole ground 
 as a reservoir ; and this likewise communicates 
 with the main trench, &c. 
 
 '' In case the draining of the water into some 
 natural receptacle be not practicable, at least 
 not under a very great expcnce, then they have 
 recourse to sinking ponds or reservoirs in some 
 neighbouring bottom, and to these they carry all 
 the trenches. 
 
 " These ponds are likewise of use as a fishery ; 
 but, if even the sinking of such a pond be too 
 chargeable, there still remains an expedient
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 65 
 
 which is of good effect, and chiefly if tlie moors 
 are not too wet and marshy. 
 
 '' It is the nature of moors in general, that, 
 beneath the turf or moss, there is a loam which 
 hinders the moisture from penetrating ; and this 
 indeed is what makes the marsh, and causes the 
 luxuriant growth of the turf or moss ; but this 
 loam or clay is only a stratum, and far from being 
 of an immense depth ; under it is generally a 
 sand, or some other stony or loose soil. 
 
 '" Here reason readily informs us, that a mid- 
 dling morass may be drained by 'perforating the 
 clay, and thus make way for the moisture to pe- 
 netrate. In order to this, a pit is dug in th© 
 deepest part of the moor, till they come below 
 the obstructing clay, and meet with such a 
 spongy stratum as, in all appearance, will be 
 sujBicient to imbibe the moisture of the marsh 
 above it. Into this pit the ebbing of the morass is 
 conveyed through a trench, and both the trench 
 and the pit are tilled up after the first drain, with 
 large broad stones, setting them edgewise, so as 
 to leave interstices for carrying off the water : 
 then such stones are laid over breadthwise, and 
 these covered with loose earth, like that on the 
 surface. When no such stones are to be had, 
 strong piles are rammed down the sides of the 
 trench, and broad boards laid across : and these 
 are covered with earth to a height fit for culture
 
 66 APPROVED MODE OF DRAININCJ LAJ!?0. 
 
 '' This is a matter of no great expence^ the 
 pit being as near the morass as the water will ad- 
 mit, and the trenches but short : then they have a 
 drain unperceived, which leaves the surface of 
 the trenches for the plougb ; and in middling 
 marshesj especially in such moors as are only 
 wet and damp;, this method, though sometimes 
 slow, never fails taking effect ; and many tracts 
 are thereby made serviceable to the farmer or 
 grazier." 
 
 Mr. Morice has drained a field of fifty acres 
 in the neighbourhood of Aberdeen, exactly in 
 the manner described by Dr. Nugent^ from 
 whose publication he took the hint. 
 
 The folloxiing Extract from the JRoxiurghslnre 
 Report, explains a shnilar Practice which had 
 heen successfully attempted in that part of the 
 
 Kingdom. 
 
 " In the first place, \i will be necessary to 
 premise, that from one to six feet deep, below 
 the surface of the waste lands that might be made 
 arable in this county, is found a large seam of a 
 black slaty, or metallic substance, generally 
 from twenty to twenty-five feet in thickness ; 
 smd below this is found a mass of whinstone
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 67 
 
 rock, both laying in a tolerable regular straight 
 line. The thickness of the whinstone rock, I 
 presume, is unknown, as I have not heard it 
 was ever bored into. The black slatv, or me- 
 tallic substance, is generally found so closely 
 cemented, as it were, without chinks, or fissures, 
 that it is impenetrable even to water, or any 
 other liquid ; while, on the contrary, the whin- 
 stone rock, when come at, abounds with chinks 
 and fissures, and will receive and swallow up 
 any quantity of water poured into its bosom. 
 The surface of the earth, above the slaty, or me- 
 tallic substance, is found every where of a light, 
 kernelly, and mossy nature, apparently having, 
 in the course of a series of ages, been produced 
 and formed from the vegetable substances which 
 had attached themselves to it : fulling in the 
 autumn seasons, and having no receptacle to re- 
 ceive the rain water as it falls below its stratum, 
 it preserves it on its surface, and in the winter 
 months becomes swelled and enlarged in a con- 
 siderable degree. In the spring months, when 
 the sun and wind absorb it, and cause it to ex- 
 hale, the moss becomes of a tolerable firmness, 
 and produces a coarse kind of unprofitable grass, 
 mixt in many places with short heather, of no 
 use either for the rearing or feeding of sheep or 
 cattle. 
 
 " Having in a brief manner given you an ac- 
 count of the several strata of which the waste 
 
 f2
 
 68 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 land of this county is composed^ which 6vcry 
 person in the habit of improving^, should be well 
 acquainted \\iih, and have^ as it were^ con- 
 stantly in view, I shall now proceed to give an 
 example or two of the method of cultivation I 
 tookj and then add a few observations. In the 
 year 1784, after I had sowed up my fallow 
 quarter on old land w ith wheat, and the autumn 
 proving pretty dry, I, in the latter part of Oc- 
 tober, ploughed up twenty acres of waste lands, 
 of the above description, and as one part of it 
 lay nearly on a level, and the other on the slope 
 of a hill, 1 divided it into two parts, judging it 
 might be necessary to cause each part to undergo 
 a different course of cultivation. The level part 
 I gathered up in small ridges, and ploughed it 
 pretty deep, making the furrows narrow, keep- 
 ing two labourers following each plough, as well 
 to remo'.e any obstructions that might arise 
 from stones or roots, as also to turn the upper 
 rim, cr surface below, when the plough was the 
 fault. I'hisdone, I allowed it to lay until Mid- 
 summer 1"; So.. But in the spring months, as soon 
 as it would bear my sheep and cattle, I drove 
 them up and down the ground as often as oc- 
 casion would permit, as well to nip off any 
 pprouts of grass that might appear, as to tread 
 it to a firm consisience, and which was at- 
 tended with most bciufieial effects. At Mid-
 
 APPROVED MODE OP DRAINING LAND. 69 
 
 summer, having no other fallow that year, I 
 gathered it up again, but finding, although the 
 ridges were getting high, being only set out 
 eight feet at first, the plough did not get to the 
 slaty substance in the hollow of the ridges, I 
 was obliged to lay out the ridges sixteen feet ; 
 — this cost me a great deal of trouble ; but 
 I eventually got the plough down to the slaty 
 substance. When my work was done so far, my 
 next thoughts were directed to got the water 
 drawn out of the hollow of the ridges, being at 
 least four feet below any level I could obtain. 
 To remedy this, I got a pair of bore rods, which 
 I put down the slaty substance, to the whin- 
 stone rock, at sundry places, and which eftbe- 
 tually answered my purpose, keeping the tops 
 of the holes or canals covered with a basket of 
 loose stones, which I allowed to remain, or re- 
 move at pleasure as the weather proved more 
 or less wet. 
 
 " In the spring of 1786, I had the pleasure 
 to find my waste land was in a condition to sow, 
 as early almost as any other part of my farm : 
 the winter rains falling through the soil upon the 
 ridges into the bosom of the slaty substance, 
 which was laid bare in many places ; in the 
 hollow of the ridges, it was gently drawn otf, 
 and glided regularly into my canals. In the 
 spring of 1786, I sowed in drills my first crop, 
 of Dutch oats, without anv dressiufr, runnina:
 
 70 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 the drills over ^vith a light roller, to press the 
 earth, aud prevent the drought taking hold of, 
 and penetrating to the plants, ^\hich was of 
 great use ; and in the beginning of September, I 
 had the pleasure of reaping a tolerable good 
 crop, of about five bolls per acre ; but the 
 quality, as might be expected, was coarse, the 
 stems growing to a great size, which arose from 
 my not giving the drills a sufficiency of seed. 
 
 ^' In the spring of 1787, I gave it two plough- 
 ings, and a slight dressing of dung, marl, &c. 
 compounded together, and sowed my second 
 crop in drills again, consisting of Hastings 
 peas ; these I sowed pretty thick, and produced 
 a fine crop indeed. In spring 1788, I sowed 
 Dutch oats again, in drills as before, which 
 turned out well, both with respect to quantity 
 and quality, and continued to grow the same 
 crops in succession until 1792, that I left the 
 farm. 
 
 *■• I ploughed, on the contrary, the otlier part 
 of the waste ground on the slope of a hill, in 
 thin broad furrows, using the same measures 
 and precautions as above described, and which I 
 allowed to remain until the Midsummer of 1785 
 also, when I set a strong brake to work upon it, 
 hoping to tear its upper surface to pieces, and 
 thereby save me a ploughing ; but I found my- 
 self mistaken iu this, for the surface not being 
 sufficiently covered with earth, had not expe^
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 71 
 
 rienced an alteration sufficient to yield to the 
 experiment ; I was therefore necessitated to pre- 
 pare it for burning; but the weather proving 
 wet at the end of the summer, rather foiled me, 
 androbliged me to give up any further progress 
 for the seasoHj and leave it in a more backward 
 state than the part first mentioned. 
 
 *' In the spring of 1786, I gave it two plougli- 
 ings, braking, &c. but it still proving large and 
 lumpy on the surface, for the reasons before as- 
 signed, and despairing of its growing any thing, 
 I at last, after much deliberation, determined to 
 sow it in drills with peas, giving it a large 
 quantity of seed, not with a view of a crop, so 
 much as covering the surface close with the 
 plants, and thereb}^ accelerate its cultivation. 
 The number of plants pushing forward at the 
 same time, for want of air at the roots, greatly 
 weakened one another, and proving in the end 
 of a dwarf kind, produced me a good crop, at 
 the same time that they improved the lands in the 
 way I expected. In 1787, I sowed Dutch oats, 
 in the way and form before described, changing 
 the seed yearly, until I left the farm, as men- 
 tioned before. 
 
 " As the soil above the slaty substance was 
 not above two feet and a half deep, the plan of 
 setting off the ridges eight feet broad in this part 
 of the land, answered well. 
 
 '^ Being satisfied, from many experiments and
 
 72 APPROTED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 observations^ of which the above case will bear 
 me through^ that the waste lands in the king' 
 dom arises from the first solid substance found 
 under the surface, being impervious and impe- 
 netrable to rain, or any other liquid body, as 
 before explained ; and as these solid substances 
 lie pretty near the surface, all attempts to im- 
 prove waste lands will be fruitless, unless the 
 ridges are laid off in breadth proportionable to 
 the depth of the soil, so as to allow the plough 
 to get to these solid substances in the hollow of 
 the ridges ; that done, waste lands soon prove 
 prolific and valuable. Excess of heat and cold 
 have the same effect on vegetation : thus, in hot 
 sultry summers, we say vegetation is at a standi 
 being quite burnt up ; and in cold wet summers, 
 we say vegetation is at a stand, being scalded, 
 and hurt by the wet. The first we can only guard 
 against, by sowing early : the other we can over- 
 come by draining, &c. which no farmer should 
 omit."
 
 ( 73 ) 
 
 CHAP. VI. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF SOILS COMfOSED OF ALTERNATE 
 BEDS OF CLAY AND SAND. 
 
 IN districts where the soil is composed of an 
 intermixed variety, and where clay forms the 
 most predominant part, draining is a work attend- 
 ed with much greater difficulty and expence than 
 in those, where both the surface and internal strata 
 are more regularly disposed. In these kinds of 
 soils, where every reservoir of water is uncon- 
 nected with another, being separated by interven- 
 ing beds of clay, the partial collections of water 
 that these reservoirs contain are so much augment- 
 ed in time of great rains, that, being full to the 
 level of the surface of the surrounding clay, the 
 water, having then a free issue, as over the edges 
 of a dish, so overflows and surcharges the surface 
 of that clay, and renders it so wet and sour, that 
 its produce becomes every year more scanty, and 
 the nature of the soil itself more barren. As these 
 sand-beds have no communication with each 
 other> it requires as many drains as they are in 
 number, to extract the water CLom each of them. 
 From the nearest and lowest part of the field to 
 be drained, a trench must be cut up to the high- 
 est or most distant saud bank, in such a direction
 
 74 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 as, if possible, to hit on some of the intermediate 
 sand-beds, and save the making a longer side cut, 
 otherwise liecessary; but, where this would give 
 many awkward turnings to the main trench, would 
 necessarily lengthen it^ and where, by crossing the 
 beds in places higher than the surface of the sur- 
 rounding clay,- would considerably increase the 
 depth of it, and be difficult to work, especially if 
 rock or running sand; drains in the form of let- 
 -ter Y must branch off to such beds, to draw off 
 the water they contain, and to convey it into the 
 leading one, as represented in Plan 11, Fig. 1. 
 
 Although the sand-beds throw out the water 
 they contain on all sides, so as to injure the clay 
 surface immediately round them, a drain on the 
 one side will completely extract the water from 
 the whole, and prevent it from breaking out at 
 either side, provided that where it is cut be the 
 
 lowest. 
 
 It may be observed, that, unless the drain is 
 
 so cut, it cannot be supposed to have this effect, 
 while the water can find an outlet on the oppo- 
 site side of the bank lower than the bottom of the 
 drain. This ought, therefore, to be previously 
 considered-; and, by carefully examining the 
 ground, and applying the spirit-level, the proper 
 side for the drain may easily be found. Or, if 
 the water bursting out round the bank has been 
 observed in dry seasons to run at one place, and 
 uot at the others, it is a proof that this is the
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 75 
 
 lowest point, and^ by cutting the drain in the di- 
 rection of this level, the water will afterwards be 
 prevented from rising to the height of the upper 
 outlets, or above the level of the bottom of the 
 drain, even in the wettest seasons. In many cases, 
 the Avhole water that causes the wetness, and sup- 
 plies the other sand-beds below, may arise 
 from the upper springs, passing over the upper 
 soil, and through the different sand-beds; by be- 
 ing prevented from descending deeper than the 
 retaining bed of clay. In this case, the drainage 
 of the whole field may be accomplished with 
 much less diiSicuIty and eipence than in the for- 
 mer. After the main conducting drain from the 
 outlet has been cut, the upper drain from A to B 
 (Plan No. 12) must next be made, which will 
 intercept and cut off the principal springs, and 
 may by this means render the lower drains CD 
 and EF unnecessary, unless merely to extract the 
 partial supply of v/ater which the lower sand- 
 beds may receive in time of rains, and which ( if 
 these sand-beds are of small extent) can do little 
 injury to the adjoining surface. From this it ap- 
 pears that one spring rising in the highest 
 ground may be the sole cause of injuring a con- 
 siderable tract Ivinji' below: from its water over- 
 flowing the surface at one place, and subsiding 
 into it at another, according to the tenacit}^ or 
 openness of the soil; and therefore, in such cases, 
 the upper spring or feeder^ should be first cut
 
 off, and the effeet of that known^, before any more 
 drains are made in the lower ground. This will 
 be better understood from the Section of Plan 
 No. 12. 
 
 Besides soils corresponding to this description, 
 there are others nearly of a similar nature^ but 
 each bed being of less extent, and lying more 
 regularly together, their drainage can be more 
 easily effected by means of less cutting, and con- 
 sequently less expence. Under the beds of sand 
 and clay that thus lie alternately together, and 
 almost parallel to one another, is found a general 
 body of impervious clay, that keeps up the water 
 contained in the sand, which continues always 
 full, moistening the adjacent clay, and, in wet 
 seasons, running over it. As this main under- 
 stratum of clan is seldom above four or five feet 
 below the surface, a drain must be cut to that 
 depth through the middle of the field, if it has a 
 descent from both sides; or, if the ground de- 
 clines all to one side, the drain must be cut there, 
 where the water w ill more easily discharge itself 
 into it; and unless the field is of considerable ex- 
 tent, and have more hollows in it than one, one 
 drain will answer the purpose effectually; for, 
 by crossing all the different beds that hold the 
 water, it will draw it from each. See Fig. 2, 
 Plan No. 11. 
 
 The great difficulty, however, in draining land 
 of this description, and which is impracticable by
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 77 
 
 one drain, is, if the direction of the alternate beds 
 of claj and sand lie aci'oss the declroity of the 
 grounds; so that one drain in this case can have 
 no other eflfect than that of carrying off the wa- 
 ter after it has passed over the different strata, 
 and would here naturally stagnate in the lowest 
 part of the field, if there was no other outlet for 
 it. Therefore, when the ground lies in this man- 
 ner, which is often the case, besides the drain in 
 the hollow, others must be cut up from it, in a 
 sloping direction, across the dcdrcity, which, by 
 crossing all the different , veins* of sand, will 
 extract the water from each. See Fig. 3, Plan 
 No. 11. 
 
 Where these alternate strata are of greater ex- 
 tent, and the wetness produced by greater 
 springs, forming swamps at different levels on the 
 sides of hills, the method of draining them has 
 been described in Chapter IV. 
 
 The first thing to be observed, in the drainage 
 of such alternate soils, is to discover minutely the 
 inclination of the alternate strata, or how they lie 
 with regard to the situation of the field to be 
 drained, as upon this the direction of the drains 
 entirely depends; and as the external signs that 
 distinguish the different beds, are easily percep- 
 tible from the appearance of the surface, and 
 difference of the ]ierbage that each produces, 
 
 * A verv thin or narrow stratum.
 
 78 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 there is little difficulty in attaining this part of 
 the object. la drains of this kind, there is sel- 
 dom any need for applying the auger, as the ne- 
 cessary depth of the trench reaches far enough 
 down, and as there is no spring, for want of con- 
 nection with higher ground, to force itself up 
 through the auger holes ; or, if there is, it can- 
 not, at so great a depth, and below such a body 
 of clay, do any injury to the ground above. 
 
 The drain, after being formed like a sough at 
 bottom, or set like a triangle, must be filled a 
 considerable way up with small stones, before the 
 mould is thrown in, taking care to have tough 
 sods laid immediately above the former. Where 
 atones are scarce, and plenty of brushwood at 
 hand, faggots may be substituted in their place 
 with propriety. The under part of the drain, 
 however, should be laid or coupled with stones, 
 as a canal to carry ofif the water subsiding through 
 the faggots, and which has also the good effect of 
 prolonging their duration; for when the water 
 cannot get clearl}' off, which must be the case 
 where there is no open conduit of stones, its stag- 
 nation amongst the branches must soon cause 
 their decay, and choke up the passage of the 
 drain*. There is one thing more to be attended 
 to, in completely accomplishing the drainage of 
 these soils: if the field lies very much on the de- 
 
 * In no case \vbatever, should the drain be filled witli stones 
 tlirown in promiscuously, wiiiiout first forming a course for the 
 water at bottom.
 
 APPROVED MODE OP DRAINING LAND. T9 
 
 scent, care must be taken in laying out the branch 
 drains in a direction sufficiently horizontal, so as 
 not to make the fall too precipitant, by which the 
 bottom of the trenches would be worn uneven, 
 and thus would obstruct the passage of the wa- 
 ter, which might soon blow them up; but the 
 fall should be such as to enable the water to clear 
 its course. The reason why fewer drains are re- 
 quired in fields that lie nearly horizontal ( as those 
 of the second class in this Chapter), is, that the 
 water is drawn equally from both sides; whereas 
 those on a sloping declivity, drawing only from 
 the higher side of the drains, require them to be 
 more in number, or closer to one another. This 
 is the case in every situation where surface drain- 
 ing is necessary, and particularly so in such soils 
 as those described in Chapter VII. 
 
 In Lancashire, where these soils, composed of 
 alternate beds of clay and sand, very much pre- 
 dominate, and which have there acquired the 
 names of sand pots or guts (a term properly 
 enough applied to them, from their holding water 
 like a pot), Mr. Elkington has executed several 
 drainages in the manner I have described; and 
 also a very difficult one of the same kind at Sut- 
 ton-hall, in Derbyshire, where the water was con- 
 tained in small beds of rock, crossed and inter- 
 cepted by beds of clay; and to this Fig. 1, in 
 the annexed Plan, No. 11, more particularly al- 
 ludes.
 
 ( so ) 
 
 CHAP. vir. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF SOILS POROUS ABOVE, AND RETET*- 
 TIVE BELOWj &C. 
 
 IN flat tracts of land, where the surface^ or 
 upper soil is injured by a superfluity of stagnant 
 water not proceeding from springs, their drainage 
 is an object of the first importaacej and which 
 may, in most cases, be accomplished with very 
 little expence. 
 
 The upper soil being composed of a porous 
 stratum, of two, three, or four feet in thickness^ 
 and having under this a strong retentive body of 
 clay, the rain-water falling on the surface, easily 
 subsides till it meets the clay, and there being 
 obstructed from further descent, the whole open 
 part of the soil stands so full of water, as to re- 
 tard the progress of vegetation, or at least greatly 
 to injure it.* To carry off this water, requires 
 only one or few more drains, according to the si- 
 tuation of the field, and these no deeper than just 
 to reach a few inches into the clay; betwixt 
 which and the under part of the porous soil, the 
 greatest quantity of water will remain stagnant. 
 
 * This kind of soil is commonly denominated aet-fcof^omed 
 land.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 81 
 
 when it does not appear so much on the surface. 
 In this kind of drainage there is no need for the 
 auger^ there being no real spring or subterrane- 
 ous water to get rid of. 
 
 If it has a small descent from both sides, one 
 drain cut through the porous to the clay soil, in 
 the hollow part of the field, will effectually draw 
 off all the water that the porous soil may contain ; 
 which will be greatly facilitated by properly 
 forming the ridges to answer the declivity of the 
 ground, and by deepening and clearing out the 
 furrows with the spade. See Plan No. 13, 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 If the situation of the field correspond with 
 the representation of it in the plan, the water 
 will flow into the drain ( being in the hollow part 
 of it), through the porous strata, as well as 
 through a number of small trenches cut up from 
 it to both sides, which is the common practice 
 in Essex,* and some other counties adjoining; 
 but it is cutting up a whole field to no useful 
 purpose. 
 
 The drain may either be open, if it can serve 
 as a division of the field at the same time, or co- 
 vered, as circumstances may require. 
 
 If a field of this soil has more than one hollow 
 in it, in that case, it is necessary to have more 
 
 * From its being so much practised there, this mode of 
 draining is commoniy called the Essex viode of hollow-draining. 
 
 G
 
 82 APPROTED MODI: OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 than one drain ; but if it is almost level, or ir.- 
 clir es only a little to on? side, a ditch or drain at 
 the lowest extremity, having the ridges and fur- 
 rows formed, as already mentioned^ will answer 
 the purpose eftectually. See Fig. 2, and S, of 
 Plan No. 13. 
 
 In some cases, however, it may be necessary to 
 have a few side-cuts from the main drain, where 
 the field is large or very flat, cut down also a 
 little into the clay, as narrow as it is possible to 
 dig them, and filled with stone, in the usual 
 manner. 
 
 Such is the method of draining these soils with 
 most advantage ; but many fields suffer equally 
 from wetness, that consist of soil exactly opposite 
 to the former, viz. a clay surface having a po- 
 rous substratum. 
 
 The drainage of such ground, where the wet- 
 ness is still of a more injurious nature, and where 
 the impervious stratum that upholds the water is 
 of such a thickness as to require being perforated 
 by the auger, is fully described iu Chap. V.; but 
 here, the depth of the drain being sufficient to 
 reach the porous subsoil without the help of 
 boring, the description of such may with more 
 propriety form a part of this Chapter. Fields 
 of this kind commonly lie very flat, without any 
 declivity, whereby the noxious water, stagnant on 
 (he clay surface, might naturally discharge itself 
 without the help of drains; for soils of the same
 
 APPROVED MODE OP DRAINING LAND. S3 
 
 haturC;, in a hanging situation^ are seldom or 
 never affected by the same cause. 
 
 Such ground is more difficult to drain, and re- 
 quires a greater number of cuts than any other soil 
 whatever, as they must be so laid out and con- 
 ducted, as "0 collect all the water from the sur- 
 face, which can only discharge itself into the 
 drains from above, being unable to flow into 
 them through the clay, as in those soils of an 
 opposite description ; and where there is any ir- 
 regularity on the ground, the water will remain 
 standing in the hollows, within a few feet of the 
 drain. The first thing, is to make one main con- 
 ductor in the lowest part, or at one end of the 
 field, to receive and carry oft' the water collected 
 by the smaller collateral cuts, which it may be 
 requisite to make on each side of it. If it suits 
 the situation or division of the field, this main 
 drain had better be open than covered ; and then 
 the outlets of the other drains that fall into it 
 can easily be inspected, and frequently cleared 
 out, i.? occasion may require. The proper for- 
 mation of the ridges, to answer the declivity of 
 the ground, should be particularly attended to 
 in such soils. The ridges should have rise 
 enough in the middle to give the water a fall 
 into the furrows ; and th^se should have depth 
 and fall enough to convey it into the drains. 
 Thus would a great part of the rain-water, as it 
 falls, be carried oft', which would lesseo the num- 
 
 G 2
 
 84 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 ber of small cuts, olberwise necessary. The 
 drains should all be dug as narrow as possible, 
 and filled up in the usual manner with loose 
 Stones; onlj the bottom of the conducting draia 
 (if it is not an open one ) should be formed in 
 the manner already described, with a small open 
 conduit at bottom, the more easily to carry off 
 the water. 
 
 The small drains should also be coupled at 
 bottom ; i. e. two of the largest stones laid in 
 the bottom, inclining on one another ab«ve, form- 
 ing a triangular opening of four or six inches 
 below. As the water is all received in at the 
 top of these drains, it is necessary that they should 
 be filled with small stones so near to the surface 
 as to leave only a space to be filled with loose 
 gra-uel, sufficiently deep to prevent the plough or 
 harrow from deranging them. Loose gravel, if it 
 is at hand, is better than the stifFclay that came 
 out of the drain, as it more easily admits the 
 water to subside through it to the stones ; and 
 the other can be spread on any adjacent hollo vf 
 in the field. 
 
 A thin laijcr of straw or rushes* should be laid 
 immediately above the stones, to prevent the 
 smaller part of the gravel from filling up too 
 closely the interstices betwixt them ; but this is 
 
 * If the fxeld is in pasture, the upper turfs pared thinly oft 
 vill £nsv, er this purpose better than straw or rushe*.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 85 
 
 not SO requisite when gravel is used in the place 
 of the mould. This mode of draining is calculat- 
 ed for every tenacious claj soil, vvhether porous 
 below or not; but, in many instances^ the deepen- 
 ing of the furrows, with very few drains^ might 
 remedy the evil, where the retentive upper soil is 
 only a foot or two deep, with a porous suisoil 
 under it, through which the water would easily 
 subside downwards, and again empty itself at 
 gome lower extremity of the field. The drains 
 and furrows should therefore be deepened through 
 the clay to the open soil, in order to facilitate the 
 descent of the water: and thus, much depends 
 on the proper ploughing of such ground ; by at- 
 tention to which, many drains, otherwise ncces-- 
 sary, might be saved. 
 
 The drainage of these soils does not come im- 
 mediately under the system of Mr. Elkington's 
 practice; but the mode of treating them I have 
 described, he recommends as the most effectual.
 
 ( 86 ) 
 
 CHAP. VIII. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF GROUND LYING ALONG THE SIDE Of 
 RIVERS^ AND OF FLAT SWAMPY GROUND LYING 
 BELOW THE LEVEL OF ARTIFICIAL LEABS OF 
 WATER, 
 
 MANY extensive tracts of land are wet and 
 rushy, from a cause that can hardly be removed 
 by any number of open or covered drains, 
 
 This is commonly called haugh, or holm land,* 
 and lies along the sides of brooks or rivers, which, 
 having altered their course so often between the 
 opposite banks, and depositing sand and gravel as 
 they recede from their last channel, the water of 
 the river alv>'ay« percolates through the ground 
 thus formed to the level of its present course, 
 keeping it so moist and wet, as to produce rushes 
 ^nd other coarse aquatics; and wherever a drain 
 or pit is dug in such ground, it immediately fills 
 
 * The. first of these words is the term most frequently made 
 use of in Scotland, to denote land that has been formed by a 
 river changing its course, and thereby leaving an extent of flat 
 level ground on either, or on both sides of it. This land is 
 always of a very rich soil, being composed of very fine earth, 
 deposited by the water after floods, and washed down from the 
 higher grounds in time of rains. Its drainage and embankment, 
 therefore, when necessary and practicable, must always be an 
 object worth atteatio:'.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 87 
 
 "wi^h wa<er^ to the level of that in the river. 
 Where the river has a quick descent, it is less apt 
 to produce this efiVet ; but where its current is 
 slow, and the level of its surface little below that 
 of the ground on either side, the soil will be very 
 much saturated with water. Any number of 
 drains cut in any direction, can have no good 
 effect, while the river* continues in its present 
 course at suth a height. The only remedy, 
 therefore, where it can be done at a moderate 
 ex pence, is deepening and widening the bed of 
 the river; the earth taken out of which, will at 
 the same time swerve to form an embankment on 
 either side; for while it can rise higher than t^ie 
 outlet of the drains, and flow back into them, it 
 renders the ground equally wet as before they 
 were made, and the expence of making them is 
 laid out to no advantage. Besides being thus 
 injured by the river water, springs, in many si- 
 tuations, issue from the boUom of the higher 
 ground, and ooze through the soil higher than 
 its level. The water of these can easily be cut 
 off, and lowered to the level of the river by a 
 proper drain, as shall be described. 
 
 In some cases, the wetness proceeds entirely 
 
 from springs, where the soil of the flat ground 
 
 » ■ I II — ■ — _— — ^.^.^i..^— 
 
 * This may often be the case, where the run of water does 
 pot deserve the denomination of river, and can therefore be ihe 
 piore easily remedied.
 
 88 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 betwixt them and the river does not consist of 
 loose gravel or sand, but of a loam or clay mix- 
 tu.e. In this case, the water of the springs 
 is resisted, and prevented from finding its way, 
 delozv the soil, to the river, and therefore is forced 
 to flow nearer the surface, keeping it constantly 
 in a wet poachi/ state in all seasons. To drain 
 this ground, a trench must be begun at the lower 
 end of it, and brought from the river along the 
 bottom of the bank from whence the springs 
 issue. 
 
 This trench should be cut beloiv the line of the 
 spring, where it can be more easily done, and 
 Uept open to receive the river water in floods, 
 and also any runs of water from the higher 
 grounds, in time of rains, which would blow it 
 up, if covered ; and must discharge itself into the 
 river at the lowest possible level.* From this 
 trench, short covered drains must be cut up a little 
 way into the bank, to lead in the springs that are 
 
 * If the ground by the side of the river is of such extent as to 
 render a regular embankment along the side of it an object of 
 consideration, a flood-gate might be placed at the moutli of the 
 out-let drain, which would shut with the pressure of the river 
 water in a flood, and thereby exclude it entirely from the inner 
 groxmd, and would open by that of the water accumulated in 
 the drain during the inundation, and so be emptied into the 
 river when it subsides. The construction of this gate is 
 simple, and is the only remedy in cases where it is desirable to 
 have the flood water excluded.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 89 
 
 above it ( if boring opposite to them has not that 
 effect), as represented bj Fig;. 1, of Plan 8. The 
 bottom of these must be higher than that of the 
 open cut, to prevent any of the water in it flow- 
 ing back into them. In these also the auger 
 must be used io tap the springs, if the depth of 
 this level does not reach the stratum containing 
 the water. 
 
 There will be no occasion for any cross drains 
 betwixt the open cut and the river^ as all the 
 water that is intercepted will be carried along the 
 bottom of the bank, and emptied into the river at 
 a lower level, unless the ground is of such ex- 
 tent that it may be divided, by cross ditches, into 
 separate inclosures. The open diain will serve 
 as a division betwixt the meadow and higher 
 ground. 
 
 This ground is peculiarly situated, and its soil 
 well adapted f*3r watering, after being drained. 
 
 The drainage of many a valuable tract of land 
 is often deemed impracticable, where a mill-lead, 
 or other artificial run of water passes through it, 
 or along the side to which the fall inclines. 
 
 From the low situation of the ground, and the 
 lieight of the waters in the lead, there is no fall 
 for discharging into the lead the water of any 
 drains that might be cut to the necessary depth. 
 To remedy this there is but one expedient.* 
 
 * In the course of the author's practice, he lias had recourse 
 to this expedient in different instances, which has answered 
 the end completely, where no other method was practicable.
 
 90 APPROTED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 The first thing is to begin at the river or natu- 
 ral stream^ and bring up a cut to the lead, at 
 the point where tlie outlet of the upper drains 
 is to cross it. This cut must be as deep as the 
 river will permit, or the drains above require. 
 A cut must then be made across the lead to the 
 same depth, and a strong wooden tJ^ough* (of 
 sufficient size to admit the water collected above 
 to pass through it) placed across the lead. The 
 length ot this trough must be several feet, on both 
 sides, more than the width of the lead, as marked 
 in Plan No. 14, from A to B, and must be se- 
 cured by stakes drove into the ground on each 
 side, with cross bars above, as represented by 
 Fig. 4y in the plale. The i-}».ice between the 
 top of it and the bottom of the lead must be filled 
 \\\i\i clay well beat down. This done, the cut 
 from A to E may be made as deep as the level of 
 the trough will admit, and so continued along the 
 upper side of the wet ground, to cut off the 
 springs that rise in that quarter. This may 
 cither be a covered drain or open, as circum-« 
 stances may require. From the trough also, aq 
 open cut should be made parallel to and along 
 the back of the lead, to receive the surface water 
 from the ground above ; and from the division 
 ditches that may be necessary, if the ground is of 
 
 * Or square wooden box. Larch wood is recommended fox 
 this purpose.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 91 
 
 great extent. The earth from this cut should be 
 laid between it and the lead^ to strengthen and 
 secure the bank. In like manner, an open cut 
 may be necessary along the other side of the lead, 
 to receive the M'ater that may ooze from it, and 
 injure the ground between that and the river; 
 and this ground, if extensive, may likewise be di- 
 vided by cross ditches,* as represented by the 
 dotted lines. f The cross or division ditches in 
 the upper part of the ground, must not join the 
 upper drain, but a small space must be left uncut 
 at the letter D, to prevent any connection be- 
 tween the spring water in the upper drain (es- 
 pecially if covered) and what is collected in the 
 cross open ditches; and will likewise serve as a 
 passage from one division of the field to another. 
 
 * Where the word ditch is used in place of drain or cut, &c. 
 it implies, that it may likewise serve the purpose of a fence, or 
 side of an inclosure, as well as a drain. For the sake of orna- 
 ment and shelter, hedge-rows should be planted upon the banks 
 of the ditches. 
 
 f This part of the ground is well adapted for irrigation, 
 where the command of water may be sufficient for supplying 
 the lead, and likewise affording a sufficient quantity for thii 
 purpose.
 
 ( 92 ) 
 CHAP. IX. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF MINES, QUARRiES, MARL PITS, &C. 
 
 THE principles of jvlr. Eikicgtoa's system 
 have hitherto been confined only to the draining 
 of landj or taking away subjacent water that in- 
 jures its surface; but there is no doubt that it 
 might be equally successful, and of very mate- 
 rial importance in the case of mines and quarries ; 
 by diminishing the quantity of water that is fre- 
 quently found in the course of working them> 
 and which very much obstructs, and even some- 
 times puts a stop to the work altogether ; at least 
 it very often does so, in quarries of free-stone, 
 lime-stone, marl, &c. 
 
 Thus, from the want of Mr. Elkington's me- 
 thod being known, many mines and quarries at 
 present lie unwrought, from the fear of water and 
 quicksands, which might otherwise be wrought 
 to advantage. 
 
 It is well known that all springs and subter- 
 raneous collections of water are supplied from 
 ground lying higher than that where they are 
 found; which being of a porous nature, admit* 
 the rain to filtrate through it, which descends 
 often to a very great depth through the pores of 
 the open soil, rocL sand, gravel,. &c, before it
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 93 
 
 be obstructed by some impenetrable stratum. 
 Thus, in sinking a pit for coal, or any other sub- 
 terraneous mineral, near the bottom of a hill or 
 high ground, a bed of quicksand is met with, so 
 full of water, that to pass through it becomes a 
 very difficult and expensive operation; and as 
 this water proceeds from the porous ground l)ing 
 above it, it may in many cases be practicable to 
 intercept the greater part of that water before it 
 reach the sand-bed in the pit, and by means of 
 tapping at the tail of the sand-bank ( pro- 
 vided the ground naturally declines lower than 
 where the sand is found in the pit), the whole of 
 the water may be extracted from it, at a compa- 
 ratively small expence with what is used as the 
 common remedy in like cases. 
 
 To accomplish this, in ascending from the pit, 
 carefully examine, if, higher on the declivity, any 
 bed of rock, sand, or gravel, tails out, which may 
 convey the water contained in it to a sand-bed 
 below; and if such bed is found, a drain may be 
 cut into it, which will carry off a great part of 
 the water, and consequently lessen the quantity 
 in the mine, which would otherwise have con- 
 tinued to descend through the porous substrata, 
 before being thus intercepted in its descent. But, 
 although this is done, and the supply from above 
 entirely cut off, yet a sufficient quantity of water 
 to injure the pit may continue to ooze from the 
 sides of the sand-bed, even supposing it should
 
 94? APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 dip towards the lower ground^ which, if it doei, 
 that water may be easily drawn off at some point 
 in the low ground. 
 
 To effect this, in order to remove the above 
 inconvenience, in descending from the pit, along 
 the declivity, endeavour to discover at what place 
 in the low ground the sand terminates or tails 
 out, which may be found by means of a spirit- 
 level; and if there is any appearance there of the 
 water's having a natural outlet, it may, by means 
 of a deep drain, be much quicker and mere 
 effectually drawn off; for springs naturally flow 
 through narrow and crooked perforations, and 
 consequently, w^henever the orifice is enlarged, 
 or made lower, the discharge of water becomes 
 greater: but if there is a deep covering of clay 
 above the tail of the sand, in that case a drain 
 can only be cut so far into it, and by means of 
 boring through the remaining portion of clay, an 
 easy outlet may be given to the whole water con- 
 tained in the above sand-bed. 
 
 This will also, in a great measure, remove, or 
 at least relieve, the difficulty that would after- 
 wards have attended sinking the pit; for the wa- 
 ter thus cut off, must lessen the quantity that 
 would have been found deeper; the same body, 
 perhaps, passing downwards from stratum to 
 stratum, so far as they continue porous, or capa- 
 ble of receiving it. 
 
 It is therefore of material consequence to drain
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAININ© LAND. 93 
 
 all ground lying higher and contiguous to mines, 
 or any other deep subterraneous pits, for the rea- 
 sons already given; and on these principles, and 
 by these means, it may be accomplished with 
 little difficulty or cxpence. 
 
 The water found in the bottom of the pit or 
 mine> must be got rid of in a different manner, 
 as the ground may perhaps nowhere decline low- 
 er than the mouth of the pit. For it is only en 
 the supposition of the different strata and sand- 
 bed, dipping with the natural inclination of the 
 surface, that the above method of proceeding is 
 practicable, or on the supposition of their lying 
 nearly horizontal ; but, should they lie in a re- 
 verse direction, there is little possibility of accom- 
 plishing the object, unless their termination can 
 be hit on, somewhere on the opposite side of the 
 hill, which, by ascertaining the precise inclination 
 of the metals, and by exact levelling, may very 
 nearly be found out. In most cases, however, the 
 upper strata above coal are found lying pretty 
 regular. 
 
 But, as a description alone, without an expla- 
 natory sketch, cannot so clearly convey an idea 
 of the nature of it. Fig. 1, of the annexed Plan, 
 No. 15, will help to elucidate these remarks. 
 
 The foregoing observations so far explain how 
 the water may be cut off, that is met with in 
 sinking the shaft, before reaching the coal or 
 other mineral that is sought for. The water that
 
 9(5 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 is found in the bottom of the pit, or what pro- 
 ceeds from the rocks, &c. in the course of work- 
 ing the mine, is commonly got rid of by means of 
 an engine pump, to assist in working which, the 
 water obtained by means of the drains ah'eady de- 
 scribed, may be very useful, where the stream for 
 that purpose is deficient, in saving the great ex- 
 pence of working it by steam*. But, without 
 
 * Thai letting down the water by boring into an inferior 
 open stratum, even in the bottom of tlie pit, may not only be 
 practicable in some cases, but of very great advantage, the fol- 
 lowing observations will shew: "The water was raised by a 
 steam engine about sixty yards, from a colliery in Yorkshire, 
 which had been wrought several years j the proprietors bored 
 down to the depth of about ten yards further, to ascertain the 
 depth and thickness of a seam of coals, which was supposed to 
 lie below those then wrought j the workmen employed bored 
 from the bottom of the pit next the engine pit, and when they 
 had bored to the above depth, and taken out the rods, the wa- 
 ter from the works, which usually ran across the bottom of this 
 pit to the engine pump, ran down the hole they had then made. 
 As soon afterwards as the steam engine was set to work at the stated 
 period (about one hour in twelve), the engine pump contained 
 little or no water; it had escaped through this hole, and con- 
 tinued to run through the same ever afterwards, and rendered 
 the engine useless. This instance of water at so great a depth 
 from the surface, finding a passage at a further depth of ten 
 yards, or less, and immediately below, is very singular and 
 striking. The situation was much higher than the next adjoin- 
 ing valleys and the level of the sea. Experiments of this sort 
 seldom fall to the lot of man to make j therefore such instances 
 are rare and uncommon. But in large tracts of level land.
 
 ApS^roved Mode of DR.4iNiNis land. 9T 
 
 ihe help of a natural stream, which may bC con- 
 verted to the above purpose, it is seldom possible 
 to find^ by means of drains or oiherwise, a quan- 
 tity of water sutlicierit to drive such weighty ma- 
 chinery, in a situation high enough to have the 
 necessary command of it, It may, however, ill 
 many cases, be a valuable acquisition. See Plan 
 15, Fig. ^. 
 
 In situations where a proper command of water 
 can be olMained, and where the entrance to the 
 mine is likewise adapted for the purpose, the use 
 to whicli it may be converted is still more advan- 
 tageous, by driving machinery to bring out the 
 minerals, and also for working an engine punip, 
 for clearing the mine of subterraneous water^ 
 fl!)wing from the cavities of the rocks that are 
 met with in workina:. His Grace the Duke of 
 
 O 
 
 Buccleugh's coal-works, near Langholm, in Dum- 
 fries-shire, are a striking example of this, and of 
 the superior powers of water and machinerj^ when 
 properly combined, where a command of the for- 
 mer can be obtained, and when the latter is con- 
 structed on proper principles, and conducted with 
 
 \vhetT3 lakes or morasses have been formed, and which cannot 
 be drained by cutting open drains, or driving levels through 
 rocks, but at an expence for which the lands, when drained, 
 would never compensate} the above instances w.irrant experi- 
 ments being'tried with boring rods, which, if not successful, 
 may be tried at a little expence." — AgrnuUuial Report ef Jlert- 
 fordnhire, page 67. 
 
 H
 
 9S AFPROVED MODE OF DR*^1KING LAND. 
 
 that care and ingenuity which are necessary in 
 such undertakings. 
 
 It frequently occurs^ in working quarries of 
 lime or freestone, that;, at a certain depth, part of 
 the rock containing w ater is hit on, whereby the 
 quarry is so soon filled with water, as to put a 
 stop to working it deeper, where the best of the 
 stone lies. The common remedy in such cases is, 
 cither to erect a wind-mill pump, to draw out 
 part of the water ( for the whole cannot be taken 
 away by this means), or to open a new quarry 
 adjoining to the last, which at the same depth 
 meets with the like obstruction, or to bring up a 
 \ery deep and often expensive cut, under the 
 level of the water, from the nearest declivity. 
 
 By the following method, however, all quar- 
 ries of limestone, freestone, marl, &c. liable to 
 such an obstruction, may be completely cleared 
 of water at little expence ; and the drain, 
 at the same time, will serve a double purpose, 
 by drying the wet ground, which, in conse- 
 quence of the spring contained in the rock, is 
 found adjoining to it. 
 
 Immediately under the rock, commonly lies a 
 bed of strong retentive clay, that upholds all the 
 water received by and retained in that rock, and 
 which being also bound round on each side by a 
 covering of clay, or other stiff soil, cannot dis- 
 fliarge itself, and therefore stands always so full 
 in tiie rock, as to prevent taking out the stone to 
 the bottom.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 99 
 
 In the first place^ endeavour to find to what 
 side the rock dips or inclines, which may easily be 
 found by the appearance of the surface in examin- 
 ing the adjacent ground, and by the assistance of 
 a spirit-level. After discovering this, cut a 
 drain through the cla} covering t > the rock, by 
 which the water will be drawn off, that for want 
 of a proper outlet, formerly stood pent up in 
 the cavities of the stone. See Plan No. 16, Fig. 
 1 and 2. 
 
 Sometimes the evil may be remedied in a dif- 
 ferent manner. 
 
 It often happens, that a bed of the same stone, 
 of a close compact nature, is found lying under 
 one of a more open kind, with pores and fissures 
 in it admissible of water, which so keeps up the 
 water in the upper bed, that none of it can pass 
 through to an inferior open stratum; and on 
 sinking through this stone, another bed is found, 
 of so open and porous a nature, as to admit the 
 reception of any water from above that may come 
 into contact with it. 
 
 Sometimes a bed of gravel or sand is found 
 under the close stone, which being still more 
 capable of absorbing any water let down to it, is 
 better calculated for the purpose of clearing the 
 upper bed of stone from water, than a stratum of 
 open stone itself. 
 
 When this is discovered to he the case, and the 
 water kept up by the second bed of stone, so as to 
 
 h2
 
 loo APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 be prejudicial to the working of the upper hed^ 
 and which will be equall}' so }n working the 
 second; the work may be greatly relieved by 
 boring through the close bed of stone, and letting 
 down the water into the more porous one below% 
 or into a stratum of day sand or gravel, if there 
 be such under it. In place of boring, sinking 
 small pits through the close stone is a more effec- 
 tual method of letting down the -water, but a 
 more difficult one to execute. 
 
 At Ormskirk, in Lancashire, stone quarries are 
 cleared of water, exactly in the manner above 
 described, which Fig. o, in the annexed Plan, 
 will better explain*. 
 
 * To shew the success of this practice, Mr. Eccleston, of 
 Scarrisbrlck, a very ingenious member of the Board, and pro- 
 prietor in the neighbourhood of Ormskirk, communicated tlie 
 following information : — " In stone quarries, wells (pits) occa- 
 sionally are sanken to the open bed, which have proved ser- 
 viceable. The above was practised in a stone delf near Orms- 
 kirk with success. But in order to lay the deif more efFec- 
 tually dry to a greater depth, Mr. Elkington having viewed the 
 country, marked where he thought the rock terminated or 
 tailed out, and at the lowest level set out a drain to be cut up 
 to the rock, part of which work is executed, and a very consi- 
 derable spring comes from it: but, on account of the great 
 depth (sixteen feet), it v. ill not be finished before he has seen 
 the work again. The drain he has laid out is about ten feet 
 lower than the bottom of the stone quarry, and when com- 
 pleted, will lay that head of stone dry lower tlian the present 
 floor. All rocks, mpstly where they terminate, are succeeded
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 101 
 
 The situation of marl pits is commonly sucli, 
 that it requires a very extensive cut through 
 some part of the surrounding bank^ to carry off 
 the water that prevents taking' out the marl. 
 This might often be accomplished in a much less 
 expensive manner, by sinking a pit through the 
 retaining stratum under the marl bed, into some 
 absorbent stratum below, that would receive the 
 water let down into it by the pit. If the ground 
 where the marl lies is of considerable extent, 
 several pits will be necessary to carry off tjie wa- 
 ter. If they require to be so deep as to be in 
 danger of falling in, tliey should be built round 
 the sides, or filled up to near the top with loose 
 stones, through which the water can subside. 
 Anj' cross drains or cuts necessary for collecting 
 the water, must be conducted ii.to the pits, la 
 many cases the water m.ay be got rid of in a still 
 easier manner, provided the situation of the 
 ground is ansv^erable. If the surrounding bank 
 declines on the opposite side lower than the water , 
 by cutting a drain into it, and boring with a 
 
 by broken loose stones of the same nature as the rock, nud they 
 are frequently (not to say always) succeeded by sand j 
 which, when a thick bed, and of a running nature (quicksands), 
 often cause great expence to cut tlirough to the tail end of any 
 rock." See Plan 11, Fig. 2. 
 
 In such cases as this, where there is danger of meeting a 
 quicksand, boring or sinking pits through the bed of close stone;^ 
 J5 tihe most adviseabl^e and least expensive method.
 
 102 APPROTED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 Iiorizontal auger, into the tail of the stratum con- 
 taining the water, it will be drawn off and re- 
 duced to a level lower than that of the bed of 
 marl. As this water is often supplied by a spring, 
 rising in some part of the higher ground^ and 
 descending into the place where the marl lies, in 
 such case it will be necessarj' to cut off the source 
 of this spring, and divert it into some other chan- 
 nel. By doing this, the quantity of water below 
 "will be lessened, and more easily carried off by 
 jEneans of the pits or drains.
 
 ( 103 ) 
 
 CHAP. X. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE USE OF THE SPIRIT-LEVEL, 
 AND DIRECTIONS FOR USING IT IN MARKING OUT 
 OF DRAINS, &C. 
 
 AFTER the main spring, or that from which 
 the others derive their source, has been dis- 
 covered, the ascertaining a line on the same level, 
 to one or both sides of it, for the better and more 
 sure direction of the drain, being one of the first 
 and most important parts of the operation, and 
 the one on which Mr. Elkington's art in a 
 great measure depends ( for before him, it is be- 
 lieved that no man ever thought of ascertaining, 
 by means of levelling, the course of water in the 
 bowels of the earth); a description of it may 
 prove useful to those who have never been in 
 the practice of using the spirit-level for that 
 purpose. 
 
 Being provided with a spirit-level (which it is 
 necessary to have previously adjusted), and a 
 staff about ten feet in length, with a moveable 
 vane or sight affixed to it, set up the instrument 
 in a situation between the object from whence 
 the level is to be taken, and that to which it is 
 to be directed, provided the distance from the in-
 
 lOi APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 strument to each of them is not too great. The. 
 situation of it should also be no higher than thei 
 • length of the staff will answer, and so as it may 
 be seen from it both ways ; then direct the man 
 with the staff to hold it at the mam spring, 'oi:. 
 place from whence you mean to. carry the drain; 
 and;, after directing the telescope to the staff, and 
 adjusting it to a level, make a sign to him to 
 move the sight vp or down, till it be exactly op- 
 posite the cross hair in the telescope. This done, 
 without shifting the instrument from its first posi- 
 tion, and cautioning the man to fix the sight to 
 the staff at the point directed, he may prQceed 
 forty or fifty yards further; and after having- 
 iigaiii adjusted the level, m^ake a sign to him to 
 move to higher or lower ground, till the sight oa 
 the staff coincide exactly with the cross hair in 
 the telescope. He may then leave a peg at the 
 place where he held the staff, and proceed in 
 like manner to other stations, till the whole line 
 is finished, leaving pegs, or making pits, at tho 
 places where the staff was held. 
 
 If the length of the line to be levelled requires 
 the instrument to be shifted from its first position, 
 the level must a9:ain be taken from the last sta- 
 tion where the staff was held, and the sight on it 
 fixed in the proper place as before directed, pro- 
 ceeding in the same manner at every forty or fiftj 
 yards in length, till the whole is accomplished?
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 105 
 
 After the line is thus levelled, and ascertained by 
 juarks left at every station where the staff was fix- 
 ed, it may again be exarained, and other pegs put 
 in between the first, the better to direct the work- 
 >nen in cutting the drain, giving the line such 
 turnings, and even small deviations from the 
 course of the level, as may shorten or straighieu 
 it, and humour the situation of the ground. 
 
 For the sak^ of accwracy, where the work re- 
 quires it, especially if the water is to be conveyed 
 any considerable distance;, or wanted to supply a 
 liouse, or for the purpose of irrigation, the levels 
 may be proved by reversing the former line of 
 direction. The spirit-level is also necessarv", 
 for ascertaining how much fall can be obtained 
 from the drain to the nearest outlet where the 
 \vater can be discharged, the shorter that dis- 
 tance being the better, provided fall enough can 
 be got. 
 
 It is often necessary to level a much longer dis- 
 tance than the length of the drain may require 
 to be cut ; but when the level of the whole lino 
 is known, and the nature of the ground carefully 
 examined, short drains can be cut on that line, 
 with openings (places not dug out) between, 
 which will answer the purpose equally as well as 
 one the whole length; and the expence will be 
 considerably less, provided the length of the con- 
 ductors for the water from each, be less than ih^t
 
 106 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 of the openings or places not cut: But if the 
 whole line with only one conductor, be shorter 
 than these, it is better to have all the water dis- 
 charged at one orifice. The level has frequently 
 to be taken from a spring or well, at a con- 
 siderable distance from the ground to be drained. 
 
 The American level, as it is sometimes called, 
 being first communicated to the President of the 
 Board of Agriculture, by Dr Edwards, of Ame- 
 rica, is so simple and useful an implement for as- 
 certaining the level of drains or water-courses, 
 that I have thought proper to subjoin a, descrip- 
 tion of the method of using it, and have given a 
 drawing of it in Plate 17, No. 5. 
 
 It is formed of two pieces of thin w^ood of 
 equal length, joined together at top, and connect- 
 ed below by a cross bar. From the angle at top, 
 a lead plummet is suspended by a small cord, 
 which, w hen the instrument stands level on both 
 legs, strikes upon a mark in the centre of the con- 
 necting bar, as represented by Fig. 5, in the Plate, 
 The mapner of using it is simply thus: At the 
 place from whence the level is to be taken, drive 
 a wooden peg into the ground, close in to the top, 
 upon which one of the legs of the frame may 
 rest; then bringing round the other leg till it 
 touch the ground, there drive in a second peg, 
 and the space betwixt them will be level. In 
 proceeding forward, rest the leg of the frame
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 107 
 
 upon the top of the second peg, turning round the 
 other leg as before; and where it touches the 
 ground again drive in another peg, and so on 
 along the whole line to be levelled. Thus, with 
 very little trouble, and with as much accuracy as 
 with the finest spirit-level, will the course of the 
 drain be easily ascertained. But, as it is necessary 
 that the drain should have as much declivity as 
 to allow the water to run freely, it will be requi- 
 site in taking the level, to regulate the direction 
 of the line accordingly. Half an inch fall in the 
 length of the frame will be sufficient. For this 
 purpose, it will be expedient to have^ besides a 
 number of wooden pegs, one iron pin, with inches 
 and halves marked regularly upon the sides of it, 
 from the top downwards. After having drove in 
 the first wooden peg at the point from whence 
 you mean to conduct the drain, and having rest- 
 ed the one leg of the frame upon it, turn round, 
 the other till it be level with the first peg. There 
 put in the iron pin, so that this leg of the frame 
 may rest on the top of it when level; then drive in 
 a wooden peg so far, as that the top of it may be 
 one half inch lower than that of the iron pin. 
 Place the leg of the frame again upon this second 
 peg, turn it round to a level, putting in the iron 
 pin till the top of it be eqtidl with the foot of the 
 frame; then drive in another wooden peg close 
 by the side of it^ till the top of the wooden one be
 
 108 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 half an inch lower than that of the iron pin. Pio-« 
 ceed in this manner so far as you mean to carry 
 the drain, which will have the same degree of de- 
 clivity all the way along. A line thus set off, is 
 marked from A to D in the Plate. AVhen made 
 on a smaller scale^ it is useful in ascertaiiriug the 
 proper descent along the bottom of the drain, 
 while the workmen are laying it; but when 
 made for this purpose, the cross bar must be fix- 
 ed to the bottom of the legs, as marked with dot-, 
 ted lines in the Plate.
 
 ( 109 ) 
 
 CHAP. XL 
 
 DESCRIPTION ©F THE AUGER, AND MANNER OP 
 USING IT, &C. 
 
 THE borer used in draining, is nearly similar 
 to that made use of in searching for coal or other 
 subterraneous minerals. The auger, shell, or 
 wimble, as it is variously called, for excavating the 
 earth or strata through which it passes^ is from 
 two and a half to three and a half inches in dia- 
 meter; the hollow part of it one foot four inches 
 in length, and constructed nearly in the shape of 
 the wimble used by carpenters ; only, the sides of 
 the shell come closer to one another. The rods 
 are made in separate » pieces, of four feet long 
 each, that screw into one another, to any assign- 
 able length, one after another, as the depth of the 
 hole requires. The size above the auger is about 
 an inch square, unless at the joints, where, for 
 the sake of strength, they are a quarter of an inch 
 more. There is also a chisel and punch for 
 screwing on, in going through hard gravel, or 
 metallic substances, to accelerate the passage of 
 the auger, which could not otherwise perforate 
 such hard bodies. The punch is often used whew
 
 110 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 the auger is not applied, to prick or open the 
 sand or gravel, and give a more easj issue to the 
 water. The chisel is an inch and half or two 
 inches broad at the point, and made very sharp, 
 for cutting stone; and the punch an inch square, 
 like the other part of the rods, with the point 
 sharpened also. There is a shiftmg handle of 
 wood, that is fastened with two iron wedges 
 affixed to it, for the purpose of turning round 
 the rods in boring, and also two iron keys for 
 screwing and unscrewing the rods, and for assist- 
 ing the handle when the soil is very stiiT, and 
 more than two men required to turn it. 
 
 To judge when to make use of the borer, is a 
 difTicult part of the business. Some who have 
 not seen it made use of in draining, have been led 
 into a mistaken notion, both as to the manner of 
 using it, and purpose for which it is applied. 
 They think, that if by boring indiscriminately 
 through the ground to be drained, water is found 
 near enough the surface to be reached by the 
 depth of the drain, the proper direction for it is 
 along these holes where water has been found ; 
 and thus make it the first implement that is used. 
 The contrary is the case, and the auger is never 
 i;sed till aftertbe drain is cut; and then, for thcpur- 
 pose of perforating any retentive or impervious 
 stratum, lying between the bottom of the drain 
 and the reservoir or strata containing the spring.
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. Ill 
 
 Thus does it greatly lessen the trouble and cx- 
 pence that would otherwise be requisite in cut- 
 ting the trench to that depth, to which, in many 
 instances, the level of the outlet will not admit. 
 The manner of using it is simply thus: in work- 
 ing it, two, or rather three men are necessary. 
 Two stand above on each side of the drain, who 
 turn it round by mea%s of the wooden handle ; 
 and when the auger is full, they draw it out, 
 and the man in the bottom of the trench clears 
 out the earth, assists in pulling it out, and direct- 
 ing it into the hole, and who can also assist in 
 turning with the iron handle or key, when the 
 depth and length of rods require additional force 
 to perform the operation. The workmen should 
 be cautious, in boring, not to go deeper at a 
 time, without drawii]g, than the exact length of 
 the shell; otherwise the earth, clay, or sand, 
 through which it is boring, after the shell is full, 
 makes it very difficult to pull out. For this pur- 
 pose, ihe exact length of the shell should be 
 regularly marked on the rods, from the bottom 
 upward. Two or four flat boards, with a hole 
 cut into the side of one of them, and laid along- 
 side of one another over the drain, in time, of 
 boring, are very useful for directing the rods in 
 going down perpendicularly, for keeping them 
 steady in boring, and for the men standing on, 
 when performing the operation (No. 4, in Plate
 
 112 APPROVED MODE OF BRAINING LAND. 
 
 17.) The other implements used in cutting- the 
 drain are^ besides the common spade and shovel, 
 those represented in the Plate, The hollow 
 spadcj made of oak timber^ and scooped out in 
 the middle, is used in soft peat soils, being lig^ht 
 and easy to work with, and the edges preveatinpj 
 the earth from falling off, when throwing it out 
 of the trench. They are made of iron in the 
 same shape also, for throwing out clay or tough 
 soil. The crooked handled spade or shovel, hav- 
 ing the edges turned up, is well adapted for 
 smoothing the bottom of the drain before laying 
 the sough, and with which the workmen have 
 less occasion to stoop. As the common opening 
 of the sough is six inches square, a piece of 
 wood of that size, and one yard in length, 
 is ver}' useful for laying in the bottom of 
 the drain, and building the stones on each 
 side of it; and which can be shifted for- 
 ward as the workman proceeds in forming the 
 sough. 
 
 OF THE HORIZONTAL AUGER. 
 
 This instrument was lately invented by Mr. 
 Ilaford, of Hathern, in Leicestershire, and is not 
 yet come into general use. The advantages of it 
 are in many cases considerable, by lessening the 
 expence of otherwise cutting and performing the 
 ^ork in a much shorter time. "Where a drain or
 
 Alf!?RbVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 113 
 
 •Watercourse has to pass under a bank, road, 
 h^dge, wall, rivulet of water, or for drying 
 marl pits, &c. it may be used to advantage 
 in excavating a sufficient passage for the wa- 
 ter, without opening a trench. In laying 
 leaden pipes for the conveyance of water, it is 
 also useful, in making a hole in which the 
 pipe may be laid, without opening a ciit on pur- 
 pose. 
 
 For tapping springs, or finding water at the 
 bottom of a hill, either for the supply of a hon^e, 
 or for draining the ground, it may be u?ed with 
 success, as the water of the spring, when hit on;, 
 will flow more easily, and in a greater abundance^ 
 through a horizontal or level, than through a 
 perpendicular outlet. 
 
 The manner of using it is thus- Suppose a 
 lake or pond of water, surrounded with high 
 banks, to be emptied, if the ground declines 
 lower on the opposite side, find the level of the 
 bottom of the w ater, and trace that level to the 
 face of the bank where the perforation is to be 
 made. There smooth the surface of the ground;, 
 so as to plaice the frame nearly level, with the au- 
 ger pointing a little upwards. It requires two 
 men to turn the handles at top, in order to work 
 it, which may be better understood by examining 
 the Plate. When the auger or shell is full, the 
 rod? are drawn back by reversing the lower huh-
 
 114 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 die, and rods added at the joint when the distance 
 requires. In boring through a bank of the 
 hardest cla}^ two men will work through from 
 thirty to forty feet in a day, provided there is no 
 interruption from hard stones, which will require 
 a chisel to be fixed on, in place of the shell, and 
 longer time to work through. If the length to 
 be bored through is considerable, or longer than 
 the whole length of the rods, a pit must be 
 sunk upon the line, down to the hole, for placing 
 the frame when removed, and the operation car- 
 ried on as before.
 
 ( 115 ) 
 
 CHAP. XII. 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM SOME OF THE AGRICULTURAL RE- 
 PORTS OF TMOSE COUNTIES IV ENGLAND, WHERE 
 MR, ELKINGTON HAS EXECUTED THE MOST RE- 
 MARKABLE DRAINAGE*), TENDING TO AUTHENTI- 
 CAIE THE ADVANTAGES DERIVED FR0.»1 HIS 
 PRACTICE^ 
 
 .* 
 
 I SHALL begin with Warwickshire^ being 
 Mr. Elkington's Kativc county, and the one in 
 which he first made the discovery. 
 
 COUNTY OF WARWICK, BY JOHN WEDGE. 
 
 '' Draining is, without doubt, the first step to- 
 wards the improvement of all wet land; it has 
 been practised with much success in this county 
 for several years, but more particularly so since 
 Mr. Elkington, a farmer in this district, intro- 
 duced a method of draining boggy lands, by 
 making deep drains, and boring at the bottom or 
 sides of them, through the different under strata. 
 
 * These extracts are taken from the first Reports transmitted 
 to the Board of Agriculture ; but in the second publication of 
 tl>em, more information on this subject wUl be found. 
 
 i2
 
 il6 Approved mode of draining LANt). 
 
 instances^ cure large tracts of land with verv 
 few drains. The novelty of this practice 
 here, and Mr. Eikington's mysterious manner, 
 in declaring he knew where, and in what direc- 
 tion, the different strata of the earth divided^ 
 and at what particular point an auger hole might 
 be bored, to lay dry this or that particular spring 
 or well, were matters which attracted much no- 
 tice, and occasioned great surprize; and it is but 
 justice to Mr. Elkington to say, that in one class 
 of bogs, &C; which abound as much as (perhaps 
 more than) any other, he has not only had the 
 honour of introducing the auger in this county, 
 but the merit of laying effectually dry, many 
 large tracts of land." 
 
 County of Leicester, by john monk; 
 
 ^' The most capital improvements have been 
 made under the direction of a Mr. Elkington, 
 w ho is supposed to be the first in that line in the 
 world. After forming the drain, by beginning 
 at the fall, and working upwards, he makes use 
 of a borer to find the spring, with which he 
 generally suceeds, which has a wonderful effect in 
 draining the land. It is said that he has a very 
 quick and certain method of finding where the 
 springs lie, peculiar to himself. By the use of 
 80 a€ lo tap the springy, and thereby, in many
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 117 
 
 the borer^ Mr. Astlcj* had a piece of land drain- 
 ed without going into it^ by the following cir- 
 eiimstance: Mr. Elkington was emplojeJ in 
 draining a piece of land belonging to Mr, Rich- 
 ard Astley, which was separated from his brother's 
 by a small river, or deep rivulet. Mr. E. find- 
 ing the spring at about sixteen feet from the sur- 
 face (under the bed of the river), completely 
 drained both pieces. I was informed, that some 
 time since Mr. Elkington was engaged in drain- 
 ing a piece of land near Lutterworth ; and soon 
 after he had found (some call it tapping) the 
 spring, the inhabitants, to their very great sur- 
 prize, found their welis all dry. After investigat- 
 ing the cause, it was found that Mr. E. had 
 been the means of it, by cutting off the spring 
 which supplied the town with water. 
 
 *^' I mention the above two instances, merely to 
 shew what a wonderful effect the borer has, and 
 what a very capital instrujuent it is for drain- 
 ing," &c. 
 
 ''' I do not mean to saty that Mr. E. is t\ic. only 
 person that makes use of the borer; for there is 
 such a very great spirit for this kind of improve- 
 ment, that there are very few of the best farmers 
 without this instrument. Mr. Elkington has so 
 much business, that it is with great difficulty he 
 is to be had when wanted." 
 
 V — " I I I ■! I ■ ■ « P I ■ " 
 
 *OfOdstone-Hall,
 
 lis APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 COUNTY OF DERBY, BY THOMAS BROWN. 
 
 '' But every otlier method seems 
 
 to bend to that practised by Mr. Elkington, 
 whose practice is becoming every day more ex- 
 tensive^ and seems to me the most effectual of all 
 others^ for carrying off subterraneous waters. 
 He lays a stone drain from three to six feet below 
 the surface^, in such a direction as to cut the 
 source of the spring, and with such a declivity as 
 to scour itself. Wherever he finds the source of 
 the spring below the level of his drain, he bores, 
 and v.ith such judgment, that, to a stranger, his 
 aug°r seems possessed of the virtue of that rod 
 with which Moses struck the rock; for the water 
 immediately gushes out, and perhaps lays land 
 that before was too wet to carry a sheep, suffi- 
 ciently dry to carry the heaviest ox. This me- 
 thod is certainly effectual against springs." 
 
 COUNTY OF SUFFOLK, BY ARTHUR YOUNG, ESQ. 
 SECRETARY TO THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, 
 &C. &C. 
 
 '' It will not be improper to hint, that there 
 zxe, two errors very common in the perform- 
 ance of this improvement. The first is, mak- 
 ing the drains in, or nearly in, the directioa 
 of the declivity; whereas they ought always to
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 119 
 
 be made obliquely across it: the other is, that of 
 marking out, and making numerous drains across 
 the sides of springy hills, which might, in many 
 caseSj be drained completely with a single drain, 
 judiciously disposed, according to those obvious 
 principles upon which the celebrated drainer, 
 Mr. Elkington, of Warwickshire, proceeds. No 
 improvement can have greater or more immediate 
 effects than this of draining; none. that pays the 
 farmer with more certainty." 
 
 COUNTY OF STAFFORD, BY WILLIAM PITT. 
 
 " Attempts have been made to tap springs, by 
 boring into them, by Mr, Elkington and others, 
 and sometimes with success." 
 
 Mr. Pitt, in speaking of the improvements in 
 Fisherwick Park, says, 
 
 " Here the genius of a Brown, aided and 
 seconded by the munificence of the noble owner*, 
 have conspired to render a dreary morass one of 
 the most delightful spots in nature, and have in a 
 great measure succeeded: which success is still 
 further heightening by the improvements of Mr 
 Elkington, in the interception of springs, and the 
 discharging of stagnant water." 
 
 * Marquis of Donnegall,
 
 120 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 COUNTY OF WORCESTER^ BY W. J. POMEROY. 
 
 *' In speaking of miller drains, it may be 
 thought right to mention, that various experi- 
 ments have been made at Ewell-Grange, the seat 
 of the Earl of F*!} mouthy, and in that neighbour- 
 hood; but that by boring, after Mr. Elkington's 
 method, deserves to be most particularly noticed, 
 tv'hich, indeed, in such situations (viz. low, fenny^ 
 or boggy lands), seem to supersede the use of 
 everv other." 
 
 COUNTY OF SOMERSET, BY JOHN BILLINGSLEY^ 
 
 ESQ, 
 
 "^ The great skill of draining land, consists in 
 cutting off the water at i(s source. One deep 
 drain judiciously plr^ced, will frequently preclude 
 the necessity of any other; in most instances, 
 such a drain should be near that part of the de- 
 clivity from which the springs issue. This de- 
 pends on the position of the clayey substratum, 
 and on the height of the reservoir from whence 
 the springs are fed. A judicious survey of the 
 adjacent land, and liberal use of the horer, are ne- 
 (;;essary preliminaries to a cheap and effectual 
 remedy for wet lands; and there are few men in 
 the kingdom possessed of equal skill in this de- 
 partment of agriculture with Mr. Elkington, of 
 Warwickshire, whose fame is not confined to the
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 121 
 
 icounty in \Yhich he lives, but is known and ac- 
 knowledged in many parts of the kingdom." 
 
 pXTRACTS FROM THE ANNALS OF AGRICULTURE^, 
 BY A. YOUNG:, ESQ. &C. &C. VOL. XVI. ANNd 
 1791. 
 
 '' Aug. 5.— Rode to examine some works car- 
 ryiuj^ on under the direction of Mr. Eikington^ y. 
 singularly able drainer, whom I shall have raorq 
 occasions than one to mention." — " The chief 
 object of our ride was to view Mr. Elkingtoii's 
 works, whOj we were informed, was engaged by 
 some of the owners of these mills*, to bring iheiix 
 more water, by draming some boggy spots from 
 which the springs arise. We viewed his trenches 
 for this purpose: it seems that this most ingeni- 
 ous operator had contracted with the millers, to 
 be paid only in proportion to the additional 
 quantity of water he procured fo';-them. As we 
 viewed his drains, and the general declivities of 
 the wastes around, a question arose amongst us, 
 upon the potsibility of procuring more water by 
 any drains, or cuts, or boring, than flows already 
 in a more diffusive manner through bogs; except 
 by bringing water to take a direction on one sid^ 
 of a hill, which, in its natural course, flows out 
 ou another side." " But Mr. Eiking- 
 
 * Near Suttoji Colficld, in Staftbrdshire,
 
 122 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 ton's practice is remarkable in one circumstance, 
 n)id differs from any drainer I have yet kno'iCn. 
 From distance to distance at the bottom of his 
 surfs*, which are of various depths, from three 
 and four to six and seven feet, he bores with a 
 common iron boring rod, five or ten lower, and 
 in doing this^ often finds the water rise quickly 
 in the hole. Bj this operation, it should seem, 
 that he has Mr. Bakewell's idea in contemplation; 
 andt it is to be noted, that by this practice, he in 
 many cases, by a single drain, lays lands dry that 
 were not at all in the contemplation of the person 
 who employs him, even to a considerable distance: 
 Supposing springs to lie in strata, nearly on a 
 level, and to communicate from side to side of 
 the largest hills, in such case it does not seem at 
 all improbable, but that, by draining and boring 
 deeply on one side, you may procure more wa- 
 ter than came before, by^ diverting it from the 
 usual course; no that, by carrying on works of 
 this sort on one side of a mountain, the other side, 
 at some miles distance, may be drained. Thus 
 the millers on one side of a hili may pay Mr^ 
 Elkington for bringing water to their dams, and 
 the millers on the other side of the hill prosecute 
 him for depriving them of theirs; which, it must 
 
 * Or Sough, the conduit, or bottom part of the drain, formed 
 \vith brick or stones. 
 
 t See Annals of Agriculti;re, Vol. XVI,
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 123 
 
 be confessed^ would be a laughable ligitation." 
 . ■ " Such worksj whatever their opera- 
 tion, causes and consequences, have infinite me- 
 rit, and do great credit to the talent of this very 
 ingenious and useful man, who will have the 
 merit, wherever he goes, of setting men to think." 
 
 "The 6.— To Ashby-de-la-Zouch ; called in 
 our way on Mr. Marshall, to view a bog of seve- 
 ral acres, drained by Mr. Elkington, which he 
 effected with his usual success. 
 
 ^' This bog was occasioned, as they commonly, 
 or rather always are, by springs, which he pierced 
 into by means of a deep drain, boring at the bot- 
 tom of it, as above described; the surf, in this 
 dry season, runs no inconsiderable stream. The 
 whole is now under oats, a very fine crop, on land 
 
 which before was of no value whatever," 
 
 *' Mr. Elkington has been employed by Mr. 
 Knowles* to drain the slope of a hill poisoned 
 with springs; in every instance of his draining, I 
 hear some new circumstance, to prove the saga- 
 city and ingenuity of this skilful operator, who 
 may be termed an engineer of a new order. 
 The crown of the hill above Mr. Knowles's wet 
 fields is all dry, sounds gravelly land, in which no 
 
 * Of Nelson, in Leicestershire, In a certificate sent to the 
 Board of Agriculture, Mr. Knowles says, that this land, by- 
 means of Mr. Elkington 's drains, was rendered worth 30s or 
 40s an acre, which before was not worth half a crown.
 
 124 APPROVEP MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 signs of springs^ because pervious to water in its 
 level; but when these springs came to the fields 
 in question., which are clayey, they rise to the 
 surface proportionably to the quantity of clay 
 which impedes their progress; in this case he 
 founds by taking the levels^ that springs on the 
 other side of the hill, in a clayey spot, at the dis- 
 tance of some hundred yards^ were exactly on the 
 same level as these passing under the gravel on 
 the elevation, and thus breaking out where the 
 passage was obstructed, by variation of soil. 
 And he pronounced, that when this is the ca5e> 
 one surf, skilfully marked, will drain a variety 
 of diuerent, and even far distant fields ; and he 
 recommends, in such cases, to wait after the first 
 drain is made, to let its operation take place, for 
 six months, or even a twelvem.t>nth; in, which 
 time it will be found ho\t^ far the eflect has taken 
 place: if more are wa,nted, they can be made. 
 When springs are brought in this manner from 
 a distance, there is no doubt but he brings more 
 \vater to a place than flowed in it before. The 
 great skill is to knov/ where to bore. The surf; 
 or French bricks, which he uses, are eight shil,- 
 Jings a thousand more than common ones." 
 
 In a treatise lately published, '' On the Necesr 
 sity and Advantages of Care and Economy in col- 
 lecting and preserving different Substances fo^
 
 Approved mode of draining land. 125 
 
 Manure/' bv Thomas B. Bayley, F.R S. is the 
 following' observation: 
 
 " It may reasonably be expected, that at no 
 very distant period, the peat-mosses of Great 
 Britain and Ireland will be drained, and brought 
 to the highest state of fertility. Their present 
 superabundant moisture renders them not merdy 
 unproductive wastes, but extremely injurious io 
 the drier lands in their vicinity. The invention 
 and energy of a Wakefield* and an Elkington, in 
 reclaiming' and improving mosses, cannot fail to 
 excite a general imitation of the very successful 
 processes by which they have rendered these bogs 
 productive of plenty; with the additional happy- 
 effects which those improvements never fail i{y 
 produce on the cUuiate, temperature, and vegeta- 
 tion of all the countries adjacent to them." 
 
 Subjoined is part of d, letter received from 
 Charles Townley, Esq. of Townley, in Lanca- 
 shire, respecting Mr. Elkington's method of 
 draining, and the improvement made on the 
 ground, by means of his drains. 
 
 ' '" Respecting the mode of executing these 
 
 drains, it differs from the common practice of 
 
 * Of Liverpool. Mr. Wakefield has lately made wonderful 
 improvements upon the great TrafFord Moss, near JV'Ianchester, 
 in Lancashire.
 
 126 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 
 
 making hollow drains^ only by their being' cut 
 much deeper, and bj boring with an anger, either 
 to increase the runs of water from the springs, 
 when they are arrived at, or to give them vent 
 when they lie too deep for the spade to reach 
 them. Mr. Elkington's art, or knowledge of 
 draining lies, as you must know, in judging of 
 the precise place where the pernicious springs 
 can be caught, and in carrying them off in the 
 cheapest and most advantageous manner. The 
 mere plan of a drain can give little in-sight into 
 this kind of knowledge: I should think, the best 
 mode of conveying the system, by plans, to the 
 conceptions of others, would be to compose sec- 
 tions of the different circumstances that most 
 srenerallv occur in the various strata and runs of 
 water below the surface of the earth, and of the 
 most proper situations of the drains that are to 
 catch them. I will only repeat, that those drain- 
 ed hofrgij lands that have had the proper manure 
 laid upon them, are not only made dry, but the 
 herbage produced on them is become excellent, 
 from having been, previous to the drainage, of 
 very little value; and those drained lauds which 
 have as yet received no manure, are rendered 
 equally dry, and the coarse and useless herbage 
 wiflv which they were wholly covered, is visibly 
 giving way to better grass. The proper manure 
 will soon be laid on them ; after ^yhicb, I am per-
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 127 
 
 suaded, the whole herbage will be excellent : the 
 drains were only finished last year. 
 
 (Signed) '' charles townley. 
 
 " Townley, 2Sth Sept. 1796." 
 
 COPV OF A LETTER AND CERTIFICATE FROM MR. 
 JOHN MAUGHAN TO SIR JOHN SINCLAIR, BARO- 
 NET. 
 
 " Hinckly, 2bth Oct. 1796. 
 
 '' SIR, 
 
 "^ I am extremely sorry at having taken so long 
 a time in returning the certificate you wished 
 me to send; but I waited to see the effect of a 
 drain I had set out for Mr, Jennings, of Harling- 
 ton, Bedfordshire, a nephew of the late Mr, 
 Whitbread's, or 1 should have sent it sooner. 
 The land I drained for him, had, about tMo 
 years ago, been attempted to be drained in the 
 common mode, and a considerable sum of money 
 had thereby been expended to no purpose, as the 
 land, at the time I undertook to drain it, was jr* 
 wet as ever. I have the satisfaction of saying it 
 is now the dryest land on the estate, and made so 
 at an^expence which does not exceed one twen- 
 tieth part of what it had formerly cost, by at- 
 tempting the common mode of draining. 
 
 I am. Sir, your obedient humble servant, 
 
 (Signed) * john maughan."
 
 |28 IFPROtED MODfi OF DRAIIs'INC LAND; 
 
 copy OF THE CERTIFICATE. 
 
 '' I, John Maiiglian, of Luton^ in the counfj 
 of Bedford, land-survevor, late steward to Tho- 
 mas Powys, Esq. M.P. do hereby certify;, that, 
 in consequence of a recommendation from the 
 Board of Agriculture, I waited on Mr. Elking- 
 ton, who very readily communicated to me the 
 principles of his art of draining land, which I 
 have since practised mjself with gieat success, 
 and to the satisfaction of those who have em- 
 ployed me. And I hereby further certify, that I 
 have found Mr, Elkington's mode of draining of 
 the greatest public utility: that I have seeti land 
 of little or no value, when drained on Mr. Elk- 
 ington's principles, made worth forty or fifty 
 shillings per acre, and producing the richest 
 crops, both of corn and grass: in short, that no 
 mode of improving wet land equals it for public 
 utility. Witness my hand, this 25th day of Oc- 
 tober, 1796.'' 
 
 Besides the above, many other coriimunica- 
 tions and certificates, testifying the great advan- 
 tages that have been derived from Mr. Elking- 
 ton's practice, and what arc likely to result from 
 the knowledge of his system being generally un-
 
 APPROVED MODE OF DRAINING LAND. 129 
 
 derstood, might have been added; but as most of 
 these have already been made public by the 
 Board of Agriculture, in a former paper on that 
 subject, what I have inserted here, may be suffi- 
 cient to convince the public of its utility. 
 
 K
 
 \ 
 
 ( 131 ) 
 
 PART II. 
 
 ON HOLLOW AND SURFACE DRAINING IN GENERAL ; 
 PARTLY DRAWN UP FROM COMMUNICATIONS 
 TRANSMITTED TO THE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. 
 
 THIS being a part of the draining system not 
 coming within the limits of Mr. Elkington's prac- 
 tice^ and founded on principles different from 
 those that are applicable to the drainage of bogs, 
 and other swampy ground injured by springs^ I 
 have thought it more proper to add it as a Second 
 Part, than to have incorporated it with the pre- 
 ceding account. 
 
 When the wetness of the field arises from rain 
 water that cannot sink through a tenacious soil, 
 and must, if there is no declivity, remain till eva- 
 porated, the principles which govern the practice 
 of Mr. Elkington's art are not applicable. But, 
 In all cases (and such are very numerous) 
 where the wetness proceeds from springs, a far- 
 mer ought certainly to examine his field carefully, 
 in order to ascertain whether the evil proceeds 
 from the al)Ox:e cause only, or whether it proceeds 
 from springs. If from, the latter, he should en- 
 deavour to discover if such springs are distinct 
 
 fc 2
 
 133 OF HOLLOW-DRArNiNG IN GENERAL. 
 
 and unconnected, or whether they do not flow 
 from some main one, which behig cut off, would 
 drain a considerable tract of land below the spot 
 where it rises ; as has been explained and exem- 
 plified in the latter part of Chap. III. 
 
 From want of due attention to this necessary 
 discrimination^ it is very common in Essex, Suf- 
 folk, and other counties where draining is very 
 generally performed, to see many superfluous 
 drains marked out in directions where they can 
 have very little efflect, and where a single one, 
 well directed, would have completely dried the 
 field. As the expence, which might thus be 
 saved, is an object of consequence, too much at- 
 tention cannot be paid to the inquiry. 
 
 SECT. I. 
 
 OF THE ANTIQUITY OF THE PRACTICE OF HOLLOW- 
 DRAINING. 
 
 That the Romans were not unacquainted with 
 most of the modern methods of hollow-draining, 
 appears from all their writers de re rustica. Cato, 
 Palladius, Columella, and Pliny, mention them 
 particularly, and describe some circumstances 
 which have lately been considered as modern im- 
 provements. Upon strong tenacious land, where 
 the water could only be received at top, they 
 preferred open drains; on other soils, where the
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 133 
 
 water could be drawn equally from both sides, or 
 could rise from the bottom, they used covered 
 ones. They knew the propriety of directing 
 them obliquely across the slope of the field ; a 
 point in which modern drainers are often errone- 
 ous. Their general depth was from three to 
 four feet, filled half way up w ith small stones ; 
 for want of these, with willow poles, and even 
 with the spray of wood twisted into a rope; one 
 of the latest practices with straw that has taken 
 place in England. Of that material, also, the 
 Roman farmers availed themselves, when others 
 were wanting. The ends of their drains they 
 were careful in fortifying with larger stones, in 
 form of bridges, and the mouths or outlets were 
 laid in masonry ; a circumstance in which Mr. 
 Whyn Baker, of Ireland, thought himself ori- 
 ginal. 
 
 From the depth, it appears that their drains 
 were designed to carry off the water of springs, as 
 well as that caused by rain on a flat or retentive 
 surface soil; for both which they were, in some 
 cases, equally well adapted.* 
 
 To the proper direction of the water-furrows, 
 in order to convey ail surface water into the 
 drains, and to the clearing and cleaning out of 
 
 * The passages of the ancient writers on this subject are 
 quoted and translated by Mr. Dickson, in his " Husbandry of 
 the Ancients," vol. i. p. 358, where the reader may sec tlie 
 details at largje.
 
 134 OF HOLLOW-DRAIKING IN GENERAL. 
 
 the ditches round the fields^ they paid particular 
 attention. These circumstances are sufficient to 
 prove that the Romans understood the business of 
 common draining in great perfection, and that 
 our best cultivated counties had little to boast of, 
 in this respect, in superiority to the ancients, till 
 Mr. Elkington made the discovery of a method 
 with which they were wholly unacquainted. 
 The best of the French writers on agriculture, 
 De Serves, who wrote in 1600 his Theatre d' Agri- 
 culture, describes hollow drains particularly : 
 they were filled with stones. 
 
 SECT. II. 
 
 WHEN FIRST USED IN ENGLAND. 
 
 It would demand a very careful perusal of all 
 the earlier writers on husbandry, to ascertain 
 when this practice was first introduced ; but a 
 circumstance occurred in Sussex, which shews 
 that hollow-draining was in use long before any 
 mention would be found of it, were such authors 
 consulted, as no notice of it occurs in Fitzherbert 
 or Norden.* In 1770, Mr. Poole of that county 
 informed a farming traveller, " that near one 
 hundred years ago, a very large oak, two hundred 
 years old, was cut down at Hook. In digging a 
 
 * Fitzherbert wrote his book of husbandry in 1534. 
 
 i
 
 OP HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 135 
 
 ditch through the spot where the old stump was, 
 on taking up the remains of it, a drain was dis- 
 covered under it, filled with alder branches ; and 
 it is remarkable, that the alder was perfectly sound, 
 the greenness of the bark was preserved, and even 
 some leaves were sound. On taking them out, 
 they presently dropped to powder. It is hence 
 very evident, that under-ground draining was 
 practised three hundred years ago in this king- 
 dom. We find, also, that alder is, of all other 
 wood^ the best for filling drains. Probably no 
 other, except aquatics, would endure nearly so 
 long. Bushes are generally used, but sallow, or 
 willow probably belter*." 
 
 The Board of Agriculture has been informed 
 by Richard Prestou, Esq. one of its correspon- 
 dents, that land-draining, according to the pre- 
 sent practice, is not of more than forty years 
 standing in his neighbourhood, in Essex. 
 
 This deserves inquiry; for it is generally sup- 
 posed to have been used there long before such 
 a period. 
 
 * Eastern Tour, vol, iii. p. Hi,
 
 136 OF HOLLOW-DRAIMXG IN GENERAL. 
 
 SECT. III. 
 
 NATURE OF THE MOISTURE, OR WETNESS, AGAINST 
 WHICH THEY ARE CHIEFLY USED. 
 
 Springs that proceed from water at any con- 
 siderable depth iu the earth, or which break out, 
 from the variation of certain strata, inhills, which 
 demand deep cutting-^ and the use of the auger, 
 to work their cure, according- to Mr, Elkington's 
 mode of draining, have already been treated of. 
 Hollow drains that come under the present des- 
 cription, are chiefly used to correct that wetness 
 of soil which results from rain; and which, from 
 flatness of surface, or its retentive quality, stag- 
 nates, to the injury of both soil and crops. This 
 is the most general nature of the evil which these 
 drains are intended to remedj'; but by no means 
 exclusively of that caused by land springs, m hose 
 seat, apparently, is not below their depth. The 
 \\'etness proceeding from such, is, in some cases, 
 removed by these drains, when deep enoug:h cut, 
 and properly directed; but in many others, frorn 
 ignorance i.i the drainer, great sums of money are 
 thrown away, for want of attending properly 
 to the nature of the evil, and of distinguishing 
 betwixt surface uritcv onhj. and i\\e. oozing of 
 iand-springs. 
 
 i
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAININO IN GENERAL. 137 
 
 SECT. IV. 
 
 0F THE SOILS ON WHICH THEY ACT, AND OF THOSE 
 ON WHICH THEY HAVE BEEN FOUND TO FAIL. 
 
 In soils that are so tenacious as to retain water 
 on the surfiice till evaporation carries it off, such 
 as are found in Sussex, Surrey, and in many other 
 counties, this method of draining has been tried, 
 and found entirely to fail. The cause of this can 
 easily be accounted for. Very stiff clay will hold 
 water like a dish (the expression of tlie farmers 
 in those counties, who have attempted to drain 
 such soil); and consequently the small portion 
 of water which each drain will carry off, is only 
 what falls immediately above it, or what ii can 
 receive at top, when the ground on each side has 
 a descent towards it. 
 
 The water being all on the surface, cannot find 
 its way into them. If they are on a declivity, th(i 
 water will run over them, as it does over any 
 other part of the field; and if they are in a hol- 
 low, it will stagnate even above them, and will 
 be mostly exhaled before any quantity of it sub- 
 sides into them. This is therefore a more expen- 
 sive soil to drain, requiring a greater number of 
 trenches, and these very close together, than aiiy 
 other soil vvhatever. Open trenches, ^^ith the 
 ridges and water-furrows properly formed and
 
 1S8 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 directed^ is the only method whereby its drainage 
 can be effectually accomplished. 
 
 It is necessary to lay it up in ridges properly 
 placed;, and to cut small open drains across the 
 ridges, where requisite, communicating with each 
 other, and with the furrows: and thus all the 
 water-furrows operate as drains. The water, as 
 it falls upon the ridge, immediately makes its way 
 into the furrows, and runs along them, while 
 there is descent; and if it is stopped in any of 
 them, by the ground rising, is conveyed by the 
 drains across the ridges into some other furrow 
 where there is a descent ; along which, it marks 
 its way into some ditch or water-course, at the 
 
 extremity of the field *. 
 
 In Essex and in Suflfolk, where it has been found 
 
 advantageous, the soil is a wet poachy loam, more 
 
 or less mixed on the surface with vegetable mould; 
 
 under that, in some places, a raw hungry loam, 
 
 and in others a clay marl. 
 
 On these soils the effect is very great ; for the 
 
 upper stratum, where the moisture is chiefly 
 
 lodged, being in some degree porous, the water 
 
 * It is obvious, tliat laying up such land in ridges, and cutting 
 drains in proper places, may be of great use, but will not 
 efFcctually remove tlie ■wetness : as the soil, from its nature, 
 will always retain too great a proportion of moisture. It is ne- 
 cessary, therefore, to change the nature of such soil by frequent 
 culture, and the application of manures., which will in a great 
 degree lessen tlie power of retaining water.
 
 OP HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 139 
 
 is easily extracted from it, by means of the drains. 
 The under stratum being* also of a retentive qua- 
 lity, their depth does not require to be great. 
 
 When Mr. Young, of Clare, who has had great 
 experience in this mode of hollow-draining, ob- 
 serves, that the improvement by these drains is 
 great on clay soils, he certainly means soils of 
 this description. '" I know from experience, that 
 in clayey soils it will answer perfectly; that it is 
 the least expensive and the most expeditious., as 
 well as most durable, improvement of any in the 
 whole system of agricultural economy." — This 
 will be further treated of in Sect. XVIII. 
 
 SECT. V. ' 
 
 BY WHAT RULES THEIR DIRECTION IS MARKED, 
 
 For many years, probably for more than half a 
 century, and possibly during a much longer pe- 
 riod, the farmers did not make a proper distinc- 
 tion, in fields that had a declivity, between trac- 
 ing their drains with the slope, or directing them 
 oMiquely across it. Large tracts have been drain- 
 ed, or have been meant to be drained, in the 
 former way, and many, even to this day, are guilty 
 of the same error ; but the best farmers are now- 
 attentive to so important a point, and studiously 
 mark the direction of their drains obliquely. They
 
 140 or HOLLOW- DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 are also careful to give them just the fall suffi- 
 cient to carry off the water in a gentle^ and not a 
 rapid^ current ; by which means they are less apt 
 to choak;, or Noiv up, as it is sometimes called ; 
 whereby spots in the field have^, apparently^ an 
 artificial spring formed. 
 
 Upon fields, level, or nearly so, great numbers 
 of which are found in the eastern counties of 
 England, it has been a common practice (aU 
 though an expensive one), if the wetness pro- 
 ceeds solely from rain, to mark the drains regu- 
 larly at a rod*, a rod and half, or two rods, 
 asunder, across the land, from ditch to ditch ; or 
 if the drains, from any small inequality of sur- 
 face, will flow only at one end, then to stop short, 
 or discontinue their length on one side of the 
 field, as soon as the ditch operates in laying 
 it dry. 
 
 Where the slopes of the field vary, and fall in 
 different directions, the farmer should attend to 
 such variations, and direct his drains so as to 
 cross obliquely the upper side of each declivity. 
 
 It is a general rule, not to conduct too many 
 drains to the same mouth or outlet; for if much 
 water flows in any drain, from having thrown 
 many lateral branches into one main drain, the 
 latter must not only be made larger and deeper, 
 but will even then be liable to fail ; and a failure 
 
 "^ Sixteen and a half feet.
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 141 
 
 in that case^ affects so much a larger space of 
 ground^ by impeding the course of so many other 
 drains. On this account, it has been found better 
 to make the drains detached^ rather than to con- 
 nect too many of them together, which occa- 
 sions much water to be conducted to one mouth. 
 
 Cases will however occur, in which, from the 
 position of the ground, it may be found necessary 
 to join several side branches (wings) into one 
 main drain. On this subject, Mr. Vancouver, 
 in his Agricultural Report of Essex, has the fol- 
 lowing judicious remark : 
 
 " If the field proposed to be drained, lies 
 greatl}' upon the descent, every care should be 
 taken to make the drains bear sufficiently hori- 
 zontally, in the first place, to prevent a too pre- 
 cipitant fall of the water, by which the bottoms 
 of the drains would be worn uneven, and a tem- 
 porary obstruction occasion them to blow; and, 
 secondly, because the more perfectly horizontal 
 is the field, so that it lies level free, and affords a 
 sufficient fall for the water, the less occasion will 
 there be for the same number of drains as would 
 be required upon a soil of equal closeness upon 
 the side of a hill. The drains in the field that 
 lies nearly level, drawing equally well upon each 
 side; whereas those on the hang of a hill, draw- 
 ing only from the higher sides of the drains, and 
 consequently requiring them to be made much 
 nearer or closer together."
 
 142 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 SECT. VI. 
 
 SEASON FOR EXECUTING THE WORK. 
 
 On this point opinions vary ; some preferring 
 •winter^ and others summer. 
 
 When a great quantity of work is to be done, 
 all seasons of the year, free from sharp frosts, 
 must be made use of; and this is usually the case, 
 when a farmer enters on a lease to a farm which 
 has not been drained, or which requires to be 
 done a second time. Stubbles are done in winter, 
 and fallows in summer ; but when a single field 
 or two are only to be done, the farmer may 
 choose the most convenient season. Many ex- 
 cellent farmers would not do it at any other time 
 than summer, from being then able to execute the 
 cuts in a cleaner and neater manner, and free 
 from that kneading and plastering which takes 
 place in winter, and which, they think, tends to 
 prevent the flowing of the water from those mi- 
 nute and imperceptible veins and interstices of 
 the soil through which the water percolates. 
 They have further remarked, that opening the 
 earth in a dry season, gives a tendency to 
 drain it, as the particles of the soil, after be- 
 ing separated and well dried, will not so easily 
 unite again ; whereas, the kneading in winter, 
 tends to increase tenacity where it is most to be
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 143 
 
 avoided. Further, that carting on the fields in 
 winter;, to bring on stones or other materials^ is 
 more difficult and dangerous than in summer. 
 
 In opposition, however, to these ideas, Mr. 
 Young, of Clare, in Suffolk, is of a contrary opi- 
 nion. 
 
 '^ I never land-drain (says he) in summer : 
 two inconveniencies attend it; the increase of 
 labour in a clayey soil, when hard and dry, is 
 very considerable, and the want of leisure, and 
 when good labourers are scarce." 
 
 The want of labourers, in some places, may 
 be an unanswerable objection, but the dryness is 
 not ; for if the previous furrows opened by the 
 plough, or last course of ploughing on arable 
 land, be not left to dry, but the spades follow 
 directly, after a little rain, there will be moisture 
 sufficient to make it work freely. Many good 
 drainers prefer executing the work when the land 
 is under a laijer, i. e. sown down with grass. 
 Lord Petre, on this, observes, that the plough 
 for opening the previous furrows, works better 
 on a layer. 
 
 *' I prefer a lay, if layed down level, as I have 
 a plough on a very simple construction, with 
 which, and six horses, I can plough from ten to 
 twelve inches deep, and lay the furrows as regu- 
 lar as a man can with a spade ; so that, after the 
 ditch is digged and filled, the furrow can be put 
 into its place again, and rolled with a large
 
 I44f OF HOLLOW-DRAINIXG IN GENERAL. 
 
 roller quite level; and then I dig but one spit 
 with the bottom land ditching spade, fourteen 
 inches deep. The expence 2s. 8d. per 20 rod, 
 the digger returning the furrow to its place. I 
 also use this plough on fallow : but it does not 
 answer so well, as the moulds fall into the fur- 
 rows. The expence of digging on fallow is Is. 
 2d. per rod." 
 
 When the ground is in summer fallow, is cer- 
 tainly the be^t time for casting drains that are 
 only for carrying off surface water, as the dis- 
 tinctions betwixt the wet and dry parts of the 
 field is then easily perceptible, and any promi- 
 nent inequalities of surface may then be more 
 easily levelled or reduced, by paring off the 
 heights, and adding to the hollows. 
 
 SECT. VII. 
 
 MANNER IN WHICH DRAINS ARE PARTLY OPENED 
 BY THE PLOUGH. 
 
 The method practised by Mr. James Young, 
 of Clare, which he has described himself, from 
 very ample practice, is deserving of attention. 
 He says, '" When I have marked the drains in 
 a field (usually a rod asunder), I draw two fur- 
 rows with a common foot plough, leaving a haulk 
 betwixt them about fifteen inches wide ; then.
 
 OP HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 145 
 
 with a strong double breasted plough^ made on 
 purpose, I split that baulk, and leave a clean fur- 
 row fourteen or fifteen inches below the surface; 
 but, where the depth of soil requires it (for I 
 like to touch the clay), by a second ploughing I 
 sink it to eighteen or twenty inches ; it is then 
 ready for the land-ditching spade, with which I 
 dig fifteen inches deep, a drain as narrow as pos- 
 sible*." 
 
 The method followed by some good farmers^ 
 who do not possess ploughs made on purpose for 
 the work, is this : with their common plough, 
 drawn by four or five horses, and usually stirring 
 about four or five inches deep, they turn a dou- 
 ble furrow, throwing the earth on each side, and 
 leaving a haiilk in the middle. This baulk they 
 raise by a second bout in the same manner ; then 
 they go in the open furrow twice with their com- 
 mon double breast plough, getting what depth they 
 can ; after this, they shovel out all the loose mould 
 and inequalities, to the breadth of about a foot, 
 and thus having gained a clear open furrow, the 
 depth varying according to the soil and ploughs, 
 but usually about eight or nine inches, they dig 
 one spit with a draining spade, sixteen inches deep ; 
 thus gaining in the whole twenty-four or twenty- 
 five inches. But, as this depth is seldom suffi- 
 cient, whon necessary they throw out another, or 
 
 * Anaals of Agriculture, vol. viii. p. l64. 
 I.
 
 146 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 even two other spits, which makes the whole 
 depth from thirty to forty inches. 
 
 SECT. VIII. 
 
 DEPTH AND WIDTH. 
 
 The depth is various, according to the nature 
 of soilj the situation of the fields the expence the 
 farmer is willing to incur^ and to a diversity of 
 other circumstances. jMany years ago, three feet 
 was the common depth in most soils ; but for 
 twenty years past, they have seldom exceeded 
 thirty or thirty-two inches ; and the number that 
 are cut only twenty- four or twenty- six, much 
 more considerable. 
 
 Main or receiving drains are always a little 
 deeper than the others, having more water to 
 convev, and further to carry it. The deeper they 
 are dug in pervious soils, the further they will 
 operate in reducing the moisture to a level, w here 
 it can less injure vegetation ; but when the spade 
 reaches an impervious soil, through which water 
 will not percolate, there is no occasion for making 
 the trench any deeper. A few inches, however, 
 in the clay, as a safer channel for the water, is of 
 advantage. 
 
 One general rule is never to be departed from.
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 147 
 
 which is, that the depth must be sufficient to 
 prevent the impression of the feet of cattle from 
 affecting the position of the materials used in fill- 
 ing them. This must particularly be observed of 
 horses walking in the furrow while ploughing, as 
 they then tread four inches, and perhaps more, 
 below the surface of the ground ; add to these 
 four inches, nine or ten more for the materials, 
 and when the drains are only twenty-four deep, 
 there will be nine or ten inches of soil to bear the 
 weight of the horse in the act of ploughing. This, 
 as the earth has been stirred, seems certainly too 
 little, and should apparently ascertain that twenty- 
 four inches is by no means a sufficient depth. If, 
 by going thirty inches down, a tenacious soil is 
 not too deeply entered, a greater depth in a more 
 porous one is not only requisite, but ought to be 
 greatly preferable. 
 
 In all the modern drainages in the eastern 
 fcounties, the farmers have been very solicitous to 
 cut them as narrow as possible ; by which means 
 a great saving is made in the materials used for 
 filling them, siich as bushes, poles, spray, or 
 straw ; but if brick or stones are used, of course 
 this rule cannot be adhered to. However, there is 
 no occasion for the width being greater than one 
 foot, if the stones are only coupled at bottom, or 
 thrown in promiscuously, or more than sixteen 
 inches if laid in the form of a conduit. What- 
 ever the depth of materials be, the mould that 
 L 2
 
 148 OF HOLLOW-DnAlNING IN GENERAt. 
 
 covers them to the surface should neyer be less 
 than one foot thick, or rather more, in all tillage 
 fields. In pasture land, gravel, if at hand (es- 
 pecially if the soil is very tenacious), is prefer- 
 able to the mould thrown out, which may be 
 spread in any adjoining hollow. 
 
 The depth and width, &c. marked in the Plate, 
 is the proportion that ought to be adopted on all 
 land that is wet from surface water, or from it«^ 
 stagnation in a porous upper soil. 
 
 SECT. IX. 
 
 TOOLS EMPLOYED. 
 
 The instruments which have been long in com- 
 mon use in the eastern parts of the kingdom, are 
 extremely simple. 
 
 While the depths of the drains were more con- 
 siderable than at present, three spades were in 
 use to succeed one another, lessening in breadth 
 gradually, in such a manner as to form a regular 
 contraction to the bottom ; but of late years,^ 
 cheaper and easier methods have been pursued. 
 Bv previous ploughing-, all the spades except the 
 lower one have been laid aside; and where a greater 
 depth than common has been required, not more 
 than two have been used. The scoop, which is 
 pushed or drawn along the bottom of the drain.
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 149 
 
 to clear out the loose moulds, and prepare it for 
 the materials used in filling, varies^ in size and 
 breadth, according to the width of the drain. 
 The draining spade, which is also of diiferent 
 sizes, is represented in the plate. 
 
 SECT. X. 
 
 OF DIGGING HOLLOW DRAINS. 
 
 The preceding circumstances point out the 
 manner in which these drains are, for the most 
 part, dug ; but there is a material difference in 
 the truth and accuracy with which they are exe- 
 cuted, according as a workman is accustomed to 
 the business, and skilful or aukward in handling 
 his tools. The work is almost universally done 
 by measure, at so much a score rods, which, as 
 in similar cases, induces the men to earn as much 
 as possible. They require, however, close atten- 
 tion, to see if they keep to the depth contracted 
 for, and that they deposit the earth so as not to 
 fall in, in the act of filling, especially as the sur- 
 face soil should (on one side at least) be kept 
 free from the clay or lower stratum. 
 
 In filling, more attention is necessary, if done 
 by contract, which will be afterwards explained.
 
 150 
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 SECT. XI. 
 
 OPENING DRAINS BY THE PLOUGH ONLY, &C. 
 
 The Society for the Encouragement of Arts^ 
 Manufactures^ and Commerce, gave a bovmty^ 
 about twenty years ago, to Mr. Makins, of Suf- 
 folk, for having invented a plough to cut hollow 
 drains. 
 
 There was merit in the idea, but it has long 
 since been entirely laid aside, both in Suftdk and 
 Essex *. 
 
 Another plough^, to answer the same purpose, 
 was invested by Mr. Arbuthnot, of Mitcham, of 
 which an account is given in the " Eastern Tour," 
 with a plate and measurement of it. And lately, 
 the Society of Arts have made several trials with 
 a plough for the same purpose, called a mole 
 plough, of a singular construction ; the inten- 
 tion of which is, by considerable force, to draw a 
 pointed circular iron, at a given depth, through 
 the earth, which shall form a pipe in it, not to 
 be filled with any materials ; but in the expecta- 
 tion, as it is said from experience, that the water 
 will flow freely through the soil it has loosened, 
 to a depth below the roots of the grain, and will 
 find its way by filtration, into the furrows. 
 
 * In Bailey's Advancement of Arts there is a plate and ex= 
 planation of it, p. 6.
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 151 
 
 It is imprudent too readily to suppose a limit 
 to human invention ; but it may be observed, 
 that the probability of an effective hollow-drain- 
 irig plough being invented, that shall work so 
 much cheaper than the spade, as to become an 
 object of economy, is not flattering : none hi- 
 therto tried seem fully to answer this idea; but 
 there can be no difficulty in making one to pre- 
 pare for the narrow drain-spade, to take one spit at 
 bottom. The repeated ploughings or shovellings 
 with common tools are expensive, and might 
 probably be executed in a cheaper and more ex- 
 peditious manner by an open drain plough. 
 
 How far that invented by Mr. Knowies, and 
 rewarded by the Society of Arts, would at a suffi- 
 ciently cheap rate answer this purpose, has not 
 been sufficiently ascertained. But it is obvious 
 that, from the force and number of horses or oxen 
 requisite to work them, ploughs calculated for 
 this purpose will never come into general use. 
 
 Another invention for draining land, in Essex, 
 is thus described in the Agricultural Report of 
 that County : — " The author of this experiment 
 has constructed, and uses a draining wheel of 
 cast iron, that weighs about 4 cwt.; it is four 
 feet in diameter ; the cutting edge, or extreme 
 circumference of the wheel, is half an inch thick, 
 which increases in thickness towards the nave or 
 centre, and will, at 15 inches deep, cut a drain 
 lisilf an inch wide at the bottom, and four inches
 
 152 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 wide at the top. This wheel is so placed in a 
 frame, that it may be loaded at pleasure, and be 
 made to operate to a greater or less depth, ac- 
 cording to the resistance made by the ground ; 
 which thus cut in the winter, the wheel tracts 
 are then either filled with straw ropes, and lightly 
 covered over, or left to crack wider and deeper 
 during the ensuing summer. The fissures are 
 then filled with twisted straw or bushes, and co- 
 vered lightly with some of the most porous earth 
 that may be most conveniently at hand ; and thus 
 upon the grass, or ley land, are hollow drains 
 formed at little or no expence, and which, upon 
 trial, have been found to answer extremely 
 well.'^ 
 
 This draining wheel is also described in the An- 
 nals of Agriculture, where it is said, that twelve 
 acres have been done with it in one day ; but 
 neither the expence of the machine, nor number 
 of horses required to draw it, have been stated. It 
 works or cuts best, when the land is wet and soft. 
 
 SECT. XII. 
 
 MATERIALS WITH WHICH THEY ARE FILLED. 
 
 In respect to the materials for filling the drains, 
 the farmer must be guided by circumstances of 
 situation, &c. — Those most commonly used, are.
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 153 
 
 1. stone; 2. wood ; 3. straw and stubble; 4. heath 
 or ling ; and 5. bricks made for the purpose. 
 
 If stone taken from quarries is to be used, and 
 the drain formed like a conduit at bottom, the 
 trench is made wide enough to contain two side 
 stones about six inches asunder, and the same in 
 height, with a cap or flat stone laid over, which 
 covers and secures the cavity through which the 
 water passes*. These drains are more expensive 
 than when the stones are thrown in promiscuously, 
 but are the only ones applicable to springs, which 
 may be prevented from injuring large tracts of 
 land by cuts comparatively short. But in Essex, 
 and the other eastern counties, when hollow 
 drains are filled with stones, it is usually with 
 flints from chalk, or with stones from gravel pits, 
 or gathered off' the fields. 
 
 Very small stones do. not answer well for any 
 but very short drains, in which little water is 
 conveyed ; and if of any size, require a greater 
 width at bottom than wood or straw, and conse- 
 quently renders the expence of cutting greater. 
 
 Whether the stones are large or small, thev 
 should be very clean, and free from any clay or 
 earth that may adhere to them, and put in care- 
 fully, so as not to tumble down any of the earth 
 
 * Another mode of laying the bottom stones is described in 
 Sir H. Fletcher's communication. Sect, xviii.
 
 154 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 of the drain, which might be apt to choak up 
 the interstices betwixt them. 
 
 Upon the subject of filling drains with wood. 
 Lord Petre thus expresses his opinion : 
 
 " The drains filled with wood^ and covered as 
 usual with straw or rushes, are preferable to 
 stones or any other kind of materials ; the rea- 
 son is, as the wood decays the water continues to 
 pass. When filled with stones, and the drains 
 stop up, which must be expected to take place 
 in time, the earth becomes quite solid round the 
 stones, and as they do not decay, the filtering of 
 the water is for ever obstructed: not so when 
 bushes or wood are used ; continual filtering and 
 draining are then for ever to be perceived ; and 
 by repeating the operation a second time, cutting 
 the drains transversely of the old ones, the benefit 
 of the filterings through the rotten wood is se- 
 cured, and the spewing up of old broken and 
 damaged drains corrected and carried off. More- 
 over, as bushes form a much greater number of 
 cavities than either stones or poles, they are less 
 able to stop up, and encourage filtering more 
 than larger and more solid bodies." — "A load of 
 bushes containing one hundred and twenty fag- 
 gots, will do about three hundred and sixty rods ; 
 and a load of straw containing one hundred and 
 twenty bottles, the same ; the load of bushes is 
 generally worth about 14s, and the straw 18^?,
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GLNERAL. 155 
 
 per Wad. I therefore calculate this cxpence ahout 
 I2s. per acre, ditches a rod apart." 
 
 Richard Preston, Esq. of Blackmore, a cor- 
 respondent of the Board, prefers, on twenty years 
 experience, blg.ck thqrns to every other material 
 for filling. 
 
 There is also another method of filling with 
 wood, by suspending the faggots or bushes upon 
 cross billets set on end in the bottom of the drain, 
 as represented by No. 5, in the Plate. 
 
 This kind of drain has been successfully prac- 
 tised in Berwickshire, where it is said to have 
 continued running for thirty years. 
 
 It has also been attempted at Livingston, the 
 seat of Sir W.Cunninghame, but is not approved 
 of there ; for it is said, that the feet of the cattle, 
 in ploughing, went down and deranged the bil- 
 lets that supported the brush-wood, and conse- 
 quently put a stop to the discharge of the water ; 
 but this had been owing to the want of a sufii- 
 cient depth of earth above the wood, which was 
 not more than six inches*. Tbis kind of drain 
 is, however, much recommended by the writer of 
 the Agricultural Report of the County of Caer- 
 marthen, in Wales. He says, " The completcst 
 
 * Sir W. Cunninghanie imported this mode of draining 
 from Richmond Park, near I^ondon, where it has been vov 
 much practised.
 
 156 OF HOLLOW-DRAINITS'G IN GENERAL. 
 
 method I have yet known, is to cut the strongest 
 willows^ or other aquatic brushwood^ into lengths 
 of about twenty incheS;, and place them alter- 
 nately in the drain^, with one end against one side 
 of the bottom^ and the other leaning against the 
 opposite side. Having placed the strong wood 
 in this manner^ I fill the space left between them 
 on the upper side with the small brushwood; 
 upon which a few rushes or straw being laid, as 
 before mentioned, the work is done. Willow, 
 alder, asp, or beech boughs, are exceedingly dur- 
 able, if put into the drain green, or before Ihe 
 sap is dried ; but if they are suffered to become 
 dry, and then laid under ground, a rapid decay 
 is the consequence. I have seen willow taken 
 out of a bog after lying there thirty years, and its 
 bark was as fresh and sappy as if it had been re- 
 cently cut from the hedge ; and it is well known, 
 that beech laid green in the water will continue 
 sound for any length of time." 
 
 There is another method preferable to these, 
 and requiring less wood : it is to fix in at^every 
 foot distance a stick, in manner of a hoop or se- 
 micircular arch ; and along these to lay the longer 
 poles or branches longitudinally. This will form 
 a secure vacuity below, and an arch capable of 
 supporting any Meight of earth necessary above 
 it. From its known durability in water, and be- 
 ing sufiicieatly pliant, the young branches ov
 
 OP HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 157 - 
 
 prunings of larch are well adapted for this pur- 
 pose. 
 
 Mr. Majendie is of opinion, that wood of 
 eighteen years growth is much more durable 
 than that which is ten or twelve. 
 
 Respecting filling drains with straw^ the fol- 
 lowing observations by Mr. Vancouver, in his 
 Report of Essex Husbandry, merits attention : 
 
 " When the soil is a very close and retentive 
 clay, the drains should be made proportionably 
 near to each other^ shallow, and filled with straw 
 only ,- it being totally unnecessary to use wood, 
 or any more durable material, upon land where 
 the sides of the drains are not likely to crumble in. 
 Upon a soil like this, the drains should seldom 
 exceed the distance of three or four yards apart, 
 and twenty inches deep, or such a depth as may 
 be the most conveniently obtained, by first open- 
 ing the drains with the plough, shovelling the 
 bottom of the lowest furrow, and then die'^'ino* 
 one spit only with the land ditch spade ; and 
 which, materials included, will cost about 2s. 6d. 
 per score rods. 
 
 '' Drains formed in this manner, through the 
 tough and retentive clays, will be found, in a 
 short time after the work is finished, to have 
 formed over the straw with which the drain was 
 filled, an arch of sufficient strength to support 
 the incumbent weight of the soil, and the casual
 
 13S OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERALS 
 
 traffic of the field. In twelve or eighteen monthsr, 
 it may be observed, that the straw^ being of one 
 uniform substance, is all rotted and carried away, 
 leaving a clear pipe through the land in every 
 drain, into which the passage of the water may 
 have been much facilitated, by a due attention to 
 the filling of the drains with the most friable and 
 porous parts of the surface the field might have 
 afforded." 
 
 The latest and best improvement in filling hol- 
 low drains with straw, is that of twisting the 
 straw into a rope, described in the follow- 
 ing passage concerning some improvements in 
 Essex : 
 
 " The most prominent feature of his impro- 
 vements, is a new method of filling land drains : 
 the common practice is to tread in loose straw ; 
 but Mr. Bedwell has invented a method of wind- 
 ing it into a hard rope, as large as a man's arm, 
 which he forces to the bottom of the drains, and 
 finds from experience, copied successfully by his 
 neighbours, to convey the water off more readily, 
 and to have much longer duration ; at the same 
 time, the quantity of straw consumed is not in- 
 creased, and the operation of filling accelerated. 
 After the cattle have picked it over, he finds the 
 straw tougher, and in better order to wind, than 
 when quite dry and fresh." The figure in the 
 Plate is a representation (not of Mr Bcdweirs),
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 159 
 
 but of a more simple moveable machine, for twist- 
 ing the ropes to be used in the same manner*. 
 
 The next material to be noticed, is bricks made 
 for the purpose. These have already been de- 
 scribed in Chap. III. and Plate 12. 
 
 They are effective, but expensive^, and not so 
 well adapted for surface-draining, except for 
 conducting away springs, in which work a small 
 extent of drains may answer for a large tract of 
 land. These bricks are made of various shapes 
 and sizes, but generally have a semicircular cavity 
 for the water to flow in, and rest, in stiff soils, on 
 the ground ; in soft soils, upon each other, form- 
 ing a circular tube, or on common bricks, as a 
 foundation. 
 
 In Essex and other counties, pipes of clay, 
 about eighteen inches long, with an opening of 
 three or four inches diameter, are burnt, and ap- 
 plied to similar purposes, but are best calculated 
 for convej'ing any small rill of water, or spring 
 for the supply of a house, &c. 
 
 The following judicious remarks respecting 
 the arch brick, represented by No. 3, in Plate 
 16, have been stated by the writer of the Agri- 
 cultural Survey of Salop : '' I have made what I 
 call a brick arch for that purpose (of draining), 
 full an inch thick, and a foot long, nearly of the 
 
 * See Foote's Report of Middlesex.
 
 160 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 shape of a ridge iWe, but being not more thai! 
 five inches wide at bottom, and six inches semi- 
 diameter. It cannot possibly be used in build- 
 ing ; but such having been made at a brick kiln^ 
 the excise officer thought them taxable, and 
 charged them 2s. 6d. per thousand, as common 
 bricks. Two members of parliament did me the 
 honour to represent this at the proper office in 
 London, in hopes of getting off the tax, which 
 has not yet been done. This has checked the use 
 of them ; for nothing can be more irksome than a 
 tax upon a material to be used in an essential im- 
 provement upon land ; besides, there can be no 
 more lawful pretence for taxing the arch brick of 
 that shape, than there is for taxing the earthern 
 pans and cups at a pottery. These arches may be 
 made, when common bricks are at 1 5s. per thou- 
 sand, without tax, at about 30s. per thousand^ 
 which will lay a cavity of six by five inches, and 
 near 340 yards in length.'* 
 
 SECT. XIII. 
 
 MODE OF FILLING. 
 
 There is one circumstance in filling the drains^ 
 attended to particularly by farmers who are most 
 solicitous to have the work well performed, and 
 that is, to contract with their men only for dig-
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 161 * 
 
 ging and leaving clean, in order that the filling 
 may be done by men paid by the day, as a greater 
 security that it should be executed with all pos- 
 sible care, and is usually attended by the farmer 
 himself, or some confidential servaiit. This is a 
 rational practice, and merits being followed. 
 Mr. Young, of Clare, observes, in the paper 
 quoted before, that, " It is an invariable rule with 
 me, never to suffer the man who digs, to cover 
 up the drains, but it is left open for me or my 
 bailiff to examine ; and then it is veil filied up to 
 the shoulder with wheat-stubble^ cut and stack- 
 ed for the purpose immediately after the harvest, 
 and a small stick or two at the outlet, to pre- 
 vent its being stopped by any external accident. 
 Lastly, with a common plough, I turn a furrow 
 of the upper soil or mould upon the drain, taking 
 care not to turn in any of the dead soil raised by 
 the land ditch spade, which ought always to be 
 laid on the outside and scattered over the land. 
 It is right not to let the drains lie open any length 
 of time, lest they get injured by wet or frost ; my 
 general rule is, to fill them up every day." 
 
 The different methods of filling both with 
 stone, wood, and straw, will be better under- 
 stood by examining the Plate. 
 
 M
 
 162 OF HOLLOW-DRAININCr IN GENERAL. 
 
 SECT. XIV. 
 
 OF THE EXPENCE. 
 
 The ex pence of these drains, will of course 
 vary with the soil, depth, price of labour, &c. 
 and these circumstances are so different, in dif- 
 ferent districts, and even in different parishes, 
 that it accounts for the various reports of writers 
 on the subject. The price in Suffolk to dig and 
 fill two spit drains, is 3s. 4d. to 3s. 6d. a score 
 rods, without beer. In the following notes of 
 Essex draining, other rates are mentioned, and 
 also the cost of materials used in filling, an article 
 liable to equal variations with the labour. 
 
 Mr. James Young sa}s, " It is not easy to as- 
 certain the price of carting the wheat-stubble to 
 the place where it will be wanted, and stacking 
 it, because the value must depend upon the dis- 
 tance : it is equally difficult to say what the work 
 of the ploughs ought to be valued at ; for, though 
 several acres may be drawn out in a (jay with 
 one plough, yet I never choose to do above two or 
 three hours \vork at f^ time; therefore I shall leave 
 every farmer to fix his own price upon these 
 parts of the business, only desiring him to con- 
 sider, that it is work that will wait for a leisure 
 time, and frequently, if the horses were not so 
 employed they would cam nothing.
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 163 
 
 "I pay for digging the land drains Is. 8d., 
 and for filling them up with stubble 4d. per score 
 rods, without any beer whatever. An active man, 
 used to the work, where the soil is not stony, will 
 dig twenty-three or twenty-four rods in a day, 
 within working hours. 
 
 " The state of the expence, that is, the money 
 a farmer will pay out of his pocket for land-drain- 
 ing an acre of land, will stand thus : 
 For cutting and raking together an acre of wheat 
 stubble, generally sufficient for an acre of 
 
 drains *ffO 2 
 
 Digging eight score rods of drains .0134 
 Filling them up with stubble ..028 
 Extra work with the common spade, 
 on an average, a day's work for a 
 man 014 
 
 £0 19 4" 
 Lord Petre says, — '' The value of the work of 
 the plough varies to different people's method. 
 My general method is, to plough with a com- 
 mon plough and a pair of horses, two furrows 
 different ways, leaving a baulk in the middle, 
 which I afterwards plough out with a larger 
 plough, and three horses abreast, which will 
 turn a furrow regularly about two inches deeper 
 than the land is generally ploughed. The ex- 
 pence, not recko'ning any for the master, who, I 
 suppose, attends and marks out the ditches, is 
 
 m2
 
 164 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 about Is. 6d. per acre^ ditches a rod apart. This 
 method is for fallow. The labour for digging 
 is 2:^d. or S^d. per rod ; and the expence, per 
 acrcj of the whole work^ is, as near as I can guess, 
 on a fallow where two spits are digged, 43s. 6d. 
 per acre ; with the plough and one spit, about 
 S5s. ; on lay, with the plough, about 35s. ; with- 
 out the plough, and the spits set, about 47s. per 
 acre." 
 
 Mr. Majeudie informs the Board, that the ex- 
 pence to him is. 
 
 Digging the drains with the small or last spit 
 spade, per score yards, 20d. to 24d. 
 
 Two spits in main drains, 3's. to 3s. 6d. 
 
 In this manner the under draining one acre 
 (the drains at one rod apart), including wood, 
 straw, and all other incidental charges, amounts 
 to an expence of from 40s. to 45s. an acre. 
 
 SECT. XV. 
 
 OF SOD, OR PIPE DRAINS. 
 
 Various methods have been devised, of saving' 
 the expence of materials in the filling of drains. 
 The sod, or pipe drains, are undoubtedly the least 
 expensive of any, and may be of considerable be* 
 iiefit on some soils ; but their duration, and safety 
 in supporting heavy cattle or horses in the act of
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 165 
 
 ploughing, cannot be very much depended on, 
 unless when the opening is at a considerable depth 
 from the surface, and when the upper mould be- 
 comes incrusted, or forms an arch. 
 
 The method of executing them is, by digging 
 a trench of a certain width so deep ; and then, 
 by taking out the last spit with the narrow drain- 
 ing spade, a shoulder is left on each side, upoii 
 which a sod or turf*, dug in grass land, is laid, 
 grass side downwards, and the mould thrown in 
 over it. It is said that such drains will continue 
 hollow, and consequently discharge well for a 
 great number of years. The mode of executing 
 them has been well described, and the tools re- 
 presented, by T. B. Bayley, Esq. in the valu- 
 able Georgical Essays published by Dr. Hunter, 
 of York*. 
 
 Sod or turf drains are pretty much in use in 
 some of the northern counties of England, where 
 land stones are scarce. 
 
 Several mosses have been drained in Lancashire 
 nearly in the same manner, by leaving shoulders 
 about a foot and a half from the bottom, and lay- 
 ing over these cross pieces of turf or peat, cut 
 into lengths of sixteen inches, and eight or nine 
 inches square, which, after they had been dried 
 by exposure to the sun and air, easily support the 
 loose mould that is thrown in above them ; the 
 
 » 
 
 * Octavo Edition, p. 437.
 
 166 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL, 
 
 thickness of which being, for the most part, from 
 two to three feet. 
 
 How long these drains^ in such soft soils, may 
 last good;, cannot be ascertained, as it is not long 
 since the practice was first introduced. 
 
 Another simple mode of making pipe-drains 
 has been successfully attempted; but it is better 
 calculated for the purpose of an aqueduct, or con- 
 veyance for the water, than for drying the soil. 
 
 A drain is dug to the necessary depth, narrow 
 at the bottom, in which is laid a smooth tree, or 
 cylindrical piece of wood, ten or twelve feet 
 long, six inches diameter at the one end, and five 
 at the other, having a ring fastened in the thickest 
 end. After strewing a little sand upon the upper 
 side of the tree, the clay, or toughest part of the 
 contents of the trench, are first thrown in upon 
 it, and then the remainder, which is trod firmly 
 down. By means of the ring, and a rope through 
 it, the tree is drawn out to within a foot or two 
 of the small or hinder end, and the same opera- 
 tion repeated. A gentleman who has tried this 
 experiment, says, '' this clay pipe has conducted 
 a small rill of water a considerable way under 
 ground, for more than twenty years, without any 
 sign of failing." 
 
 A simple method to save materials in grass- 
 land, is practised in Buckinghamshire. When 
 the line of drain is marked out, a sod is cut, in 
 form of a wedge, the upper or grass side being
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 167 
 
 the narrowest ; which is done by sloping the spade 
 in cutting or forming the sides. The sods are 
 taken up^ in lengths of one foot or eighteen inches, 
 and carefully laid on one side of the drain. After 
 this, the drain is cut to the depth required, by 
 using the draining-spades and scoop already men- 
 tioned, which contracts it to a very narrow bot- 
 tom. The sods are then set in, with the grass 
 side downwards, and pressed as far as they will 
 ' go, so as to form like key-stones between the sides 
 of the drain. As they cannot go to the bottom, 
 a cavity is left underneath, which serves as a 
 water-course ; and the space above is filled to the 
 lop with the earth thrown out. If the drain is 
 three feet deep, there will be nearly two feet of 
 earth above the wedge-sods, which is sufficient to 
 secure them from any injury by the feet of cattle. 
 This drain is said to succeed admirably, and to 
 last from twelve to twenty years : the expence is 
 one penny per yard. 
 
 On sheep-pastures, a very simple mode of carry- 
 ing off surface-water, by means of a strong com- 
 mon plough, may be effected in this manner :— 
 after turning up furrows through the hollow 
 parts of the field, where the water is apt to stag- 
 nate, let a man with a spade pare off the loose 
 soil, leaving the inverted sod or grassy side about 
 three inches thick : this done, let him turn over 
 the sod into the furrow, grass side up. By this, 
 a canal, or opening of three or four inches, will
 
 \6B OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 be left in the bottom of the furrow, sufficient tp 
 discharge a considerable quantity of water, whicli 
 will readily subside into it. 
 
 A great extent of ground may soon be gone 
 over in this way ; and when the furrows choak or 
 grow up, the same Operation can be repeated, at 
 very little expence. This is peculiarly adapted 
 for sheep-pastures injured by surface-water ; or, 
 in a situation where open gi^ips are preferable : 
 the furrow, in place of being returned, may be 
 removed, to fill up the hollow, or may be added 
 to a dung-hill. 
 
 SECT. XVI. 
 
 DURATION. 
 
 The duration of hollow drains w'ill necessarily 
 depend on the nature of the materials with which 
 they are filled, and in some measure, on the qua- 
 lity of the soil ; as certain species of land have 
 the power of preserving wood, or other perish- 
 able materials, much longer than others. 
 
 Stones last till accidental causes impede the 
 flowing of the water, and may last for ever. 
 Wood perishes in certain periods ; but it does 
 not follow that the drains should stop. If the 
 earth arches, the water will necessarily continue 
 to flow; which is found to be case, when wood.
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 169 
 
 gtraWj and stubble^, are rotten and gone. Drains 
 that have been filled with bushes and straw, 
 have been observed to run well forty years after 
 making. 
 
 On this subject, Mr. Young, of Clare, ob- 
 serves : "^ I have never been able to ascertain the 
 duration of the stubble with any degree of exact- 
 ness, neither have I ever drained a field a second 
 time ; but a drain will sometimes be stoppe:!, by 
 carting on the land in the wet, or some acci- 
 dental cause ; in which case, as soon as it is dis- 
 covered by the wetness of the place, my practice 
 is, to make one or more fresh drains, in didereat - 
 directions to the old ones ; and I have many times 
 observed old drains, when cut across, though 
 there was not the least appearance of any veget- 
 able substance remaining in them, but fall of 
 loose porous earth, at once run freely, or, ac- 
 cording to my workmen's phrase, bleed fresh. 
 
 '' During the wet weather, about the middle 
 of last April, I examined a field of six acres, 
 which I land-drained in the month of November, 
 in the year 1773, and had the satisfaction to find 
 every drain in the field (except one) running*." 
 Annals of Agriculture. 
 
 * Above twenty years.
 
 170 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 SECT XVII. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF STIFF AND RETENTIVE SOILS, BY 
 MEANS OF OPEN CUTSj AND THE PROPER FOR- 
 MATION OF RIDGE AND FURROW. 
 
 It has alread} been hinted^ in Section IV. that 
 on some soils where the surface is very retentive, 
 no number of covered drains can operate eflfec- 
 tually in drying the ground. 
 
 In most of the central counties of England, 
 and also in Flanders, the general mode of drying- 
 land is, by ploughing it up in high and broad 
 ridges, from twenty to thirty, and even forty, 
 feet wide, with the centre, or crown, three or four 
 feet higher than the furrows. The successful 
 practice of the Flemings shews clearly how ef- 
 fective this method is, when well executed ; for, 
 by attentively keeping the furrows perfectly free 
 from water, the land is kept in so dry a state, 
 that all sorts of crops flourish remarkably well : 
 but in England the same observation would not 
 be just, for want of the same attention to this 
 mode of practice. In many instances, the furrows 
 are not properly directed, nor properly deepen- 
 ed, and the ridges too flat ; by which the water 
 stagnates in the hollows, and of course renders 
 that part of the field w^orse than lost. This bad
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. Itl 
 
 management has brought the method itself into 
 
 such discredit, that in many places thej have been 
 
 levelling their ridges at considerable expence, in 
 
 order to adopt some otljer method of draining ; 
 
 an operation Avhich, on cUy soils, is certainly 
 
 very imprudent; for when the ridges are well 
 
 rounded^ not too high, and the furrows kept 
 
 open, and perfectly free from retaining water, it 
 
 must be esteemed, for land of a very retentive 
 
 surface, an excellent mode of draining, or for 
 
 keeping it dry *. 
 
 Much has been written against high ridges, but 
 
 not with due consideration of their propriety in 
 
 such lands : they have been applied on dry loams 
 
 most absurdly ; and from being, perhaps, a custom 
 
 in that part of the country, no discrimination has 
 
 been made: but their being improper in some 
 
 cases, and ill managed in others, afl'ords no just 
 
 argument against them, when well adapted to the 
 
 soil and wetness of climate f. 
 
 * Water-furrowing is attended with very beneficial conse- 
 quences, when performed in a proper manner, and at those 
 seasons when the land requires it. It is simple ; but the 
 omission of it may be attended with the loss of part of a crop ; 
 and wetness may often be removed by that means, without the 
 aid of drains. 
 
 f One objection against raising ridges too high is, that the 
 rain falling, washes off more easily the fine particles of the soil 
 |roin the declivity into the furrows, in which it is carried off
 
 172 OF HOLLOW- DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 They prove of great utility, even although 
 united with either open surface cuts or hollow 
 drains ; as will appear from the following infor- 
 mation that has been transmitted to the Board of 
 Agriculture on this subject. 
 
 Mr. Francis Goude^ of Cossington, in Leices- 
 tershirCj has united in this manner the ridge me- 
 thod, and hollow drains in the furrows, and v^ith 
 a success that renders his account interesting. 
 
 He observes : "' That his soil is sandy on the 
 surface, from six to ten inches deep; red clay at 
 the bottom, and in some places gravel, which 
 throws the water upon the surface of the land ; 
 which soil we find not easily drained by cross cuts, 
 but requires hollow drains to be made in the fur- 
 rows of the ridges, which are made from five to 
 ten yards broad. Their height varies; for sum- 
 mer corn, we raise them six inches, but for winter 
 crops, twelve at the crown, above the bottom of 
 the furrows. The hollow drains are thus dug : 
 in turf ground, make the drain fifteen inches 
 wide, and two feet deep, going down sloping : 
 first, take a spade and cut the turf out ; then make 
 use of another tool, made on purpose, something 
 like a cheesetaster : at the head, where the man 
 
 the field ; and that the seed cannot be so equally disposed in 
 sowing, and must be still more unequally scattered, and drawn 
 into the furrows by harrowing; it likewise renders cross- 
 ploughing more difficult.
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 173 
 
 sets his foot, is seven inches wide, going narrower 
 downwards, to the length of sixteen inches, with 
 which he digs out the other materials, whether it be 
 sand, gravel or clay : if clay, they cut four inches 
 deeper in the middle, at the bottom of the drain, 
 and four inches wide, leaving two inches on each 
 side, or what they call shoulders, to support the 
 turf, which is laid flat upon it, with the grass 
 downwards; then fill it up again: if the land is 
 of a mixed soil, such as sand, gravel, &c. it must 
 be made with thorns, or elm boughs, tram])led 
 down, and the turf laid upon them, as before, 
 close to the side of the drain, so that it makes as 
 it were a wall; but where slab, slate, or stone, 
 can be had, it is still firmer. The bottom of the 
 drain is about four inches wide ; and workmen 
 have a tool made in the same way as a hoe, or in 
 form of the letter L, with a half-round at the bot- 
 tom, to scoop out the particles of earth that will 
 remain at the bottom of the drain. How long 
 they will last good, is unknown ; but I can an- 
 swer for fifteen years, and expect them to endure 
 a much longer time, even filled with bushes : and 
 the improvement may, upon an average, be esti- 
 mated at one-fourth increase in the crops." 
 
 The mode of ridging and cross-thoroughing 
 (furrowing) land in the Carse of Gowrie, Perth- 
 shire, is particularly described in the following 
 valuable connnuiiication, by George Paterson. 
 Esq. of Castle-Huntley, in that county.
 
 174 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 As clay is perfectly impervious to water, sur- 
 face-draining is the only means by which this 
 species of improvement can be accomplished : 
 and all over the Cars€ of Gowrie this operation 
 is extremely simple. There are certain large 
 common drains, which pass through the district 
 in different directions, sufficiently capacious to 
 receive the water drained from the fields by the 
 ditches which surround them, and of such a level 
 as to carry it clear off, and to empty their contents 
 into the river Tav : there are also ditches which 
 surround every farm, or pass through them, as their 
 situation may require, but in such manner as to 
 communicate with every field upon the farm. 
 These ditches are made from two to four feet 
 wide at top, and from one and a half to one foot 
 at the bottom ; a shape which prevents their sides 
 from falling in ; but even then they must be 
 cleansed and scoured every year, at a consider- 
 able expence. If the fields be of an uniform 
 level surface, the common furrows between the 
 ridges, provided they be sufficiently deepened at 
 their extremities, will serve to lay the grounds 
 dry ; but as it seldom happens that any field is 
 so completely free of inequalities, the last ope- 
 ration, after it is sown and harrowed in, is to 
 draw a furrow with the plough through every hol- 
 low in the field, which lie in such a direction that 
 it can be guided through them, so as to make a 
 free communication with any of the ditches which
 
 OP HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 175 
 
 surround the farm, or with any of the furrows be- 
 tween the ridges, which may serve as a conductor 
 to carry the water off to the surrounding ditches. 
 When this tract is once opened with the plough, 
 it is widened, cleared out, and so shaped with the 
 spade, that it may run no risk of filling up. Its 
 width, from six inches to a foot, according to its 
 depth, which must depend upon the level of the 
 field ; but the breadth of a spade at bottom is a 
 good general rule. It frequently happens that 
 there are inequalities in several parts of the same 
 field, which do not extend across it, or which do 
 not pass through it in any direction that a plough 
 can follow, but which may extend over two ridges, 
 or one ridge, or even part of a ridge. Such re- 
 quire an open communication to be made with 
 any furrow which may serve as a conductor to 
 carry off the water, which are always made with 
 the spade. All these open communications are 
 here called gaas; and to keep them perfectly 
 clear, is a very essential part of every Carse 
 farmer's attention. 
 
 It is as yet a general prac^ce in the Carse to 
 have head-ridges, as they are called, at the two 
 extremities of each field ; /. e. the rising ground 
 upon which the plough turns, is laid up in the 
 shape of a transverse ridge, higher in the middle 
 and falling off at each side ; so that a gaa is made 
 in the course of the inner furrow, with which the 
 whole furrows between the longitudinal ridges
 
 1 76 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL^ 
 
 communicate, and into which thej pour all their 
 surface-wateij which is carried off by similar gaas^ 
 or openings, cut through the head-ridges at con- 
 venient distances, and by which the whole is 
 emptied into the adjoining ditches, and by them 
 into the main drain. 
 
 It is supposed that it would be a much better 
 plan, instead of forming head-ridges, as above 
 described, to lay the earth up to the ends of the 
 longitudinal ridges, uniformly; \^ hich could easily 
 be done, with a little more trouble, by returning 
 with an empty plough. There would then be no 
 depression between the longitudinal and trans- 
 verse ridges ; of course no occasion for a gaa ; 
 and by cutting fairly through the- head-ridges 
 opposite to every longitudinal furrow, a freer 
 passage would be given to the surface-water, 
 from the whole field to the adjoining ditch, and, 
 of course, the draining more complete*. 
 
 Besides all this, an experienced Carse farmer 
 will take care that his grounds are carefully 
 ploughed ; that the land is laid up equally; that 
 no inequalities are left, so as to hold water ; that 
 the ridges are properly rounded, neither too high 
 nor too low, but as near as possible to the sec- 
 tion of a lar^e circle ; bv which the surface- 
 
 * This method Mr. Paterson has followed upon the fields 
 which lie has levelled.
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 177 
 
 Water will easily drain off without lodging ; and 
 while the crowns are not too much enriched^ nor 
 the furrows impoverished, the whole will be 
 made equally fertile, dry, and prolific, and not 
 unfrequcntly be accessible to the plough earlier 
 in the spring than the fields upon the declivities 
 of the surrounding hills. 
 
 SECT. XVIII. 
 
 DRAINAGE OF CLAY SOILS INJURED BY SURFACE- 
 WATER. 
 
 The following method of draining clay soils 
 wet from rain or surface-water, has been prac- 
 tised by Sir Henry Fletcher, Bart, a member of 
 the Board of Agriculture, with great success. 
 
 The upper soil, or that above the clay, was 
 from four to ten inches deep, and of good qua- 
 lity ; but being in a mountainous part of the 
 country, and near the sea, a great quantity of 
 rain fell, which always kept the upper soil full 
 of water, and produced a very coarse grass, not 
 worth more than Ss. an acre. The substratum 
 of clay was of very great depth. The mode he 
 first pursued, and which proved too expensive, 
 was the common one qf the country : the drains 
 twenty inches to two feet wide and deep, square, 
 and filled up promiscuously with quarried stones 
 to within nine inches of the surface. The quau- 
 
 N
 
 178 
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 tity of stones thus requisite was so great, that 
 the quarrying and distant cai-tage came abun- 
 dantly too high ; so that the total expence did 
 not amount to less than 3^d. or 4rf. per yard, 
 and by the acre to 10/. To lessen so heavy an 
 expence, he changed the method to that Nvhich he 
 has followed for many rears, viz. on grass land 
 he digs twenty-two inches, or two feet deep : 
 the first spit is of the turf, taken so deep as where 
 it separates from the clay, which is dug care- 
 fully oui, and preserved unbroken, grass side up^ 
 and laid on one side of the cut ; then, w ith a 
 very strong spade, eighteen inches long, six 
 inches wide at top, and two at the bottom, he 
 digs a spit in the clay, which the men spread 
 about the land, on the side of the drain opposite 
 to where the turfs were laid, as far as possible 
 from the drain, so as none may get in again. 
 A scoop, to clear out the fragments in the bot- 
 tom, follows, which are also spread in like man- 
 ner. Tliev are then ready for fiUino; ; and in 
 doing this, he takes three stones of a thin flat 
 form, tw of which are placed against the sides 
 of the drain, meeting at bottom ; and the third 
 caps the other two, as represented by No. 2, in 
 the Plate of Sections : thus a hollow triangular 
 space is left to convey the water, which is subject 
 to no accidents that can fill it up or impede the 
 current. Stones alsvars sink deeper in the ground; i 
 and, in the common method, this frequently
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 179 
 
 causes stoppages^ by their being partly buried 
 in the clay ; but the triangle, when it subsides, 
 does it regularly^ and keeps its form and passage 
 for the water, clear. One cart-load of stones, 
 in this way, will do a considerable length of 
 drain. They are carefully laid down by the side 
 of the cut with a shovel or basket ; and if there 
 are any small refuse stones left on the ground 
 after the drain is set, they are thrown in above. 
 The stones being thus fixed, the sods are then 
 trimmed to the shape of the. drain, and laid oa 
 them, with the grass side downwards, and none 
 of the clay used in filling up. 
 
 The ex pence is a halfpenny per yard, the meo 
 earning 2s. and 2s. 6d. per day.* 
 
 It is always necessary to survey them twice ; 
 first, when the drains are opened, to see if they 
 are of the proper depth ; second, when the stones 
 are set, before the sod is laid in. 
 
 In regard to the distance necessary from drain 
 to drain. Sir Henry tried them at ten yards ; but 
 the spaces in the middle between them were not 
 sufficiently drained. At five yards asunder they 
 were perfectively eff*ective, in the most retentive 
 
 * A man, his wife, and a child of ten years old, with a horse 
 and a little cart, made very good wages of it : the man used 
 to cut the drains in open weather in winter ; in frost he wrought 
 in the quarry ; — his wife filled the stones and led them to the 
 drains, laying them down along the sides at proper distances . 
 and the child set them in the triangle at bottom. 
 
 n2
 
 180 OF HOLLOW- DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 soil; at six, answered well : but he found that 
 tliey would not operate a cure any where, if more 
 than seven yards asunder. Drains made in this 
 manner, give, after many years, no sign of failing, 
 and will probably last for a very long period. 
 
 The English acre being four thousand eight 
 hundred and forty square yards, the nearest 
 square of that is seventy yards ; and a square of 
 seventy yards, drained at seven yards distant, is 
 ten drains, of seventy yards each ; consequently 
 there is seven hundred yards of drain in an acre, 
 or one hundred roods, of seven yards each, 
 which, at a halfpenny a yard, is 1/. 9s. 2d. per 
 acre. 
 
 When this is the price, the stones are not 
 more than half a mile distant ; if further ofl^ 
 allowance must be made for the extra cartage ; 
 or, when the ground turns out stony, hard, and 
 ill to dig, a further allowance is likewise made. 
 
 SECT. XIX. 
 
 OF OPEN DRAINS. 
 
 As there are many situations where open drains 
 only, can prove eilectual, for a description of 
 these, I have added this Section. 
 
 . It would be unnecessary to give any particu- 
 lar directions for their depth or wideness, as that
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL, 181 
 
 must depend on the quantity of water they are 
 to receive or convey, and on the nature of the 
 soil, and situation in which they are to be made. 
 One rule, however, may be general — that the 
 width at bottom should be one-third of that at 
 top, which gives a sufficient slope to the sides, 
 and prevents their falling in ; and the fall, or 
 declivity, should be such, as that the water may 
 run off without stagnation, but not with too ra- 
 pid a motion. The first is necessary to carry off 
 any sludge and grass, &c. which may get into 
 them ; but if the descent is too great, the water 
 will be apt to form inequalities in the bottom, 
 and wear down the sides. In moss, and in very 
 soft soils, a greater degree of slope may be ne- 
 cessary ; and in all cases where it is meant for a 
 drain only (i. e. to receive surface-water), none 
 of the earth thrown out should remain upon the 
 sides, but should be carried to, and spread in, 
 the nearest hollows. When this is not done, 
 their use, in a great measure, is counteracted 
 The earth, when left upon the sides, prevents 
 the surface-water from getting injlo the drain ; 
 its weight causes the sides to fall in ; makes it 
 more difficult to scour or clean it ; and adds 
 much to its disagreeable appearance in the mid- 
 dle of a field. In soft marshy ground, when it 
 may be proper to have the line of drain, a fences 
 a smaller parallel cut, will be necessary along the 
 back of the bank, or earth thrown out, to re-
 
 182 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 ceive the water from that side, and by which it 
 may be conveyed to a proper place for its ad- 
 mission into the ditch^ or larger cut. 
 
 When it may be necessary to hore in an open 
 drain^ the manner of doing it has been explained 
 in Chap. V. 
 
 t In all cases where the admission of surface- 
 water, or what may be augmented in time of 
 great rains, is unavoidable, the drain must ne- 
 cessarily be open, to prevent the risk of choak- 
 ing or filling up ; which is always the conse- 
 quence when such water is admitted into a co- 
 Tered drain. This, in the middle or hollow part 
 of a field, may not only be hurtful to the eye> 
 but a considerable obstruction in the act of 
 ploughing. It may, however, be remedied, bj 
 giving the drain such a slope as it shall grow 
 green on the sides, and the plough or cart may 
 pass over it without interruption ; and the line 
 of direction should be, if possible, parallel to 
 that of the ridges, so as to give less obstruction 
 to the cultivation of the field. When the field 
 is in pasture, it can have no bad effect whatever, 
 as cattle pass over it with ease ; and being co- 
 vered with grass to the bottom, no ground is lost. 
 If there be a constant run of water in it, inde- 
 pendent of what is collected from the ground on 
 both side-; in wet seasons, that may be confined 
 to a narrow channel, cut a little deeper in the 
 middle. However great the slope, it should not
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 183 
 
 be ploughed with the rest of the field, but should 
 always remain green ; as a sudden or great run 
 of water passing through it, when loosened by 
 ploughing, would wash down the sides and de- 
 stroy its shape. In young plantations, open 
 drains are the only kind applicable ; as the roots 
 of the trees getting among the stones, and leaves 
 choaking their outlet, would soon render co-o 
 vered drains of very little use. In lawns, a;id 
 among thin grown-up wood, covered drains may 
 be proper for cutting and carrying off springs, 
 and may not be so liable to any defect from the 
 interruption of roots or accumulation of leaves, 
 and will not appear unpleasingto the eye. Very 
 small and narrow open cuts (commonlj' called 
 grips) are very useful in the wet hollows of 
 smooth pastures, to receive and carry off the 
 stagnant water, and part of the rain as it falls. 
 These are commonly one foot deep, eight inches 
 wide at top, and the sides contracted, so as to 
 meet at bottom. The only objection to them is, 
 their being easily stopt by the feet of cattle tramp- 
 ling upon them ; but it requires very little time 
 and trouble to keep them clear. 
 
 Sunk fences also come under the denomina- 
 tion of open drains ; but the nature and con- 
 struction of these are so generally known, and 
 must vary according to :,ituation, that no de^ 
 scription of them is necessary here.
 
 184 OF HOLtOW-DR/VlNING IN GEXERAJ.. 
 
 All open drains require to be scoured out and 
 cleaned at least once a year; for when this is 
 reelected^ they lose their good effect;, and the 
 operation becomes the more difficult afterwards. 
 Although they cost less at firsts, this annual re- 
 pair renders them more expensive than covered 
 drains that are not exposed to any outward ob- 
 ""struction. 
 
 SECT. XX. 
 
 OF THE BENEFIT DERIVED FROM DRAINING IN 
 GENERAL. 
 
 In the Introduction, I have mentioned some 
 of the advantages t'".\t arise from a proper drain- 
 age of land, and;, alsOj what further benefit may 
 be derived from the principles of Mr. Elking- 
 ton's system being applied to other useful pur- 
 poses. Here, I shall only add a few observa- 
 tions communicated to the Board on this sub- 
 ject;, as the advantages^ in general^ are so obvious 
 to every one. 
 
 Of all the improvements by which intelligent 
 husbandry has advanced the value of land;, to the 
 equal benefit of the owner, occupier, and to the 
 public, there is not, perhaps, another from which
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 185 
 
 flo many advantaires have been derived, at so 
 moderate an ex pence. 
 
 Soils that are wet from spring or from rain water, 
 are equally unproductive, till laid dry. Seasons 
 of tillage are lost, if the land is in an arable 
 state,* and, in very wet years, its produce is 
 scanty and precarious ; but when well drained, 
 all other exertions of good husbandry are at- 
 tended with beneficial consequences, and take 
 full effect : the farmer thrives on the same farm 
 on which his predecessor was ruined !-— Of its 
 effects on grass lands. Lord Petre observes, that 
 "^ the land after draining, not being so much 
 chilled by the long continuance of the winter wa- 
 ter on the surface, produces earlier vegetation in 
 the spring ; the grass is rendered of a better kind ; 
 the white clover is encouraged, which seldom 
 fails in Essex and in Hertfordshire to chequer the 
 land-ditched ^e\ds y\'ii\\ its sweet appearance, "f 
 —•And again : " Tillage land is mi.ch more ma- 
 nageable ; it dries gradually, and early in the 
 spring; the bad efi'ects of land being catchcd full 
 of water^ when the parching winds in March 
 
 * That the ancient Romans were sensible of this, and that 
 wet land was fit neither for being ploughed, harrowed, nor 
 planted, Columella observes : " Ne lutosus ager tractetur — 
 Nam quae limosa versantur arva tcto anno desinunt posse trac- 
 tari, nee sunt habiha sementi, autoccationi aut stationi," 
 
 Col. lib. ii. cap. iv. 
 
 t Annals of Agriculture.
 
 186 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 
 
 suddenly harden the surface of wet grounds, is 
 prevented, and the earth breaks kindly. This in 
 a short time alters the very nature of the soil ; 
 the weeds and grasses change their colour ; every 
 plant that grows loses the appearance of rank- 
 ness ; the corn increases in quantity and weight ; 
 and every benefit a farmer can wish, is more or 
 less the consequence of this first of all im- 
 provementSj in proportion as the soil draws well 
 or ill." 
 
 Respecting the further advantages of the prac- 
 tice on arable landj he likewise observes : '' The 
 great advantage of land-draining is, we can 
 plough earlier in the spring, and later in the au- 
 tumn ; and it certainly makes the land tilth 
 easier ; and the land can be kept clean with less 
 expence ; but it is too much for the farmer to 
 expect his return the first crop. I believe I have 
 known some particular piece that has repaid the 
 expence in two crops. It certainly is a very be- 
 neficial improvement to the farmer." • 
 
 Mr. Young, of Clare, says : " I have a field 
 that used to be so wet and poachy in the winter, 
 as not to be able to bear the weight of a sheep : 
 I land-drained and fallowed it ; then sowed it 
 with wheat, without anv manure, and had a 
 crop equal to half the value of the land." 
 
 In speaking of the improvements in the county 
 of Essex, Mr. Vancouver has the following re- 
 mark on the importance of draining : '^ There is
 
 OF HOLLOW-DRAINING IN GENERAL. 1S7 
 
 no improvement to which the heavy-land hus- 
 bandry of this county owes so much, as to the 
 fortunate introduction and continuance of the 
 practice of hollow-draining. The means of me- 
 lioration^ and the consequent sources of fertility 
 thence derived from the soil, over and libove 
 what it formerly yielded, are not more import- 
 ant and valuable in the present day, tha.n per- 
 manent and precious, as they must prove in Ihcir 
 consequences hereafter. The few instances of 
 invincible blindness to the beneficial eifects of 
 this excellent practice, go no further than to 
 prove, that where the work is not improperly 
 executed, it never ceases to fail in producinij; the 
 desired effect.
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 CONTAi:fING 
 
 HINTS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF BOGS, Sec. 
 
 AFTER BEING DRAINED.
 
 ( 191 ) 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 HINTS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF BOGS^ AFTER 
 BEING DRAINED. 
 
 THE next, thing to be considered^, after a bog 
 or piece of marshy ground has been completely 
 drained, is the means most easily accomplished, 
 and best adapted for its further improvement. If 
 the bog is over-run with rushes^ and other coarse 
 aquatics, nothing will tend sooner to the first 
 part of its improvement, than over-stocking; it 
 with cattle, so soon as it acquires a sufficient so- 
 lidity to bear them with safety ; but care must 
 be taken, not to put the cattle on it until it is 
 sufficiently firm, otherwise the surface will be 
 poached, and the coarse herbage not closely bit- 
 ten : thus will the coarse grasses be closely eat 
 down ; and the pressure of the cattle will help 
 to consolidate the surface. By this alone, it is 
 wonderful to see the difference of verdure that 
 soon takes place : and it is worthy of remark, 
 ihat a bog of the worst kind, after being drained
 
 193 FURTHER IMPROVEMENT OF 
 
 and so treated^ without any other melioration 
 whatever, should spontaneously produce so many 
 fine grasses, that have hitherto lain dormant^ and 
 by the superfluous moisture been prevented from 
 coming forth, should, as it were, all at once be 
 called into existence, and afterwards continue to 
 flourish and increase. The rushes will soon de- 
 cline, and give wav to better grass, which will 
 spring up in abundance. Lime or marl, spread 
 on the surface, will greatly increase the growth 
 of white clover, and other kinds of fine natural 
 herbage, after the rushes and coarse plants have 
 been closely cut and eat down with the cattle. * 
 The first thing, however, to be done, whether 
 the field is to remain in the natural state of pas- 
 ture, or to be cultivated by tillage, is to level 
 the surface; the natural irregularity of which is, 
 in most cases, an obstruction that ought first 
 to be removcu. The earth that composes the 
 highest parts should be removedj and mixed into^ 
 a compound with lime, to be used either as a 
 manure for a crop, or spread on the surface as a 
 lop-clrcssiiig; ix)r grass. Earth of inferior qua- 
 lity may be substituted for filling up the deepest 
 
 * The best time to cut rushes, &c. is when the shoots are 
 weak, and before the seed come to maturity. If left till the 
 seed is ripe, it shakes, and, tailing on the ground, multiplies 
 their growth. They should be frequently- cut before this sea-- 
 son, wliich will soon extirpate them.
 
 DRAINING EOGS^ &C. 193 
 
 hollows. Where the nature and situation an- 
 swers, no improvement is so cheap, so sure, or 
 30 profitable, as converting a certain class of bogs 
 into water-meadow*. 
 
 H it lies along the side of a river or stream, 
 of which, by means of proper dams or cuts, a 
 command can be obtained ; and if the process 
 of irrigation is managed with skill and attention, 
 it never fails to produce luxuriant crops of grass. 
 This crop is in every respect best adapted to the 
 nature of such ground, being less affected by the 
 inclemency of a cold or moist climate, and giv- 
 ing a more sure return, without the labour and 
 ex pence of annual culture, than any crop of 
 grain that might be produced. As a proof of 
 this, I shall only mention the water-meadow on 
 the estate of Oustone Hall, in Leicestershire, 
 Avhich, from being mere bogs, before being 
 drained by Mr. Elkington, now produce as 
 abundant crops of grass as any of the kind 
 (water-meadows) in that part of the kingdom. 
 As a further instance of the good effects pro- 
 
 * It must be understood that the surface of the bog has been 
 properly levelled, well rolled, and a good sward of grass on it, 
 before the operation of floating can be attempted. It is a fact 
 well ascertained, that in Merionethshire there is bnd that was 
 formerly not worth O'd. per acre ; but being now drained and 
 Jlooded, besides affording excellent pasture till the 1st of June, 
 produces two tons of good hay, cut in the beginning of Au- 
 gust. — Agricultural Report of Merionethshire. 
 
 O
 
 194 - FURTHER IMPROVEMENT OF 
 
 duced by watering this kind of land, Mr. Bos- 
 well, in his treatise ou that subject, says :— 
 *' Lands that are very bog'gy, require more and 
 lonc'cr watering than any sand or gravelly soil. 
 The larger the body of water that can be brought 
 upon them, the better : its weight and strength 
 will greatly assist in coaipress.ii)g the soil, and 
 destroying tlie roots of the weeds that grow upon 
 it ; neither can the water-he kept too long upon 
 ii, particularly in the winter season, immediately 
 after the after-meat is eaten ; arid the closer it is 
 fed, the better. This species of soil, after being 
 Tcell drained and watered, will equal the wishes 
 of the most sanguine, by its improvement." 
 
 Na general system of irrigation can be pro- 
 perly laid down, applicable to every particular 
 case, further than some general directions, that 
 hold good in every situation : but, in other parts 
 of the process, different modes must be adopted, 
 according as the situation and form of surface 
 require. In tbose where the command of a ri- 
 ver or stream can be obtained, the general rule 
 is, to collect a sufficient quantity of water. 
 Dearly on a level, in a main caricr, which can, 
 by means of sluices constructed at proper places 
 in the sides of it, be let out into floating trenches, 
 cut along the surface of the field, or sides of the 
 declivity, one below another. These floating 
 trenches will collect the Mater from above, after 
 passing over the spaces of ground betwixt each.
 
 DRAINING BOGS, &C. 195 
 
 and distribute it equally over the surface of 
 each space lying- between them, alternately. — 
 Proper attention must be paid, at the proper sea- 
 sons, to open and close the sluices, in regular 
 rotation, so as to flood different portions of 1 he 
 land successively ; and the floating gutters should 
 frequently be cleaned and scoured out, to pre- 
 vent their choaking up, and to destroy the growth 
 of rushes, and other grasses that may grow up 
 in them. From the very absorbent quality of 
 the peat, the wafer would require to have a 
 more rapid motion on bogs, than on soils less 
 porous or spongy. The saving of manure, is 
 another circumstance in favour of wat-er-mea- 
 dows, as the application of it would appear to 
 be of no material consequence, being very sel- 
 dom used bv some of the best flooders in Enjz:- 
 land*. Still, however, I should think, that the 
 
 * The late celebrated Bakewell, who was a great advocate 
 for watering, used to manure on his water-meadows. It was 
 a favourite idea of his, that water made to float over the greatest 
 bog or swamp, v:iihout being drained, would not only have 
 the effect of producing a finer herbage on it, but that the pres- 
 sure of water artificially brought upon it, would force back 
 that with whicli it was already overcharged, into the channel 
 from which it sprung. Nothing can be more absurd, and 
 which the following fact will prove : at Drayton-park, near 
 Tamworthj ia Staffordshire, a considerable e.\.tent of bog was 
 thus watered, by a cut for that purpose, conducted under the 
 direction of Mr. Bakswcll, at a very great expence, and which, 
 
 2
 
 196 FURTHER IMPROVEMENT OF 
 
 use of lime or sliell-mcLd, diluted in the Mater of 
 the upper carier, would be attended with the 
 most beneficial effects. Its liner particles would 
 thus be intimately diffused over the surface, 
 ■would be lodged in closer contact with the roots 
 of the grass, and afford them additional nou- 
 rishment to what they receive from the fertilizing 
 qualities of the water. The operation would 
 be simple, and the expencc trifling, from the 
 small quantity of lime suiTicient for the purpose. 
 The lime should be laid dov, n along the side of 
 the uppermost trench or carier, and, after being 
 slaked^ put in small quantities, among the wa- 
 ter in the cut, and, being stirred about, would 
 be carried down by the stream, and equally dif- 
 fused over the surface. It is to be observed, 
 that the lime, or shell-marl, is only to be used 
 in this manner, the last days of the v> atering. If 
 
 after being completed, had the effect of rendering the ground 
 ninch worse, and more swampy than before. This, to the 
 surprize ot Air. Bakewell (but not entirely to his conviction), 
 not having the effect which he argued it would, Air. Elking- 
 ton v.as applied to, who, by means of a drain which he made, 
 and which did not exceed one-third ofolie expence of Mr. 
 Bakewell's water-works, has rendered the ground worth ten 
 Unit!, its former value, and which now produces crops of grain 
 equal in value to any that is produced in that country. This is 
 raeiitioned, as a proof that land of that description, without 
 beujg pre\ iously drained, can never be watered with advan-
 
 DRAINING BOGS^ &C. 197 
 
 there was not so heavy a duty u\)on it, the refuse 
 of salt., used in this manner^ would be a valuable 
 improvement; its fertilizing qualities being 
 equally beneficial on pasture, as well as on arable 
 land*. These experiments I have never seen 
 praetised, although recommended ; but it is 
 obvious to every one who is in the least ac- 
 quainted with the manner of flooding, and with 
 the qualities of these manures, that it must 
 prove beneficial, ])eyond a doubtf . 
 
 * In a communicalion to the Board of Agriculture, on the 
 nature aad qualities of salt, as a manure, by JNIr, Ro:ilfe, of 
 Sandwich, he says : " Salt is also excellent upon rushy and 
 sour pastures, which arc subject to occasion the rot in sheep ^ 
 such is its effect, that it prevents that destructive evil from at- 
 tacking them.'' 
 
 f A. method nearlysimilar to this, seems to be practised in wa- 
 tering ground in Switzerland ; as appears from the following re- 
 mark in a treatise, entitled, "Le Socraie Rustique," 1764: " Our 
 cultivator considerably augments the vegetable properties of the 
 water by rich mould, procured, as I have already mentioned, 
 from green turf, cut from eminences in pasture or fallow land. 
 This he throws into the principal head of water, so that the 
 lesser channels may imbibe and conimuuicate fertility over the 
 meadow." — In a note by the translator, alluding to this pas- 
 sage, he says : " This is a good thought; but the benefit on 
 some soils, of casting slaked lime into the stream, would be 
 much greater, and acquired at a much less expence." 
 
 Another method, practised by Mr. Miller, of DunstalJ, in 
 Staffordshire merits attention : on the stream which he applies 
 to the floating of his ground, are two ponds, for the purpose 
 of supplying mills situated below. From these ponds the
 
 19& FURTHER IMPROVEMExN'T BF 
 
 As it is only in certain situations^ where this 
 mode of improvement, by means of water, can 
 be ^idoptcd and practised with advantage, I shall 
 next take notice of the other means that may be 
 used, and that are best calculated for the im- 
 provement of bogs, by converting them into a 
 state of cultivation so soon after draining as they 
 become accessible to the spade or the plough. 
 
 If the bog is of considerable extent, the first 
 thing to be done after draining, or which may be 
 done at the same time, is dividing it into proper 
 inclosures, by open ditches. 
 
 These will assist in carrying off the surface- 
 water, which the covered drains do not effect ; 
 and part of the earth thrown out of them may 
 be mixed in a compound with dung and lime, or 
 made use of in filliiig up some adjacent hollows. 
 If the ground is to be pared and burnt, part of 
 it may be burned along with the turf; but this 
 is supposing that no thorns or quick-fence is 
 planted along the ditches ; in which case, no 
 bank of earth is requisite on either side. In 
 
 floating trenches are supplied -, and as there is always a quan- 
 tity of fine mud deposited in the bottom of them, this he stirs 
 about, so as to be carried along with the water, and equally- 
 distributed over the surface. The success of this practice war- 
 rants its recommendation. 
 
 Although the watering of land ig now arrived at a ver}' great 
 degree of perfection, yet these hints seem to have escaped ibe 
 attention of most practical flooders.
 
 DRAINING Bf^GS, &C. 19^ 
 
 ploughing, regard must bo paid to the proper 
 direction and inclination of the ridges and fur- 
 rows towards the open ditches, in order to dis- 
 charge the rain-water as it falls*. The great 
 object is, to get the ground brought to such a 
 state as to be fit for being laid down with -grass- 
 seeds, when it may be considered in such a state 
 of improvement, that an)' subsequent crops ^yill 
 require no more than ordinary management to 
 cultivate. 
 
 In levelling or smoothing the surface, it will 
 be necessary to use the spade, by which the work 
 will be done nearly as expeditiously, and much 
 more efiectually, than with the plough at first. 
 There are various opinions, how far paring and 
 
 * Some bogs, when too much drained, are apt to become 
 parched in dry seascns. To remedy this, if the ground is very 
 flat, or nt-arly level, sluices may be made in the lower end of 
 the divisi<5n-ditches, which, in very dry seasons, may be Jet 
 down, to keep in the water received from the top drains. If 
 the ditches have a descent, so that the water camiot stand level 
 all the way, several sluices of this kind will be necessary ; or 
 the water may be stopped, by building in turf. The water 
 may be allowed to stand within a foot, or a foot and a half, of 
 the surface, and, by its stagnation, will ooze through' the peat, 
 or upper soil, and afibrd such a degree of moisture as xvill 
 greatly relieve the crop. If in pasture, the cattle should not 
 be allowed to feed on it while the water remains in the ditches, 
 nor for some days after, as they would poach the surface 
 too much ; and the heat would make them go into the ditches* 
 where they might qot easily get cut.
 
 "200 FURTHER IMPROVEMENT OF 
 
 burning is conducive to tbe improvement of land. 
 Some have condemned it, as a practice that ought 
 to be exploded on every soil; yei, on a certain 
 class of boggy ground^ it may be considered as 
 a very great improvement, not only from the ex- 
 cellent manure that the ashes produce^, but also 
 from its destroying the roots of every noxious 
 plant more cifectuallythan could be done by means 
 of fallowing alone. The ashes of the burnt turf, 
 when mixed with the soil by a superficial plough- 
 iug, so enrich it^ as to produce excellent crops, 
 for two years at least ; and if a little lime is add- 
 ed, it will help sooner to pulverize and heat the 
 soil. If the bog is covered'with long heath, or 
 ling, and other coarse bejit?/ grass, it might be 
 proper to burn it growing, without paring off 
 any part of the soil ; but this would yield only a 
 sp^all quantity of ashes, neither would it destroy 
 entirely the roots of the plants, and, when plough- 
 ed in, would produce \eTy little effect. So soon 
 as the turfs are reduced to ashes*, they should 
 
 * In burning the turfs, after they are properly dried, they 
 should be set up in large heaps, adding to them as they burn. 
 This continei the smoke and flame, by which so much of the 
 essence is evaporated and lost, when the turfs are burnt in small 
 heaps. 
 
 Paring jnd burning the turf, is, in some places, begun in the 
 month of March; but it is better to delay the burning till 
 April or May, The paring, however, may be done in March, 
 and the turfs will be dry enough for burning in tbe month fol- 
 lowing.
 
 DRAINING BOGS, &C. 201 
 
 be equally spread over the surface, plouo;lied ia 
 \vi(h a light furrow, and turnip or potatoes ought 
 to be the first crop. If the former, they should 
 be sown broad-cast, and fed off with sheep. By 
 this, the soil will receive great benefit from the 
 dung and urine, the refuse of the plants, and by 
 being consolidated by the trampling of the sheep. 
 It will then be in good state for a crop of oats or 
 barley, which should bo sown with grass-seeds, 
 well rolled down. The ploughing, after the 
 turnips are ate off, should be very slight, not to 
 bury the sheep's dung, &c. too deep ; in which 
 case, a crop of oats is preferable to barley, as the 
 preparation of the ground requires less plough- 
 ing. If the soil is full of the roots of rushes, and 
 other weeds, a course of summer fallow will be re- 
 quisite, before any crop is taken ; and if the ashes 
 have been made in one corner of the field, they 
 can be spread over the surface, before the seed- 
 furrow is given ; and the roots and tough clods 
 may be collected into heaps, burnt, and spread 
 along with them. 
 
 If the bog is deep of peat, and very soft, so as 
 not to be fit to carry horses for ploughing in the 
 first year, a crop of turnip broad-cast may be got, 
 by sowing the seed among the spread ashes, har- 
 rowing it in with a light harrow and roller, 
 drawn by men. The turnip should be eat off 
 with sheep, and the ground will next year be so 
 much consolidated, as to admit the plough.
 
 202 FURTHER IMPROVEMENT OT 
 
 If the surfaGe is not pared and burnt at all;, a 
 eourse of fallow, even for two years, will be ne» 
 cessary, to reduce the soil to a proper mould ; 
 in the last stage of which, the lime, or other ma- 
 Durc, may be applied. In this case, two v.hite 
 crops, with an intervening; one of turnip, potatoes, 
 &c. may be taken, before the grass-seeds are, 
 sown *. All boggy soil whatever, after being 
 
 * Rye, being a liardy grain, and thriving on very poor soils, 
 is a very profitable crop on drained hoggy land, pared and 
 burnt, as appears fmm the following extract of a communica- 
 tion to the Board of Agriculture, respecting the state of hus- 
 bandry' in the neighbourhood of Petersburgh : " Bye-bread, 
 as every body knows, is the chief support of this district, a* 
 we'I as of the olher northern parts of Russia ; but, in order to 
 save the rye-flour, and to make it last the longer, the inhabit- 
 ants, when compelled by necessity, mix with it Jine ground 
 oatmeal^ the meil of buck-wheat, and the husks of the field- 
 mustard- seed (iiifiapls arvens'i^J. The produce of rye in very 
 few places varies more than here. The poor sandy lands will 
 hardly produce more than three times the quantity sown. The 
 middling sorts of land produce four and six times the seed. 
 The rich and well manured lands, and such where wood has 
 been cleared off, will produce, in a good season, ten or twelve 
 for ©ne sown ; but the most extraordinary produced, is gather- 
 ed from hoggy lands, drained, and sown with rye; as in a fa- 
 vourable season it increases forty times, and vipwards. The 
 rs'ason of this extraordinary increase must be explained : it is 
 owing to the ashes produced by hurning the bogs, which assist 
 vegetation to that degree, that frequently they find one grain 
 produce forty planls, and even more : for this reason, they ge- 
 nerally use a much smaller quantity of seed in sowing such
 
 DRAINING BOGS, &C. 203 
 
 onoe broke up and pulverized by tillage and a 
 course of summer fallow, should not be over- 
 cropped before being laid down in grass ; a.;d 
 when once brought into a good .sicard of grass, 
 should not be too soon broke up, but continue so, 
 brush-harrowing and top-dressing it, when tlie 
 herbage begins to fog : frequent rolling is also 
 very necessary on such soft soils. 
 
 It is better to feed sheep the first and second 
 years of the grass, than to cut it for hay, as it 
 causes the roots of the plants to strike moie hori- 
 zontally through the soil, and more closely co\er 
 the surface. For this purpose, a greater propor- 
 tion of white and yellow clove-?, and otiier .^^hoi-t 
 grass- seeds J, should be sown. In the second break- 
 ing up of the ground, after lying some years in 
 pasture, no particular mode of practice, or ro- 
 tation of cropping, can be laid down : the state 
 of the ground, then, must be the rule for after- 
 management, and by which time, it will not only 
 have attained a firmer texture, but also a degree 
 of strength, to ]>roduce any crops, with proper 
 manure and cultivation. In manuring soft boggy 
 soils, one precaution is necessary. The deeper 
 
 land. There is no need to sow clump rye (secale midticaule) 
 upon such lands, as any good common seed increasesvery nm:h 
 upon so rich a soil, to which the burning pf the surface hns 
 added so much of the vegetative power. The seed is gcnvn in 
 July or August, and is reaped about tw«lve months after."
 
 201 FURTHER IMPROVEMENT OF 
 
 the plougliings arc^ previous to ihe dung bein^ 
 laid on, the better ; but the subsequent furrows 
 should bo very superficial, and the dung inti- 
 mately mixed ; for when it is ploughed in too 
 deep, not equally distributed and incorporated 
 with the soil, it is apt to subside below reach of 
 the plough, or horizontal roots of the grain. The 
 same is the case with lime, which always pene- 
 trates deeper into the soil; and marl, when bu- 
 ried too deep, loses all its effect*. 
 
 Upon soft boggy land, intended only for pas- 
 ture, nothing will work a more quick improve- 
 ment, than covering it \Aith a thin stratum of 
 clay, gravel, or any other earth heavier than that 
 of which the bog is composed. Clay-marl, where 
 it can be got, is of all others to be preferred, 
 both on account of its greater weight, and en- 
 riching qualities. Sea-sand, being mixed with 
 shells, is peculiarly adapted for this purpose, if 
 the bog is situated near the sea, where such can 
 be easily got. The weight and pressure of these 
 heavier bodies makes the bog soon become more 
 solid, and likewise presses out more quickly the 
 moisture contained in the spongy peat: the 
 thicker, therefore, it is laid on, the better. A 
 
 * Conl-asbes is an excellent mnnure for sour wet land, either 
 Bse.l as a top -dressing for grass, or, if ploughed in, tends 
 greatly to destroy the tenacity of stiff soils, and render them 
 more productive.
 
 DRAINING BOGS, &C. 205 
 
 thill sprinkling of lime over it, will add to its 
 etiect, and cause white clover, and other sweet 
 grasses, to spring up in greater abundance. The 
 most barren soil will have a good eflect, when 
 used in this manner ; but, of all others, lime-stone 
 gravel is preferable. Bj means of it, many ex- 
 tensive bogs are improved in Ireland, where it 
 abounds; but very little of it is found either in 
 England or Scotland, which renders that mode of 
 improvement impracticable. After the ground 
 has been thus treated, and lain some years in pas- 
 ture, it may be broke up by tillage, and crops of 
 grain taken, before being laid down with grass- 
 seeds. By ploughing it, part of the natural soil 
 will be turned up, and intimately mixed with the 
 earth, &c. that has been laid upon it, and, if 
 lime or dung is added, v/ill altogether form a very 
 fertile mould. 
 
 Such are the methods by whicli many bogs 
 have been cultivated and improved after drain- 
 ing, in several parts of England ; the success of 
 which is a sufficient recommendation of the prac- 
 tice. But iliese hints are not to be considered as 
 the only means whereby this improvement can be 
 efiected: there are others equally beneficial, and 
 in many situations equally applicable; by means 
 of which, there is no doubt that much boggy 
 ground, however barren in its natural state, may 
 soon be rendered highly productive : but to enu- 
 merate these, would be unjiecessary ; for e\evy
 
 206 
 
 FURTHER IMPROVEMENT OP 
 
 one who possesses ground of ih'is deseription, 
 will be able to ascertain what mode of manage* 
 ment is best calculated for ifs situation, what 
 crops he wishes to raise, or what kinds of manure 
 he has in bis power to apply. 
 
 As no method yet practised for the impfoTc- 
 nient of moss, has equalled, in produce Jind pro- 
 fit, that so stjccessfully introduced by Mr. Smith, 
 of Swinridge-Muir, in Ayrshire, a short account 
 of the process, and result therefrom, may not be 
 unacceptable to many readers*. 
 
 The moss is of two different kinds ; the black 
 and the red, or tlow-moss : both are of a consi- 
 derable depth, from four to twelve feet ; but the 
 first is reckoned more valuable, in several re- 
 spects, than the other. 
 
 The first thing is, to mark out and cut proper 
 drains (taking* advantage of the declivity), to 
 draw off the superfluous water, and to divideihe 
 moss into separate small inclosures. These drains, 
 or ditches, are commonly eight feet wide at top, 
 two feet at bottom, and four and a half feet deep, 
 •when first cut ; but as the moss afterwards suh- 
 
 •^ The Author visited Swinridge-Muir, \^hen the moss wob 
 preparing for crop 17933 and this accoont of the |)rocess is 
 paril}' from his own obeervation, and from a very minute ac- 
 ccvuit of it, pubhshed in *' A Letter to a Friend." m 1706.
 
 DRAINING BOGS, &C. 207 
 
 sides, thcj become less : they cost. 2d. per lineal 
 yard. After these have been cut, and the moss 
 thrown out has been spread from the sides, and 
 the hollovrs filled up, the ridges are marked oif 
 parallel to the sides of the inclosure, twenty feet 
 in breadth. They are formed, by leaving- a space 
 of twenty inches untouched in the middle of the 
 tidge, and turning up on each side of this a fur- 
 row w^ith the spade, which is laid over the un- 
 touched space, so as to raise it to a proper heiglit 
 above the sides. The whole breadth is then dug, 
 by turning over with the spade, furrows a foot in 
 width, which has the appearance as if done by the 
 plough. The division-furrows are small drains 
 about two feet deep, and as wide, for drawing off 
 the superfluous moisture, and conveying it into 
 the main drains. The ridges must not be formed 
 too high and too narro^y, nor the furrovv-draliis 
 cut too deep, otherwise the moss will be left too 
 dry, and consequently prevent the action of the 
 lime, which requires a certain degree of moistuic, 
 to have a proper etTect*. The next thing is top- 
 dressing the ridges with ?iew slaked, or paicdered 
 Unie, at the rate of 500 Winchester bushels per 
 acre ; 2. e. 250 bushels of shell-lime f . The moss 
 
 * In very dry weather this may be applied, by stopping the 
 lower end of the drains, and retaining the waler ; and if there 
 is a command of any spring or higher water, it may be let into 
 tte maiu ditches : but too much moisture is likewise to t)€ 
 guarded against. 
 
 t Scotch ; equal te one acre and cne-fourtb, English.
 
 20S FURTHEPc IMPROVEMENT OF 
 
 is prepared for the first crop early in the summer 
 preceding ; in which time the lime^ aided by the 
 effects of the different seasons, has so far melio- 
 rated the soil for reception of the seed. 
 
 Potatoes planted in the lazij-hed way, ought 
 always to be the first crop, when dung can be 
 got*. The potatoe-beds are formed across the 
 ridges. A thin layer of dung is then spread over 
 the beds, and the cuttings laid about a foot asun- 
 der, and covered (to the depth of a few inches) 
 with the mould taken cut of the trenches between 
 the beds. ^Vhen the plants appear above ground, 
 they get another thin covering, by a second 
 scouring of the trenches ,- and they require no 
 hoeing till they are taken up. The produce is 
 never less than forty or fifty bolls, of eight Win- 
 chester bushels, and the quality excellent. Vvhen 
 the potatoe crop is removed, the ridges are again 
 formed in the manner as before, and the division- 
 furrows cleared out. 
 
 In this state, the ground remains till next spring, 
 when oats are sown and harrowed in with a small 
 harrovv^, drawn by men. The early oat is always 
 preferred for seed, the late seed running too much 
 to straw. The produce of the first two crops of 
 oats is seldom less than ten bolls (of six Win- 
 chester bushels) per acre, and that of the suc- 
 
 * The quantity of dung is about eighteen or twenty single - 
 horse cart-loads to an acre.
 
 DRAINED BOGS. &C, 209 
 
 ceeding crops, six or eight bolls, and often more. 
 Five or six successive crops of oats are often taken, 
 without receiving any additional manure, or ex- 
 hausting the strength of the moss. By this time, 
 it^ nature has undergone a considerable change, 
 and has now the appearance of a rich black 
 mould, and is sown down with grass-seeds. It 
 is not so favourable to the growth of barle}', 
 which is ne\Tr sown before the first grass. When 
 no dung can be had the first year, and oats taken 
 with lime alone, the crop often misgives; which 
 is a proof, that without dang, unci potatoes for the 
 Jirst Crov, it cannot be productive. The difler- 
 ent kinds of marl are well adapted, and may some- 
 times serve as a substitute for lime; but dung is 
 an inseparable appendage. After the process 
 thus described has been gone through, and the 
 moss lain a few years in grass, it can be plough- 
 ed safely with horses ; which lessens the annual 
 expence of labour, without diminishing the pro- 
 duce. The spade is the only implement for the 
 first years ; and it is astonishing with what neat- 
 ness and expedition the accustomed workmen 
 perform the operation. It is sometimes plough- 
 ed the fourth year, where the moss is not very 
 deep. 
 
 When laid down with grass-seeds, the hay crop 
 is often abundant, and the pasture, afterwards, 
 \vorth 1/. 55. per acre; which shews that the 
 preceding oat crops have not exhausted too much 
 
 p
 
 210 
 
 FURTHER IMPROTEMENT OF 
 
 of its strength *. Rushes are very apt to g^ow 
 up in the pasture ; and (he poaching of heavy 
 cattle ought carefully to be avoided in wet sea- 
 sons. 
 
 Abstract of the Annual Expcncc and Profit j^er 
 Acre, fur Jive Years. 
 
 1st year, 
 
 •Jd 
 
 3d 
 
 4ih 
 
 5th 
 
 Crops, 
 
 Eipence. 
 
 otatoes. 
 
 £.1.5 
 
 IS 
 
 5 
 
 Oats, 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 5 
 12 
 
 o 
 
 Hay, 
 
 
 
 Profit. 
 
 £o 11 7 
 
 4 3 O 
 3 13 8 
 1 O 10 
 3 4 S 
 
 £■26 8 11 X- 12 13 9 
 
 Average profit^ 2l. 10s. 9d. per annum^ and 
 will let for 1/. 55. per acre, in pasture f. 
 
 The diflerent articles of expenditure making 
 up this abstract, are stated at the highest rate, 
 and the articles of produce equally low ; so that, 
 on the wholcj it may be reckoned a fair average ; 
 but the distance from lime, in many places, 
 (which is here at hand), must alter the calcula- 
 tion, and increase the expence. 
 
 •* But this, it does not seem so necessary to lay down 
 with grass, after once manuring it, as in dry land ; for the 
 crops fail little in produce j and the great desideratum is, to 
 have plenty of straw for producing dung, so invariably requisite 
 for the first crop. An intervening crop of turnips, would be 
 an improvement in the rotation. 
 
 t For a detailed account of the expenditure and profit, the 
 reader is referred to the letter already mentioned, from which 
 this abstract is made up.
 
 DRAINED EOGSj &C. 211 
 
 A great deal of moss has now been improved, 
 by cultivating it in the same manner, in the 
 counties of Ayr, Renfrew, and West-Lothian ; 
 and, indeed, these examples have been the means 
 of inciting others to follow the same practice in 
 different parts of Scotland, and which is every 
 day becoming more general. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 I HAVE thus endeavoured to explain, in as pre- 
 cise and explicit a manner as the nature of the 
 subject would permit, the various circumstances 
 and data on which the Art of Draining Land is 
 founded ; together with the manner of its appli- 
 catipn in different cases^ and such directions as I 
 hope will enable the practical farmer to profit by 
 the discovery. 
 
 It will afford me the most lasting satisfaction, 
 if this Work is found materially to contribute in 
 extending the knowledge and practice of an art 
 of such general importance, and so likely to pro- 
 mote the interest of the farmer, and of the public 
 in general. 
 
 John Johnstone, 
 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 T. Gillet, Printer, ^Salisbury-sijuare.
 
 Agricultural Books lateh/ puhlislied Inj Richard 
 Phillips^ Bridge Street, Blackfriars. 
 
 I. 
 
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 'l'L'I\£, including all the Modern Imprcvements and Disco- 
 veries, in which the Principles of Chemistry are applied in ex- 
 planation of the nature and composition of Soils and Manures ; 
 and tho-e of other sciences in the breeding, rearing, and fat- 
 tening of different sorts of live Stock. The whole intended ia 
 combine and explain, fully and completely, the principles and 
 practice of the art of Modern Husbandry. By 11. W. DICK- 
 SOX, M. D. of Hendon, in Middlesex. lu two very large 
 volni7)es, 4to. price 4l. 14s. 6d. in boards, illustrated with 
 nearly one hundred engravings, (thirty of wliich are coloured 
 from nature) representing various kinds of implements and 
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 cultivation, the most approved grasses, and the principal 
 breeds of sheep and cattle, from original drawings. 
 
 Thii copitc.l Work may be had in tiitlwc Monthly Parts, 
 published on the first tlaij gJ every month, at Js. 6d. per Part. 
 
 II. 
 
 THE FAIliMER's KALENDAR ; containing practical ex- 
 planations of the business nece-.sary to be performe.. on va- 
 rious kinds of farms during every iMonth of the Year, with the 
 principles of various new improvements, and instructions for 
 executing them. By ARTHLR YOUNG, ESQ. F. R. 8. 
 Secretary lO the Board of Agriculture, and honorary member 
 of many societies in Europe and Americn. A nevC' edition, in 
 octavo, in one voluraCj Svo. price 10s. dd. iu boards. 
 
 III. 
 
 THE ELEMENTS of LAND SURVEYING, IN ALL 
 ITS BRANCHES, practically adapted for the use of schools 
 and students ; and including Practical Geometr)' ; Trigono- 
 metry ; Land Measure, by the Chain, Plain Table, Theodo- 
 lite, and other Instruments ; the entire practice of Hilly 
 Ground > the Division of Land ; Plotting and Mapping : illus- 
 trated by high-finished Engravings, plain and coloured ; com- 
 plete Tables of Signs and Tangents, Logarithms, &:c. Jvc. &c. 
 By ABRAHAM CROCKER, Land Surveyor, of Frome, in 
 Somersetshire. Illustrated with a greater variety of Copper- 
 plates than any other work of the kind, also with upv.ards of 
 pne hundred Vv'ood Cuts, price 7s. bound.
 
 SUf- 

 
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