GEOGRAltJl (F CC)MMEICE LDEN-- CLARIS LIBRARY OF THE University of California. Class ' Of THE / UNIVERSITY \ Of ,K EEFERENCE R AR UNIVERSITY X califo! EEFEEENCE CHABT OF THE WORLD'S EE80UECES, PRODUCTIONS, AND TRADE. A Geography of Commerce FOR ACADEMIES, HIGH SCHOOLS AND BUSINESS COLLEGES BY JOHN N. TILDEN M.A., M.D., Author of "A Commercial Geography" AND ALBERT CLARKE, M.A., Late President of the United States Industrial Commission ov nolX alia noXv BEN J. H. SANBORN & CO. BOSTON, U. S. A. \ WRANOC New CO (2b K, B Sou 't "T~ V L A Geography of Commerce FOR ACADEMIES, HIGH SCHOOLS AND BUSINESS COLLEGES BY JOHN N. TILDEN M.A., M.D., Author of "A Commercial Geography" AND ALBERT CLARKE, M.A., Late President of the United States Industrial Commission •-r '\ 8 rTT /^ ^ or THE UNIVERSITY or ^ V _ or ov nolX aXXa, nohb BENJ. H. SANBORN & CO. BOSTON, U. S. A Copyright, 1903, by V. B. Tilden. •P R E F A C E. A LARGE proportion of boys in schools expect to enter business life. Com- paratively few have opportunity for the extended training given by a college course, and must depend upon the academy, the high school, or the commercial school for their preparation. The problem is to give boys, having a limited time at their command, the training and knowledge that will be of the greatest prac- tical value in a commercial life. If some facts bearing upon the active commercial questions of the day could be brought within the scope of a text-book, it would seem to supply a want. Among these questions are, the routes and growth of commerce, — the produc- tion-centers and the markets of the world, — waterways and railways, and the increase of commerce as related to the growth of cities. The staple articles of commerce, their relative value and importance, would also deserve attention. The need of such a book has been felt in giving pupils some ideas of the magnitude of the world's production, in showing the interdependence of nations for the necessities as well as the luxuries of life ; and in presenting many facts of practical value relating to commerce. While a Geography of Commerce deals mainly with the interchange of com- mercial products, it is also essential that the student should know something about the countries and localities where the raw materials are found, how the latter are obtained, what the processes of manufacture are, how interchange is effected, and what ratio home consumption bears to export. All these are important questions, that must be studied if practically useful knowledge is to be assimilated. A due sense of perspective has dictated that the staple commodities which direct the world's commerce should receive that greater share of attention which would be impossible were any exhaustive treatment of the countless products of many lands to be attempted. The salient and vital facts which concern man's acti\ities are, after all, but few in number. The merely geographical order, which is necessary in treating of the physical and political aspect of the countries of the world, has here yielded place to a treatment of them in the order of the importance of their existing commerce with the United States. The industries and commerce of our own country iv PREFA CE. receive, for obvious reasons, much fuller consideration than is given to those of any other country ; and following this chapter, in their order, are the chapters on Great Britain, Germany, France, Brazil, etc. In each of these the colonies and the home country are appropriately brought together. To teachers using this book, we would recommend frequent reference to descriptive geography, and the bringing to the notice of classes, articles from the current press bearing upon commerce, the chief productions of the world, and allied topics. In connection with the text, and in smaller type, are presented interesting details, containing information, not so much for memorizing, as to illustrate the current lesson. This feature, serving as it does to separate the essential from the non-essential, will at once commend itself to the class-teacher. In this, the 1903 edition, all necessary information from the great financial centers of the world has been at our disposal, but especial thanks are due the Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief of the United States Bureau of Statistics, for valuable assistance, and suggestions made in every chapter. Our secondary schools are now putting great emphasis upon the commercial courses, and this book fully meets the most exacting demand, commercial or industrial. The abundant maps and diagrams in this book will be found helpful. Pictures to make a book "pretty " are wholly out of place in a Geography of Commerce. JOHN N. TILDEN. ALBERT CLARKE. May, 1903. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE Introduction. — Condensed Historic Review vii I. Commercial Commodities , i II. Commerce and Commercial Highways 35 III. The United States 47 1. Raw Products 47' 2. Manufactures 52 3. Commerce 54 4. Seven Principal Seaports 63 5. Nine Lake Ports 68 6. Ten River Ports 70 7. Colonies 72 IV. Great Britain and Her Colonies 76 1. Scotland 81 2. Ireland 8i 3. British Possessions in Asia 82 4. British Possessions in America 86 5. British Possessions in Australasia 86 6. British Possessions in Africa 89 V, The German Empire 92 VI. The Republic of France 95 VII. The Kingdom of The Netherlands 98 Colonial Possessions of The Netherlands 99 VIII. The Kingdom of Belgium 101 IX. The Kingdom of Italy 103 X. The EiMpire of Japan 105 XI. The Empire of China 107 XII. The Empire of Russia 109 XIII. The Republic of Switzerland 112 XIV. The Empire of Turkey 113 XV. The Kingdom of Greece 115 XVI. Norway and Sweden 116 XVII. Denmark 117 V vi CONTENTS. CHAPTBR PAGE XV'III. Austria-Hungary . . . . , ii8 XIX. Portugal 120 XX. The Kingdom of Spain 121 XXI. The Republic of Mexico 124 XXII. Other North American Countries 126 1. The Central American States 126 2. The Island of Haiti 127 3. Cuba 127 XXIII. The Republic of Brazil 129 XXIV. Other South American Countries 132 1. Venezuela 132 2. The Argentine Republic 133 • 3. Colombia 134 4- Chili 135 5. Uruguay 136 6. Ecuador 137 7. Peru 13S 8. Paraguay 139 9. Bolivia 139 Index 141 COLORED MAPS PAGE 1. Chart of the World's Resources F7-otttispiece. 2. Mediaeval Trade Introduction, . vii 3. Barley, Oats, and Rice Regions 4 4. Mineral Regions of the United States 13 5. Corn, Tobacco, and Sugar Regions 34 6. Chart of the Winds 38 7. Canals of the United States and Canada 40 8. Ocean Telegraph Cables 45 9. Wheat and Cotton Regions 47 ID. Productive Areas of Commercial Staples 61 II. Industrial and Commercial Map of the Eastern Hemisphere 76 P R A R y '■ "- OFTME UNIVERSITY Of f ^ or TMv [ UNIVERSITY INTRODUCTION. Commerce had its crude beginnings in Asia in prehistoric times ; thence it slowly extended throughout the countries bordering on the Mediterranean Sea ; from them to the rest of Europe ; and in the last four centuries it has spread over the New World, as this has become populated by nations of European de- scent. Thus also the industrial civilization which has grown with the growth of trade has steadily taken its way westward, completing in recent times and in our own land the circuit of the globe. Eor long ages the traffic of the ancients, whether from town to town or between different countries, must have been carried on either by the help of navigable rivers, or overland by means of beasts of burden. To the merchants of antiquity the great ocean seemed a barrier, not a help, to commercial under- takings. With the inland seas the case was different. The Mediterranean in partic- ular, whose borders are so largely peninsular in form, must in very early times have tempted to trading ventures the vigorous and progressive races settled upon its shores. It is probable that the first great maritime carriers of goods were the Phoenicians, who inhabited the coast country of Syria, at the eastern extremity of this midland sea. From the earliest times they distributed to the rest of the world the wares of Egypt and Babylon. The situation of their country directly tending to give to the Phoenicians the control of early Mediterranean trade. The grain and ivory of the Nile region, and the silks, dyes, and spices of Asia flowed into their hands. The Phoenicians traded to every part of the Mediter- ranean coast, making many settlements, and founding several important colonies. The Greeks were never active in commerce, but on the other hand they were the greatest colonizers among the nations of antiquity. Long before Carthage had reached her highest renown the Greeks had founded scores of coast cities, some of which like Marseilles, Naples, and Smyrna, are to this day busy centers of commercial life. A few trading settlements also were made at points advan- tageous for Grecian commerce, as at the mouth of the Danube and in the delta of the Nile. The Greeks imported hides and timber from the Black Sea region, ivory and grain from Egypt, and spices and wool from their colonies in Asia Minor. vin A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. About a hundred years before the commencement of our era, Rome had grown to supreme miHtary power. The genius of her people was pohtical rather than commercial. The Romans were, first of all, conquerors and law-givers ; yet the industries necessary to the prosperity of a great population had not failed to develop themselves in Italy, and as the sway of Rome extended over remote regions, it was her policy to adopt and promote whatever of commerce she found existing in them. All the more was this needful because the food supply of Italy had largely to be imported. The tribute levied on the con- quered provinces of the Roman empire was really paid in the products of those provinces. Fro7n Western Eiavpe she received grain, cattle, fruits, and fish, besides salt, tin, lead, iron, and copper. The leading imports/r^w tJie East were metal goods, glassware, and marble ; grains, fruits, and spices ; carpets, dyes, and fabrics of wool and silk. When, in the fourth and fifth centuries, the peo- ples of Northeastern Europe overran the Roman empire, such commerce as had grown up in the ancient world fell into complete decay ; for in that vast and irresistible trespass, the sense of security, on which commerce and the industries that support it always depend, was quite extinguished. For several centuries there was not in all Europe anything that we should call business life. But at length out of this chaos civilization slowly emerged. The northern nations had been Christianized, and the countries of the south had absorbed and assimilated the invading populations. Early in the thirteenth century several German towns formed a hanse, or league, for mutual benefit and protection. This commercial confederation lasted for nearly four hundred years. It is commonly spoken of as the Hanseatic League, and at one time was composed of more than eighty towns. Hamburg, Liibeck, and Bremen, in close proximity to one another, and favorably situated for sea and river trade, were the chief cities of the League. The Hanse towns conducted the trade of Northern Europe. They established their own warehouses and commercial agents as far west as London, and as far east as Upper Nov- gorod, near the site of the modern city of St. Petersburg. From England and The Netherlands the Hanse traders brought linen, wool, tin, hides, and salted fish. From the Baltic countries they got grain, iron, copper, timber, and furs. From Southern and Southwestern Europe they imported wine, oil, salt, and silk. Great quantities of woolens were then made in England, linen and woolen goods in the Lowlands, and silks in France, Spain, and Italy. Constantinople in the east, and Marseilles and Barcelona in the west, were busy commercial ports in the Middle Ages. Considerable overland traffic between the Mediterranean countries and those bordering on the North and Baltic Seas was carried on through the passes of the Alps and by way of the IXTRODUCTION. ix River Rhine. When in 1453, Constantinople was captured by the Turks, trade with the East was ahnost entirely cut off. In 1497 Vasco de Gama discovered the easier and safer sea-route around Africa to India and China. Five years earlier, Columbus had found the " West " Indies. As a result of these remark- able events, the greater part of maritime trade was shifted from Mediterranean to Atlantic waters. Ocean commerce had now begun. Its progress, however, was at first very slow. Throughout the Middle Ages, trade of every kind had been too much disturbed and hindered by wars and tumults to exert its full influence upon society. The European mind was unprepared to take in at once the momentous import of the new discoveries. Thus, for more than a century after the voyages of Columbus, what is now our own country, was still a wilder- ness thinly peopled by savage tribes. The Spanish colonization of South America was greatly stimulated by the discovery of its mines of gold and silver, all the more because there was then great scarcity of the precious metals in Europe. With the East Indies, trade could now be carried on without trans-shipment of goods, and without the hindrances and the heavy costs that had formerly been imposed by the Arabs for overland carriage. An era of ship-building, exploration, and colonization began. Great seaports, like Antwerp and London, grew up on the Atlantic coast of P^urope. Industries whose products were available for the new com- merce became especially active. For three-quarters of a century — from 1500 to 1579 — Antwerp enjoyed very great pros- perity. To her annual fairs came traders from all the cities of Europe, and the river Scheldt was often lined for miles with merchant fleets. In the seventeenth century, Ainsierdain, Flushi)ig, and other ports of Holland, were busy centers of commerce with the Indies, both East and West. The Portuguese planted settlements for trading purposes in Brazil, on the coast of Africa, and in the Indian Archipelago. Later the French founded colonies on the St. Lawrence and the Mississippi. The Dutch established others in the East Indies and at New York. The English settled the eastern shores of North America, and gained a foothold on the peninsula of Hindostan. In three centuries, European colonies were planted on every coast. Remote seas, subdued by the progress of navigation to the service of man, began to yield their own riches in great abundance. The threads of commerce were weaving together the interests of all nations, and extending a security unknown in former ages. In our own time the discoveries of gold in California and Australia, the application of steam-power to navigation and overland carriage, and the invention of the telegraph, have revolutionized the commerce and industries of the world. X A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. Thus, Western Europe has now become a region of manufactures, partially dependent for materials and food on imports from the other continents. A great merchant-marine for conducting international exchanges is therefore a necessity to European life. The vast benefits which steam locomotion and the electric telegraph have conferred on the world's business, are too obvious to require illustration. It is well, however, to note that the advantages resulting from the great gold discoveries have mainly accrued to the nations luitiiin whose territory tJie gold deposits were found. These advantages were of two kinds : — 1. The increased supply of gold temporarily lessened the value of that metal, and, for the time, correspondingly increased the prices of other commodities, together with the wages of labor engaged in producing them. 2. Ever since these discoveries, England and the United States have been exchanging their new gold for the useful products of other countries, and have to this extent, increased their own real wealth. The principal European countries, in the order of the amount of their mer- chant tonnage, are Great Britain, Norway-Sweden, Germany, France, and Italy. Arranged in the order of the value of their commerce, they are Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, and The Netherlands. It will be seen that Great Britain leads in both tonnage and commerce. No other country is so favorably situated for the control of European trade. A hemispherical map, so drawn as to include the great commercial countries of the world, would show London at its center. The greatest manufacturing cities of Europe at the present day are those of greatest population, — London, Paris, and Berlin. The greatest commercial ports are London, Liverpool, Hamburg, and Marseilles. Within recent years, the Mediterranean Sea has been restored to more than its old importance, as a trade-route between Europe and the East, by the opening of the Suez Canal. Note. — What the nations of Europe buy and sell, and with what other nations they carry on commerce, will be fully shown in later chapters. The European colonists who inhabited our Atlantic coast plain at the close of the first century after the settlement, were less than half a million in number. They formed, that is, a population about equal to that of Boston or St. Louis at the present day. To subdue a wilderness and fit it for agriculture was the chief business of these pioneers of Western civilization. They had neither the time nor the facilities to engage systematically in the useful arts, and accord- ingly some of the necessaries and most of the conveniences of life they im- ported from the mother country. To pay for these imports, the colonists sent back to England such natural products as fish, tobacco, rice, furs, pitch, tar, and iron ore. Manufactures, in our sense of the term, and on a large scale, did INTRO D UC TIOX. x not become developed till after the close of the colonial period in 1776. Yet here and there, as we learn from early chronicles, some factory industries appeared. In New England, especially, the rigorous climate and thinner soil discouraged agriculture, and turned men's energies in the direction of trade and manufactures. The building of ships served both of these interests, and was, therefore, from the first, an active industry in the coast and river towns. Paper-mills were set up in Massachusetts and Connecticut, as well as in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware. In almost all the colonies, woolen mills were gradually established. By the middle of the last century, our forefathers had some manufactures of ironware, pottery and glass, paper, leather, woolen, bricks, and cordage. During the Revolutionary struggle our industries whose products were called for by the necessities of the war, became very active. But with the peace came a reaction ; finished products were again imported, and domestic manufac- tures fell off, though ship-building and the carrying-trade revived. Throughout the next twenty years, except for the brief period of the Embargo of 1807, the carrying-trade and the factory industries of the United States were mainly prosperous. The almost continual wars which devastated Europe until the battle of Waterloo in 181 5, threw much of the world's ocean carriage into the hands of American sailors. Steam-power was now being applied to the driving of machinery of all kinds. Coal for use under steam-boilers, and iron for the making of machinery, were imperatively needed. The safety-lamp and the steam-pump had made possible the mining of coal and iron on an extensive scale. The only thing then wanting to insure the rapid growth of cotton manu- factures was an abundant supply of the fiber at a cheap rate. This, the con- temporaneous invention of the cotton-engine, or "gin," by Eli Whitney, at once supplied. In about ten years, there were 30,000 s])indles in operation in the United States; in 1830, a million and a quarter; and there are now more than ten times that number. Manufactures of IcatJier, iron, wool, paper, and glass were sufficiently developed in the early part of this century, not only to supply all the needs of our own population, but to allow^ of some export. The second war with Great Britain closely resembled the Revolution in its influence on American industries and trade. It increased the demand for domestic products, because foreign imports and competition were cut off. . While the war lasted, home manufactures were therefore stimulated, and after the peace, they continued in a prosperous condition. To the mechanics and laborers of crowded Europe, America held out tempting advantages, and in 1820, about 8000 of them sought homes in the New World. Those who had xii A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. been employed in factories abroad, found employment in similar factories here ; but the majority were tillers of the soil, and these newcomers, in their search for homes, pushed the frontiers of civilization westward. With the European peace of 1815, ocean commerce revived, and various nations strove for supremacy in it. The Americans were masters of seamanship, and their disposition for trade kept their merchant fleets busy. Ship-builders vied with one another in constructing vessels of great speed, and in i860, the tonnage of the merchant-marine of the United States had become nearly equal to that of Great Britain. Many "clipper" ships belonged to this fleet. They were then the swiftest sailers ever built. The Civil War in America (1861 — 1865) broke out at the critical time when steam was superseding the sail, and, while our commercial development was hindered by this war, the trading- nations of Europe were adding fleets of ocean steamships to their merchant- marine. Another advance, almost as momentous in its influence upon navigation, was the change in the material of ship-building. The sailing-ship had been made of wood ; the ocean steamship was now being made of iron. Iron ships are more durable than those made of wood, and, being more rigid, can better bear the strain of heavy steam machinery. In fact, the screw- propeller has been found to be inapplicable to wooden ships of very large capa- city. Moreover, iron ships draw less water, and have greater stowage capacity than wooden ships of the same tonnage. For many years the energies of the people of the United States have been devoted to developing the resources of the country, somewhat at the expense of the merchant-marine. Though our commerce steadily increases, our foreign carrying-trade has greatly fluctuated in amount, with a marked tendency to decline. In our coast and inland commerce, from which foreign ships are ex- cluded, our carrying-trade has kept pace with the extraordinary growth of our domestic exchanges. The proper significations of the terms merchant-marine, carrying-trade, and commerce should be observed. It is common to infer from the phrase, "the decay of our merchant-marine," that the foreign commerce of the United States is declining. Commerce is the buying and selling of goods ; the carrying-trade is simply the business of transporting them ; the merchant-marine is the total shipping engaged in this freight business. The Civil War of 1 861- 1865 was injurious to the commerce of our country, cutting off for the time the natural export of cotton and the other staples of the South ; but with the close of the conflict this trade at once resumed its course. During the same four years, however, our Atlantic carrying-trade met reverses from which it has not IXTKOnC^CT/ON. Xlil recovered. Ocean ventures under our ilag were hazartlous for the tinie, and our carryin<;"-trade fell mainly into l^ritish hands. The last twenty years have witnessed the industrial development of the Southern States, the opening of the vast wheat-fields of the Northwest, a mar- velous extension of the railway systems oi the United States, and an immense increase in our coastwise and lake trade. Two recent acts of Congress are of great importance, the one to our domes- tic trade, and the other to our foreign commerce. 1. The former of these is the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887. Under the Constitution, Congress has power "to regulate commerce bctivecn the States,'^ and the purpose of this law is to cause railway companies which operate lines /// })iorc t/inn one Sfafr to make equable and just rates for transporting goods. Local or individual discriminations on such roads are not now lawful. A Com- mission of three persons hears and tries complaints against any railway charged with disobeying the law. 2. Treaties of commercial reciprocity have recently been made with several foreign nations. In the winter of 1 889-1 890 an International Congress, com- posed of delegates from all the republics of the Western Continent, was held at Washington. This Congress directed special attention to the commerce between the United States and the countries to the south of us. As a general statement, it may be said that we have bought of these countries more than they have bought of us. In other words, our exports to them have paid for only a part of our imports from them. The balance of payment has been made up of European merchandise, shipped to Mexico and Central and South America, which merchandise, in turn, has been paid for by exports from the United States to Europe. But these southern countries have taken manufactures freely from Europe, while we have sent to Europe agricultural products. We, therefore, in effect, have sent breadstuffs, cotton, and provisions to Europe to pay for millions of dollars' worth of imports into the United States from the countries south of us. The ques- tion, therefore, arose whether the payment could not be made in full, by exports of manufac- turcs to South America instead of by exports aifariii produce to Europe. Treaties of mutual trade concessions were made in 1891 with Brazil, Santo Domingo, and Spain. They were followed by a considerable increase in our exports to the markets affected, but terminated in 1894 by the enactment of a new tariff law which repealed the act under which they were made. Recipro- city treaties were made with France in 1898, and Germany, Italy, and Portugal in 1900, by which those governments reduced their tariff rates on certain arti- cles from the United States in consideration of a reduction of duty by the United States on certain products of those countries. The number of articles affected by these agreements is, however, limited, and the effect upon trade has not been strongly marked. The most effective reciprocity treaty in the history XIV A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. of agreements of this kind by the United States is that made with the Hawaiian Islands in 1876, by which sugar, molasses, rice, and fruits from those islands were admitted free of duty into the United States ; and breadstuffs, meats, and manufactures from the United States were admitted free of duty into those islands. Under this treaty the exports from the United States increased from less than one million dollars in 1876 to over nine millions in 1886, over eleven milions in 1896, and over twenty millions in 1900. Note. — An account of the industries, productions, and exchanges of the United States is given in the chapters which follow. A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. CHAPTER I. COMMODITIES IMPORTANT TO COMMERCE. I. — FOOD SUBSTANCES, Beef and Beef-Products No other species of animal is of so great service to mankind as that commonly known as neat-cattle. From the most remote times these animals have been closely associated with the industries of mankind as beasts of burden, in tilling the soil, and in gathering the harvests. Their flesh serves as one of the chief articles of food for nearly three-fourths of the world's population, while milk and other dairy products probably rank next after grain and meat in the order of value. Leather, made from their hides, is used in one form or another by three-fourths of the world's population ; and the horns, hoofs, and hair are utilized in a variety of ways. Cattle are reared for different objects. In thickly inhabited countries milk- producing qualities are most desirable, while in grazing countries beef-producing qualities are sought. The cattle interests of the United States are greater than those of any other country,^ Our dairy interests alone represent an investment of twenty times the bank capital of the country. The number of milch cows in the United States is estimated at 1 7,000,000, with an average yearly yield of 350 gallons of milk each. The quantity of butter made is nearly 1,500,000,000 pounds, and of cheese 300,000,000 pounds annually. In 1900 the value of the dairy products was estimated at $590,000,000, — a sum exceeding the value of the wheat crop. The value of the beef, butter, cheese, leather, and other products of beef, exported from the United States is annually more than $50,000,000.^ ^ The number of cattle slaughtered and dressed for market in Chicago, the center of the Amer- ican beef business, is aimually about two millions. - The total export of provisions, including meat and dairy products, in 1902, was ^196,959,637. In 1902 over 500,000 cattle were inspected by the government for export. Averaging about 1,400 I 2 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. The other chief beef-producing countries are the Argentine Republic and Uru- guay. In Europe, dairy-products and beef are exported by The Netherlands, Denmark, and Ireland. Fish. — Fish are found in abundance and variety in nearly all waters, salt and fresh. Commercially, the salt-water fisheries are of much the greater value, and the important ones are few in number. The banks off the coast of New- foundland and Nova Scotia are the most prolific fishing-grounds, and are yearly visited by about 5000 vessels. The largest fleet of these vessels hails from the United States. The other countries represented are Canada, Great Britain, F'rance, and Norway. The fishing-banks next in productiveness are those of North Norway, and in the vicinity of Iceland. The North Pacific Ocean, in the vicinity of Alaska and the island chains, also contains valuable fishing-grounds. The Japanese have a considerable fleet in the northwestern part of this ocean, but along the American coast fishing is less vigorously pur- sued. Since 1 898, however, many vessels have been added to the fleets sailing from San Francisco, Puget Sound, and British Columbia. Codfish, the most abundant of salt-water food-fishes, are caught on all great banks, as are also halibut. Mackerel are caught in the north Atlantic near the shore. These three species are the only salt-water fishes of great commercial value. The young of the herring and menhaden are caught in abundance on the coast of Maine, and canned as " sardines." Red-snappers, croakers, and shrimp are taken in the Gulf of Mexico. Shad and salmon are salt-water fish that run into fresh water to spawn. Shad abound in the rivers of the Atlantic pounds each, these cattle represent 700,000,000 pounds live weight, of which about 420,000,000 pounds would be available for food. But this is by no means the whole of our contribution to the world's supply of beef. In the same year the exports of fresh beef were 301,000,000 pounds, valued at ^29,000,000, and the exports of canned, salted, and other cured beef amounted to 115,000,000 pounds, valued at $9,000,000. In all, the weight of beef shipped abroad, live, slaughtered, and packed, ex- ceeded 1,000,000,000 pounds. Most of the cattle for e.vport were taken from the States of the West. Iowa is the greatest dairying State, producing about one-tenth of the product of the whole country, but the beef supply comes mainly from the ranges still farther West. The total number of cattle in the United States is estimated at nearly 52,000,000. About 1,365,000 square miles are devoted entirely to the rearing of cattle, being mainly the Trans-Mississippi pastures of the buffalo herds at the beginning of the century. The large supplies of fresh beef for- merly drawn from New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, come to market no longer; but, instead, the supplies for eastern cities and for export are mainly drawn from the far Western States and Terri- tories. This is because, as the value of land rises, it becomes less profitable to employ it in cattle- raising, especially in competition with the beef from the far West ; but as cattle are growing relatively scarce, and the consumption of beef increases in prosperous times, higher prices must be expected. The export of fresh beef is of comparatively recent development, and is due solely to improved means for ocean transportation. COMMERCIAL COMMODITIES. 3 slope, and salmon in the rivers of the Pacific coast. The leading salmon- fisheries of the world are along the Columbia River and the numerous rivers of Alaska. Salmon abound also in Okhotsk Sea ; but these fisheries are not developed. In luu'oi^e, cod, halibut, haddock, and herring are the leading fish. Sar- dines are caught off the coast of France, Spain, and Portugal, and near the islands of the Mediterranean Sea. Other salt-water live products are oysters, clams, and lobsters. The most extensive shell-fish beds in the world are along the coast of the United States. Chesapeake Bay is the principal seat of oyster-dredging ; but there are valuable beds on the coasts of New England, Long Island, and New Jersey, and in the Gulf of Mexico. Large beds of oysters have been planted o\\ our Pacific coast. In Europe most of the oysters come from the coa.sts of P' ranee and Plolland, Lobsters are caught along the coa.sts of New England and Canada in North America, and of Scotland, Ireland, and Norway in Europe. The inland fisheries of many countries furnish valuable food supplies ; but, owing to the fact that the fish cannot be transported far, they are of little commercial value. In the United States the white-fish of the Great Lakes are of considerable commercial consequence. The sturgeon of the Volga River in Russia are the most important product of the inland fisheries of Europe. Fish-culture is now carried on by nearly all leading nations, and valuable food-fish from one part of the w^orld are transported to other parts and planted in exhausted fisheries. The fisheries of the United States are more valuable than those of any other nation, and give employment to 150,000 men. Massachusetts and Maine carry on nearly one-half of the general fisheries, though New York, Maryland, and California have considerable fishing-fleets. These include both shore and deep-sea fisheries. The salmon fisheries of Oregon are of great value, though in Alaska there are rapidly developing the most extensive salmon fisheries ever known. In 1901 Alaska exported nearly 100,000,000 pounds. Nearly all the sperm-oil of commerce, and most of the whale-bone and whale-oil, is got by the steam-whalers. The most valuable of whale fisheries are off the northern and western coasts of Alaska. The most important and extensive oyster-beds in the world are in Chesa- peake Bay, and along the coast of Virginia. These are natural beds. In several places along the coast, artificial beds have been planted, particularly on the shores of New Jersey, Long Island, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massa- A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. chusetts, and these are now second in value to the Chesapeake Bay beds. Oysters have been planted on the coast of California with some success. Pork and Pork-Products. — Swine have always been a source of food supply in Europe and Asia. In warmer countries the flesh is not considered whole- some. In Europe the raising of swine is confined mainly to Great Britain and the Balkan states. But rearing swine and curing pork is a greater industry in the United States than in any other country. Owing to the fact that our staple crop, Indian corn, affords the best food for these animals, American pork is superior to that of Europe, as corn makes the flesh harder. The leading pork-producing States are, Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Missouri, Kansas, Indiana, Nebraska, and Texas. For the year ending March i, 1902, the number of hogs packed in Chicago was 7,636,000 ; in Kansas City, 3,427,802 ; while the total number packed and marketed in the country was more than 30,000,000. MIUPONS OF DOLLARS n an eo 90 120 150 180 210 240 ILLINOIS KANSAS NEBRASKA NEW YORK INDIANA MISSOURI Slaughtering and Meat Packing in the Six Leading States, Value of Product ; 1900. The value of the exports of hog-products from the United States in 1902 was 127,000,000. This includes bacon, ham, salted and pickled pork, lard, and lard-oil. Barley. — Barely was formerly used for food in northern countries, where it was supposed that wheat would not grow. But wheat has very generally super- seded it, both as a crop and as food. Barely is cultivated in the western part of the United States, and in Canada, and forms a small export. Cocoa. — The cocoa-tree, grows mainly in America, to which continent it is indigenous. Cocoa is an important article of commerce in the Spanish Ameri- can nations, the United States, and Spain. In its various forms the products of this tree are called nibs, shells, cocoa, chocolate, broma, etc. The greatest consumers of the beverages made from the cocoa-seed are the Spanish and Portuguese, who have long preferred them to either coffee or tea. The manu- facture of chocolate is an increasing industry in France, from which country our own supply of this product is chiefly derived. We take cocoa, shells, and leaves from South America and the West Indies to the annual value of about $3,500,000. ntritude 100 \0 .^y^/Mtiii'M z^ ir^pe. sump- ntries. world's luccd. lulies, Of THE . UNIVERSITY Mocha uct of of the ; more D0,000 ly, and /er ten ,'lgium, in the ; inter- imerce. , Italy, Califor- mas, in 5; figs, ica and grape- •ishable djacent X ),ooo, the nada has a United he value I PADRE ISLAND rowiisville United . This liefly in coMAfERC/AL co.\r.\roniTiES. 5 Coffee. — Coffee was in use in Arabia long before it was known in Euro]:)e. But since its intrtKluction to the commercial world, 200 years ago, its consump- tion has enormously increased. Its growth is limited to a few countries. A century ago coffee-growing was introduced into Brazil, and half the world's supply now comes from that country. Java ranks next in the amount produced. The rest of the supply comes from Ceylon, Abyssinia, Arabia, the West Indies, Liberia, and Central and South America. The best variety is grown in Yemen, a province in Arabia, of which Mocha is the capital ; and the coffee derives its name from that city. The product of Java stands next in favor ; but nearly all of the " Mocha " and much of the "Java" coffee consumed in the United States comes from Brazil. Coffee is not grown in the United States, yet this country consumes more than any other nation. The average annual importation is about 870,000,000 pounds, an amount greater than that used by Austria, France, Germany, and Great Britain together. The total consumption in the United States is over ten pounds per capita. Two countries of Europe, The Netherlands and Belgium, show even a larger consumption per capita than this. Of the coffee used in the United States, Brazil furnishes seventy per cent. Fruits. — The introduction of steamship navigation has made the inter- change of fruit-products among nations a very important branch of commerce. Oranges are raised chiefly in the West Indies, Florida, California, Spain, Italy, and Asia Minor ; lemons, in Italy, Spain, the West Indies, Florida, and Califor- nia ; pine-apples in the West Indies, Mexico, and Central America ; bananas, in Central America, tropical South America, the West Indies, and Mexico ; figs, in Asia Minor, Turkey, Florida, and California ; dates, in Northern Africa and Arabia ; prunes and plums, in Austria, France, Turkey, and Italy ; and grape- raisins, in Spain, France, Turkey, and California. Owing to the perishable nature of the commodity, traffic in many small fruits is limited to adjacent countries. The United States annually imports fruits and nuts to the value of nearly $20,000,000, the leading item being bananas to the value of over 54.000,000. The apples of commerce are shipped mainly from the United States, though Canada has some trade in this fruit. The value of apples, green and dried, exported from the United States in 1900 was ;?3,692,5o6, and the same year canned fruits were exported to the value of $3,127,278. Maize Maize, or Indian corn, is the leading food-crop of the United States, and, with the manufactures from it, is of great commercial value. This cereal requires a warmer climate than wheat, and is therefore raised chiefly in COMAfKRC/AL COAfMi^niT/ES. 6 Coffee. — Coffee was in use in iVrabia long before it was known in lun-ope. But since its introduction to the commercial world, 200 years ago, its consump- tion has enormously increased. Its growth is limited to a few countries. A century ago coffee-growing was introduced into Brazil, and halt the world's supply now comes from that country. Java ranks next in the amount produced. The rest of the supply comes from Ceylon, Abyssinia, Arabia, the West Indies, Liberia, and Central and South America. The best variety is grown in Yemen, a province in Arabia, of which Mocha is the capital ; and the coffee derives its name from that city. The product of Java stands next in favor ; but nearly all of the " Mocha " and much of the "Java" coffee consumed in the United States comes from Brazil. Coffee is not grown in the United States, yet this country consumes more than any other nation. The average annual importation is about 870,000,000 pounds, an amount greater than that used by Austria, France, Germany, and Great Britain together. The total consumption in the United States is over ten pounds per capita. Two countries of Europe, The Netherlands and Belgium, show even a larger consumption per capita than this. Of the coffee used in the United States, Brazil furnishes seventy per cent. Fruits. — The introduction of steamship navigation has made the inter- change of fruit-products among nations a very important branch of commerce. Oranges are raised chiefly in the West Indies, Florida, California, Spain, Italy, and Asia Minor ; lemons, in Italy, Spain, the West Indies, Florida, and Califor- nia ; pine-apples in the W^est Indies, Mexico, and Central America ; bananas, in Central America, tropical South America, the West Indies, and Mexico ; figs, in Asia Minor, Turkey, Florida, and California ; dates, in Northern Africa and Arabia ; prunes and plums, in Austria, France, Turkey, and Italy ; and grape- raisins, in Spain, France, Turkey, and California. Owing to the perishable nature of the commodity, traffic in many small fruits is limited to adjacent countries. The United States annually imports fruits and nuts to the value of nearly S-o,ooo,ooo, the leading item being bananas to the value of over 54.ooo.coo. The apples of commerce are shipped mainly from the United States, though Canada has some trade in this fruit. The value of apples, green and dried, exported from the United States in 1900 was ^$3,692, 506, and the same year canned fruits were exported to the value of 53.127,278. Maize Maize, or Indian corn, is the leading food-crop of the United States, and, with the manufactures from it, is of great commercial value. This cereal requires a warmer climate than wheat, and is therefore raised chiefly in 6 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. the States south of the wheat-growing belt. Corn is the main food-supply of the people of Mexico, Central America, and South America, and is an important element of diet in Southern l^urope, as well as in the United States. Besides entering directly into the food-supply of many nations, corn is largely used in fattening cattle and swine for market, its fattening properties exceeding those of any other grain. It also enters into the manufacture of alcohol and alcoholic liquors, starch, and glucose. Corn starch is a common article of diet in the United States, and is extensively exported. The Kingsford factory at Oswego, New York, produces 25,000,000 pounds of starch annually. Glucose, or "grape" sugar, is largely used in making confectionery, and various food-prod- ucts in which sweetening is required. Three-quarters of the Indian corn supply of the world is raised in the United States. The farm value of our corn crop in 1902 was estimated at $1,017,017,349. Potatoes. — The potato is cultivated in nearly every part of the civilized world, and is an important reliance for food to the mass of people in Germany and Ireland. In most other European countries, as well as in the United States and Canada, it is also used to a very great extent. Except in a year when the crop of some consuming nation is a failure, this tuber is of little commercial value. In 1887, when the crop in the United States was small, potatoes were imported to the value of over $3,500,000, most of the supply coming from Canada, Scotland, and England. In the warm and in equatorial regions a species called the sweet potato is extensively raised. This and a tuber called the yam, are a considerable export when the crop is harvested, but they keep only a short time. Common potatoes are much used in the manufacture of starch. Like maize, the potato is indigenous to America ; but it is now cultivated in all civilized lands ; and its comparative consumption is greater in some European countries — notably in Ireland and Germany — than in our own. Rice. — Rice, the main food supply of the most of the inhabitants of Asia, is a staple article of diet for a greater number of people than any other food- product. In the commerce of the more advanced nations, however, it plays a comparatively small part, since it is not used largely as food either in Europe or North America. Rice is grown to greater perfection in South Carolina, Georgia, North Carolina, Louisiana, and Mississippi than in Asia ; yet most of the world's supply comes from China, the East Indies, Korea, and Egypt. Sugar. — Sugar is an article of great commercial value, and in the past century has received more attention than any other vegetable food-product. com.\[i-:rcjal (Ji)M modi rues. i The greatest source of suppl)- has until rccx'ntly hccn the sugar-cane of the I^ast and the West Intlies. l-?)- careful cultivation the amount of sugar in the sugar-beet has been greatly increased. The latter grows in a more temperate climate than that required by the sugar-cane, and is raised to great perfection in continental Europe. Beet-sugar production is rapidly increasing in the United States. The annual sugar-product of the world now reaches 9,500,000 tons, two thirds of which is made from the beet. Germany leads in the production of beet-sugar, and is followed in order by Austria, France, Russia, l^elgium, and the United States. The sugar made from the cane is slightly more soluble than that made from the beet, and hence has a sweeter taste. By governmental pat- ronage and a system of bounties, beet-sugar has grown to be an important rival of cane-sugar. The more important cane-sugar regions are Cuba, Java, Brazil, Egypt, the Philippine Islands, Peru, India, the United States,^ and the Hawaiian Islands. The sugar is extracted from the cane in the country where it is grown. The crystalline part of the extract is the raw sugar of commerce, and the liquid part is the molasses. In the United States most of the sugar-refining, or manufacture of white sugar, is done in Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Boston, and San Francisco. The consumption of sugar in the United States is about 2,400,000 tons a year. Of this amount Cuba furnishes a large proportion. The rest comes chiefly from other islands (jf the West Indies, from Hawaii, Germany, Brazil, and from manufacture. Louisiana is the only State in the Union in which sugar- cane to any considerable amount is grown. The manufacture of beet-sugar has become an active industry in many States, — Michigan, California, Utah, and Nebraska, the product amounting in 1901 to 124,859 tons. Our government has experimented with sorghum for several years, but it is yet a question whether sugar can profitably be made from the sorghum cane. The making of glucose, or "grape-sugar," from corn is an active industry in the United States. Sugar is made in New England, New York, and parts of Canada from the sap of the sugar-maple, but the crop is small and of but little commercial consequence. Tea. — Tea was introduced into Europe about three hundred years ago, and has now become an important article of commerce. China produces a large 1 There is prospect of a considerable extension of sugar-making in Florida now that much rich sugar-land is being reclaimed by drainage. The average crop of Louisiana is about 300,000 tons, but there are sugar-lands in the state sufficient to double or even triple this production. Texas has many thousand acres of fine sugar-lands, and is rapidly developing this industry. An enormous increase is promised in the sugar production of the United States, but it will for a long time be less than the consumption. 8 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. part of the world's supply. The other tea-producin<^ countries are India, Japan, Java, and Ceylon. India is fast assuming chief importance as a tea-growing country, and furnishes more tea for the English market than China. Attempts have been made to introduce tea-culture into South America, Australia, South Africa, and the United States, but with little success. There are two leading kinds of tea, and several grades of each kind. Black tea comes from China and India, while green tea comes from Japan, and to a limited e.xtent from China. Australia, Great Britain, and Russia are the three greatest tea-consuming countries ; and in these countries the use of coffee is decreasing. In the United States there is an increasing consumption of coffee and a decreas- ing consumption of tea. The importation of tea into the United States is about 96,000,000 pounds a year, nearly all of it coming from China and Japan. In several South American states a kind of tea called Paraguay tea, ox yerba mate, is used. It is an important article of traffic in South America, particularly among the native population. Wheat. — Wheat is the food grain of the more civilized nations of the world, and the leading grain crop of Europe. It grows in almost any climate except the hot belts, but it reaches the greatest perfection in those parts of the Temperate Zone where the summers are very hot and the winters cold. The rich soil of the northern half of the United States and the southern and western parts of the Dominion of Canada provides the best conditions for raising this grain, and more than a quarter of the world's supply is grown in this territory. The other leading wheat-producing sections of the world are the rich plains of Russia north of the Black Sea, Austria-Hungary, the Balkan states, France, and India. Wheat is also grown in Germany, Denmark, England, and Australia, but not in quantities sufificient to supply the home demand. The quantity of wheat raised to the acre is dependent largely upon the weather ; but the average productiveness of the Northwestern States of the Union is far in excess of that of other wheat-producing countries. While the Dakotas, Minnesota, and Illinois produce from fifteen to twenty bushels to the acre, Russia and the Balkan states produce from six to ten, India about the same quantity, but of inferior quality, and Australia from three to eight bushels to the acre. The international trade in wheat and wheat-flour now far exceeds that in any other vegetable food-product, and in fact is only surpassed by that in raw COMMERCIAL COMMODITIES. 9 and manufactured textiles. It may bo generally stated that wheat is bought by the nations of Western Europe, and sold by the United States, Canada, and Russia. The United States produces about one-fifth of the wheat grown in the world. Until 1S49 more than one-half our product was confined to the New England and other Atlantic States; 43 per cent was grown in the Middle States; and only 5 per cent in the States and Territories west of the Mississippi River. Wheat-growing has moved westward at the rate of about nine miles a year. In the Eastern States, less than 15 per cent is now grown ; in the Middle States about 40 per cent ; in the Western States upwards of 45 per cent. II. — TEXTILE SUBSTANCES. Cotton. — Cotton is the most important of all the vegetable fibers. The cotton plant is found on all the continents, but the American plant produces the most valuable fiber, except that grown in Egypt. The annual product of THE WORLD THE UNITED STATES Annual Cotton Crop of the World in Million Bales. all the cotton-growing countries is about 14,000,000 bales, the average weight to the bale being 500 pounds. Four-fifths of the supply come from the United States ; the rest from the East Indies, Egypt, Brazil, the West Indies, and Turkey. Cotton, as grown in the United States is of two kinds, — the "sea-island," which has a long fiber and grows on the islands off the coast of Georgia, MILLIONS OF DOLLARS MASSACHUSETTS S.CAROLINA N.CAROLINA RHODE ISLAND PENNSYLVANIA NEW HAMPSHIRE Cotton Goods, Value of Product in Six Leading States, 1900. Florida, and South Carolina; and "upland," which grows on the mainland. Nearly all the cotton of commerce is upland, and this is divided into a dozen or more distinct qualities. Sea-island cotton is too expensive for general manu- 10 ./ GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. facture. Nearly all the cotton-product of the United States is grown in Mississippi, Georgia, Texas, Alabama, Arkansas, South Carolina, Louisiana, North Carolina, and Tennessee. The States ^^1^°^.^___^^ of Missouri, Virginia, and Kentucky, and ^^^^^^B ^"^V^,^^ the Territories of Oklahoma and Indian ^^^^^^^H \^ Territory also produce cotton to a limited ^^^^^^^^^H \ In the manufacture of cotton. Great ^^^^^^^^^H \ Britain leads all other nations'; the United ^^^^^^^^^^ I States ranks second, Germany third, and ^^^^^^^^ / France fourth. But while the number of ^^^^^r / spindles is not increasing in Great Britain, ^^r / the reverse is true of the United States. N^ j/ During the past quarter of a century the ^ ■ — ""^ export of raw cotton from the United Diagram Showing the Exports and Home States has averaged over ^200,000,000 in Consumption of Raw Cotton. Export value a vear Of the raw products cotton is com- mercially the most valuable. The manu- in White ; Home Consumption in B/ac/(. factured product in 1900 was $339,000,000. Flax. — Flax is a vegetable fiber from which much of the cloth of the world was made until the great expansion of cotton-growing in the United States. Cotton fiber is more easily gathered, requires less bleaching, and is, therefore, cheaper ; it has largely superseded flax in use. The process of preparing flax by which the fiber is made ready for manufacture is elaborate and expensive. The stalk is first softened and rotted so as to separate the bark ; then by a slow process the fiber is removed. This, made white by bleaching, is the linen of commerce. Flax is grown chiefly in Russia, Germany, Austria, Italy, France, Belgium, Ireland, The Netherlands, and -to a small extent in Canada and the United States. The spinning and weaving of linen is carried on chiefly in Great Britain, Germany, and France, but there is a large linen thread manufacture in the United States. Belfast, in Ireland, is a great center of the linen-spinning industry. In the United States flax is grown for the seeds, which are used in making linseed-oil. Hemp. — Hemp fiber is coarser than flax. It is very strong, and is used in making cordage. Two-thirds of the supply used in the United States comes from the Philippine Islands. In 1902 the total import of hemp and other co^r^^^:RCIAL coMMoniriEs. • 11 coarse vegetable fibers for making cordage aiul other similar articles aggregated in value nearly $20,000,000. Sisal grass, or sisal hemp, sometimes called henequin, is the leading crop of Yucatan, and forms an important exj^ort to the United States. The trade in this article has increased from a few thousand dollars to over $9,000,000 annu- ally. This grass is used in making cordage, hammocks, and similar articles. Jute. — - Jute is a coarser fiber than hemp or flax. It is grown mainly in India, and is largely manufactured there. The principal use of jute is for mak- ing very coarse cloth called "gunny," or burlap. The cloth is used extensively in commerce for protecting articles from wear, and when made into bags for carrying commodities, which are thus more conveniently handled than in bulk. From this fiber a coarse kind of paper is also made. Its various manufac- tures are largely developed in Scotland, Dundee being especially celebrated for this industry. A large part of our own supply of jute manufactures is derived from Scotland. We import but little jute fiber, having nearer at hand a cheaper and better article for the same uses m sisal hemp. Silk. — Silk was first introduced into Europe from China, where silk-worms have been carefully reared for centuries. This culture has been extended into Italy, Japan, India, France, Russia, and elsewhere; but half the world's supply of silk still comes from China, where the industry is more skillfully carried on, and the countries named depend largely upon China for silk-worm eggs. Silk is extensively manufactured in China, Japan, and India, and the goods are exported ; but the exports of raw silk from these countries is much more important. France is the leading silk-manufacturing country of Europe ; and Lyons, the center of the industry, is the chief silk-market of the world. Ger- many ranks next to France in this manufacture in Europe, Crefeld being the important center of it. The chief Lyons product is dress-goods, while that of Crefeld is silk- velvet. The United States stands second as a silk-manufacturing nation, and New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, and Connecticut, are the MILLIONS OF DOLLARS NEW JERSEY PENNSYLVANIA NEW YORK CONNECTICUT MASSACHUSETTS I RHODE ISLAND Silk and Wool Goods, Value of Product in the Six Leading States ; 1900. leading States in this industry. The product was mainly sewing-silk, ribbons, and handkerchiefs, but recently the manufacture of dress-goods and velvets 12 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. has largely increased. Silk cloth is very generally worn in China and Japan, but there are no statistics by which a comparison can be made between the manufactured product of these countries and that of Western nations. In 1902 raw silk was imported into the United States to the value of ^42,000,000 — more than half of it coming from Japan. The importation of manufactured silk during the same year was about 32,000,000, and the domestic manufacture exceeded $110,000,000. Wool. — Sheep are raised in most countries, flourishing best where the climate is temperate and pasturage ample. In wool-growing, Australasia, with its annual output of 5 20,000,000 pounds, takes first rank. The Argentine Republic stands second as a wool-growing nation, Russia third, and the United States fourth. Wool is the largest agricultural export of Great Britain, but the greater part of the wool of commerce comes from Australia, New Zealand, Russia, and the Argentine Republic, in which countries the fiber is but little manufactured ; while in the United States wool is very extensively manufactured, and the home supply, though very large, does not* equal the demand. Great Britain is the leading wool-manufacturing nation. France is second, the United States third, Germany fourth, and Austria-Hungary fifth. The manufacture of wool in the United States has its principal seats in New England, New York, and Pennsylvania ; the leading sheep-raising States are Montana, Wyoming, New Mexico, Ohio, Texas, Oregon, Idaho, Michigan, California, and Colorado, the number of sheep exceeding 3,000,000 in each of the last three States, and 6,000,000 in the first. Usually the wool is clipped from the sheep once a year, but in warm sections there are two clips annually. The yearly pro. duction of wool in the world amounts to about 2,500,000,000 pounds. Several other kinds of wool besides that of the sheep are used in making fabrics. The silky wool of the Angora goat, used for very fine and costly fab- dcs, comes chiefly from Asia Minor, though the Angora goat has been intro- o'uced into South Africa, Australia, and the United States. This wool, called mohair, is woven in Persia into choice shawls, and in France, Great Britain, and the United States into plushes and dress goods. The wool of the Cashmere goat, from the Himalaya region, is of two qualities ; the finer fiber being sepa- rated from the coarser by hand. The former is the fiitest quality of wool grown, and is exported to luirope in small quantities. It was first made into shawls at Cashmere in Northern India, whence the name. COMMERCIAL COMMODITIES. 13 III. — METALS. Copper. — Next to iron, copper is the most useful of metals. It is found both in its pure state and in combination with other minerals. Numerous copper-mines exist in Europe, the more important being in Spain and Germany ; but the discovery of rich deposits in other parts of the world has almost entirely chang^ed the source of supply. One-half of the world's copper comes from our own country. The richest and most productive mines in the United States are in Montana, and in Michii;an alon<; the shores of Lake Superior. There are other very valuable deposits in Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. Copper is also produced in Canada, Mexico, Chili, Japan, and Australia. In electric conductivity this metal is almost equal to silver ; and being much cheaper than silver, the recent increase in the uses of electricity has greatly stim- ulated its production. Copper is used for sheathing ocean vessels, for covering roofs, for numerous domestic purposes, and as an alloy, not only with gold and silver, but also for making brass, which is the most extensively used of all alloys. It is likewise a component element in bronze, bell-metal, gun-metal, and other compositions. Valuable substances are obtained from copper by chemical operations, among them verdigris, Paris green, and other coloring substances ; blue vitriol, used for electrical purposes, and in the arts ; and copper paint, which, owing to the cheapness of the substance, is used on the bottoms of coasting- vessels instead of sheathing. Gold. — Gold is one of the few metals that is found in a metallic form. As it usually occurs, it is embedded in quartz, except where the action of water or other elements has separated it. It is found in all parts of the world ; but the largest sources of the world's supply are South Africa, the United States, Australia, and Russia. The Rand mines of the Transvaal supply about one- fifth, while Alaska and the Canadian Northwest are large producers. Gold forms the basis of the coinage of nations. It is also extensively used in the arts, especially in the making of jewelry and the setting of gems. It is softer than most metals, very ductile, and so malleable that it may be beaten into leaves oq^o^ooo ^^ "^^^ 'vciQ\\ in thickness. When used in coins and other manufactured articles, gold is mixed with silver, copper, or other metals to give it a greater degree of hardness. Some of the finest and most delicate colors are chemical combinations of gold, particularly those colors which are used in glass and porcelain decoration. Gold is extracted from the ore by crushing the rock and then agitating the 14 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. finely pulverized ore with water and quicksilver. The latter dissolves the gold- uniting with it to form an amalgam. The foreign matter is washed away, leav- ing the two metals. The quicksilver is then separated from the gold by distil- lation, and is ready to be used again. The cyanide process is used for certain ores. In 1848 the discovery of gold in California caused a rush of people from all parts of the world to that State, and the amount of gold mined there has reached over ^1,000,000,000 in value. Three years later gold was discovered in Victo- ria, Australia ; and the product of the mines of Australia, New Zealand, and Tasmania has aggregated an equal amount. Iron. — Iron is the most extensively used of the metals. It is found in nearly every part of the globe ; but four-fifths of the world's supply come from the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. The United States is the largest iron- and steel-producing nation in the world. One corporation is capital- ized for more than $1,000,000,000, and thus far it has been conservatively managed. We still import iron and steel and their products to an annual value of about $12,000,000 mostly from England, Germany, and Belgium, and small quantities of iron ore from Spain and Cuba. The annual production is rapidly increasing in value.^ No other metal is found in such varying quality as iron. The metal is rarely found in its pure state. The most abundant and workable ores are the oxides and carbonates, the former being the most plentiful and valuable. Iron combined with sulphur is one of the most common of all metal ores ; but it is used only in making sul- phuric acid. To extract iron from the ore, coal and ore are put into the blast furnace together with a varying amount of limestone. Under the intense heat the iron separates from the ore, melts, and collects at the bottom of the furnace, while the other elements of the ore form a slag with the limestone. The latter is light, and floats on the molten metal. This operation is called smelting. The molten iron drawn off from the furnace is the pig-iron of commerce. A "pig" is intended to be a load for one man, and weighs about one hundred pounds. The product of the iron-regions is reckoned in the amount of this pig-iron. There are three ways in which refined iron can be manufactured : first, by remelting and pouring into molds, thus forming cast-iron ; second, by reheating 1 In 1888 the iron and steel goods exported amounted to ^10,000,000. In 1901 the export reached over ^117,000,000 in value. The imports of like goods decreased from #40,000,000 in 1888 to ^12,000,000 in 1901. But in 1902, owing to the great home demand, the export fell to 5276,350 and the import rose to $27,180,247. COMMERCIAL COMMODITIES. 15 pig-iron and forging or rolling it, making malleable, or wrought iron ; and third, by refining the pig-iron, and then combining with it from one to one and a hall per cent of carbon, thereby making steel. Cast-iron contains four or five per cent of carbon, and is brittle and easily broken. Malleable iron is practically free from carbon, and is tough and elastic. In chemical composition steel has a position between cast and malleable iron. It posses.ses many valuable proper- ties, however, that as iron it did not have.' Steel can be tempered to give it almost any degree of hardness, toughness, or elasticity, according to the use to be made of it. The virtues of steel were known to the Ancients, as is shown by the Damascus sword-blades, which can- not be equalled to-day. Until the invention of Sir Henry Bessemer the process of making steel was expensive and required two weeks or longer.- Much of the progress of the world in mechanical and labor-saving contriv- ances is due to the great adaptability of iron for a multitude of uses ; but steel, weight for weight, is of greater strength and durability, and has superseded iron for many purposes. In the building of bridges, in making freight cars, and in the framework of modern fireproof buildings steel now is used instead of wood and iron. These new uses exceed all the old uses and the old have also increased. Since the cost of making it has so greatly reduced, steel has taken the place of iron in many uses, especially in those in which the material is sub- ject to great wear. Car wheels and rails, the hulls of ocean-going ships, and agricultural implements — all formerly made of iron — are now very largely made of steel. The United States, Great Britain, and Germany make nearly all of the world's supply of steel.^ ^ A statistician estimates that a bar of iron worth $5 becomes worth $10 when made into horse- shoes; S55 when changed into steel and made into needles; ^3,285 when made into penknives; $29,500 when made into buttons; and $240,000, or more than its weight in gold, when made into watch-springs. 2 The old process for reducing the amount of carbon in the metal to the required percentage necessitated great care, and was tedious. By the Bessemer process all the carbon is first removed from the metal, then the necessary amount of carbon is added. The time needed for converting the iron into steel is thus reduced from two weeks to fifteen minutes. The steel is made in bottle-shaped iron vessels called converters, each of which holds from five to ten tons. After the steel is formed in the converter, the molten metal is poured into heavy iron molds, and the ingots of steel thus formed are either sold to manufacturers of steel articles, or, as is often the case, transferred to another part of the mill and rolled out into rails for railways, or into other merchantable forms. In a large rolling-mill the iron from the smelter may become a steel rail ready for use in two hours. 3 In 1901 the United States, Great Britain, and Gemiany produced 31,667,894 tons of pig-iron, the product of each being. United States 15,878,354, Great Britain 7,928,647, and Germany 7,860,89-'. The other nations in the order of their product were Russia, France, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Sweden, and Spain, to the total amount of 8,038,153 tons. In the production of steel in 1901 the 16 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. Lead. — Lead is found combined with other substances, usually with sulphur, this mineral being known as galena. Spain was formerly the chief lead-producing country, but of late years the United States has furnished the largest quantity of this metal. The most productive lead-mines in the world are in Colorado and Idaho. Rich deposits are also worked in Utah, Illinois, Iowa, and Missouri. In the Missouri mines zinc is found combined with the lead. Colorado produces immense quantities of lead, nearly all the silver found in the State being com- bined with lead. This metal is also a considerable product of Germany, Spain, and Great Britain. Lead is very malleable, and is easily rolled into sheets ; but it possesses very little tenacity. It is so soft that it can easily be cut with a knife. When sub- jected to heat in the presence of air, lead is converted into an orange-colored powder commonly known as litharge. This is used for making certain pigments, and in glass-making. White lead, which is the basis of most paint, is produced from this metal by chemical process. NickeL — Nickel is one of the less abundant minerals. It is found in various parts of the L^nited States, but the native production is unimportant. Canada is the chief source of the world's supply, followed by France and Germany. In Europe it is combined with copper and zinc, forming the alloy known as " Ger- man silver." This alloy is also made in the United States, but by far the greater part is used in plating iron and brass articles. Nickel-plating is an American invention, and nickel-plated wares are produced to a much greater extent here than in any other country. In the United States, Germany, and a few other countries, an alloy with this metal is used in coins of small denomina- tion. It is also used in the manufacture of glass, in the decoration of pottery, and in other arts and manufactures. Quicksilver. — Quicksilver, or mercury, is sometimes found in the metallic state, but it usually occurs in combination with sulphur. In this form it is known as cinnabar, the artificial form of which is the pigment known as vermilion. This metal is largely employed in the United States in extracting gold and sil- ver from the crushed ore. Until within fifty years the supply was entirely imported. There are several extensive deposits of cinnabar in California ; and her mines produce the entire domestic supply. New mines are reported in Western Texas. Quicksilver is now exported by the United States. Until the United States, Great Britain, and Germany produced 23,000,000 tons, the United States producing more than double both the others. The total product of the worid for that year amounted to over 31,000,000 tons. COAfMENC/AL COA/.UOD/T/ES. 17 discovery of the mines in California the workl'.s supply came from Spain, and Idria in Austria. Quicksilver is used in the manufacture of mirrors, thermometers, barcjmcters, and similar instruments. Its salts are used in medicine. Silver. — Silver is rarely found in its [)ure state. It usually occurs in com- bination with other minerals. In the great Comstock lode in Nevada, gold is associated with the silver. In twenty-five years the mines of this lode produced these metals to the value of $300,000,000. The discovery of the New World led to the development of mines of both the precious metals ; but the ])roduc- tion of silver increased in a much greater ratio than that of gold, and for the past fifty years silver has been growing cheaper. In 1840 the value of silver was one-sixteenth that of gold; in 1900 — one-thirty-third. In 1902 it had decreased to one-thirty-ninth. A large portion of the world's supply of silver has come from the mines of Mexico, Peru, and Bolivia. The mine that furnished the greatest amount is near Potosi, in Bolivia, and it is estimated to have produced metal to the value of $2,000,000,000. Since the development of the mineral wealth of the western part of the United States, our own country has become the chief silver-produ- cing nation ; and more than one-third of the world's supply now comes from the United States, — Colorado and Montana being the two leading States in the yield of the metal. Aside from its use in the coinage of nearly every nation, particularly in the making of small coins, silver is very extensively employed in manufactures and in the arts. The process of depositing a thin coat of silver on the surface of some cheaper metal has led to the manufacture of an enormous amount of plated- ware for household and other purposes. The United States imports silver ores to the value of about $21,000,000 annually, nearly all of it from Mexico. Tin. — Tin is the only metal of value that is not produced in quantity in the United States. Deposits of it exist in the Black Hills and in San Bernardino County, California ; traces of it have also been found in several other places. Nearly all of the block or pig tin used in this country is imported. The mines of Cornwall in the southwest of England have furnished much of the world's supply of tin, and are still quite productive ; but the richest tin mines in the world are on the islands of Banca and Billiton, south of Indo-China, and in Australia. The center of the tin-trade is Singapore, where the product of the mines of Banca and adjoining regions is shipped to market. Owing to the development of our canning industries, the United States is the greatest tin- 18 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. consumining nation. Tin is mainly employed in coating thin sheets of iron or steel to protect them from rust. Tin itself is too expensive to be used in sheet form. Tinned iron is largely employed for household utensils, for roofing and other purposes, as well as in the canning industries. Since 1890 a tinplate manufacture has been built up in this country. The product in 1900 was $31,892,011 and the import only $4,799,796. Zinc. — Zinc is a hard, tough metal, capable of withstanding considerable heat, and not easily corroded, yet it is volatile. Germany and Belgium are the chief sources of supply, but the United States produces one-fourth of the world's output. In 1902 our export of zinc was over two million dollars in value. Great Britain, France, Belgium, and Italy produce small amounts. In the United States, this metal is found mainly in Missouri and Kansas ; it is usually combined with lead and sulphur. Zinc is rolled into sheets, and in this form is much used to protect surfaces exposed to heat. Deposited in thin layers over sheet-iron it becomes the gal- vanized iron of commerce. Zinc and copper are combined to make brass. Aluminum is fast assuming commercial importance. Its production has increased from 283 pounds in 1885 to more than 7,000,000 pounds in 1901, valued at over ^2,000,000. Alum- inum is a light silvery-looking metal, and is the most widely distributed of all metals. It exists in clay, but no method is yet known for its extraction from this substance. Georgia and Alabama are the chief sources of supply in the United States. IV.— OTHER MINERAL SUBSTANCES. Building-Stone. — Building-stone abounds in nearly every part of the world. Three kinds are in general use : granite, sandstone, and limestone. The granite used in the United States comes chiefly from the great quarries in Massachu- setts at Ouincy, Cape Ann, and from Vermont, and to a less extent from Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, and California. Granite is abundant in Scotland, and quarrying it is a consider- able industry. The best-known and most extensively used sandstone is com- monly known as brown-stone. It is quarried at Portland, in the Connecticut valley, and in New Jersey in the neighborhood of Belleville, Other varieties of sandstone are found in nearly every State, Ohio leading in the amount produced. Limestone, the crystaline form of which is called marble, is found in abundance and in beautiful colors in Vermont, Tennessee, Georgia, Massachusetts, North Carolina, Missouri, Iowa, and Indiana. Slate is a rock resulting from altered clay. It has numerous uses, and is found in Pennsylvania, Vermont, Maine, and New York. Some of the most extensive slate-quarries in the world are in Wales, COAfMKRC/AL COMMODITIES. 19 Clay and Clay-Products. — Clay is one of the most abundant and useful of minerals. It is converted into brick, terra-cotta, china, and porcelain, by work- ing, molding, and baking. Different qualities of clay are used for making different articles. Brick and terra-cotta work are made from coarser grades which usually contain iron, the latter giving the reddish color to the product. Common heavy chinaware is made from better grades of clay, while porcelain is made from the finest and purest white clay, called kaolin. In the manufacture of china and porcelain a small proportion of lime is combined with the clay to complete the chemical change by baking, and feldspar is added to impart a crystaline quality. It is estimated that the brick and terra-cotta product of the United States amounts in value to $70,000,000 yearly. Beds of clay are so universal that the cruder forms of the manufactures of clay are produced in nearly every country ; but the manufacture of porcelain, china, and art-pottery, is limited to a few countries. The finest porcelain is made in and near Dresden in Germany, at Serves and Limoge in France, in Worcestershire in England, to a limited extent in Chin^ and Japan, and to an increasing extent in the United States. Most of the common chinaware of commerce, often called stoneware, is made in England. Germany and Austria-Hungary rank next in the amount produced. This ware is also made in the United States, chiefiy in Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, New York, and Illinois. Large quantities of artistic pottery are made in Worcestershire, and else- where in England, to be shipped to all parts of the world. Ohio and New Jersey are the leading States for this industry in the United States ; Trenton, N.J., Syracuse, N.Y., and East Liverpool, O., being famous for their pottery. In Cincinnati a kind of ware called Rookwood pottery is manufactured. Coal. — Coal is one of the most valuable of mineral substances. It has been used as fuel for about three centuries ; but its great value has been demon- strated only within the past fifty years, with the development of steam-power in manufacturing. Coal is found in nearly every country ; but over four-fifths of the world's supply come from Great Britain, the United States, and Germany. The output of the United States is now about 300,000,000 tons, or more than the production of Great Britain, and Germany yields about half as much. Un- developed coal areas are known to exist in China, Alaska, Russia, Turkey, Japan, Brazil, Mexico, and Canada. This mineral is found in several forms — the most important being the anthracite and the bituminous varieties. Bituminous coal yields much gas and 20 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. tarry oil when heated. In anthracite coal these are wanting, having been driven off while the coal was in the process of formation ; the coal, therefore, gives an intense heat with but little smoke. The amount of manufacturing that can be done in a country, particulariy in iron- and steel-working, is limited by the amount of fuel at hand. In Sweden, where very little coal is mined, but vast forest areas are near by, charcoal is used, instead of coal, in working iron. In most of the great manufacturing nations coal and iron are found together, or within convenient distances, and manufacture is thus greatly cheapened. Some of the deepest coal-mines in the world are in Belgium, where they have been sunk to a depth of 3,500 feet or more beneath the surface. The limit of deep mining is said to be 4,000 feet. Coal is found in seams or beds, w^hich vary in thickness from a few inches to 60 feet. In Europe these seams are numerous, but generally thin ; while in the United States the coal-veins are less numerous, but those now developed are thicker and more easily worked. Until the intro- duction of the steam-engine, mining was limited to shallow excavations, owing to lack of means for keeping mines free from water. The presence of a gas called fire-damp, which is very combustible, and has caused many great disasters, is the chief peril in coal-mining. The use of safety-lamps, through which a flame cannot pass, and the thorough ventilation of mines by means of steam- fans, have greatly lessened the danger from this source. Coke is extensively made from bituminous coal by heating the coal until the volatile constituents are driven off. It is, therefore, an artificial anthracite, and makes a smokeless fire. Coke is extensively used in smelting metals, particu- larly in iron- and steel-working. The gas used for illuminating and heating purposes is made by distilling bituminous coal. This process of distillation also removes the hydro-carbons, commonly called coal-tar. A ton of coal yields about 10,000 feet of gas, and about thirty gallons of this tar. One of the products from the tar is a sub- stance called aniline, which is the base from which many beautiful colors are made ; and much of the dyeing of the world is now done with aniline dyes. More than a hundred varieties of dyes are now made in this way, and these have largely supplanted vegetable and animal dyes. Coal-tar and creosote, a distillate from it, are used to saturate piles and other woods used in harbor-structures to prevent the ravages of the teredo, or ship-worm. Petroleum. — This natural mineral oil is found to a greater or less extent in many parts of the world. Its existence has been known for centuries, and it has been collected from springs and used medicinally. But its commercial value was not realized until the Pennsylvania fields were developed. Its illu- COMAn-:RC/AL COMMODITIES. 21 minating qualities were then ascertained, and kerosene became the common illuminant of tiie world. ^ The oil-fields were extended by the boring of many wells ; and oil, both refined and crude, soon became an important export. The first shipment was in 1862, and from that date there has been an almost unin- terrupted increase in the amount. In 1902 the export, including naptha and residuum, was more than 26,000,000 barrels. The total value of the oil sold to foreign nations has been more than a billion and a half dollars.^ The field from which nearly all this oil has hitherto been obtained, extends from Western New York, across Pennsylvania, into West Virginia. This field furnishes four-fifths of the world's supply of oil to-day. Petroleum is found also in other parts of the United States. The Lima oil-field, in Western Ohio, is very productive ; but the oil is of inferior illuminating quality, and is largely 1 The strength of hghts is estimated by " candle-power." The standard is a sperm candle that consumes 120 grains of spermaceti in an hour. A sixteen-candle gas-burner is estimated to have an illuminating power equal to sixteen of these sperm candles. The illuminating power of a pound o* kerosene is equal to that of three pounds of spermaceti. Electric lights are estimated upon this basis, and incandescent lamps are marked 8, 12, 16 candle-power and upwards. This method of computing illuminating power is, however, uncertain and untrustworthy. 2 Kerosene oil goes more generally over the world than any other impotrant product of the United States. There is a growing demand for it in Europe, Asia, Australia, and the Pacific islands. In 1902 the United States exported petroleum and its products to the value of over $72,000000. The Eastern oil region extends from Wellsville, N.Y., across Pennsylvania to Dunkard Creek, West Virginia, a distance of 204 miles, and so far as developed, the belt is about ten miles in width. The jaeld of these oil-fields to 1903 was over 30,000,000,000 gallons. It is estimated that the Ohio field might be made to yield 100,000 barrels a day. This oil is worth about one-seventh as much as the Pennsylvania product, and its utility in the world's economy lies in the direction of fuel. The California oil is superior as fuel, but inferior in illuminating qualities to that of Pennsylvania. Natural gas is the only fuel that can compete with it in cheapness, but natural gas cannot be transported much over 100 miles. From the discovery of petroleum in 1S59 until 1S66, the oil was transported in oaken barrels. The cost of transportation from Titusville to New York, and the return of the barrels, was $5.55 per barrel. In 1866, a barrel of oil in New York cost ^10.40. Flat cars, upon which two wooden tanks were built, were introduced in that year, and the oil was transported in bulk. In 1871 iron tanks superseded those of wood. On the Ohio and 'Alleghany Rivers, barges containing large tanks were used to carry the oil. The first pipe-hne from the oil-fields to the seaboard was completed in 1881. Since then numerous other pipe-lines have been built, at a cost of $15,000,000. The pipes are carried along the surface of the ground, and pumping-stations are established at intervals of about 40 miles. The total length of these pipeUnes approaches 2,000 miles. The principal lines are from 0]ean,N.Y., to Bayonne, N.J., and to Brooklyn; and from Colegrove, Pa., to Philadelphia, wth a branch to Balti- more. Another line runs from near Olean to Buffalo, and one from Colegrove to Cleveland. These hues reduce the cost of transportation to about 45 cents a barrel. Another from the Ohio-Indiana field to Whiting, Ind., others from the mountains of California to Paula, and still another from Beaumont, Texas, to the coast. The oil of the Ohio-Indiana field is much less valuable as a illuminant than that from the Penn- sylvania-Virginia-field — the average price in 1900 being 98 cents per barrel for the former, and $1.35 for the latter. 22 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. employed as fuel in manufacturing. A pipe-line connects the Lima fields with Chicago. Very productive wells are now in operation in Southern California and Texas. The richest oil-fields in the world are in Russia, in the region between the Black and Caspian Seas. The flow of oil is more than that of the Penn- sylvania field ; but the present facilities for storing, transporting, and refining it, are inadequate for bringing these fields into their real commercial impor- tance. Nearly all petroleum is now transported in bulk. The crude oil is sent to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cleveland, or Parkersburg by pipe-lines to be refined ; and oil is usually shipped in vessels specially provided with tanks for earring it. Petroleum as fuel is used in its crude form. For other uses it is distilled. Gasolene, the first and lightest product secured in the refining operation, contains much of the gaseous part of the oil, and is consumed in making gas. Naptha, the next product, is very inflam- mable, and is used to a limited extent for lighting purposes, more particularly in the open air. Benzine, the third product, is much used as a solvent, and in the preparation of paint and varnish. Kerosetie is made in the next stage of the operation. The law requires that it shall stand a certain test of heat without taking fire. This law varies in different States, but 140° is a standard test. Oil that stands a considerably higher test than kerosene, is called head-light oil, from the fact that it was first made for use in the head-lights of locomotives. Paniffine oil remains after these oils have been distilled from the crude petroleum. This is in turn re- fined, and from its results paraffine, from which nearly all the candles of commerce are now made, it having almost entirely superseded tallow, wax, and spermaceti. It also yields an oil which is used for lubricating purposes. The substance skimmed from the oil during the refining process is purified, making vaseline. In 1878, while a well was being sunk near Pittsburg, Pa., for petroleum, a reservoir of natural gas was struck. A great explosion followed, and when the gas was lighted a column of fire shot into the air. An attempt to utilize this gas as fuel in an iron-mill proved so successful that other wells were sunk, and natural gas was first generally used in Pittsburg, not only in iron- and glass-working, but also for domestic purposes. This gas is inferior for illuminating purposes ; but as fuel it gives intense heat, and is very easily regulated. Its particular advantage in glass- and iron-working is due to the fact that it gives off no smoke. Natural gas is found either in connection with petroleum or in a formation similar to that in which petroleum exists. Besides Western Penn- sylvania, there are fields in which this gas has been developed in Western New York, West Virginia, and parts of Ohio and Indiana. Some wells have given a steady flow of gas for years, while others were soon exhausted. In order to keep up the supply, new wells have been bored and new fields opened. This leads to the inferences that the gas is not forming naturally in quantities sufficient to satisfy the demand, and that the supply may become ex- hausted. The United States is the only country in which any considerable industrial use has been made of natural gas. Asphalt, mineral pitch, or bitumen, is found in Southern California, in several parts of South America, and in Europe. The largest supply, however, is derived from the island of Trinidad, where is a lake of it. The principal use of this substance is for paving and the laying of sidewalks. Asphalt results also from the thickening of petroleum through the absorption of oxygen, and it is hence found in layers exposed to the air. COMMERCIAL COMMODITIES. 23 Precious Stones. — The diamond is one of the most costly of precious stones. Most of the supply of this jewel comes from Cape Colony, in South Africa ; but a few diamonds are mined in Brazil and India. The stones are sent to Amster- dam, Rotterdam, Antwerp, or London to be cut before being set. Diamond is the hardest substance known, and is exceeded in value by the ruby only. The best specimens are from India and Burmah. Sapphires come from Ceylon, Siam, and Burmah. The topaz is found principally in Brazil, Siberia, Great Britain, and Colorado ; amethysts in India, Persia, Siam, the West Indies, and Brazil ; emeralds in Peru and the East Indies ; and jasper in India and China. A variety of precious stones has been found in the United States, but the value of the annual product is less than $200,000. The trade in precious stones and jewelry in the United States is an important one, but no traffic is more subject to fluctuation. In years of general prosperity, like 1902, jewels and other articles of pure luxury find much more ready sale than at other times. ^ The making of imitation "precious stones" is an extensive industry, particu- larly in France. Salt, chloride of sodium, is found in solution in sea-water, and in deposits which occur in all parts of the world, being as widely distributed in nature as it is necessary to man. Sea-water is evaporated either by the sun's rays or by artificial heat. In low latitudes, and where the climate is dry, natural heat is relied upon. Much of the salt of commerce is produced from sea-water. Turk's Island in the West Indies, and the coasts of Spain and Portugal, supply a large share of this salt. Salt-beds are generally worked by means of borings and shafts into which fresh water is pumped, to be again pumped out and evap- orated when saturated with salt. There are great salt -wells in France and in Cheshire, England. Deposits of rock-salt, however, are sometimes excavated. The most famous salt-mines in the world are near Cracow, in Austrian Poland. These mines have been worked for centuries, and contain thirty miles of gal- leries and halls quarried out of the solid salt. There are valuable salt-mines in Germany and France. In our own country the most considerable salt-wells are those of Syracuse and of the Genesee region. New York, and those in the vicinity of Saginaw Bay, Michigan. Undeveloped beds of rock-salt exist in Louisiana. On the Pacific slope salt is obtained by the evaporation of sea-water, and also from deposits of rock-salt. ^ In 1902 the importation of precious stones, including diamonds, was over $20,000,000 in value. The importation of jewelry and manufactures of gold and silver was about $500,000 in 1894, while in 1902 it amounted to over $2,600,000. 24 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. Salt is much used in the arts and manufactures, and in the preservation of foods, especially meat and fish. This mineral is so abundant and widely distrib- uted that it plays but a small part in commerce. The world's product of it is estimated at seven million tons a year. Of this Great Britain furnishes more than any other country, and is followed, in their order, by the United States, India, Germany, and Russia. We now import salt to the annual value of about $700,000, chiefly from England and Italy. Our annual consumption of this mineral is over two million tons, used mainly in preserving food-products and in the manufactures. V. — MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS. Alcohol. — Alcohol is a volatile liquid formed during the fermentation of vegetable juices that contain sugar. In different countries it is made from different substances. The chief sources from which alcohol is derived in the United States are corn and other grains, and potatoes. In Europe alcohol is made from grapes, rice, beets, potatoes, molasses, grain, and various fruits. In Asia rice is mainly used, and the product is known as arrack. Alcohol enters largely into the common beverages of most nations, and its manufacture is thus an important industry. In the arts and manufactures alcohol is of great value, and is used in a variety of ways, especially in making varnishes, medicines, and perfumes, and in preserving animal substances. Alcohol exists to a small per cent in the fermented liquors, such as wine, cider, beer, and ale, and to a large per cent in the various distilled liquors, such as gin, rum, whiskey, and brandy. A cheap kind of alcohol, sometimes called wood spirits, is made from wood and other vegetable fibers. Its manufacture is more expensive than that of ordinary alcohol ; but not being used as a beverage, it is not taxed, and hence it is cheaper. It is used in the manufacture of cheap varnishes, and for similar purposes. Buttons. — Buttons are of considerable importance in commerce. The im- port in 1884 reached an aggregate value of $3,139,948. Due to an increasing domestic manufacture, the import in 1900 had fallen to $487,218. Buttons are made from a variety of materials, chiefly from vegetable ivory, pearl shell, metal, and wood. Wooden buttons are covered with silk or other materials. Many of the buttons of commerce are made in the penal institutions of France and Austria, and are so cheap that much of the world's supply is thus produced. Dyes. — Until the introduction of aniline coloring matters, nearly all dyeing was done with colors of vegetable or animal origin, and a large traffic was carried on in these dyestuffs which were gathered from all parts of the world. Most of COMMERCIAL COMMODITIES. 25 this trade has now cHsappcarcd. Previous to the discovery of America the dye- stuffs used in Europe were few in number. Several colors were added from American plants. The chief red dyes are madder and cochineal. Madder is a plant raised in nearly all parts of luirope, and in Asia and Asia Minor. Cochineal is the dried body of an insect that lives on several species of the cactus plant. It was origi- nally found in Guatemala and Mexico ; but was successfully introduced into the Canary Islands, from which much of the supply now comes. Blue is produced from indigo. The cultivation of the indigo plant is very extensive in India, and on a smaller scale in Indo-China, Spain, Japan, Central America, and the Philippine Islands. Indigo is one of the most important of dyestuffs, owing to the permanence of its colors. An inferior imitation is now made chemically. The chief yellow colors are produced from fustic. This tree is native to Mexico, Brazil, and the West Indies, Fustic logs are exported, and the color- ing matter afterward extracted. Orange colors are produced from annatto. This is made from the pulp sur- rounding the seeds of a tree that grows in the West Indies, Mexico, and Brazil. Besides its use in dyeing fabrics, annatto is in demand in all leading dairy countries for coloring butter. Logwood and nut-galls are the chief dyes to produce Black. Logwood is the heart of a tree, native to Mexico and Central America, but cultivated in the West Indies. The bark and outside wood are chopped away, and the coloring part exported in the log. Nut-galls are excrescences that grow on many kinds of trees, but more particularly on the oak. Other dyestuffs are used to a limited extent, and those above enumerated are combined to form other colors. But artificial dyes, especially aniline colors, are increasing in use every year. Glass. — Glass is a chemical combination of silica with an alkali, such as potash or soda. It is prepared by subjecting the mixture to intense heat, other ingredients being added according to the kind of glass required. Its manufac- ture is carried on very extensively in England, Germany, Belgium, and France, as well as in the United States. Some of the finest silica, commonly called quartz, used in glass-making, is found in Western Massachusetts. It is white, and is pulverized so that it resembles flour. This powder is used for making the purest crystal glass, and is exported to the various glass-making nations of Europe. In England much of the silica is from the Isle of Wight, but the finest silica found in Europe comes from Belgium and from Fontainebleau in 26 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. France. Glass is very extensively used for domestic purposes, and in the arts and manufactures. It is unaffected by chemicals, except fluoric acid, and is much used in laboratories. When in its melted state glass is easily worked. Glass-making in the United States has reached a high state of perfection, not only in plate, crystal, and cut glass, but in the delicate and beautiful colors of cathedral glass. Considerable amounts of this are exported to Europe. In Europe, Bohemia in Austria is the greatest center for fine and cut glass ; heavy plate glass is made in Paris and its vicinity, and the cheaper grades of window glass in Belgium, Germany, and England. In the United States most of the cut and art glass is made in Massachusetts and New York, while cheaper grades are manufactured in Western Pennsylvania and W^est Virginia, where natural gas is available for fuel. The United States imports plate glass from Belgium and England ; bottles and vials from Germany ; window glass from Belgium ; and small glassware from Austria and Germany, in decreasing quantities, the value in 1892 being $8,828,952 and in 1902, 1^6,205,052. Our exports of glass of all kinds aggre- gated 1^1,960, 106 in 1902. Leather. — Hides, skins, and their manufactured products enter largely into the commerce of every civilized country. As might be expected, the raw material is exported mainly from countries where the grazing interests are largest ; and accordingly the vast region watered by the River Plate, the Brazil- ian tablelands, the British territories in India and Australasia, together with our own western plains, yield the greater part of the raw hides of commerce. Hides are converted into leather by a series of processes called tanning, which consists in subjecting them to the influence of tannic acid. This princi- ple is derived from many natural sources, the most important of which is the bark of hemlock and oak-trees. The location of tanning industries the world over is largely determined by the proximity of forest growths which yield the various tanning-barks. Chrome tannage, wholly chemical, for light skins, has recently become a great industry. Russia leather derives much of its excellence from the bark of the Russian birch which is used in producing it. We annually import hides and skins to the value of about $50,000,000 ; and these come to us largely from the Argentine Republic, Brazil, Mexico, and Colombia, although the goat-skins and ox-hides which we derive from British sources are of great importance. We buy tanned calf-skins of France and Germany, and great quantities of skin for morocco from France and Great Britain. COMMERCIAL COMMODITIES. 27 We export sole-leather and uppcr-lcathcr to the value of about 517,000,000 a year, chiefly to supply the boot-and-shoe factories of Great Britain. The manufactures of leather, or into which leather enters, are very numer- ous ; but by far the most important of leather products are those of footwear and gloves. In these, as in most other manufactures, Great Britain, France, Germany, and our own country are the leadin<^ nations. We buy gloves to the amount of about $6,000,000 annually, taking our stipply from Germany and France. We buy upper-leather to nearly half that amount from the same coun- tries. Our domestic manufactures in all the forms of leather foot-coverings are so active and extensive that our imports of finished goods of this type are rela- tively small. In 1902 we exported $29,000,000 worth of leather manufactures, principally to the West Indies and Canada, but the export to Europe has in- creased. Paper. — Paper is vegetable fiber made into pulp, and then rolled into thin sheets and dried. Until within a few years its use was limited to the making of books, manuscript, wrapping, etc., but now innumerable uses have been found for it. The United States is the leading paper-producing nation, with Great Britain second, and Germany third in order. Rags, wood, straw, grass, and many kinds of fiber, are worked up into paper. Paper pulp molded into shape for ornamental work is used as a substitute for wood and metal. This material is c^Wtd papier-mache. Articles are made from this by applying enormous hydrostatic pressure. Papier-macJi^ is now much used in the manufacture of car-wheels, the core of which is made of this substance. Thus made they are less brittle, and will outwear wheels of solid steel. The quality of paper de- pends upon the kind of fiber used. With the development of the art of paper- making in countries of commercial importance, the demand for paper-making material has become very great. The best paper is made from fiber that has been spun and woven, such as linen and cotton, and rags of these substances are of much economic value. Linen rags are especially valuable for making the finest and strongest paper. Other fiber, particularly that of wood, is employed for common paper. Poplar and spruce are the woods most used, but not to the exclusion of other soft woods. Wood pulp is extensively made in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, New York, Michigan, and Pennsylv^ania, and a larger quantity of paper is made from this than from any other substance. It is also imported from Canada, Norway, Sweden, and Germany. Other fibers used in making the coarser kinds of paper are jute, hemp, and straw. In 1902 rags, wood-pulp, and other paper-stock were imported into the United States to the value of over $2,000,000. As an export, paper was worth about $7,000,000 to the United States in 1902. Much of the fine paper manu- factured in the United States is made in Western Massachusetts. 28 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. VI. — MISCELLANEOUS COMMODITIES. Drugs and Chemicals. — The principal drugs of commerce are cinchona, opium, sulphcr, soda, tartrate of potash, potash, and the "chloride " of lime. Cinchofia, or Peruvian bark, is one of the most important of drugs. It is obtained from several species of trees that are indigenous on the slopes of the Andes. These trees have been introduced into the West Indies, India, and Ceylon, and are now cultivated with such success that much of the world's supply of cinchona comes from these regions. Quinine is made from this bark, and is a trustworthy remedy in many cases of malarial fevers. Cinchona bark valued at over $300,000 is annually imported into the United States, and quinine to the value of $950,000. Opium is the dried juice of poppy-heads. It is produced almost entirely in India, China, Persia, and Asia Miner. The medicinal properties of opium are very important ; and, owing to the great value of the drug, more efforts are made to smuggle it into restricted countries than are made with almost any other article of commerce. The government of Great Britain holds the mon- opoly of the traffic in opium in India. Laudanum and morphine are made from opium ; it is also an ingredient of paregoric and many other pharmaceutical preparations. The annual import of this drug into the United States reaches the value of over $2,000,000. Sulphur, or brimstone, is a very common mineral, and is found chiefly in combination with other minerals. When found pure it is a product of volcanoes. Several rich deposits of sulphur occur in the United States, particularly in Alaska ; but most of the world's supply comes from Sicily, and it is the most important mineral product of Italy. Its principal use is for making sulphuric acid, but it is also valuable in the manufacture of hard rubber and of gunpowder. As a constituent of iron pyrites, it is a large export of both Spain and Portugal. Our annual imports of sulphur amount to over $2,000,000, almost wholly from Sicily. Soda is imported by us from Chili and Peru, where it chiefly occurs in the form of nitrate of soda, in which countries this salt is found in vast beds. From it is made the bulk of nitric acid^ and it is also useful in the manufacture of fertilizers. Nitrate of sodium is familiarly known as Chili saltpeter, to distin- guished it from nitrate of potassium. Carbonate of soda is extensively used in the manufactures of glass and soap. Potash salts are also an important article of commerce. Nitrate of potas- sium, niter, or saltpeter, is extensively imported from Peru. It is used mainly in the manufacture of gunpowder and of nitric acid. The value of nitrates CO.\r,\rERC/AL COMMODITIES. 29 annually imported is about $2,500,000. Tartrate of potassium, the "tartar," or "argol," of commerce, is a product of wine-manufacture, bein^,^ deposited on the inside of wine-casks in a hard crust. It is, therefore, chiefly exported from wine-producing countries. We import crude tartar to the value of about $2,000,000, most of which comes from Italy and France. It is used in calico- printing and dyeing. By far the greater part of the potash of commerce, how- ever, is the caustic potash used in the manufacture of soap and of alum. Lime '' c/iloridc" is the most important substance used for bleaching and disinfecting purposes. The chief supplies of the world are derived from Eng- land, Germany, and Spain. Our own purchases of it, to the annual value of about $1,500,000, are almost wholly derived from England and Scotland. Furs.' — The skins of animals were formerly much used for clothing in countries where the winter climate is rigorous. But with the increase in skill in manufacturing cloth, and the growth of commerce between nations, cloth has superseded furs for general use as apparel among all peoples except those living in the coldest countries. Furs are worn in winter in Europe and America, not only for the comfort they give, but also to a greater extent for adornment. The skins of the fur-seal are the first in value in the fur-trade ; and these come almost entirely from Bering Sea. The seal rookeries of this sea are controlled by the United States government, and' the number of seals killed each year is limited by law so that these animals may be preserved from extinction. In their natural condition the skins are coarse and unsightly ; but, by an elaborate process, the long hairs are plucked out, and the soft fur remaining is dyed either black or deep bronze. The method of treating the skins was long kept secret, and all skins were sent to London ; but the process is now known elsewhere, and many skins are now plucked and dyed in the United States. The squirrel-skins of commerce come almost entirely from Siberia, where these animals are killed in great numbers, particularly in the eastern part. Fo.x- skins, in the order of their value, are the black, silver-gray, blue, cross, white, and red. These skins come from British America and Siberia. Skins of the wolf, bear, and sable come from the same regions ; the beaver and muskrat, from Northern America; the rabbit, from Australia; the nutria, from the Plate regions of South America ; and the lion and tiger, from Southern Asia and from Africa. Sea-otter, now very rare, inhabit Bering Sea. The skin of the sea- otter sometimes brings three hundred dollars. The annual value of the furs and skins exported from the United States is about $3,000,000. San Francisco is the leading seal-skin market ; and London, Leipzig, and Nijni-Novgorod, are the chief fur-markets of Europe. 30 --/ GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. A close imitation of seal-skin made from silk is a common article of com- merce, as it is much lighter than fur, less expensive, and nearly as warm. Gums and Resins. — Gums and resins exist in great variety. The more important are the following : — Amber is the fossilized resin of trees that once grew in Northern Germany and The Netherlands and in parts of Siberia and North America. Most of the amber of commerce comes from Northern Germany, where it is either dug from the earth or washed up by the sea. Amber has "many uses, depending upon its quality and color. The chief uses are for articles of adornment and for making varnishes. Amber is found in Burmah, but the product is sold wholly in the adjoining countries. G inn- Arabic is a resinous gum, gathered from several varieties of acacia. The chief sources of this gum are the Barbary States and the Soudan in North Africa, Turkey, Asia Minor, Australia, and the East Indies. The finest quali- ties are used in making confectionery. Other and more important uses are in the manufactures for stiffening and giving luster to cloth, for making paste, and for sizing. Copal is a resinous gum found both in fossil form and exuding from trees. The chief sources of supply are the east and west coasts of Africa. It is obtained from the interior of Africa, but reaches the coast in trade. Copal also comes from the East Indies. This gum is extensively used in making varnishes and in calking ships. The fossil gum is the best. Dextrine is artificial gum made from starch. There are. several processes for making it. The uses for dextrine are similar to those of gum-arabic ; and it has superseded gum-arabic to a considerable extent in the manufactures. It is used in giving the adhesive surface to labels, postage-stamps, and envelopes. Kauri gum is similar to copal. All the kauri gum of commerce comes from New Zealand. It is found in fossil form, and also exuding from the kauri pine. The fossil gum is more valuable than the fresh gum. Kauri gum is used in making the better qualities of varnish and cheap imitations of amber adorn- ments. Shellac is a resinous incrustation formed on the bark of various kinds of trees by an insect called the lac. The shellac of commerce comes from India, China, Siam, and the East Indies. The supply is derived both from the forests and from artificial propagation. In the countries in which it is produced shellac is much used for making ornaments and trinkets ; but in Europe and America its chief utility lies in the manufacture of varnishes and sealing-wax, and in stiffening hats. The lacquer-work of China and Japan is made of this substance. COyrMERCIAL COMMODITIES. 31 Mastic is an exudation from the mastic shrub, i^rovvn chiefly in Spain, Portugal, and the Canar}- Islands, but to some extent in Italy, Greece, and Asia Minor. It is used prihcij^ally in making varnish. The numerous uses of IiuiiiX-nibbcr, or cacnitchouc, have made it an impor- tant article of commerce. It is the gum of several varieties of tree that abound in Brazil and Central America. Two-thirds of the supply come from the basin of the Amazon River. Para, at the mouth of the river, is the greatest rubber- market in the world. A small amount is derived from the west coast of Africa. It is very elastic, and is used in articles where this characteristic is valued. It is also used extensively in making water-proof shoes and clothing. When heated, and incorporated with sulphur and other ingredients, it forms a hard substance known as "vulcanized" rubber. The latter is used in making a great variety of small articles. The manufacture of rubber is carried on more largely and to greater perfection in the United States than in any other country. In 1902 rubber and gutta-percha were imported into the United States to the value of about $25,151,559 ; the export of rubber goods amounted to $4,032,100. Gutta-perc/ia is a gum similar in many respects to rubber. It is softened by hot water and is easily wrought. The uses for gutta-percha are similar to those of caoutchouc, but more varied. It resists the action of water, and is a good non-conductor of electricity ; hence the use of it as an insulating material for ocean cables and parts of electrical instruments. The supply comes entirely from the East Indies. Tar is obtained from two sources, coal and wood. Wood tar is obtained by extracting the pitch from pine-trees by heat. Tar is largely produced from the yellow pine of the South Atlantic States. In Europe it is produced mostly in Russia, Sweden, and Norway. It is much used in ship-building as a preservative. TragacantJi is a gummy exudation from a shrub that grows in Asia Minor, Persia, India, and parts of Africa. It is easily dissolved in water, and is used in making lozenges, pills, and paste, in marbling paper, and in calico-printing. Tnrpoitine is a resinous liquid obtained from nearly all kinds of pine. It is made in' Russia and Sweden, but the greatest amount is derived from the yellow pine of the South Atlantic States. Crude turpentine is distilled, and from it is produced spirit or oil of turpentine. The solid matter resulting from this dis- tillation is the rosin of commerce. The annual value of the foreign trade in these resinous products to the United States is nearly $10,000,000. Hops. — The blossoms of the hop-plant contain a bitter principle extensively used in the making of beer and ale. Hops are raised chiefly in countries where brewing is carried on ; such as Germany, England, The Netherlands, and 32 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. Austria-Hungary. In the United States hops are grown in the States of New York and Washington. Our export of hops is from $3,000,000 to $4,000,000 annually. Our imports of hops fluctuate from $500,000 to $1,000,000. They are mainly from Germany. In 1902 our total foreign trade in hops amounted to more than $4,000,000. Ivory. — The ivory of commerce comes from the tusk of the elephant, of the walrus, and from vegetable ivory nuts. The elephant ivory is the finest quality. It comes principally from Africa, though a small amount is derived from Southern Asia. The annual product of Africa is estimated at about 1 50,000 pounds, but the supply is decreasing. The elephants are killed in the interior of the continent ; and the ivory finds its way to market by barter all along the coast, but chiefly on the west by way of the Congo. Walrus ivory is of inferior quality, owing to a coarse-grained core through the center of the tusk. The annual product does not reach 50,000 pounds. Fossil ivory, from the tusks of the extinct mammoth, is exported from Siberia ; but it is stained and of poor quality. The manufacture of celluloid, or artificial ivory, is an important industry, particularly in the United States and France. When soft it is easily molded into shape, and it has very generally superseded genuine ivory. For small articles, particularly buttons, a palm-nut that grows in abundance in the northern part of South America is used. This nut possesses firm texture, and closely resembles ivory. It is easily worked when softened by hot water. Lumber. — Trees are the most universally useful products of nature. They are used in building houses and ships, in making household utensils and orna- ments, and more than any other substance as fuel. After the tree is felled, and the wood is partly wrought, it is called lumber. In several countries the supply of wood is limited and the lumber is imported.^ In Europe the chief lumber- producing countries are Scandinavia, Germany, and Russia. But lumbering is not carried on in any of these countries to the extent that it is in the United States. The forest area of the United States exceeds that of any other country, and wood-working is pursued more extensively in the United States than elsewhere. In 1902 the value of the lumber and manufactures of lumber exported from the United States was over $50,000,000. The imports of lumber and manufactures ' Australia, China, Japan, and Mexico draw from the United States largely for lumber, their native supplies being mainly in almost undeveloped and inaccessible regions. COMMERCIAL COMMODITIES. 33 of lumber were valued at $19,000,000. Nearly three-quarters of this importa- tion was of logs and lumber from Canada. There has long been a too rapid reduction in our forest area, but hapjiily an effort is now being made in some sections to preserve the forests and to increase the area by the planting of trees. Soft wood of the various kinds of cone-bearing species forms most of the lumber of commerce. This includes ////r, Jicmlock, and spruce from the United States and Canada, spruce from Norway, and pine from Germany. The most abundant and valuable pine-tree in the United States is \.\\^ ycUoio or soiitlicrn pine. Not only is the lumber valuable, but most of the turpentine of commerce, the resinous sap of the tree comes from it. Owing to its durability, oak, one of the toughest and strongest kinds of woods, is used in ship-building, carriage-making, and in fine cabinet-work. Live-oak, that grows in the Southern States, is the best wood for ship-building purposes. Oak is exported from Spain and Portugal. Teak, another kind of wood valuable in the ship-building, grows in Southern Asia and adjoining islands. Redivood is plentiful in California, and some is exported. It is very durable. soft, and easily worked. It possesses a beautiful grain and color, and is sus- ceptible of fine polish. It is used not only in building, but in interior finishing, for making shingles, and in cabinet-work. Oregon piJie, a species of fir, is exported from the Pacific slope, particularly from Oregon and Washington. It is used for all kinds of building purposes. Owing to its elasticity it is much employed in ship-building. Most vessels built on the Pacific slope are made of this timber. In Australia there are great forests of jarra/i. This is similar to the red- wood of California, and is rapidly making its way into commerce. The kauri pine of New Zealand is used in all kinds of building, including ship-building. Black ivalniit, used in ornamental and cabinet work, comes mostly from the valley of the Mississippi, and the supply is being rapidly exhausted. Maple abounds in the Northern United States and Canada, and has grown into recent demand for flooring, cabinet-work, furniture-making, and other grades of fine work. Mahogany, a very heavy and costly timber, is used i:)rincipally as veneer in the finest kinds of cabinet-work and interior fini.shing. This wood comes from Central America, Mexico, and the West Indies. Red cedar, used in lead-pencil making, comes entirely from P^lorida. This wood also finds some use in cabinet-work. Among other kinds of wood are ebony, from the east coast of Africa, used 34 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. for fine cabinet-work ; roscioood, from l^razil, for veneer-work ; boxwood, from Spain and nearly all parts of the United States, for turning purposes, carving, and engraving blocks ; beech, birch, chestmit, xvhite zvood, and ash from the northern part of the United States, for interior wood-finish. Tobacco. — Tobacco is a plant native to the Americans. In the seventeenth century it was introduced into Europe, and its use spread with great rapidity in spite of the opposition of church and state. The cultivation of the plant has now extended to many countries, but the best tobacco still comes from the New World. The annual production of the world is ov'er 750,000 tons, and about a quarter of this amount is raised in the United States. The chief tobacco- raising States are Kentucky, Virginia, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Tobacco also forms an important crop in the valley of the Connecti- cut River. The value of the yearly crop in the United States is about $40,000,- 000 ; about half of the product is exported in unmanufactured condition. There are S.ooo establishments in the United States engaged in the manufacture of to- bacco and cigars, from the domestic and imported article, and the value of the manufac tured products is nearly §130,000,000 yearly. Tobacco is an article of great money value to the world, as it is heavily taxed in every country ; and in France, Austria, Italy, and Spain, the sale of it is a government monopoly. It has been exported from the United States to the average value of nearly $25,000,000 a year for the past thirty years. The leading tobacco regions outside of the United States are Cuba, the Dutch East Indies, India, Brazil, and Turkey. Tobacco stands among the im- portant articles of commerce of Europe and America. Our import of leaf- tobacco has a value of about $10,000,000 a year from Holland and Cuba; and of manufactured tobacco about $3,500,000 from Cuba. An excellent quality of tobacco is grown in the Philippines, and with the normal development of these islands under American rule and energy, this product must greatly increase in value. H A. ft y THE n\h onpritude 100 35 itnes, iither zn to : con- amily inter- on of raise leeds. hange id\-an- lini^ly cloth, )duces main- body ;oil of ) graz- lepend ;r two of the nade up ney, but imodity. i simpler fe-work. y which ,ork lies astry has COMMERCE AND COMMERCIAL HIGHWAYS. 35 CHAPTER II. COMMERCE AND COMMERCIAL HIGH^A^AYS. Commerce is the interchange of commodities between different countries, or between places of the same country. Trade may be conducted on either a large or a small scale, but the term ■" commerce " is appropriately given to traffic upon a large scale. ^ The rudest and earliest form of commerce con- sists of simple barter, — the exchange of the surj^lus products of one family or one hamlet for those of another.^ With increase of population and inter- course a ten/dency arises for each man to devote himself to the production of one thing, or a few things. Let us say that it is corn which he can raise to advantage, rather than to attempt to produce everything that he needs. His neighbor may be better situated to raise cattle. These two men exchange products, each -supplying something that the other cannot produce to advan- tage. There may be a third neighbor who owns no land, and who accordingly raises neither corn nor cattle. But if he is a mechanic, he may weave cloth, and exchange this product with his neighbors. Thus, while one man produces vegetable food, and another animal food, both of which are necessary to main- tain existence, the third produces the covering necessary to protect the body from the elements.^ As it is in this primitive state of affairs, so it is in the world. The soil of one region is best adapted for tilling ; another may have land adapted to graz- ing, but unsuited for tilling ; a third may be too densely populated to depend upon agriculture, but by manufacturing articles required by these other two peoples, it can exchange products with them. ^ What is called the "balance of trade" is merely, in any given case, the measure of the difference between the e.xports and imports of goods, which excess or deficiency is finally made up by the export or import of bullion ; and the latter in such case is always shipped, not as money, but as merchandise, the market value of which varies from time to time like that of any other commodity. 2 It was this necessity for the specialization of work that early gave rise to the various simpler trades ; and in these, by years of apjjrenticeship, the artisan has been prepared for his life-work. The division of labor encourages skill in each line of occupation, and is the only means by which great excellence can be reached in any handicraft, art, or science. This specialization of work lies at the basis of the world's progress, and under its influence the whole fabric of modern industry has developed. COMMERCE AND COMMERCIAL HIGHWAYS. 35 CHAPTKR II. COMMERCE AND COMMERCIAL HIGHWAYS. Commerce is the interchange of commodities between different countries, or between places of the same country. Trade may be conducted on either a large or a small scale, but the term ■" commerce " is appropriately given to traffic upon a large scale. ^ The rudest and earliest form of commerce con- sists of simply barter, — the exchange of the surplus products of one family or one hamlet for those of another.^ With increase of population and inter- course a ten/dency arises for each man to devote himself to the production of one thing, or a few things. Let us say that it is corn which he can raise to advantage, rather than to attempt to produce everything that he needs. His neighbor may be better situated to raise cattle. These two men exchange products, each -supplying something that the other cannot produce to advan- tage. There may be a third neighbor who owns no land, and who accordingly raises neither corn nor cattle. But if he is a mechanic, he may weave cloth, and exchange this product with his neighbors. Thus, while one man produces vegetable food, and another animal food, both of which are necessary to main- tain existence, the third produces the covering necessary to protect the body from the elements.^ As it is in this primitive state of affairs, so it is in the world. The soil of one region is best adapted for tilling ; another may have land adapted to graz- ing, but unsuited for tilling ; a third may be too densely populated to depend upon agriculture, but by manufacturing articles required by these other two peoples, it can exchange products with them. 1 What is called the "balance of trade" is merely, in any given case, the measure of the difference between the exports and imports of goods, which excess or deficiency is finally made up by the export or import of bullion ; and the latter in such case is always shipped, not as money, but as merchandise, the market value of which varies from time to time like that of any other commodity. 2 It was this necessity for the specialization of work that early gave rise to the various simpler trades ; and in these, by years of apprenticeship, the artisan has been prepared for his life-work. The division of labor encourages skill in each line of occupation, and is the only means by which great excellence can be reached in any handicraft, art, or science. This specialization of work lies at the basis of the world's progress, and under its influence the whole fabric of modern industry has developed. 36 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. Money. — As civilization has extended, and as society has grown more com- plex, it has become necessary to have some measure of value so that there may be an easy exchange of commodities. Out of this necessity has arisen a universally accepted medium for the exchange of values called money.' In countries where commerce is highly developed, written orders to pay, known as checks or bank drafts, are sufficient, and these orders are worth their face value as money ; but among more primitive peoples, many articles that are used for food, clothing, or ornament, serve as money. It is the desire of every man to accumulate money. Among nations, too, it is the desire of each to be as far as possible independent of others ; hence, a tariff is often imposed upon imported articles in order to promote home manufactures, or to raise money for government use. Consuls. — To encourage international trade, each nation has representa- tives, called consuls, at every city of industrial or commercial importance throughout the world. These representatives devote their time to furthering the best interests of their country. They endeavor to increase trade, and to prevent frauds or deceptions in the sale or the purchase of goods. They also make frequent reports to their home government upon the progress or decline of commerce in the territory to which they are accredited. For the benefit of commerce, the various countries have made treaties of commerce with one another." To carry on the interchange of products, there must be means of transpor- tation, and highways as well, over which the products can be carried. Transportation. — In a primitive state, man himself carried the products of his own industry ; but as he advanced in civilization, and the products of his labor increased, he trained beasts to bear his burdens for him ; or if a water- way were more- convenient, he built a boat.'' When traffic constantly passed back and forth between two points a path was worn. In the course of time 1 In 1903, thirty-four of the nations of the world had adopted what is known as the gold standard, while only nine, China and Mexico being the most important, remained upon the silver basis. 2 By the usage of nations, French is the language in which international deliberations is carried on ; but English is the language of commerce, and for the puiposes of commerce it is more extensively used than any other. ^ A considerable part of the price of all commodities is due to the expense of transport. Other things equal, the shorter the distance and the less the handling and trans-shipment, the lower the price. The great staples, such as coal, petroleum, and the cereals, can be brought from the pro- ducing fields to seaboard markets without " breaking bulk," if sent by rail. If for export, trans- shipment to the ocean steamer is necessary. Grain for export is now transferred directly from the " canaller " to the steamship by means of great steam elevators. Coal is often trans-shipped by the COJ/.U/iA'C/i .LVD COMMERCIAL 11 li, II WA VS. 37 the paths, made more easy for travel by renioxini,^ ohstruclions, became roads. In the cixiHzed nations of Europe and America, and to a certain extent in a few other countries, the hi<.(h\va)s traveled by beasts of burden have been made wide and free from obstructions, so as to permit^ the use of wheeled vehicles, for an animal can draw much more than it can carry on its back.^ The greatest advance thus far made in the means of land transportation is found in the steam locomotive.^ The locomotive with its train of cars is a greater advance over the horse and wagon than the horse and wagon were over the pack-train. Wheat is profitably shipped by rail and steamer from the Mississippi valley to England and other parts of Europe. In the same valley, however, it can scarcely be grown with profit at a distance of more than twenty or thirty miles from a railway. This fact alone shows the great advantage of railways, and the extent of the commercial revolution their introduction has brought about. A freight locomotive costs about $21,000, weighs nearly 140 tons, and will draw 4000 tons at the rate of thirty miles or more an hour. A railway with its equipments costs from $20,000 to $60,000 per mile. Some passenger trains make from fifty to sixty-five miles an hour. The first steam railway for general purposes was that between Stockton and Darlington (Eng- land), opened in 1825. In the year 1831, the first passenger train on the American continent ran from Albany to Schenectady in the State of New York; and in 1835 was opened the railway from Brussels to Malines, the first on the mainland of Europe. About three-fourths of the surface of the globe is water ; and, as many of the great producing centers of raw material are separated from the great manu- facturing centers by oceans, most of the international traffic is dependent upon ocean-going vessels. Hence ocean traffic has demanded the same improved means of transportation that traffic on land has required. Steam has, therefore, largely taken the place of the uncertain sail ; and now every maritime nation device of opening hinged doors in the floor of cars, thus dumping the coal into the hold of the steam- ship beneath. The extension of their terminal facilities in the port of New York now under way by the Balti- more and Ohio, the Lehigh Valley and the Pennsylvania railways, thereby bringing their freight business to deep water, will effect great saving of labor, and lessen the cost of transportation by saving in the handling and lighterage of merchandise. 1 On a good, level road, a horse can draw, at the rate of two to four miles an hour, twenty to thirty times as much as it can carry on its back, and often a yoke of oxen will draw over a rough road a load that a span of horses could scarcely move. In a few countries, where draught animals are costly but human labor cheap, vehicles, both for merchandise and passengers, are drawn by men. 2 A locomotive for freight-trains differs in many respects from one used in drawing passenger- trains. For the latter, speed is required ; for the former, traction. The freight locomotive, there- fore, is built with from six to twelve driving-wheels, thus increasing the friction upon the track. .38 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. has a fleet of steamships, each with a capacity of from 3,000 to 20,000 tons,^ and a speed of from fifteen to twenty-five miles an hour.- A steamer is esti- mated to have three times the carrying power of a saihng-vessel of equal tonnage, because the steamer can make an average of three voyages to every one made by the sailing vessel. The principal countries of the world, arranged in the order of the total tonnage of both sailing- and steam-vessels, are: Great Britain, the United States, Norway and Sweden, Germany, France, and Italy. Arranged in the order of the value of commerce they are : Great Britain, the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, The Netherlands, Russia, and Austria-Hungary. Ocean traffic, particularly in the case of sailing-vessels, is dependent to a great extent on the trade-winds and the great ocean currents. The trade- winds blow in a belt, varying from 20° to 25° in width, both north and south of the equator in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In the Indian Ocean there are only the southerly trade-winds. Trade-winds blow uninterruptedly, but their location varies, being dependent on the season of the year. As they are caused by the heat of the equatorial regions, they move with the sun either away from or towards the equator. Thus, in summer, north of the equator, the trade-winds would be found farther away from the equator than they would be in winter. In addition to the great trades, the winds that are known among sailors as the " roaring forties," are of value to navigation. These winds are regular, and to make the voyage to Australia, vessels go by way of the Cape of Good Hope, and return by way of Cape Horn, having a fair wind all the voyage. The corresponding winds in the northern hemisphere are very variable. In the traffic between Europe and America advantage is taken of the Gulf Stream. This stream flows from Florida Strait along the coast of North America as far as the New England, States, then sweeps off across the Atlantic and divides, part of it trending north of Great Britain, and the rest south along 1 The carrying capacity of vessels, that is, the amount of space available for stowing away the cargo, is reckoned in tons. The adopted measurement is one hundred cubic feet of space to a ton. This measurement does not include the deck space, where part of the cargo is sometimes carried. The registered tonnage is always less than the actual tonnage. The total tonnage of the United States merchant marine is over four millions, of which about one million is in foreign, and three millions in coastwise trade. Of sailing-vessels, the tonnage is about two and one quarter millions, and of steam vessels not quite two millions. 2 The ship-building of the United States in 1798 was estimated at 18,000 tons; in 1S94, at 182,000 tons. The increase in the size of the vessels has been very great. In 1789 a vessel of 300 tons was a large one. To-day some of the great ocean steamships have a capacity of 20,000 tons. Steamers of 5,000 tons capacity are quite numerous. Coasting-vessels of 50 tons were considered large a century ago. Now there are many which have a capacity from 800 to 4,000 tons. -Syy;^ COMMERCE AXD COMMERCIAL HIGHWAYS. 39 the coast of Spain. This is the most important current of the Atlantic Ocean. In the North Pacific Ocean there is a similar stream called the Japan Current, or Kuro Siwo. It sweeps from the region of Japan northerly and easterly alon^i,^ the Aleutian Islands, and its drift reaches the west coast of North America. Sailing-vessels always depend upon these currents to make quick passages. The great bulk of ocean trade is carried on between a few impor- tant ports, and the routes over which it passes are very well defined by the ocean-currents and the trade-winds. To aid in carrying on ocean traffic each nation issues charts of all waters. On these charts all dangers to navigation are marked, and every sailing-master lays his course accordingly. On the coast of nearly every country, lighthouses are erected at dangerous points, while harbor channels are marked by beacons and buoys. The United States maintain 1,295 beacon lights and light vessels, 1,783 post lights, and over 5,000 buoys, fog horns and bells. There are also 244 life-saving stations. Since these stations were establised in 1871, they have saved nearly $140,000,000 worth of property, and rescued many people from drowning. Ocean Routes. — From New York and the neighboring ports of Boston, Phil- adelphia, and Baltimore, the main routes are : East (and for sailing-vessels with the Gulf Stream), to the ports of Europe ; south, outside of the Gulf Stream to the West Indies and Central America ; southeast, to and around the Cape of Good Hope to the East Indies ; and, with a southwesterly sweep, to the eastern ports of South America, and around Cape Horn to the ports of the western coast of America. From San Francisco the routes are : Southeast, down the coast to the isth- mus of Panama; south, with a southeasterly sweep around Cape Horn ; south- west, to the Hawaiian Islands and to Australia ; and west, to the Asiatic ports. From the commercial ports of Europe the routes are west to North America, and southwest to Central America, South America, and Cape Horn. Traffic between these ports and Asia is mostly by way of the Suez Canal instead of the Cape of Good Hope. Before the recent introduction of steamships of high speed, coaling and supply stations were established in various parts of the world. Such stations are very little used now, except as the various governments of the world retain them for naval supply stations in case of war. In the Atlantic Ocean the island of St. Helena was the most important of these stations until the routes of com- merce were changed by building the Suez Canal. In the Pacific Ocean the Hawaiian Islands filled a similiar position, and still retain some of their import- 40 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. ance ; but the Panama Canal, when completed, will have the same effect upon them that the Suez Canal has had on the station of St. Helena. In the center of the Pacific Ocean is Midway Island, formerly an important coaling-station, but now abandoned. Inland Waterways. — Transportation by water has the advantage of being cheaper than transportation by land. Hence most of the natural waterways of the world has been improved, and in many countries canals have been con- structed to supplement the river-systems. No single commercial highway was ever built that has been more beneficial to trade than the Suez Canal. It reduced the sailing distance from England to India from 12,000 to 7,000 miles, and opened the way for an immense steamship traffic between Europe and Asia. This canal, connecting the Mediterranean with the Red Sea, was opened to traffic in November, 1869. It is 100 miles long, and, with its approaches, cost about $100,000,000. It is 325 feet wide at the top, 75 feet wide at the bottom, and 26 feet deep. Early in 1887 it was opened to night navigation throughout its whole extent for vessels provided with proper electric lighting apparatus. In 1893 more than 3,300 vessels traversed this canal, nearly all of them by night. The success of this canal has been so great that strong efforts have been made to build one across the Isthmus of Panama. Count de Lesseps, who built the Suez Canal, also began one to connect Colon and Panama, but the project was mismanaged and abandoned after having spent about $400,000,000. This plant with all its rights and privileges has been offered to the United States for $40,000,000, and the canal is now practically assured, the treaty with Colombia having been ratified by the United States Senate, March, 1903. England and France have extensive and valuable canal systems. In May, 1894, the Manchester ship canal connecting Liverpool with Manchester was opened for traffic. The canal is 35 miles long, 26 feet deep, and 125 feet wide at the bottom. The Netherlands is intersected by a network of these artificial waterways. A ship canal across the Isthmus of Corinth in Greece was opened to traffic in 1893, and cost $5,000,000. The Kiel Canal recently built by Germany connects the North and Baltic Seas thus furnishing an outlet to the Atlantic Ocean. The United States, and the various State governments, have encouraged the building of canals. The most important of these is the Erie Canal, which, with its connections, furnishes cheap transportation to market for the prod- ucts of Central and Western New York, and for the grain and other products of the region tributary to the Great Lakes. Other canals of importance are the Champlain, which connects Lake Champlain with the Hudson River ; the COMMERCE AND COMMERCIAL HICHWAYS. 41 Chesapeake and Dchiwaro Canal connecting the head of Delaware l^ay with the head of Chesapeake Bay ; the Delaware and Raritan, connecting the Delaware River with the lower harbor of New York; the Miami Canal, from Toledo on Lake Erie to Cincinnati ; the Ohio Canal and its branches, from Cleveland on Lake Erie to Portsmouth on the Ohio River ; the Wabash and Erie Canal, from Evansville on the Ohio River across Indiana, and connecting with the Miami Canal ; the St. Mary's Ealls Canal, connecting Lakes Superior and Hurt)n. Commerce on the Great Lakes has been increased by the building of canals, and the removal of obstructions in the waterways connecting these inland seas. Lake Superior is twenty-two feet higher than Lake Huron, and in 1856 a lock canal was constructed between these two lakes to avoid the falls of the St. Mary's River. The St. Mary's Ealls Canal was originally twelve feet deep. In 1 88 1 extensive improvements were made, and the depth increased to seventeen feet. To meet the increasing demands of commerce a new canal of greater depth and capacity has been constructed by the government. More commerce in tonnage passes through this canal than the Suez Canal — the number of vessels in the year 1902 being nearly 25,000. Since the enlargement of the canal it is possible for vessels of moderate draught to make the continuous voyage from Lake Superior to the ocean, a distance of 2,000 miles, by way of the Great Lakes, the Canadian canals, and the St. Lawrence River. A canal across the Isthmus will connect our Atlantic and Gulf coast lines with the Pacific coast, and save a voyage of nearly 14,000 miles around Cape Horn. It must greatly increase the commerce between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. It is probable too that Japan can bring cotton from the Gulf States as cheaply as she now gets her supply from India. By the present sailing route, New York and Liverpool are about equally distant from San P'rancisco. The canal will bring New York 2,700 miles nearer than Liverpool to all the Ameri- can Pacific ports, and with this important advantage our Eastern merchants should be able to control most of the Pacific coast commerce. The route from New York to Yokohama is shortened some 6,000 miles by this passage across the Isthmus. The distance from New York to Yokohama via the Isthmus is 2,000 miles less than that from Liverpool to Yokohama, by the Suez Canal. This shortened route should give New York a great advantage in trading with Japan. The canal systems of the United States have an aggregate length of about 4,000 miles. The most important of the canals are the Erie, St. Mary's P^alls, Champlain, Raritan, Delaware and Hudson, Delaware and Chesapeake, Miami, Wabash, and Ohio. On the north, the waterways which consists of the St. 42 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes, and which connects the grain-growing regions of the northwest with the Atlantic coast, requires at several points to be supplemented wifh canals. One of these, between Lakes Superior and Huron, avoids the rapids of St. Mary's River ; the Welland Canal in Canada connects Lakes Erie and Ontario, and is made necessary by the rapids and falls of the Niagara River. There are several small canals in the St. Lawrence route, above Montreal, also occasioned by the necessity of avoiding the rapids of the river. Steamboats now ply on nearly all the great rivers and lakes of the world. Water transportation is slow compared to that of railways, yet owing to its comparative cheapness steam navigation is invaluable to the commercial supre- macy of any country.^ Highways. — The Romans carried the art of road-making to great per- fection, but the roads they built were comparatively few in number, and connected only the more important military posts. It was not until within about a hundred years that anything like the roadway with which we are familiar was undertaken. Up to the present century highways connecting even the important towns of Great Britain, a country which presented peculiar advantages for the construction of such works, were very bad. The carriage road from town to town, and village to village, as we now know it, — graded, macadamized, and crowned, — is an improvement of very recent times. The Roman roads were used for military rather than commercial purposes. Modern highways are built mainly for the transportation of merchandise. In general the nations of Europe are well supplied with good roads ; the old Roman military roads in Italy are exceptionally good. In India the government has constructed a road from Calcutta to the border of Afghanistan. In Peru and other South American countries, are fine highways built by the Incas long before the voyage of Columbus. Some of these roads are still in use. The United States is still behind some great nations in the quality of its 1 The steam engine was in 1777 a useful power, but not until Fulton in 1S07 built the Clermont was a successful steam-vessel produced. Fulton traveling in Scotland in 1803 took drawings of the Charlotte Dundas, a steamboat built by Mr. Symington to tow vessels on the Forth and Clyde Canal. He brought one of Boulton and Watt's 20 horse-power engines to America, and built the Clermont, which made the voyage of 1 10 miles in 24 hours from New York to Albany. In 181 1 Henry Bell of Glasgow started the Comet on the Clyde, and thus founded steam naviga- tion in Great Britain. In 181 5 a steamer went from Glasgow to London. In 1818 one made the trip from New York to New Orleans, and in 1819 the Savannah crossed the Atlantic. Not until nineteen or twenty years later were regular lines established. On April 4, 1S38 the steamer Sinus sailed from Cork, and on the Sth, the Great IVestern sailed from Bristol. Both ships arrived in New York on April 23d, so that ocean steam navigation really dates from 1838. COMMERCE AND COMMERCIAL I/ICmrAVS. 43 roads. In 1800 only the larger cities were connected by roads, and these were very poor.' Several centuries ago, a very great trade was carried on by caravans whose routes, added one to another, extended from Canton to Gibraltar. Now most of this trade has sought other channels of transportation, and the only im- portant caravans remaining are from Russia to China; from Damascus east- ward into Persia and adjoining regions ; from Damascus to Mecca ; from Morocco to Timbuctoo ; from Algiers and Tripoli to Timbuctoo ; from Tripoli to the Soudan. The Railway. — The highroad of civilized nations of the present day is the railway. Railways were introduced at a time when trade was greatly impeded for lack of means of transport, and have been built, not only in every com- mercial country, but in nearly every colony and petty nation of the world. In 1846 there were only 3,000 miles of railway in use in the world ; in 1901 there were about 500,000 miles, nearly half in the United States.' The cost of railways in the United States alone has been $9,000,000,000. The value of the railways of the world is estimated at over $28,000,000,000, or about one- tenth of the total wealth of civilized nations.' Where traffic has demanded it, various railway companies have combined to operate continuous lines between distant commercial centers of importance, which are called trunk lines. The more important of these lines are : In the United States, the half dozen or more trans-continental lines which connect the Mississippi valley with the Pacific coast. In the East are the New York Central, the Erie, the Pennsylvania, the Baltimore and Ohio, and several others which connect the Atlantic seaboard with the Mississippi valley. Connecting 1 In consequence of this, journeys by coach were very slow. That from Philadelphia to Baltimore consumed from three to five days. The transportation of merchandise from Philadelphia to the western part of Pennsylvania cost over $200 a ton. It is gratifying to note the great progress this country has made since 1892, not only in the construction of many miles of suitable roads, but in the general conversion of our people to a belief in highway improvement. 2 The total mileage of railways in the United States in 1901 was 197,237. The largest mileage operated by a single system is that of the Pennsylvania Railway — 10,486 miles. The railways of the United States afford employment for over a million persons. The mileage of the other great systems is: Northwestern, 8,874; Atchison, 8,683; Burlington, 8433 ; So. Pacific, 8,750; Southern, 7,107 ; St. Paul, 6,578; Missouri-Pacific, 5,651 ; Rock Island, 5,455. 3 It is estimated that all the money the world possesses would purchase only one-third of the railways, inasmuch as the latter are valued at over $28,000,000,000, — or about one-tenth of the total monetary wealth of civilized nations, and over one quarter of their invested capital. The railway business is one that is increasing at an almost incredible rate. In 1875 the world's railways aggre- gated 185,000 miles, while in 1893 there were over 406.000 miles, thus showing an increase of 221,000 miles in eighteen years, or an average of 12,000 miles a year. 44 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. with these lines are others of great importance — -the Atchison, Topeka and Sante Fe, the Chicago, Burlington and Ouincy, the Missouri-Pacific, the Rock Island, the Chicago and Northwestern and others. These lines, with their branches and connections, make a net-work of railways that connects all the cities of importance throughout the country, affording an outlet for the products of every district. In Canada is the Canadian Pacific railway, which, with its supplementary lines, connects Halifax and Quebec with Vancouver. This makes the journey between Great Britain and China five or six days less than by the all sea nnite. Across the Isthmus of Panama, the Panama railway, 47 miles long, connects Colon (or Aspinwall) on the east coast, and Panama on the west. Colon is connected by steamship lines with the United States and Europe, while Panama is in steam communication with the chief ports on the Pacific coasts of both North and South America. The completion of the trans-continental railway between Buenos Ayres and Valparaiso will save the dangerous voyage around Cape Horn, and reduce the dis- tance from the east coast of the United States, and from Europe to the west coast of South America, ten or fifteen days.^ The greatest railway is the Siberian Pacific road, extending across Russia and Siberia, a distance of 4,000 miles. This road not only opens a vast area of arable land to settlement, but gives a great impetus to the trade of interior and Western China.- Another railway, the Trans-Caspian, built by the Russian government, extends from the shores of the Caspian Sea to the border of Afghanistan, and is. a growing trade route from PZurope to Central Asia.'' ' The completion of the railway systems in Mexico and the Argentine Republic opens the way for a line to connect the two systems. Such a railway does not seem among the impossibilities when it is remembered that several sections of the line are already built or surveyed, particularly in Colombia, BoUvia, and Peru. With the building of less than 3,000 miles additional it would be possi- ble to go from New York to Buenos Ayres by rail. Such a line would not only develop the mineral deposits of the Andes, but it would also stimulate a great traffic in the agricultural products of Central and South America. 2 The Siberian railway begins at Samara on the Volga, extends to Zlatousk in the Ural Moun- tains, thence by way of Omsk to Irkutsk on Lake Baikal ; and from there, by way of Srietensk on the Amoor River, to Vladivostok on the Sea of Japan. This port, which is the Pacific terminus, is about 6,000 miles from St. Petersburg, and 4,000 miles from the starting-point of the road. The country traversed by this railway is not unlike the Canadian Northwest. From Omsk to Irkutsk, a distance of 1,000 miles, the route is dotted with villages, and the country well suited to grain-growing. 3 The interdependence of nations and the growth of commerce may be shown by many simple illustrations; such, for example, as would be afforded by the items of a course dinner, by the contents of a furnished house, by the merchandise exhibited in a grocer's window, or by the articles of a lady's wardrobe. Any of these would make clear how not only the various sections of our own countiy but many remote lands, are laid under tribute, and minister, through the medium of commerce, to our daily needs. ^, >-. A R p Of THE yr41VER8*TY or £4ljfohH^ COMMERCE AND COMMERCIAL JUGHWAYS. 45 The Postal System. — With the increase of commerce between nations, there has been a corresi)()ntHni;- increase in the interchange of written communica- tions. This has been brought about by the estabhshment of post-oflfices in every country. For the more rapid and safe communication between nations, an international postal union has been organized, so that letters and small pack- ages can easily be sent from one country to another. Nearly every country is a member of this union, and it is of great benefit to commerce. It provides a cheap means of communication, and oftentimes delivers letters more quickly than merchandise is transported. The Telegraph. — For the rapid interchange of thought, the telegraph has superseded the post-office in matters of importance. The first telegraph line, built in 1 844, as an experiment, connected Washington and Baltimore. It proved its utility immediately, and now there is not a nation or a colony of con- sequence that is not connected with the rest of the world by ocean cables or by overland lines. After the great usefulness of the telegraph had been demon- strated, several attempts were made to lay a cable across the Atlantic Ocean, but it was not until 1858 that this was accomplished.^ The telegraph is used much more in the United States than in any other country. The world has just been startled by the achievements of Marconi, the bril- liant Italian who telegraphs across the Atlantic without wires or cables. While the commercial value of his invention is yet to be demonstrated, Marconi prom- ises a reduction of four-fifths in rates. As a means of economy in sending cable messages, so-called cable "codes" have been devised. The object of these is to convey in a few words as much information as possible. A great number of cipher codes are in use, composed generally of columns of words or figures answering to every possible emergency. Like the code of signals between ships at sea, ten words, symbols, or numbers may, by pre-arrangement, answer for a message of a hundred words. Even with these economies, the principal cables are scarcely adequate for the trans- 1 There are now several ocean cables connecting the opposite shores of the Atlantic. The com- mercial advantages of the submarine telegraph have been so great that the system has been extended to all parts of the world — to Japan and China; Suez and Singapore; Java, Australia, New Zealand, and the Cape of Good Hope. There have thus far been laid more than 150,000 miles of submarine telegraph cables, at a cost of about ^1,000 a mile. There is no direct trans-Pacific line. A message from San Francisco to Hong Kong is sent by way of New York, Canso, Penzance, Aden, Bombay, Madras, Penang, and Singapore. A cable now connects San Francisco with the Hawaiian Islands. The most important telegraphic invention of recent years is that by which four or six messages can be transmitted over one wire at the same time, thus saving a vast expense in the stretching and maintenance of wires. 46 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. action of the volume of business ; and without them the cost of submarine tele- grams would be greatly enhanced. The Telephone. — The recent development of the telephone, with which every one is familiar, is enormous. The mileage of wire for telephone use in the United States in 1903 is about 3,000,000, connecting over 3,100,000 telephones — one to each twenty-five inhabitants. Every important city has a telephone exchange, to the central office of which all local telephone wires run ; and the "exchanges" of the large cities are connected one with another by " long-distance " telephone wires. This great invention puts into close com- munication the buyer and the seller, the office and the factory, the agent and the principal, who can thus mutually transact business almost instantly by word of mouth. It is a daily occurrence for people in Boston, New York, Phila- delphia and Baltimore to "call up "and talk with other people in Chicago, St. Louis, or other cities. J ng-itudo rc^ 4T I ri'inliiiaT GranU i^,,oc!^*^*^'L ~RtJ,L. "^mVci^ I ,000, 30pU- 1 the low a nth a i less ,000 ; : 161 .f the o the ase in 36 !C Census. . Frac- iio than sparsely cotton, ;ountry THE UXITED STATES. 47 CHAPTER III. THE UNITED STATES. Population. — The population of the United States (1903) is over 77,000,000, one-third of whom hve in cities and towns of 8,000 or more. In 1790 the popu- lation was less than 4,000,000, and was confined to the region along the Atlantic coast. The center of population was then near Baltimore ; it is now a little to the southeast of Columbus, Ind. There are nineteen cities each with a population of 200,000 or more ; nineteen with a population of 100,000 and less than 200,000; forty with a population of 50,000 and less than 100,000; eighty-three with a population of 25,000 and less than 50,000 — a total of 161 cities, each with a population of 25,000 or more. The relative growth of the cities is greater than that of the country. In the ten years 1 890-1900 the increase in urban population was 37 per cent as compared with an increase in total population of not quite 21 per cent. 18 20 22 24 26 %% 10;^ \i% iOf 26^ 30^ if,% Density of Population at Each Census. Proportion of City to Total Population at Each Census. The figures at the top of the diagram mean so many persons to the square mile of land. Frac- tions are indicated by the extent of the block lines in each space. The smaller density in iSio than that of 1800, or even than that of 1790, was caused by the large addition to our domain of the sparsely settled Louisiana territory. I. — RAW PRODUCTS. Cotton.^ — The United States produces certain raw materials, such as cotton, iron, wheat, tobacco, and copper, in greater quantities than any other country 1 See page 9. THE UXITED STATES. 47 CHAPTER III. THE UNITED STATES. Population. — The population of the United States (1903) is over 77,000,000, one-third of whom hve in cities and towns of 8,000 or more. In 1790 the popu- lation was less than 4,000,000, and was confined to the region along the Atlantic coast. The center of population was then near Baltimore ; it is now a little to the southeast of Columbus, Ind. There are nineteen cities each with a population of 200,000 or more ; nineteen with a population of 100,000 and less than 200,000; forty with a population of 50,000 and less than 100,000; eighty-three with a population of 25,000 and less than 50,000 — a total of 161 cities, each with a population of 25,000 or more. The relative growth of the cities is greater than that of the country. In the ten years 1 890-1900 the increase in urban population was 37 per cent as compared with an increase in total population of not quite 21 per cent. 2 4 e 8 10 12 14 le 18 20 22 24 28 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 tseo 1900 i% 10^ \f,% 20^ 2S< 30^ ai% Density of Population at Each Census. Proportion of City to Total Population at Eac/i Census. The figures at the top of the diagram mean so many persons to the square mile of land. Frac- tions are indicated by the extent of the block lines in each space. The smaller density in iSio than that of 1800. or even than that of 1790, was caused by the large addition to our domain of the sparsely settled Louisiana territory. I.— RAW PRODUCTS. Cotton.^ — The United States produces certain raw materials, such as cotton, iron, wheat, tobacco, and copper, in greater quantities than any other country 1 See page 9. 48 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. in the world ; though until recent years Great Britain held supremacy in the output of iron, and Russia closely approaches in the production of wheat. Cotton-seed and Its Oil. — The seed of the cotton-plant was for many years regarded as useless, and, to be disposed of, was generally burned. Later, it was returned to the soil as a fertilizer. Then it was ascertained to be nutritious food for animals, and that it contained a large proportion of oil. The cotton- plant is estimated to produce three hundred pounds of seed to one hundred pounds of fiber. A hundred pounds of seed averages a yield of two gallons of oil, forty-eight pounds of oil-cake or meal, and six pounds of refuse, which is an excellent material for soap-making. After the oil is extracted the meal is more valuable as a fertilizer and as food for cattle than before. The hull of the seed is an excellent fuel, and the ash of the hull is of commercial value for the manu- facture of potash. The various products of cotton-seed are of comparatively recent development, having first come into notice in 1852.^ Breadstuffs. — Breadstuffs raw and manufactured exceed cotton in value among exports, and in 1902 formed slightly more than one-fifth of the total value of exports. Wheat and wheat-flour form more than one-half of the breadstuff export. Wheat is raised in nearly every country in the world, and is the main article of food in most civilized nations. Only two of the great nations of Europe, Russia and Austria-Hungary, produce more wheat than the home market de- mands. The United States is the greatest wheat-producing nation in the world, and is the main source of supply to consuming nations that do not export. The HUNDREDS OF MILLIONS THE UNITED ^^^^^^^^^^^ The Wheat Crop in Bushels, 1900. Mississippi and Pacific States raise nearly all the wheat exported. Wheat is grown in every State and Territory in the Union ; but the largest sources of supply are: — North and South Dakota, Indiana, Illinois, Minnesota, Ohio, Cali- fornia, Iowa, Missouri, Michigan, Nebraska, Oregon, and Wisconsin. 1 Cotton-seed-oil has found many uses. When highly refined it is the equal of oHve-oil, and has very generally superseded it in use. The stearine, or fatty part, of the oil is used in the manufacture of a compound called butterine, and also in the adulteration of lard. Most of the oil, oil-cake and oil- meal of commerce comes from the United States. The commercial value of the cotton-seed exports in 1902 was over $19,000,000 for the cake and meal, and more than $14,000,000 for the oil, more than twice what they were in 1894. THE UXITED STATES. 49 Corn is indigenous to America. It grows in nearly all parts of both North and South America, and is a leading article of diet in the Spanish-American nations, and in Spain, Portugal, and Ireland. Corn and corn-meal rank next to wheat and wheat-flour among breadstuffs as exports. Corn is the most extensive food-crop grown in the United States. The chief sources of supply are in the States of the Mississippi Valley, and particu- HUNDREDS OF MILLIONS WORLD HIHMHBBHBHiHHBBlH^H^^H This Diagram Represents the Comparative Value of our Corn Crop in Bushels, 1900. larly in those States that are also wheat-growing States. The bulk of the crop comes from Iowa, Illinois. Missouri, Nebraska, Texas, Kansas, Ohio, Indiana, Tennessee, Kentucky, Arkansas, Georgia, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina. Oats, rye, and other grains are of comparatively small value as exports. The total value of breadstuffs raw and manufactured exported in 1901 was nearly $280,000,000. Other Food-Products Other food products exported include live animals, dressed meat, and dairy-products. The animals and meat-products come chiefly from Texas, Wyoming, Montana, Colorado, Iowa, Indian Territory, New Mexico, Kansas, and Nebraska. In these States and Territories there are vast ranges where cattle are raised for beef and hides. The dairy-products come chiefly from States farther east, where dairy-cattle are raised. New York, Ohio, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa are the States most noteworthy for their dairy products. A modern discovery in science is that of extracting oil from beef fat. The oil. when churned with milk, makes an artificial butter called oleomargarine. In many of the large cities the surplus milk is utilized in making this article. Its natural color is like that of lard, but the product is often colored so that only a scientific test can distinguish it from dairy butter. A cheap grade of cheese is made by a similar method. There is great demand for these articles, particularly among the poorer classes. A recent national law taxes the article and prohibits its sale as butter. Lumber. 1 — Nearly every State in the Union has forest area, but lumberino- to any considerable extent is limited to a few States. Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Pennsylvania, and Maine are seats of the lumbering interests east of the Rocky Mountains. Yellow pine is an important forest product in Georgia and the Carolinas. Half of the forest area of the country is in the Southern 1 See p. 32. 60 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. States. The lumber product of the Pacific slope comes mainly from Washing- ton and Alaska, although Oregon and California contribute largely to it. The forest area of Washington is estimated to equal the aggregate area of New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, and Connecticut. Alaska has vast areas of untouched forest. Heretofore the belt of timber extending from Maine to Minnesota has furnished the greater part of the supply of white pine consumed in the United States ; but so great has been the depletion of these forests that, in many localities, comparatively little merchantable timber is now standing. Few attempts to restock the forests have been made, and, in most instances, after the pine has been cleared from an area, scrub oak and not pine is the succeeding growth. Manufactures of Wood. — In 1902 the export of wood and wood-manufactures was of the value of $47,779,848, the principal items of which were: [i] boards, deals, and planks, [2] sawed timber, [3] staves and headings, [4] logs, [5] furniture, [6] shooks. Wood, however, forms an important element in the manufacture of articles so numerous as to be beyond the reach of classification under this head. Agricultural implements, machines, and musical instruments, are such articles. A considerable part of our exports to South America is manu- factures of wood in this sense. The domestic consumption of the same manufactures is at least twenty times the export. A glance about the class-room, with its chairs, desks, benches, settees, and tables, or a similar survey of the furnishing of any house, will show that manufac- tures of wood are among the prime necessities of civilized life. Iron Unprecedented development makes this emphatically the age of steel. Deposits of iron ores are found in nearly all parts of the United States, and the mining of them is carried on in 26 States and Territories. The largest amount of ore is mined in the Lake Superior region embraced in the States of PENNSYLVANIA OHIO ILLINOIS NEW JERSEY INDIANA ALABAMA 4i MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 120 leo 200 240 280 320 360 400 Iron and Steel, Value of Product in the Six Leading States, 1900. Minnesota, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The southern fields in the States of Alabama, Tennessee, Virginia, and Georgia hold a second place. Western Pennsylvania is third, and Colorado has become fourth.' 1 In 1899 by reason of great demand and high prices the total valuation of the year's output of pig-iron reached over ;{524 5,000,000, a sum more than double that of the preceding year. From 1789 to 1842 the lowest quotation per ton for pig-iron was $2^ in 1803, and agahi in 1841 ; while the highest was ;5S5 5 in 1815. In 1850 the price fell to $20, rose to $37 in 1854, and fell to $20.25 in 1861. Then came inflation, and the price rose to $59.25, in 1864, and did not get back to $20 again until 1877. Since the beginning of 1885, the price has been almost constantly below $20. In 1901 it was $15.87. THE UNITED STATES. 61 The smelting of iron, and the manufacture of iron and steel, are most extensively carried on in Pennslyvania, Ohio, and Illinois. In the manufacture of steel the United States is now the leading; nation in the world. In 1870 the total production of iron and steel in the United States amounted to 3,000,000 tons. In 1900 the total was a little more than 29,500,000 tons. Probably no other industry can compare with this enormous development.' Iron and steel enter into the manufacture of innumerable articles, both of domestic trade and export. Our export of tliese manufactures in 1900 was in value nearly 125,000,000, more than four times what it was in 1S94. The principal items in the order of value being machinery, agricultural implements, builders' hardware, metal-working machinery, pipes and fittings, locomotives, wire, sewing-machines, and electrical machinery. Owing to the great home demand, exports fell off in 1901 and 1902 and importation was renewed. The ability of the iron manufacturers of this country to compete successfully in the higher departments of industrial production is demonstated by the amount of these exports which are sold in the open markets of the world in competition with the best that Europe can produce. Hides." — Within the last quarter of a century cattle-raising has greatly increased in the United States. The uses of leather have not kept pace with the increase in the demand for beef, and leather has, in consequence, become an article of considerable export. Coal. — ■ The United States and Great Britain are the great coal-producing nations of the world.^ The English coal is mainly bitumious, or soft coal ; ^ The tendency now is to substitute steel for nearly all uses for which iron was formerly employed. The old methods of making steel were very uncertain and costly. Bessemer's invention greatly reduced this cost, but his process required iron ore almost free from phosphorous and sulphur com- pounds. The world's supply of such ore outside the United States is now very limited, and comes mostly from Cuba, Elba, and Spain. In this country the Lake Superior ore is Bessemer quality, and there is a great deal of Bessemer iron in the South. Most of the iron in the world has from one to five per cent of phosphorus, and to utilize this iron the so-called basic process of making steel has been introduced. Only basic steel is now made in Germany and France, and the same kind for the most part is produced in Great Britain. For many purposes this steel will supplant Bessemer as it is equally serviceable and cheaper; but it will not drive Bessemer out of the market, since there are some uses for which Bessemer steel alone is suitable. 2 See page 26. 3 The total annual production of coal in the world is now estimated by high authority at over 500.000,000 tons. The United States produces quite 200,000,000 tons, and the State of Pennsyl- vania more than half this quantity. Little coal is exported from the United States except to Canada. Recent authorities give the coal-producing area of the world at about 470,000 square miles, of which nearly 200,000 are in the United States, and an equal area in China and Japan. This estimate so far as China is concerned is somewhat conjectural, yet the area of the coal fields of China is known to be many times that of all the European countries combined. The most extensive coal-mining operations of our Southern States are carried on bv the Ten- 52 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. about one-third of that produced in the United States is anthracite, or hard coal. Deposits of this mineral, as in the case of iron, exist in nearly every State in the Union, but the amount produced comes mostly from a few. States. Pennsylvania supplies nearly all the anthracite coal of commerce. This State is also by far the largest producer of bituminous coal in the Union. Other leading coal-producing States are Illinois, West Virginia, Ohio, Alabama, Indiana, Maryland, Iowa, Colorado, Kansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Wyom- ing. Comparatively little coal is mined on the Pacific slope, and that chiefly in Washington, Copper. — The most valuable deposits of copper in the world are found in the United States. They are in Michigan, Montana, and Arizona. Numerous other deposits of this metal exist, but those named, are so extensive, that they practically regulate the price of copper for the world. The uses and applications of copper have been greatly extended and stimulated by the active development of these mines. There are also great deposits of copper in Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. The raw products of the United States form 40 per cent of the total exports of the country. Raw cotton and manufactured foodstuffs constitute about one-half of the total exports in value. Of our total exports, one-half goes to the United Kingdom and her colonies, and more than half of all our exports to European countries, go to Great Britain and Ireland. Nearly all the minerals of commerce are produced in the United States. The more important in the order of their value are coal, iron, gold, copper, petroleum, silver, building-stone, lead, and zinc. Our country leads all others in the value of its mineral products. But some minerals are mined to so small an extent, or our manufactures of them require such a large supply, that importa- tion is resorted to. These are tin, sulphur, and platinum. The mineral products exported are mostly petroleum, copper, and quicksilver.^ In iron, gold, silver, and copper, the United States is the greatest producer. II. — MANUFACTURES. General View. — • Manufacturing has developed marvelously in the United States in the past twenty-five years. At first, only th'e coarser grades of wares nessee Coal, Iron, and Railway Company, which controls the mines of the Sequatchee Valley, whose business center is Tracy City. This company employs thousands of men, and its coal total output is about 8, 000 tons per day. Note. — When the figures {rgos) are given they are for the fiscal year June 30, 1901, to June 30, 1902. 1 The development of the mineral resources of the United States is enormous. The total value of the non-metallic products in one year was approximately ^379,000,000 ; of metallic products i?307>ooo,ooo ; and of unspecified metallic products, $1,000,000, making an aggregate of $688,000,000. THE UNITED STATES. 63 were made; but by the substitution of niacliinery for hand labor, a degree of perfection has been reached in many industries that is not equalled in other parts of the world.' This is particularly true in the manufacture of sewing- machines, watches, - clocks, fire-arms, and like mechanisms, where an interchange of parts is made possible by the exactness of machine work. Tlie du])lication 1300 MILLIONS NEW YORK. N.Y, CHICAGO, ILL. PHILADELPHIA, PA. ST. LOUIS, MO. BOSTON, MASS. PITTSBURG, PA, BALTIMORE, MD. CINCINNATI, O. CLEVELAND, O. SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. NEWARK. N.J. MILWAUKEE, WIS. Value of Products in the Twelve Leading Manufacturing Cities, 1900. of parts was first introduced by Eli Whitney (the inventor of the cotton-gin), in his fire-arms factory in New Haven, and it rapidly spread throughout the country. Europe has slowly taken it up, and it is now well nigh universal. Many of the most remarkable labor-saving machines in use in the world to-day, are of American origin. Among them, are the cotton-gin, the telegraph, the telephone, the applications of electricity for purposes of illumination and power, sewing-machines, agricultural implements, and wood-working and shoe-making machinery. Statistical Outline. — The United States does as large a part of the world's manufacturing, as it does of the world's agriculture. There are 500,000 manu- facturing establishments, employing 5,300,000 hands, and having an annual product of the value of nine thousand millions of dollars. By far, the greater part of the manufacturing of our country is at present done in the States north 1 The success obtained by mechanical devices for labor-saving is well illustrated in the manufac- ture of shoes. The Goodyear machinery sews a welt between the sole and upper, and produces a better shoe than can be made by hand, and for one-half the cost. - The American watch is on the whole a better, as well as a cheaper watch, than any other, and foreign-made watches are much less used to-day in the United States and Canada than formerly. The great merit of the American watch is its uniform excellence. The machine which makes any portion of a watch faultlessly, can make ten thousand similar portions just as faultlessly. By means of micro- metric gauges, any deviation to the one ten-thousandth part of an inch can be detected in the machine. Human hands cannot rival this exactness. It is the untailing, uneiring accuracy of exquisitely perfect machinery which gives uniform quality to the American watch. In 1S60, the various American watch companies produced only 15,000 watches, but later, they have made as many as 6,000 and upward in a single day. 54 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. of the Potomac and Ohio Rivers, but manufactures of iron, steel, and textile fabrics, have been recently developing extensively in the South. The leading States in manufactures, in the order of their importance, are: i. New York; 2, Pennsylvania ; 3, Illinois ; 4, Massachusetts ; 5, Ohio, and 6, New Jersey. The working power ^ employed in our manufactures, is about twice that of Great Britain, three times that of Germany, and more than three times that of France. Hundreds of millions of dollars FOOD AND KINDRED PRODUCTS IRON AND STEEL AND THEIR PRODUCTS TEXTILES HAND TRADES LUMBER AND ITS REMANUFACTURES MISCELLANEOUS INDUSTRIES 190O t8»0 Value of Products for Groups of Industries. 1890 and 1900. III. — COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES. Historic Outline. — Long before the British colonies in America became the United States, a considerable commerce was carried on with the mother country. Whaling and fishing were also pursued with great energy. The hardy people of New England made the best of sailors. At the outbreak of the Revolution, in 1776, the merchant fleet of the colonies was of considerable size. These vessels were as stanch as oak and honest labor could make them, and at the beginning of hostilities most of them were converted into war vessels. In- significant as their number was, in comparison with the British fleet, the skill and resolution of the crews made up for the lack of ships. With the declaration of peace commerce increased rapidly. The almost con- tinual wars which for thirty years had devastated Europe, had thrown much of the carrying-trade of the world into the hands of American sailors. But the battle of Waterloo finally brought a general peace ; commerce revived ; and the various nations of the continent struggled for supremacy in it. The Americans proved themselves most skillful sailors, and their disposition for trade kept their vessels busy. Ship-builders vied with each other in con- structing vessels of great speed, and in i860 the tonnage of the merchant 1 When steam-engines were first introduced, the amount of work they could do, was compared with the amount of similar work that had previously been done by horses. Hence, the expression, horse-power. A horse-power is estimated as the power required to raise a weight of 33,000 pounds, one foot in one minute THE UNITED STATES. 55 marine of the United States was nearly equal to that of Great Britain. Many clipper ships belonged to this fleet. They were then the swiftest vessels ever built, and competed closely for the honors which for over a century had been held by the English. The Civil War in America broke out at the critical time when steam was fast superseding the sail ; and while our commercial development was inter- rupted by this war, the trading nations of Europe were adding to their merchant marine fleets of swift ocean steamships. During the last quarter of a century the energies of the people of the United States have been devoted to developing the resources of the country, somewhat at the expense of the merchant marine. European nations have fostered commerce by discriminating laws and by judicious subsidies, but our own government has done little to encourage our foreign carrying-trade since 1828. In 1901 only 8.2 per cent of the foreign carrying-trade of the United States was done in American vessels, as against 63.8 per cent of it in the year 1859. The chief natural products of our country have now been developed to such an extent that a large fleet of American ships is needed to distribute them to consuming nations* Manufactures, too, have reached a stage of development where certain of them more than supply the home demand, and new markets must be sought in order to dispose of the annual surplus. The principles of true commercial economy require that a nation like the United States, which is not only the most wealthy on the globe, but the possessor of the largest possibilities for future greatness, should have a merchant marine of a capacity in keeping with this greatness. No other country is so well situated, naturally, to carry on a large external commerce as is the United States. It has a coast-line nearly equal in extent to that of Europe, and on this coast are some of the finest harbors in the world. The facilities for internal commerce, both natural and artificial, are greatly superior to those of Europe. Besides the 15,000 miles of navigation furnished by the Mississippi River and its tributuries, the Great Lakes afford 1,500 miles of navigable waters. Along the coast are numerous rivers that are navigable to a limited extent. The government has been lavish in its expenditures to remove obstructions in these rivers, and otherwise improve them for navigation. Railways. — The United States is pre-eminent among nations, not only in its natural and artificial waterways, but also in its railways. The railway mileage of the United States is greater than that of Europe. Railways have been built for commercial rather than military ends. Many trunk lines were 56 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. extended into new and unsettled regions, in which towns and cities sprang up with great rapidity ; and new States were soon formed. The railway mileage of the whole country is about 250,000 miles, employing nearly 50,000 locomotives, and a million and a half freight cars. They carry more than half a billion passengers, 1,000,000,000 tons of freight, and employ over 1,000,000 men. Street railways have been greatly extended, and by the application of electric power are rapidly making even the country districts of the more thickly settled States accessible. Of late years there has been a steady tendency in all kinds of business to drift to the large cities, and in all countries the large cities are growing at the expense of the small towns and villages. As it is in local industries, so it is in commerce. Ports that formerly carried on commerce with all parts of the globe have dwindled into insignificance by the rapidly increasing prosperity of others perhaps more favorably situated. Nantucket, Salem, Fairhaven, and Newport conducted most of the commerce of the country a century ago. Now the trade that they formerly held goes either to New York or to Boston, and the commerce of these once flourishing ports is limited to ^ few small schooners engaged in the coasting-trade. The United States is at this time experiencing one of the most prosperous periods of its history. Its growth in population is rapid, but its growth in wealth is far greater, and is the envy and wonder of the civilized world. Diagrams have been introduced into this book showing the relative growth in wealth and evidence of our general prosperity. In twenty years the number of farms has increased nearly two millions ; the deposits in our savings banks nearly FARMS. Number of Farms. Persons Engaged IN Agriculture. Value of Farms AND Farm Property. 1880. . . . 1890 .... 1900 .... 4,008,907 4,556,641 5,739,657 7,713.875 8,565,926 10,438,219 12,180,501,538 16,082,267,689 20,514,001,838 nineteen hundred million dollars ; the money in circulation, from a little more than three hundred million dollars to over fifteen hundred million dollars. In 1880 there were nine million eight hundred thousand pupils in our public schools ; in 1 90 1 there were fifteen million six hundred thousand. At that time there were THE UXITED STATES. 57 thirty-eii^ht thousand men and women attending our collep^es ; in 1901 there were over one hundred and three thousand. AccorcHn;^^ to a report made by a recent member of Coui^ress and a member of the United States Industrial Commis- sion, the protkictive ener<;ies of the people of this country in 1901 amounted to 1 2 : 4 8 e 1850 1860 ■1870 1880 1890 ■1900 ^^^^^^ I 1 1 1 1 ^ ., ~ 1 1 1 1 1 ^^™ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^H ^^ Number of Farms ; 1850 to 1900. more than twenty billions of dollars, of which a little more than one billion three hundred millions were exported. While our exports are greater than those of any other country in the world, our home markets are worth to the HUNDREDS OF MILLIONS Deposits in Savings Banks in Dollars. producer more than fourteen times the foreign market. That our people are growing richer is shown from the fact that in 1880 our wealth per capita was $850 ; in 1890 it was $1,038 ; in 1900 it was $1,235. It is our duty to see the HUNDREDS OF MILLIONS 1880 ^H^^B^^^^^B Money in Circulation in the United States ; 1880 and 1902. products of the American farm and factory in every land throughout the civil- ized world, and this is being rapidly accomplished. The new Statistical Abstract of the United States gives the wealth of the United States at a true valuation of real and personal property as follows : 1S50 $ 7,135,780,000 1880 ^42,642,000,000 i860 16,159,616,000 1890 65,037.091,000 1870 30,068,518,000 1900 94,300,000,000 68 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. The per capita wealth of the United States for the same period is given in the following table : — 1850 5307-69 1880 $ 850.20 i860 513-93 1890 1,038.57 1S70 779-83 1900 1,235.86 Growth of Industries and Commerce. — The growth of the United States during the past hundred years has been more remarkable than that of any other nation in the world's history. At the time of the organization of the colonies under one government, the total population was less than four millions. From its foundation each colony had been independent of the other, and relied for manufactured goods on England. The New England colonies had turned their attention mostly to marine commerce and to fishing.^ The Middle Atlantic colonies had some commerce, but the industries were chiefly connected with grain and dairy farms ; while in the Southern colonies tobacco, cotton, and sugar-growing were the main occupations. There was but little change in these conditions until after the second war with England, in 1 8 1 2, when the government gave great encouragement to manufactures. The New England people had acquired wealth by their commercial ventures, and now entered upon manufacturing as energetically as they had pursued commerce. Nearly every mountain stream with sufficient flow of water to turn a water- wheel was called into requisition, until now scarcely a one-horse power of water- fall remains undeveloped ; even large rivers were dammed to obtain power for the multitude of factories.- Thus Holyoke was built on the Connecticut River, Lowell and Manchester on the Merrimac, and Lewiston on the Androscoggin. 1 The following is a comparison of the merchant-marine of the United States on Dec. 31, 1789, and on June 30, 1901, in tons, divided according to employment : — YEAR FOREIGN COASTWISE FISHERIES 1789 124,000 69,000 9,coo T9OI 879,595 4,582,645 61,978 2 " The industries, which the first act of our first administration sought to encourage, now give remunerative employment to more people than inhabited the republic at the beginning of Washing- ton's presidency. The grand total of their annual output of nine thousand millions of dollars in value, places the United States first among the manufacturing countries of the earth. One-half the total mileage of all the railroads, and one-quarter of all the telegraph lines of the world within our borders, testify to the volume, variety, and value of an internal commerce that makes these states, if need be, independent and self-supporting. These hundred years of development under favoring political condi- tions have brought the sum of our national wealth to a figure which has passed the results of a thou- sand years for the mother-land herself, otherwise the richest of modern empires. The impetuous progress of the North, and the recent marvelous industrial development of the South, have stimulated production until our annual surplus nearly equals that of England, France, and Germany combined. The teeming millions of Asia till the patient soil and work the shuttle and loom as their fathers have THE UNITED STATES. 59 More recently the development of natural gas in Ohio, Indiana, and Penn- sylvania has given cheap fuel and built up large manufacturing interests. The utilizing of Niagara's water power to produce electric power is making cen- ters of manufacturing. The city of Buffalo is lighted by electric currents gen- erated at Niagara, and Spokane, Washington, by the falls of the river on which it is situated. 190C Diagram Showing the Value of All Manufactured Products, and Proportional Value of Each Group. The overcrowded population of Europe was tempted by the opportunities to make homes in the New World, and in 1820 over 8,000 of them immigrated. Those who had been employed in factories at home found employment in simi- done for ages ; modern Europe has felt the influence and received the benefit of the incalculable mul- tiplication of force by inventive genius since the Napoleonic wars. Yet only 269 years after the little band of Pilgrims landed on Plymouth Rock, our people, numbering less than one-fifteenth of the inhab- itants of the globe, do one-third of its mining, one-fourth of its manufacturing, one-fifth of its agricul- ture, and own one-sixth of its wealth." — [From an Address by Chauncey AI. Depew\ 00 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. lar factories here ; but the majority were tillers of the soil, and these new- comers pushed the lines of civilization westward in their search for homes. Between 1820 and 1900 over twenty millions of people, representing nearly every nation on the earth, found homes in the United States.^ With such a rapid growth of population, industries of all kinds multiplied, and we now pro- duce nearly every important article of consumption. By the introduction of railways the farming communities of the West were brought into direct communication with the seacoast, and the product of the wheat-fields sought market in the great cities of Europe. The energy with which railway building w^as conducted opened new regions of rich farming-lands that soon became settled.^ The discovery of coal and iron in Pennsylvania gave an impetus to manufacturing, which increased in even greater ratio than the demand for manufactured goods, until now manufactures are exported where a quarter of a century ago similar goods were almost entirely imported. In a new country there are innumerable directions in which energy and enterprise can exert themselves. Agriculture pays the largest profit at first, owing to the cheapness of land ; but after the natural fertility of the soil is gone, and arti- ficial fertilization is necessary, the profits are less. Then come greater attention to small crops, and the beginnings of the manufacture of articles of e very-day use. Grain-growing pushes outward where the newer lands are: Average Size of Farms ; 1850 to 1900. and, as agriculture grows less profitable, manu- facture follows slowly in its wake. In the longest settled States agriculture is more diversified than in the new States and Territories. At first manufactures adapt themselves to the nearest mar- kets. Thus agricultural implements are made to greater advantage in the West than in the East ; but watches, steam-engines, and carefully adjusted electrical and other appliances are most extensively manufactured in the East, where 1 During the year ending June 30, 1901, 487,918 immigrants arrived in the United States. Of these .learly 80 per cent entered at the port of New York. There have been great changes in the proportion of immigrants from the different European nations. Formerly more came from the west and north of Europe, but now from the south and east. In 1901, 45,546, or less than 10 per cent, came from Great Britain; Italy sent 135,996, or more than 27 percent, Austria-Hungary 113,390, or more than 23 per cent, and Russia 85,257, or about 17 per cent, Germany 21,651, Sweden 23,331, all other countries 62,747. 2 During the year 1901 the government disposed of 15,453,449 acres of the public domain under the homestead, pre-emption, and forest laws. In the ten years ending 1901, 111,394,681 acres were located for settlement. 100 200 1850 1 1870 1880 1890 1900 1 1 UNiV °' S^ THE UXITED STATES. 01 the more skilled mechanics are. Coarse cotton cloth can be made cheaper in Augusta, Atlanta, and other centers near the cotton fields, than in New Bed- ford, Fall River, or Lowell. Industries Sectionally Considered. — The Southeastern States are thinly inhabited, having large areas of farming-land only partly developed. Hence, these States produce mainly raw materials, and the rougher sort of manufactures, such as coarse cotton cloth, pig-iron, and lumber. In the central or Mississippi region food-products are cultivated in tlie States lying to the west, while in the eastern section more manufacturing is carried on. In general, the Pacific slope is still a great producer of raw materials, minerals, lumber, and food-products ; but in the vicinity of San Francisco, the longest settled region, there are ex- tensive manufactures. The commercial spirit of the people in the Northern States of the country has led to a more complete development of the resources of these States than has been attempted in the South. Since 1880 Northern capital has been turned southward, and the most rapid industrial movement in any part of the country has followed in the development of coal and iron and cotton mills. From 1880 to 1900 the wages paid to mill operatives in the South increased from 80,000- 000 dollars to 260,000,000; the number of wage-earners increased from 318,- ^00 to 811,000; the capital employed in manufacturing from $272,000,000 to $1,200,000,000, and the value of the product from $477,000,000 to $1,520,- 000,000. From 1 891 to 1900 the South's output of coal increased from 1 1,000,- 000 tons to 23,000,000, and of pig-iron, from 1,499,284 tons to 2,109,081. And in utilizing their abundant natural resources, the people of the South seem to be only at the beginning of their industrial growth. The demand for energy and capital within our own borders has been so great that there has been no necessity to seek outside markets. In this respect the contrast between the United States and many of the European countries has been very marked, as the heavy American investments of English, German, and French syndicates show. Since i860 our exports and imports have greatly increased. The expansion of trade, moreover, has taken place in nearly every direction, but the exports are now much greater than the imports. Now, as always heretofore, the largest export is of agricultural products and raw mate- rials ; but manufactures, especially of iron and steel, of machinery and cotton goods, have shown great advances. American steel and iron bridges have been sold in Europe, Asia, and Africa in competition with British and German man- ufacturers. American bicycles, clocks, watches, type-writers, and sewing- machines are popular everywhere. American locomotives are running on 62 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. English, German, French, Russian, Chinese, and Japanese railways, and the electric railways of foreign cities have been largely equipped by American elec- trical engineers. The largest relative advances of American exports have been with China, which takes an ever-increasing amount of cotton goods ; and with South Africa, which imports flour and machinery ; and with Mexico. The progress of trade with the other republics to the south has been relatively small.^ Parallel with this commercial success, increasing foreign competition is not wanting in most classes of goods which we export. Russia, Roumania, Austria- Hungary, India, and other countries are exporting wheat in increasing quantities. They cannot compete with us closely enough to drive American wheat from the market, but they reduce the profits of wheat-growing. The Argentine Republic and other South American countries compete with us in meat and animal products. Egypt and India raise increasing quantities of cotton. Russian petroleum now vies in some markets with the Pennsylvania product, and, owing to its abundance, has become a keen competitor. Our Exports and Imports The United States stands first among nations in the value of its exports. Great Britain being second, Germany third, and HUNDREDS OF MILLIONS Our Exports in 1880 and 1902, Given in Dollars. France fourth. The value of the exports of the United States during 1902 was $1,381,719,401 ; of the imports of the same year, $903,327,071. But in spite of this recent American preponderance of exports. Great Britain is still the 1 The history of efforts to increase commercial relations with the Spanish and Portuguese- American countries goes back to 1825, when efforts were made which resulted in the meeting of an International Congress at Panama in 1826. Owing to tha death of several delegates, and especially to political complications among the countries of South America, this congress was barren of practical outcome. It adjourned to meet later at the City of Mexico, but its sessions were never resumed. In the winter of 1889-90, a second International American Congress met in Washington, com- posed of accredited delegates from all the republics of the Western Continent. Many m.utually beneficial measures were considered by it, subject to ratification by later treaties. A permanent trade e.xposition, with especial reference to putting American manufacturers in touch with consumers in other countries has been established in Philadelphia ; and the Pan-American Exposition held in Buffalo in 1901 was particularly intended to promote the commercial relations of the Americas. THE UNITED STATES. 63 leader of the world's trade, exports and imports beiiiLC both considered ; followed by Germany, France, and the United States. In the order of value the bulk of the import trade of the United States is carried on with Great Britain and her possessions, Germany, France, Brazil, The Netherlands, Jai)an, Cuba, Italy, Mexico, China, Switzerland, Beli;ium, and Austria-IIungary. In the order of value the bulk of the export trade of the United States is carried on with Great Britain, Germany, France, The Netherlands, Belgium, Mexico, Italy, Japan, Cuba, Denmark, China, and Brazil. One half of our exports go to the United Kingdom and her colonies. More than half of all exports to Europe go to the United Kingdom. To the British possessions in North America alone we export to an amount larger than the sum of our exports to non-British Asia, Africa, South America, and the West Indies. There are i6i cities in this country each with a population of more than 25,000 (see page 47). The causes that have brought about the selection of particular sites for these cities, and contributed to their prosperity are one of the most interesting studies for the student of commerce, but cannot be adequately treated in a brief volume for school use. With the excep- tion of the great seaports and important lake and river towns no attempt has been made to treat the commercial and industrial growth of cities. The pupil has been given the essential facts in the special editions of the regular descriptive geographies. IV. — SEVEN PRINCIPAL SEAPORTS. New York City is the great commercial center of the United States, and ranks second among the cities of the world, in population and in wealth. Its geographical position and its fine harbor combine to make it the commercial metropolis of the Western Continent. In amount of commerce, it now outranks London. Manhattan Island is long and narrow, and projects into a deep bay. This bay and the adjoining waters furnish nearly one hundred square miles of anchorage ground ; while the shores of the island have twenty-five miles of water-front, all of which furnishes good wharfage area. The adjacent shores supply as much more. . The building of the Erie Canal and its branches brought New York into direct and cheap communication with the great producing country of the lake regions ; and, with the rapid development of agricultural interests in those regions, the commerce of the city increased. The subsequent introduction of railways supplemented the canal system, and poured a still greater amount of food-products into the city to be exported. Thus, New York gradually and 64 A GEOGRAl'nv OF COMMERCE. steadily absorbed the bulk of our foreif;-n commerce, both of exports and imports. Direct communication is now held with all the large commercial centers of the world by steamships and by sailing-vessels. New York City alone has nearly half of the foreign commerce of the country. Four trunk lines of railway con- nect the city with the great producing regions and commercial centers of the West. These lines are the New York Central, the New York, Lake Erie, and Western, the Pennsylvania, and the Baltimore and Ohio. They bring the food and other products of the West to New York for consumption and export, and, in return, distribute throughout the West the manufactures of the Atlantic States, and the wares imported. Even the cotton of the South seeks New York ; and nearly ten per cent of the amount exported passed through this port in 1901. New York is the center from which most of the great financial transactions of the country emanate, and as a money market it is first in the world. The manufacturing interests in and around the city are much greater than in any equal area of the country. The more important industries are : the making of MILLIONS OF DOLLARS 100 120 140 160 NEW YORK ILLINOIS PENNSYLVANIA OHIO MARYLAND MASSACHUSETTS w Clothing (Men's and Women's) Value of Product in the Six Leading States : 1900. clothing, shoes, sugar-refining, printing and book-binding, brewing, leather-work- ing, and iron- and steel-working. Some of our best ships have been built here. Politically and commercially a part of New York, on the western end of Long Island, is Brooklyn. The two are connected by the finest suspension bridge in the world. Other bridges are building, and tunnels to connect the two boroughs. The manufacturing interests of Brooklyn are very great, but it is also a city of homes. It has a great extent of wharfage, and carries on a considerable portion of the commerce of the port of New York. Jersey City, opposite New York on the west, is also a suburb of industries and homes. Its water-front is extensive ; and as numerous Western railways terminate at its piers, a considerable direct foreign commerce is carried on. Within a radius of twenty miles of the city of New York is a population of about 4,000,000, all dependent to a greater or less degree upon the city. THE UXITED STATES. 05 Boston, the capital of Massachusetts, is the second American seaport in commercial importance. Much of the export and import trade of New England is carried on through Boston, and it also receives for export a large amount of food-products from the West. The products reach Boston largely via the New York Central, and Boston and Maine railways. The harbor of Boston is one of the best in the country, but its anchorage area is little more than half as great as that of New York. Up to the time of the building of the Erie Canal, Boston was the most important port of the coun- try. But the opening of that canal gave to New York a large traffic that Bos- ton could not reach, though the railways have now restored some of its trade. The Boston and Albany (now leased to the New York Central) and Fitchburg (now leased to the Boston and Maine) railways connect Boston with the trunk lines of the West ; the New Haven with Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New York ; the Boston and Maine with Canada and Northern and Eastern New Eng- land. No other equal area of the country does as much manufacturing as New England ; and Boston is the city upon which more than one-half these industries depend, both for banking facilities and a market. Boston is a great financial center. Much of the money necessary to build up the West came from that city. It is one of the chief educational centers of the country in languages, professions, arts, and music. The industries of Bos- ton are chiefly the manufacture of "boots and shoes, clothing, iron and steel goods, printing and bookbinding, brewing, and sugar-refining. It is the first leather market and the first wool market of the United States. Population, 560,000. Baltimore has a commerce somewhat less than that of Philadelphia, Its exports are greater than those of the latter city. In exports Baltimore ranks fifth, New York being first, Boston second. New Orleans third, and Galveston fourth. Its imports are but a fraction of the exports, and much less in value than those of New Orleans. The city is situated near the head of Chesapeake Bay, one hundred and eighty miles from the Atlantic. It owes much of its growth, however, to favorable railway connections with the West rather than to its maritime position. The harbor is naturally a fine one, but it has not the depth and capacity found at other leading ports. Baltimore is the greatest oyster-market in the world ; and one of the most important industries of the city is that of gathering, canning, and shipping oysters to all parts of the world. The city is also a considerable tobacco- market. Among the leading industries are iron- and steel-working, and brick- making. Population, 508,000. 66 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. Philadelphia is fourth among the seaports of the ccnintry. The city is situated on the Delaware River, one hundred miles from the Atlantic Ocean, The depth of the river at low tide is sufficient to admit large ocean steamships. In the early part of the century, Philadelphia, with Boston, possessed most of the ocean commerce of the country ; but since the introduction of railwa}s, and the development of the resources of the West, other ports have grown into importance at the expense of both, but particularly of Philadelphia. The princi- pal exports are, food-products, coal, cotton, iron and steel, woolens, leather goods, and petroleum. The petroleum export of the United States is mostly from Philadelphia and New York. Population, 1,300,000. The proximity of coal and iron mines largely accounts for the great industrial development of Philadelphia and its vicinity, where manufacturing interests greatly exceed shipping interests in value. Iron- and steel-working is very exten- sively followed, but for its woolen industries the city is especially noted. It is the greatest carpet-manufacturing center in the world ; and in making velvet, Brussels, and other fine grades of carpets, the city is not excelled. Woolen cloth, worsted, yarn, and other wool materials are also extensively manufactured. The manufacture of pressed and ornamental bricks and terra-cotta ware is a great industry, and one for which Philadelphia is famous. Among other leading manufactures are those of drugs and chemicals, sugar, hats, and cotton goods. Philadelphia is well provided with railway facilities, and its prosperity has been largely due to a system of canals which connect it with the coal and iron regions, and with New York and Baltimore. In the vicinity of Philadel- phia, along the shores of the Delaware River, are the largest and most impor- tant ship-building yards in the United States. Among the vessels built in these yards are swift steamships plying between United States ports and Eng- land, and Pacific ports and Australia. The vessels for the new navy of the United States, constructed here, have no superiors in the navies of other nations. New Orleans is advantageously situated on the Mississippi River, one hun- dred miles from its mouth. Before the introduction of railways, New Orleans gave every evidence of becoming the greatest commercial city of the continent, as, by the Mississippi River and its branches, it was the natural outlet through which the food-products of the States lying along the shores of the vast Missis- sippi River system sought the markets of Europe. But the development of navigation on the Great Lakes, and the building of railways to connect the Northwest with the Atlantic seaboard, diverted much of this traffic eastward. Population, 287,300. THE UMTEl) STATES. 67 The channel at the mouth ol the Mississippi River, difficult to navigate, and frequently changins;" by the deposit of silt from the river, was anofher hinder- ance to the development of New Orleans. This has been deepened to thirty feet by means of jetties, so that ocean vessels of greatest draught may now reach the city. These improvements have greatly increased the commercial impor- tance of the port. About a third of the cotton crop and nearly all of the cotton-seed oil are shipped from New Orleans. An important commerce is being developed between New Orleans and Mexico and Central America. By the completion of the Isthmian Canal, the commerce of the port will be greatly increased. The railway connections of the city have been improved during recent years, and have done much to aid its commercial development. Most of the sugar-cane raised in the United States is grown in Louisiana, and the raw sugar is sent to market through the port of New Orleans. Rice, another leading crop, finds its way to market by the same means, and it exports much corn and wheat, brought by the railways from the North and West. The situation of the city is such that its commercial interests are naturally more important than its manufactures ; but in recent years the latter have assumed increasing consequence. It is estimated that there are now in New Orleans 2,000 factories of various kinds, the leading products of which are tin- ware, clothing, cotton, boots and shoes, manufactures of wood, and railway cars. Galveston is now the sixth seaport of the Union in the total amount of its commerce. It is the chief shipping point for Texan products, and although its harbor is not naturally good, yet Galveston is the leading port in the amount of cotton shipped, and has an important trade in wool and hides. Population, 37,000. San Francisco is the seventh seaport in commercial importance in the United States, and is destined to become a great commercial center. San Francisco and San Pablo Bays, on which the city is situated, form one of the finest harbors in the world, and furnish anchorage area several times greater than that of New York Harbor. The harbor and the Golden Gate (the straight connecting it with the ocean) admit vessels of the greatest draught regardless of tides. Most of the foreign commerce of the Pacific slope passes- through San Francisco. P2xports and imports more nearly balance each other than in any other of the great ports except New York. The amount of wheat and wheat flour exported varies from year to year with the demands of the foreign trade and the yield of the California season. Fruits, lumber, wine, and meat-products are other 68 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. exports ' Nearly all the quicksilver exported goes through this port. Lines of steamshfps connect the city with New York, the Pacific coast ports of South America, Yokohama, Honolulu, Auckland, the Philippine Islands, and Australia. San P'rancisco is the great distributing center of the coast. It is connected by steamship lines with all the important coast towns, and by rail with the more important places of the interior. The building of trans-continental railways has greatly increased travel and trade between the Atlantic and Pacific sea- boards. Much of the coal used in California is imported from Washington, British Columbia, and Australia. But in spite of the high cost of fuel, manu- factures are extensive, especially those of furniture, leather goods, clothing, cigars, iron and steel, and refined sugar. Considerable fishing is carried on from this port, and, with New Bedford and Provincetown, Mass., it does most of the whaling of the world. The completion of an Isthmian canal will be a great stimulus to the com- merce of San Francisco. It is already connected with the Hawaiian Islands by cable. Population, 342,000. These seven ports, New York, Boston, New Orleans, Philadelphia, Balti- more, Galveston, and San Francisco, do about ninety per cent of our importing, and eighty per cent of our exporting ; that is, eighty-four per cent of our total foreign commerce. The remaining sixteen per cent is divided among a large number of minor ports, Seattle and Tacoma having the largest share, and others being well known in particular kinds of trade or manufacture. v. — NINE LAKE PORTS. Commerce on the Great Lakes finds very active competition from the rail- ways, owing to the fact that the lake system is closed to navigation from December to May, while the railways have no such interruption. Within the past few years, steamers of great speed and carrying capacity have been built for lake navigation, and now do much of the carrying of ores, coal, etc. Owing to the many obstacles to navigation, the draught of these vessels is limited to sixteen feet. They average fourteen round trips each season between Buffalo and Duluth. The cargoes consist mainly of manufactured goods going West, and of iron and copper ore, grain, and lumber returning East. Chicago and Cleveland are important centers from which a very large percentage of the shipping is directed. Coal is sent from Buffalo and Erie to Chicago, Milwaukee, Duluth, Superior, and Toledo. Ore is shipped from Superior and Marquette to 1 American occupation of the Philippines and large railway concessions to Americans in China have greatly increased the trans-Pacific trade of San Francisco and other ports of the coast. THE UNITED STATES. 69 Cleveland and Chicago, grain and flour from Chicago and Dukith to Buffalo, and lumber from Michigan to Cleveland and Ikiffalo. The commerce of the lake ports has wonderfully increased in the last twenty years. Nearly one-third of the whole tonnage of vessels carrying the United States flag is engaged in commerce on the Great Lakes. ^ Chicago, situated at the southern extremity of Lake Michigan, is the most important city on the Great Lakes, and the second in population on the American continent. The harbor, naturally poor, has been greatly improved, so that now a greater number of vessels clear yearly from this port than from New York and Philadelphia together. There are open waterways to the Great Lakes, to all points on the Mississippi River, to New York (by way of the Erie Canal), and, by way of the St. Lawrence River, to European ports. Chicago is the greatest railway center in the world. It is the meeting-point between systems reaching to the Atlantic, the Gulf of Mexico, Canada, and the Pacific. It is the greatest food center in the world, and a large proportion of the products of the States west of this point find their way to market through this city. It not only handles much the largest proportion of the grain, but also exerts a large influence upon the prices of wheat and corn for the markets of the world. The meat-packing and meat-dressing establishments are the largest in the world. In manufactures of steel it vies with Pittsburg. The manufactures of clothing, furniture, and leather goods are important industries ; and in the printing and publishing of books, this city is second to New York only. Chicago is the financial center of the North and Central Western States. Buffalo, at the foot of Lake Erie, is an important railway center. -Coal and the manufactured products of the East are shipped from this port to the West and into Canada ' Grain, sent through the lakes toward the seaboard, is trans- shipped here to the boats of the Erie Canal and to the trunk railway lines. Buffalo is an important industrial center, particularly in metal and wood work- ing, and in the manufacture of glucose Cleveland, situated on the southern shore of Lake Erie, has a valuable shipping-trade in grain, iron ore, and manufactured products. Its manufactures are very important, and include iron and steel wares, furniture, and farming 1 The aggregate value of American vessels engaged in the lake service is over 550,000,000. Of this amount Cleveland owns more than ;? 10,000,000. Many vessels are yearly launched and a large number of vessels without ratings are engaged in lumber transportation. Here as elsewhere in the carrying trade, steam is superseding in tonnage the sailing vessel. The iron ore of the Mesabi mines in Minnesota affords a continually increasing amount of freight. 70 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. implem-ents. There are also a number of large petroleum refineries. The Ohio Canal affords an outlet to the Ohio River and thence to the Mississippi ; and trunk lines of railway connect the city with the business centers of the East and the West. It is probable that Cleveland has now more lake trade than any other city. Toledo, at the western extremity of Lake Erie, is a great railway center. It has water communication with the Ohio River by the Miami Canal, and is also connected with the Wabash Canal. The city is an important grain-market. The manufacture of furniture and farm machinery is extensively carried on. Detroit, on the Detroit River, between Lakes Huron and Erie, is the most important port between Buffalo and Chicago. More tonnage is said to pass Detroit than any other point in the world. Milwaukee is eighty-five miles north of Chicago. The railway facilities of the city are excellent. The greatest industries are iron- and steel-working, and the brewing of malt liquors. The city has a large and rapidly increasing lake traffic, almost rivalling Chicago in the number of boats that now enter and leave this port. Duluth, at the western extremity of Lake Superior, is a rapidly growing city. It is at the head of navigation of the Great Lakes, and is one of the eastern termini of the Northern Pacific Railway. The chief export is the grain harvested from the vast fields of northern Minnesota, the Dakotas, and Manitoba. Duluth has an extensive lake traffic. VI. — TEN RIVER PORTS. Owing to the facilities of transportation furnished by the river, and to the railway connections with the other great centers of trade, numerous large cities have grown up along the Mississippi River and its tributaries. St. Louis, on the Mississippi River, just below the junction of the Missouri, is a great commercial center of the Mississippi valley. The population of the city is more than 600,000. From its situation St. Louis commands an enor- mous traffic both by water and by rail. It is a great market for gram, flour, animals and animal-products, tobacco, cotton, cotton-seed oil, and sugar. St. Louis has numerous local industries, the more important being metal- and glass-working, beer-brewing, car-building, flouring, and brick-making. The wholesale grocery business is very large. A great world's fair is to be opened in this city in 1904. . THE UMTlin STATES. 71 St. Paul is situated at the head of iuivi<;ati(iii (in the Mississippi River, and is an important railway center. This city has a great flour milhn<^^ business and miscellaneous trade. During the decade ending 1890 its growth was extraordinary, the population increasing from 41,000 to 133,000, and in 1900 reached 163,000. Minneapolis, adjoining St. Paul on the west, is the greatest flour-producing center in the world, the mills having a capacity of about 40,000 barrels a day. Wood-working is also an important industry in both Minneapolis and St. Paul, particularly that of cooperage in connection with the flour-making. Minne- apolis has likewise had a phenomenal growth. In 1880 it had a population of 47,000 ; in 1890, 165,000 ; and in 1900 it was 202,000. Kansas City, Missouri, is on the Missouri River. Its river trade is unim- portant, and its development is mainly due to great railway facilities. In the importance of its railway connections, it ranks next to Chicago among Western cities. The growth of this city has been very remarkable. It had no such natural advantages as the neighboring cities of Topeka and St. Joseph, but had, on the contrary, a great many disadvantages such as usually prevent the growth of cities. Yet Kansas City has become one of the leading business centers. Owing to its nearness to the cattle ranges, there is an enormous trafific in dressed beef, and in meat-packing it ranks next to Chicago. There is a con- stantly growing trade with Mexico. Kansas City, Kansas, forms one business center with the Missouri city of the same name. Omaha has a considerable river traf^c, and is a railway center of much importance. In the city are large manufactures of railway supplies. In dressed meats and packing-house products it ranks next to Chicago and Kansas City. Smelting and metal-working are a leading industry. Louisville, on the Ohio River, is the greatest tobacco-market in the world. By reason of its extensive railway connections, it is active in the exchange of food-products of the North for the raw materials of the South, Pork-packing, and the manufacture of whiskey and metal goods, are leading industries. Cincinnati is the largest and most important city in the Ohio Valley. An extensive trafific is carried on by the river ; by the Miami Canal, which gives water connection with Lake Erie ; and by the great trunk lines which connect the city with all the leading commercial points. Pork-packing was formerly the chief industry of the city, and is still active, though not to the degree that it is farther W'est. Other industries of great value have sprung up. Iron and 72 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. Steel goods, beer, clothing, boots and shoes, soap, fine pottery, printing, tobacco manufacturing, and wood carving, are the most important. Pittsburg and Allegheny City are situated on the Alleghany and Mononga- hela Rivers where they unite to form the Ohio. The first growth of Pittsburg was due to its favorable position for traffic by water ; but the later development of the coal and iron mines of Pennsylvania has made the city the principal iron- and steel-producing center of the country. The natural waterway at hand has been of inestimable value in the development of the city. Coal is loaded in barges at the mines up the rivers, and towed to the various cities along the Ohio and Mississippi. Glass-making is the second industry, and in this product Pittsburg stands first in the country. A discovery which has greatly benefitted Pittsburg and other manufacturing towns in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana, is that of natural gas, and the means by which it can be used as fuel. Natural gas has so superseded the use of coal in Pittsburg that much of the smokiness for which the city was once noted has disappeared.! Crude petroleum is another fuel that, owing to its cheapness, has come into extensive use in several kinds of manufacture, particularly in metal- and glass-working. Great petroleum fields have recently been developed in Ohio. The products of these new fields possess only a small degree of illuminating, but the usual amount of heat giving, quality. UNITED STATES COLONIES. ALASKA. The territory of Alaska has an area of about a million square miles, the greater part of which lies either within or adjacent to the Arctic Circle. West of the coast-range of mountains the climate is moderate, being modified by the Japan Current. The commercial importance of Alaska lies in its fisheries and mines. The former include whales, seals, and sea-otter, salmon, cod, and halibut. The whal- ing is carried on by American steamers, and the annual catch is worth about one million dollars. Until recently the seal rookeries have paid an annual tax- to the government of about half a million dollars, and have yielded furs for commerce to a much greater amount. The fishing-banks correspond in their extent, character, and abundance with the great off-shore fishing-banks of ^ This gas is found by sinking wells from six hundred to two thousand feet. It has been exten- sively used as fuel in factories, and for lighting and heating puiposes in houses. It is the cheapest fuel used. New fields are continually opened. Unfortunately, evidences of diminishing supply lead to the belief that it may soon be exhausted. The mains from the gas-fields, composing the high-pressure system of the company alone, have been able to deliver into the cities of Pittsburg and Allegheny nearly 200,000,000 cubic feet of gas every twenty-four hours. THE uxiti-:d states. 73 Eastern America. A number of vessels belonging in Massachusetts are en- gaged in these fisheries. The rivers that flow into the Pacific Ocean abound in fish, and the run of salmon in the spring is greater than that in the Columbia River. The canning of this fish is now an industry of great value. In the 'Southern part only are the resources of Alaska developed. The great cost of supplies and the diflficulty of transportation hinder the prosecution of industrial enterprises. Gold and silver are the only minerals yet mined. I'^.xtensive placer mines have been developed in the valleys of tributaries of the Yukon, near the eastern border line. The famous Klondike mines are in British territory. Rich deposits have been found more recently on the beach at Cape Nome, where a city of several thousand people sprang up in 1899. Successful quartz mines have been worked for years on islands of the southern coast. At the Treadwell mines on Douglas Island is the largest mineral milling plant in the world. Coal, copper, iron, marble, and other minerals are known to exist in this territory. The unworked deposits of coal, all of which is bituminous, are estimated to be sufificient to supply the United States for centuries. The forests of Southern Alaska, the area of which is many times that of Pennsylvania, contain valuable woods, such as spruce, fir, hemlock, cypress, and yellow cedar. Each year since its purchase by the United States, the commercial value of this territory has been demonstrated. The revenue paid from it to the general government is already several millions a year. HAWAII. The Hawaiian or Sandwich Islands, a group of islands, situated about one- third the distance between San Francisco and Sydney. They are important islands, and American whalemen were the first to open them to the world. With the decline of whaling, and the increase of general commerce, they became recruiting ports to the merchant marine. Heretofore an independent government, the Islands are now a territory of the United States.^ Nearly all the fertile area is owned by Americans, and the bulk of commerce is with our own country. The staple product and export is sugar. The natives of these islands, called Kanakas, are fast dying off, and a new 1 In answer to a petition from the islands, the United States Congress passed an act on July 7, 1898, to anne.\ them. The formal ceremony of raising the United States flag took place August 12, 189S. 74 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. population is taking their places. Chinese coolies at one time threatened to overrun the islands, but they are now excluded. Portuguese, Americans, and Japanese are emigrating thither, and it is there industry that has increased the productiveness of the islands. There is still a great scarcity of labor. In the year following annexation the exports from the United States to Hawaii nearly doubled. In the year ending June 30, 1900, the trade with the islands amounted to $36,000,000, nearly two-thirds of which was sugar imported from the island ports. Other products of the islands are rice, fruits, and nuts, coffee, hides and skins, and copra, or dried cocoanut. The commerce of Hawaii is the largest per capita of any country in the world. Population 154,000. Honolulu is the capital and most important city. It is connected by steam- ship with the United States, Australia, and China, and by a sub-marine cable with San Francisco. THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. The northernmost group of the East Indies comprises about fourteen hundred islands, of which Luzon is largest and of most commercial importance.^ The chief products of the islands are tobacco, sugar, hemp, and coffee. Tobacco has been grown on the islands for more than a century, and cigar- making is an important interest, the export of cigars being about one hundred millions a year, mostly to Europe. Hemp, produced from the fiber of a species of banana, is the best-known product, however, and much of the cordage of the world is made from the variety known as Manila* hemp. This is also used as paper stock. Manila, the capital, is on a deep bay of the eastern coast of Luzon. Iloilo, the second city and port, is on the southern coast of the island of Panay. The exports of the United States to the Philippines rose from $127,000, in 1898, to $4,027,004 in 1 901, and the imports from $3,830,000 to $4,420,912. PORTO RICO. By the treaty of Paris, Porto Rico became an American possession. It is fourth in size of the West Indies, about thirty-five miles from north to south, and ninety-five from east to west, with nearly one million inhabitants, being one 1 The Philippines came into the possession of the United States by the Treaty of Paris in 1899. Upon their pacification must follow the development of their large agricultural possibilities, as well as the unexplored resources in timber and mineral wealth. Gold, coal, iron, and copper are known to exist, and mines have been worked by the natives and Spaniards to a limited extent. THE UNITED STATES. 75 of the most thickly settled regions of the work!. Its capital is San Juan on the northern coast. Ponce is the largest port on the south. It exports coffee, sugar, fruits, and tobacco, and imports flour, fish, and manufactured goods. Porto Rico exported to the United States in 1900 goods to the amount of $1,350,000 ; and imported to the amount of $3,600,000. SAMOA AND GAUM. By the Treaty of Paris, Guam, the largest of the Ladrone Islands, was ceded by Spain to the United States. It is a small island, of importance only as a telegraph and coaling-station on the voyage to the Philippines. The island and harbor of the Samoan Island of Tutuila passed by treaty of Great Britain and Germany into the possession of the United States in 1899. It has one of the best harbors of the Pacific, but the island has only a few thousand inhabitants, and is of little commercial importance except as a coaling- station on the route from San Francisco to Australia. The policy of the United States towards the Philippines Islands and other late Spanish territory is to foster commerce and stimulate a love for education. Enormous sums of money have been freely given, and American teachers are at work in all our new possessions. While the problem of colonization is yet to be worked out, thus far great good has come to these islands. Commerce has increased ; internal improvements have been made ; and school-houses, over which float the stars and stripes, have been erected. 76 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. CHAPTER IV. GREAT BRITAIN AND HER COLONIES. Situation. — The United Kingdom is composed of Great Britain and Ireland, and includes England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and the adjoining islands ; the British Empire comprises Great Britain and all her colonial possessions. Among the great natural advantages of Great Britain for commerce and the industries dependent upon it are : abundance and convenient situation of de- posits of coal and iron ; convenience of access of all points to the coast, on one side or the other ; central position of the British Isles among the nations that carry on a great commerce ; and the number of its navigable estuaries, rivers, and good harbors. Engineering skill has greatly improved these natural facili- ities by supplementing them with canals, breakwaters, lighthouses, railways, and bridges. The population of the United Kingdom is 41,000,000. Commercial Importance. — The British Empire is the greatest commercial nation in the world, although the exports are now less than those of the United States.' Its commercial activities are of great importance to the United States. The principal products that Great Britain takes from us are : cotton, wheat, corn and flour, beef and pork, cattle, dairy products, tobacco, copper and cop- per goods, books and maps, leather and leather goods, petroleum, oil cake and meal, lumber, furs and skins, etc., to the amount of between six and seven hun- dred millions of dollars annually. The principal products that we take from Great Britain in exchange for these are : manufactures of cotton, iron and steel and their products, woolen goods, silk fabrics, chemicals and drugs, tin, hides and skins, china and porcelain, jewels and jewelry, leather and leather products, dressed furs, linen goods, and many other articles, to the amount of between one hundred and two hundred millions annually. 1 In 1 901 the imports of the United Kingdom were a Httle more than $2,540,000,000, as against $800,000,000 to the United States. Our exports were $1,460,462,806. Those of the United Kingdom for the same year, $1,362,728,893. Of the total commerce of the United Kingdom over ninety per cent belongs to England and Wales, over seven per cent to Scotland, and less than two per cent to Ireland. The principal export of Ireland is linen and linen goods. .r .. „ f J ^ c Capt Toim to Sydnty ;u^l9. » N Tro,.ic of Ca, E A mux ^ issiaissmi ki.^.? oi' the STERX HE3IISPIIEIIE t i i esti- s that butcd \V(Jol, rid as -trade )urths itates, more les, or v^ision, mpeti- ;ardcn in«,^ of great 2 food ts are Eng- whole Great •thern ext in ranks es not In the Hay is as took il annu- i 14 per ■cported, ores are )n their nts, and istralian n land, iraged." Tiade in GREAT BRITAIX AXP HER COLO XI ES. i < Great Britain is a great "jobbing" and distributing nation; and it is esti- mated that one-fifth of the total value of British exports represents articles that have been collected from various parts of the globe, to be as widely distributed again in other parts. This is especially true of such materials as cotton, wool, and silk, imported in the raw state, and exported to all jxirts of the world as manufactured goods. British shi|)s have also a large share of the carrying-trade of other nations. It is claimed that Great Britain not only carries three-fourths of her own immense commerce, but over one-half that of the United States, Portugal, and The Netherlands, nearly half that of Italy and Russia, and more than one-third that of France and Germany.' The area of the United Kingdom is a little over 120,000 square miles, or nearly three times that of the State of Ohio. England is the largest division, and, with Wales, embraces half the kingdom. About one-third of the area is cultivated ; but, owing to the close competi- tion of imported grain, agriculture is largely directed to small crops and garden vegetables. The grazing area is large, and is mainly devoted to the raising of thoroughbred horses, sheep, and cattle. These animals are reared with great care, and are unexcelled. Agriculture is of little value commercially. The food supply of the kingdom comes largely from other countries. Food products are imported to the value of about $900,000,000. The number of people of Eng- land and Wales classified as agricultural is about five per cent of the whole population.- These countries abound in minerals. In the matter of coal-production Great Britain long held the lead. The British coal-mines are situated in the northern and northwestern part of England, and in Wales. Iron, the mineral next in value, is frequently found in close proximity to the coal. Great Britain ranks second in production of pig-iron ; but the product of the home mines does not supply the home demand, and a large part of the ore used is imported. In the production of steel. Great Britain ranks next to the United States.^ Clay is 1 In the output of coal Great Britain has led all nations until 1899, when the United States took precedence as the greatest coal-producing country in the world. Of the 190,000,000 tons of coal annu- ally produced in Great Britain, England supplies 71 per cent, Scotland 15 per cent, and Wales 14 per cent, while only a fraction is produced in Ireland. Only about one-sixth of the coal mined is exported, the large domestic consumption being necessary to carry on the extensive furnaces where iron ores are reduced, as well as to furnish power for engineering works and factories. 2 An English journal recently said: "Landlords desire no improvements to be made on their lands if they have to pay for them. The result is that tenant-farmers make no improvements, and are, in consequence, deficient in intelligence and energy. American, Canadian, and Au.stralian farmers have every inducement to improve their holdings, because they work on their own land. British farmers are thus prevented from helping themselves, while foreign competition is encouraged." 3 The United States makes nearly 15,000,000 tons of steel, this being twice as much as is made in Great Britain, and about forty per cent of the entire output of the world. GREAT B RITA IX AND HER COLONIES. M Great Britain is a i;reat "jobbing;" and (listribntin<; nati Blocmfontciti ; and its interests are mainly agricultural, though it possesses coal and diamond mines. Its productions are similar to those of Cape Colony. ^ Future editions of this geography ^v•ill give a detailed statement of the changes which have, by the Boer War, taken place in South Africa. At present everything is in a chaotic state, and information is meagre and unreliable. 90 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. Mauritius, an important though small island, lies about 500 miles to the east of Madagascar. Its area is a little greater than that of Long Island, N.Y., and it Ims a population equal to that of Rhode Island. The laboring class is composed of coolies, who work on the sugar plantations. Sugar is the staple product and the principal export. It is sent mainly to India, Australia, Eng- land, and the United States ; the annual value of the export is about ^800,000, Hemp, drugs, and caout-chouc are the other important exports. Gambia, Sierra Leone, and Lagos are small British colonies on the west coast. Much of the trade centers at Frcetozvji, the capital of Sierra Leone. The principal exports are palm-nuts and palm-oil; but there is considerable trades in hides, rubber, ivory, cotton, and gums. The commerce of these colonies with the United States is of considerable importance, our exportation to them consisting of agricultural implements, petroleum, and minor wares. The climate is unhealthfiil. British West Africa. — The lower and navigable course of the River Niger with a great extent of territory on either side became a crown colony in 1900. Old Calabar is the principal port, and the products are palm-oil, rubber, ebony, and ivory. Lower Egypt is nominally a dependency of the Ottoman Empire. Practi- cally, however, since the completion of the Suez Canal, it has been a British protectorate. The canal was constructed and opened to traffic by French capitalists. But owing to the importance of her colonial interests in India, the control of this highway was of vital importance to Great Britain, and in 1875 a leading interest was purchased from the Khedive of Egypt by the British government, England has reformed its finances, reconstructed its army, and used it as an instrument for conquering the Soudan. The commercial pros- perity of the country has increased amazingly in recent years ; and the erection of a dam on the Nile at the island of Assuan on the southern border will im- mensely increase the agricultural possibilities of the country. Port Said, at the Mediterranean end of the canal, brought into existence by the construction of this work, has become a large center for trade. It is not improbable that in time Port Said will be Egypt's chief commercial city. Raw cotton, to the annual value of about $40,000,000, is the chief export of Egypt. It is sent mainly to Great Britain, Russia, and France. The leading imports are cotton manufactures and coal from Great Britain. At present the bulk of foreign commerce is concentrated at Alexandria, at the northwestern extrem- GREAT BRITAIN A\D HER COLOXIES. _ 91 ity of the Nile delta. Other ports are Damictta and Rosctta. Suez is an important port at the head of the Red Sea. The Soudan, reconquered by P3nt;land and Egypt in 1898, was found to be nearly depopulated b}' the fanatical cruelty of its rulers. Its capital is Khartum, at the junction of the Blue and White Niles. It is connected by railway with Egypt. The natural port of the Soudan is Siiakin on the Red Sea. The northern part of the country is a desert traversed by the fertile valley of the Nile. The boundary on the south is ill defined, but runs with the northern boundary of British East Africa. The railway connecting Uganda with the port of Mombasa on the Indian Ocean will afford the rich tropical lands of the southern Soudan an outlet for trade. A narrow strip bordering the Gulf of Aden also belongs to British African possessions. Zanzibar, on the island of same name, is the largest city in Eastern Africa, and passed under British control in 1896. It has a fine harbor and is the center of a large trade with British India, Europe, German East Africa, and the coast towns. It imports piece goods, rice, coal, and manufactured articles to the annual value of $6,000,000 ; and exports ivory, cloves, copra, rubber, and gum- copal, etc., to a somewhat greater value than that of the imports. 92 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. CHAPTER V. THE GERMAN EMPIRE. In the importance of commerical exchanges with the United States, Ger- many is second only to Great Britain. The empire extends along the Baltic Sea 500 miles, and on the North Sea, 200 miles. Its situation is central in Europe, seven nations adjoining its borders. Along the coast, the country is generally level, and in some sections marshy. Farther inland, the level rises, terminating toward the south in a mountainous region. Although the total area is scarcely twice that of the State of Colorado, the population is two-thirds as great as that of the United States. Population, 56,345,000. Five large rivers traverse the empire, and flow northerly into the sea, — the Vistula, in the extreme east, and in their order, the Oder, the Elbe, the Weser, and the Rhine. These are all more or less navigable. At the south, are the head-waters of the Danube. The Rhine and the Danube are connected by a canal, thus forming an unbroken waterway between the North and the Black Seas. Connection is also made by canal with the Seine and the Rhone, in France. The Oder with the Elbe, and the Vistula with the Oder, are also connected by canals, thus affording internal waterways of great commercial value. The Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, from Kiel on the Baltic to the Elbe River, opened for traffic in 1895, has greatly stimulated German trade from the Baltic ports. In connection with these waterways, Germany has the greatest railway system in the world, except that of the United States. The plains in the north are devoted mainly to agriculture. Much of the amber of commerce is found on the north coast. Except in the Rhine Valley, the soil is not naturally very fertile, but great skill is used in cultivating it, and large crops are grown. The more important of these are potatoes, rye, hay, oats, sugar-beets, grains, flax, and hops. Potatoes, cereals, and beet-sugar are exported, and the government encourages the beet-sugar industry by export bounties. The agricultural products are not adequate to the support of the population ; less than half the people depending directly upon the soil. Vine culture is extensively pursued in the Rhine Valley. Grazing is confined to a few districts, — cattle-raising to the Jutland peninsula, sheep-raising to the northern and central parts, and horse-breeding to the eastern part. But these THE GEKMA.V K Ml' I RE. 93 interests are not equal to the tlciiiaiuls, and animals and animal i)roducts are imported. Fruit and forest trees cover nearly a quarter of the empire, the latter being a source of large income. Forestry is a science to which the Germans give great attention. As a rule, the mountainous regions in the southern part of the empire are well wooded ; the more common troes, are the fir, pine, birch, larch, oak, and beech. The mountainous regions are rich in minerals, coal and iron being found in great abundance. Iron usually occurs in the same localities as coal, thus fixing the sites of the great metal-working centers. Germany produces* more silver than any other country of Europe. Zinc, tin, lead, and salt are extensively mined. Of late years, manufacturing interests have increased with great rapidity, and Germany now stands third as an iron- and steel-producing nation, the United States being first, and Great Britain second. Cotton, linen, woolen, and silk textile fabrics are woven in great variety, the exports being chiefly cloth and hosiery. Other manufactured products are glass, porcelain, paper, aniline dyes, leather goods, and wooden ware. Much of the manufacturing is done in small towns. Large cities are rapidly increasing, and most of them are noted for some important industry. Berlin, the capital of the empire, is situated in the center of the great north- em plain. It has a population of 2,000,000, and, next to Paris, is the most populous city on the continent. The railway and canal systems of the country radiate from Berlin, and have made it a great inland commercial center. The city has large textile- factories and machine-shops. Its stock-exchange is the most important on the continent, and its great manufacturing interests give em- ployment to half its population. There is direct railway communication with all parts of the empire and with Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, and Switzerland. Bremen has recently been restored to its former rank as a great commercial city by the deepening of the lower Weser, and is now accessible to the largest sea-going vessels. This city, with Hamburg, commands the German trade with America, Great Britain, the United States, South America, and other important commercial countries. Much of the raw material collected by the ships of Bre- men is manufactured in that city. It is a great tobacco-market ; rice-shelling and sugar-refining are important industries. Considerable ship-building is also carried on. Hamburg, situated on the Elbe, sixty miles from the sea, is accessible to all classes of vessels. It came into importance about the time of the decline of 94 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. Venice and other Italian commercial cities. At the present day, it is not only the most important port of Germany, but it is also the chief commercial city of the continent of Europe. The lower part of the city is traversed by numerous small canals, which greatly aid commerce. Vast docks and basins have been built, and in other ways, engineering skill has made a fine harl^or out of one naturally indifferent. The commerce of the port is greater than that of all the ports of The Netherlands, or those of Belgium. It is most extensive with Great Britain, the United States, the Argentine Republic, and the East and the West Indies. The industries of Hamburg are considerable, not only in the manufac- ture of raw products, but in ship-building, brewing, and metal-working. One-third of the commerce of the German Empire is carried on with the adjoining nations. The merchant-marine has been encouraged by government, with the results that German ships sail every sea, and ship-building is being so largely increased that Germany bids fair to soon lead the world in this industry. By reason of the technical and commercial education of their traders and agents, the Germans are formidable competitors for the manufacturing and carrying-trade of the world. They already command an immense trade in South America, Africa, Eastern Asia, and the Pacific Islands, and in addition they have largely absorbed the carrying-trade of the Mediterranean ports which was formerly controlled by Great Britain. The North German Lloyd and the Hamburg American are the largest shipping companies in the world. German Colonial Possessions. — The colonial interests of the German Empire are as yet relatively unimportant, the various dependencies lying in regions that have not been commercially or industrially developed. The principal territories to which the Germans lay claim are the north coast of Papua, or New Guinea, three islands of the Solomon Group, and sections of Africa, east and west. The Zanzibar coast for 500 miles to the north of Cape Delgado, and the posses- sions in New Guinea are areas whose future commercial importance may be very great. The products of the Zanzibar coast are chiefly gums, spices, ivory, rubber, and vegetable oils ; of New Guinea, spices, sago, and tropical fruits. By purchase from Spain in 1899, Germany has come into possession of the Caroline and Ladrone Islands (except Guam) in the Pacific Ocean. THE REPUBLIC OF FRANCE. 95 CHAPTER VI. THE REPUBLIC OF FRANCE. France ranks third among foreign nations in the value of her trade with the United States, Great Britain having first place, and Germany second.^ The situation of France is especially favorable for commerce. Along the northern boundary lies the English Channel, on the west is the Atlantic Ocean, and more than half the southern boundary is on the Mediterranean Coast. The northern and western sections of France are part of the great plain that extends along the northern coast of Europe. The southern and eastern parts of the country are mountainous. In these highlands rise the River Seine, which flows northwest into the English Channel ; the Loire, which flows west into the Atlantic Ocean ; and the Rhone, which flows south into the Mediterranean Sea. The Garonne flows from the Pyrenees northwest into the Atlantic Ocean. France has nearly one hundred rivers that are more or less navigable, and in connection with them is a very complete system of canals. The Rhone is connected by canal with the Rhine in Germany, also with the Loire and the Seine. Another canal joins the Garonne River with the Mediterranean Sea, thus saving the voyage of 2,000 miles around the Spanish Peninsula. In the northern part of the republic is a network of canals that connects the main industrial centers, and affords direct communication with the canals and rivers of Germany, Belgium, and The Netherlands. A very complete railwav system supplements these waterways, and connects all parts of the republic. France has a population about one-half that of the United States; the area is a trifle less than that of Germany, and four-fifths of it is divided into small farms. The chief crops in the northern part are cereals and sugar- beets. Grapes and flax are grown in nearly every section of the country ; in the south, olives, tobacco, semi-tropical fruits, and mulberry-trees used for silk- 1 The total commerce of P'rance in 1901 amounted to over $1,700,000,000; of which the imports somewhat exceeded the exports. Raw materials constituted more than half of the imports ; and manufactured goods nearly three-fifths of the exports. The chief imports were breadstuff s, wool, wine, raw silk, cotton, wood, and hides; the chief exports, silk, wool, and cotton goods, wine, small wares, and leather (including gloves). From the United States France imported goods to the value of $71,000,000 in 1902, and sent us goods to the value of $82,000,000. The largest export of the United States was cotton, the largest import silk and silk goods. 96 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. worm culture, receive the most attention. In wine-making France stands first among nations, and wine is the most valuable export. Owing to diseases of the vine the product of the wine has greatly fallen off, and France now imports wine from Spain and Italy. The mineral resources of France are comparatively small. In the northeast, on the southern slope of the Ardennes Mountains, are coal and iron mines. Coal and iron are also mined in the southeast. The coal supply of the country is not equal to the demand, and it is largely imported. Lead, the only other mineral mined to any extent, is found in the central plateau. Although more than half the people of France are dependent on the soil, yet the manufactures of the republic are of greater commercial value than all other products. The great manufacturing centers are in the region of the coal deposits, and produce not only iron goods, but textile fabrics of all kinds, — chiefly cotton, linen, and woolen in the northeast, and silk in the south. The fisheries are of great value, and give employment to 150,000 men. The lakes and rivers are generally well stocked. On the coast, oyster culture has become an industry of much value, and sardines are caught in great numbers. Deep-water fishing is carried on to a larger extent than by almost any other continental nation, French vessels being found on the Iceland, Newfoundland, and other cod banks. Population, 38,641,000. Fruit and forest trees cover about a fifth of the area. Among the fruits grown are olives, apples, pears, citrons, figs, and plums. The principal nuts are almonds, chestnuts, and walnuts. The forests consist chiefly of oak, birch, pine, beech, elm, and chestnut. The largest forest areas are in the northeast, southeast, and southwest. In the south the cork tree is carefully- cultivated. Wood forms the chief domestic fuel of France. Grazing is extensively carried on in nearly all parts of the republic, but the animals as a whole are inferior in quality. In the northern part oxen are employed for field labor, while in the south mules and donkeys are chiefly used. The rearing of cattle, sheep, and goats receives considerable attention ; and among the lesser industries are bee- and poultry-culture. The breeding of horses is not carried on so extensively as in other European countries. The per- cheron of Normandy, however, a draught horse of great strength and endurance, is a famous breed, and is largely exported to the United States. Paris, the capital of France, has a population of 2,700,000. It is the largest city on the continent of Europe, and, next to London and New York, the largest in the world. The canal and railway systems of France converge here and help make the city the great commercial and financial center of the republic. The Bourse, or Stock Exchange, is excelled in importance in Europe by those of Lontlon and Berlin only. It is also the fashion center of the world. Paris is an important industrial center in fine artistic work, such as jewelry, metal-work, leather goods, artificial flowers, millinery goods, porcelain, and fine pottery. The I HE REPUBLIC OE ERANCE. 97 River Seine, on wiiich the city is situated, had formerly a natural depth of only two feet, but engineering skill has increased this to ten feet. Havre is the jiort through which the ocean trafific of Paris passes. It is at the mouth of the Seine, and, though only tenth in population, is the second port of France. It trades with all parts of the world, but more particularly with Great Britain and the United States. It imports raw materials and food prod- ucts for the manufacturing districts of the north, and exports manufactured goods. It is one of the greatest ship-building ports in the world, and its fishing interests are extensive. Among the various industries are sugar-refining, tobacco-manufacture, and iron-working. Marseilles, on the Mediterranean coast, carries on a large traffic with Havre, but the greater part of its trade is with other Mediterranean ports, w^ith China, Japan, and India. The commerce of the city has been greatly benefitted by the completion of the Suez Canal. Marseilles is an important industrial center. Soap-making is an important industry, and there are oil and chemical factories, metal-works, and ship-yards. It is the largest port of France. Bordeaux, on the river Garonne, is the chief wine market of France. It is the third city in commercial importance, but its harbor is so shallow that ocean traffic is carried on mainly through Pauillac, which is nearer the sea, and has a fine harbor. In addition to the wine business, Bordeaux has considerable other trade with Great Britain, the United States, and South America. Ship-building is next to the wine industry in importance. Lyons, situated on the Rhone, one hundred and fifty miles from the Medi- terranean, is the largest silk-manufacturing city in the w^orld. Although great quantities of raw silk are produced in the Rhone Valley, yet the supply is not equal to the demand, and Italy and China are depended upon to supply the deficit. Velvet, ribbon, cloth, and other products of silk, are manufactured throughout this region, and exported from Paris both by way of Marseilles and of Havre. The skill of the French in spinning and weaving has extended to cotton, woolen, and linen fabrics. These goods are manufactured chiefly in the north and northeast, and in value the woolen goods exported approach those of silk. Lace-making is one of the most characteristic French industries, Alenqons and Valenciennes having each given its name to choice qualities. Lisle, near the Belgian border, is one of the largest linen-manufacturing centers of Europe, and fine grades of goods are known by the name of the city. 98 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. CHAPTER VII THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. The Netherlands, or Holland, is a small country including the delta of the River Rhine. The area of the country, 12,727 square miles, is about as great as that of Massachusetts and Connecticut together ; the population 5,104,000, is equal to that of Canada. This small and densely-peopled country conducted a foreign commerce of ^1,400,000,000 in 1900. With the exception of Greece, no country in Europe has so many inlets of the sea, yet along the whole coast there is no good natural harbor. The country is low and flat. One-third of the area, chiefly in the western part, is below the level of the sea, having been reclaimed by centuries of labor devoted to the building of a system of dikes that rank among the greatest feats of engineering. The length of navigable river-channels is more than 1,000 miles. A network of canals, resembling our country roads in their frequency and intercommunication, has an aggregate length twice as great. These canals vary much in size. Some are large enough to accommodate deep-water vessels ; others are scarcely more than ditches. The waterways are supplemented by a railway system having a mileage about half as great, partly owned and operated by the government. On account of their command of the Rhine trade of Germany, and of their great colonial possessions, the Dutch are a nation of merchants ; and the value of their foreign commerce is greater, for the population, than that of any other nation of Europe. Most of the exports go to Great Britiain and Germany, and nearly half the imports come from those countries. The export trade includes not only the products of The Netherlands, but the sugar, coffee, tea, and rice of her colonies. In the amount of shipping-tonnage, compared with its popula- tion, The Netherlands ranks sixth among nations. The imports of the United States from The Netherlands consist mainly of tobacco, precious stones, and coffee ; our exports to The Netherlands are chiefly cereals, cotton, animal- products, and petroleum.^ I The Netherlands, like Great Britain, is a great distributing and jobbing nation, importing from her Asiatic dependencies and other countries, and exporting the surplus which she does not use. Her THE KIXGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. 99 The agricultural industries of The Netherlands, while important, are inferior to the grazing interest. Dairy -products, especially butter and cheese, are among the largest exports. The soil is skilfully tilled ; bulbs and seeds rather than other crops being raised for export. Dutch horses are noted for their size and strength. Poultry-raising and bee-culture are thriving industries. Manufactures are extensively carried on, and a variety of articles is made, cotton and linen goods being those mostly exported. In proportion to its population. The Netherlands imports as much cotton as any country on the continent of Europe. Iron and steel goods are also made ; but peat being the chief natural fuel in the country, the ore, as well as the coal to smelt it, is imported. In general the winds are depended upon for motive power. The surface of the country is so level that full advantage is taken of the winds that sweep over it with little cessation. Windmills not only keep the country from inundation, but they regulate the supply of water in the canals, grind grain and coffee, wash paper-pulp, bruise oil-seeds, and perform other like operations. Nearly all industries are carried on in small establishments. Among the manufactured goods for which the country is famous are paper and delft ware. The building of wooden ships is a considerable industry ; the timber being floated down the Rhine from the German forests, or imported from Norway. The fisheries giv'e employment to 18,000 men. The product of the herring fishery in the North Sea was in 1898 valued at over $2,500,000. Colonial Possessions. — The colonial possessions of The Netherlands com- prise Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, in South America, Curasao and five others of the West India Islands, and, by far the most important, the Dutch East Indies. These include the greater part of Borneo, the western half of New Guinea, Sumatra, Java, Celebes Island, and the Moluccas, or Spice Islands. The total colonial population, about 36,000,000, is seven times that of the mother country. Most of the trade of the Dutch East Indies is with the mother country, although Great Britain, France, and China have each a share of it. The leading exports are sugar, coffee, tea, rice, indigo, cinchona, tobacco, and tin. Most of these are sent to The Netherlands, though about half the rice is sent imports slightly exceed her exports, the former consisting of breadstuffs, iron and steel and its manufactures, textiles and raw cotton and wool, copper, wood, coffee, rice, and coal. She exports iron and steel, breadstuffs, textiles, copper, sugar, coffee, rice, and paper, in this order of value. The correspondence of these names, sugar and paper being the only items not found among both her large imports and exports, shows that her trade is much larger than her production. 100 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. from the other islands to Borneo and to China. Raw sugar is exported from Java to Great Britain, and cotton manufactures and iron goods are imported in exchange. The United States imports coffee, sugar, and spices, to the annual value of about ^21,000,000 ; returning only ^1,500,000 worth, nearly all of it kerosene. THE KINGDOM OF BELGIUM. 101 CHAPTER VIII. THE KINGDOM OF BELGIUM. Belgium, the smallest country of Europe, lies between the southern boundary of The Netherlands and the Ardennes Mountains, from which the land slopes to the plain at the mouth of the Rhine. Its area is about equal to that of the State of Maryland ; the population is more than six times as great, being denser than in any other equal area in the world, with the possible exception of the lower Nile Valley. Belgium has been described as "one great town." The prosperity of the country depends chiefly on manufacturing. Yet there are large returns from the many small farms into which the land is divided. The dense population is largely due to the fact that the various manufactures are favored by mineral deposits, and by extraordinary facilities for commerce, both foreign and internal. The coast of Belgium is only forty miles in extent, and is generally low, requiring dikes to protect the country from inroads by the sea. The river Scheldt traverses the kingdom from the southwest to the northwest ; it is navigable from its mouth to the French border. Plowing nearly parallel to the Scheldt, across the southern part of the kingdom, is the Meuse, also navigable. These and other small rivers are connected by canals, which, with the rivers, have an aggregate length of over a thousand miles.' There is a fine system of railways, three-fourths of which are owned and operated by the state. About one-sixth of the area of Belgium is forest. Nearly all the rest is in a high state of cultivation, chiefly by small landholders ; and heavy crops are raised relative to the area tilled. The mineral wealth is very great. The coal mined — nearly 20,000,000 tons yearly — is more than is produced by any other country of continental Europe. Iron and zinc are also extensively mined. The manufactures of iron and steel are important, but fabrics of cotton and woolen 1 A canal has been constructed in Belgium in which the boats are hoisted from one level to another by hydraulic elevators instead of by locks. This canal extends from the coal regions in the interior to Brussels, crossing several other canals at the same grade, so that Belgium coal can be carried directly by boat to Paris, as well as to the principal towns in Belgium and The Netherlands. The boats are towed at the low level into an immense tank, which is submerged in the canal. The gates are then closed ; and the tank, which rests on the pistons of a huge hydrauHc elevator, is raised to the upper level, where connection is made with the next section of the canal by means of double gates, and the boat proceeds on its way. 102 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. arc the most valuable commercial products. Flax-raising and spinning is one of the oldest industries of the country ; and in fine linen and carpetings, Belgium has a world-wide reputation. Manufactures of laces and of paper are also im- portant. Butter, eggs, and vegetables are exported in great quantities to the neighboring countries. In value the annual commerce of Belgium is nearly ^800,000,000, most of it with England, France, and Germany. Our own imports from Belgium are chiefly glass and glassware, iron- and steel-products, and flax and hemp, raw and manufactured. Our exports to Belgium are chiefly cotton, cereals, meat- products, and kerosene. ^ From the point of view of her total commerce it may be said that Belgium imports raw and textile materials, and exports yarn, cloth, coal, and metal goods. As a part of the ancient Netherlands, Belgium, with Holland, once controlled most of the commerce of the world. The ships of Antwerp and other ports vied with those of the great commercial cities of Italy. Stimulated by the amount of raw materials these ships gathered, industries sprang up and flourished. The area of Belgium is 1 1,374 square miles — but a little more than that of Vermont, The population is 6,815,000. Belgium has large interests upon the Kongo River, and the king of Belgium was, by the European powers, chosen ruler of the Kongo State. The chief products of this section are rubber, ivory, palm-nuts, and palm-oil. Coffee grows wild, but little is gathered ; tobacco is cultivated, and plantations of tobacco have been established by the government. The Kongo River country has a rapidly growing trade with the United States, Great Britain, the Netherlands, Germany, and Belgium. 1 In s^ite of the density of its population, Belgium is almost the only country of Europe which year by year increases the total number of its inhabitants by immigration. THE KINGDOM OF IIALV. 103 CHAPTER IX. THE KINGDOM OF ITALY. Italy is a great peninsula, projecting from Central Europe southward into the Mediterranean Sea. The Apennines Mountains extend through its entire length. Flowing eastward into the head of the Adriatic Sea is the Po, the largest and the only important river. It drains most of the northern part of the peninsula, and its valley is a densely peopled plain of great fertility. Sicily, Sardinia, and a number of smaller islands along the coast, are part of the king- dom. The population of Italy, about 30,000,000, is somewhat smaller than that of France, and the area, 110,000 square miles, is abo88. The bark of the cork-bearing oaks is one of the largest sources of wealth to Portugal. In the last decade her manufactures of wool, cotton, linen, and silk have rapidly increased. SPAIN. 121 CHAPTER XX. SPAIN. Spain is the chief instance in modern history of a commercially decadent nation. From a supreme place of wealth and commercial importance, she has fallen to a comparatively insignificant place among the nations. Our imports from Spain consist largely of raisins, fruits, nuts, wine, and iron ore. We send to Spain cotton, petroleum, tobacco, and wheat. Three-fifths of the commerce of Spain is with France and Great Britain.^ The Spanish- American War of 1898 changed the commercial relations of Spain, lessening her trade with her former colonies.^ Her neglected home resources, aided by her fine maritime position, must be the hope for her future commercial prosperity. Her largest export, of ores and metals, is almost entirely the property of foreigners. Nearly fifteen per cent of her soil is fertile but uncultivated ; and much of the existing cultivation is wasteful and ineffi- cient. By improvement of agricultural methods, the fuller development of her mines, and the increase of manufactures, Spain has great possibilities for future commercial prosperity. Spain is situated on the Iberian peninsula at the southwestern ex- tremity of Europe. Five-sixths of this peninsula is Spanish territory, the emainder being occupied by the kingdom of Portugal. The area of Spain, 193,- 1 In 1901 Spain exported to the United States, fruits and nuts, wines, drugs, chemicals, dyes, cork, iron ore, together with lead, sah, tobacco, and other products, to the total value of ^4,369,984. The war of 1898 brought great disturbance to the commercial relations between Spain and the United States, which have now happily been readjusted. During the year 1894 the imports into Spain from the United States were cotton, $8,985,000; tobacco, ;Ji,634,oco; breadstxiffs, 51.140,000; together with lumber, iron and steel goods, lard, and other products, to the total value of $13,1 14,000. In 1899 they amounted to but $9,000,000. In 1901 they rose to $16,785,711. ^ In 1898 came to an end the Spanish Empire which once extended around the earth. Three centuries ago Mexico, Central America, all of South America except Brazil, the West Indies, and the Philippines, belonged to her ; but by conquest, insurrection, and back of all, by a narrow and selfish govermental and commercial policy, the people of her possessions were alienated, and she is now left with three small groups of islands in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, and a few African stations as remnants of her conquests and former greatness. 122 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. ooo square miles, is about twice that of Oregon ; and its population, 18,000,000, is about half that of France. The surface is an elevated, mountainous plateau, so rugged in the interior as to be unfavorable to internal communication. As a consequence, the densest population is found along the coast. Some parts of the interior are arid, and better fitted for grazing than for tilling; but the soil, as a whole, is fertile. This is particularly true in the south, where irrigation is resorted to. The river valleys are numerous and fertile, but only one river is navigable. The country is too mountainous for a com- plete canal system, and the trafific that exists is dependent upon wagon-roads and railways. Agricultural pursuits are followed by three-quarters of the people. Cereals are raised in the north, and fruits in the south. The hillsides are gener- ally covered with vineyards, and wine-making is the principal industry of the country. Wine forms two-fifths of the total exports. The only other agricultural products exported are fruits, chiefly oranges, raisins, grapes, olives, lemons, pomegranates, dates, and almonds. Hemp and flax of fine quality are raised in considerable quantity. Grazing is an important industry. Cattle, swine, and goats are reared ; but the raising of mules, asses, and sheep, yields much greater profit. Wool is considerably exported, and silk-culture is a thriving industry. The cork-oak is cultivated in the northeast, near the Medi- terranean coast. Spain possesses very rich deposits of various minerals, chiefly of iron, cop- per, lead, and quicksilver ; but the copper and lead deposits are not well de- veloped. Iron is the most important product of the mines. It is found in sev- eral sections, but the principal deposits are in the Basque provinces in the north. More iron ore is shipped from Bilbao than from any other port on the continent of Europe. The quality of this ore is excellent. Lead, copper, and quicksilver occur chiefly in the south. With the exception of those at New Almaden, in California, the town of Almaden has the most important quicksilver mines in the world.' Industrially Spain is one of the most backward nations of Europe. Cotton, wool, and linen are manufactured, but not in sufficient quantities for export. Iron manufactures are active in the Basque provinces ; at Toledo ' are manufac- 1 This metal has many mechanical uses. It is especially valuable as an amalgam ; and, though ■we produce it in abundance, the quantity of it used in the mining of silver and gold in the Pacific States accounts for our small export. 2 This place was famous from early times for its manufacture of sword-blades, having but one rival in this respect — the Eastern city of Damascus. The manufacture of these celebrated blades was brought from Damascus to Toledo by the Moors. SPAIN, 123 tures of steel goods ; and silk-spinning has its principal seats at Valencia, Barcelona, and Murcia. With a seacoast of nearly two thousand miles, Spain is advantageously situ- ated for international commerce ; yet in comparison with that of other maritime nations of Europe, the Spanish merchant marine is small. The best harbors are those of Barcelona, Malaga, Seville, Bilbao, and Cadiz. 124 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. CHAPTER XXI. THE REPUBLIC OF MEXICO. Mexico ranks with Italy in the amount of its trade with the United States. The area of the country, 767,316 square miles, is about three times as great as that of Texas, and the population 13,500,000, is four times as large. The population is densest in the southern part of the country where, owing to the higher altitude of the land, the climate is cool. Three-fourths of the people are of mixed or Indian blood. The great body of the laborers are thriftless victims of the land system which has permitted the accumulation of vast estates in few hands. The purchase by foreigners of extensive areas, the growth of the rail- way system, and the influx of immigrants, are tending to improve the industrial situation. Mexico's great wealth has hitherto consisted in her mines of silver, gold, and copper. It is estimated that the silver mines have furnished more than half the world's supply of that metal. During recent years the industry of the country has been drifting away from mining and turning to agriculture. Nearly every plant that grows between the equator and the Arctic Circle can be raised in Mexico, and agricultural-products of every sort would be greatly increased by a good system of irrigation. Cereals are the chief field-products of the highlands ; in the lowlands hemp, sugar, coffee, cotton, and tobacco are the staple crops. The forest-products are mahogany, dye-woods, gums, and^ spices. Within recent years, the rearing of cattle, horses, and sheep has become a great industry in the north, and millions of dollars from the United States have here been invested. Owing to the deficiency of the coal supply, which has been one of the great- est obstacles to the growth of Mexican commerce and industries, manufactures are carried on upon a small scale. Cotton-spinning has become of some impor- tance, affording business for about a hundred factories. The largest of these are in the vicinity of Vera Cruz, near which city there is valuable water-power. Commerce is developing very rapidly ; and the United States is the chief selling-market, taking three-fourths of all Mexican exports, including the pre- cious metals. Each year we buy more heavily of Mexican products ; and this increased purchase is greater than the increased product, showing that the THE RErUIiLIC OF MEXICO. 12") commerce of Mexico is becomini;" mtjro and more American.' The precious metals constitute more than half the total value of exports. Apart from these it may be generally said, that Mexico sells mahogany, dye-woods, spices, coffee, hides, and hemp ; and buys textile fabrics, articles of iron and steel, and leather goods. A large share of the manufactured goods imported by Mexico come from France. Within the last decade the Mexican government has encouraged by subsidies the extension of the railway system of the country, and the important towns are now connected with the City of Mexico by rail. The northward-running roads have been constructed by American capitalists. The City of Mexico now has excellent railway connections with the United States, and is but five days journey from New York. Railways cross Mexico between the Gulf and the Pacific, and with their projected branches give the country a complete system, and open productive areas to further development. The completion of the projected Tehuantepec inter-oceanic railway promises to transform Southern Mexico. With its varied mineral-products and fertile soil, this part of the republic has always been regarded as the richest section of the country, yet up to the present time it has not been commercially accessible. The Tehauntepec route between New York and San Francisco will be 1,500 miles shorter than the Panama route. ^ In 1899 Mexico exported silver bullion, coin, and ore to the value of $67,258,000; henequen $18,711,000; coffee, $7,936,000; cattle, $4,723,000, together with wood, tobacco, and vanilla, to the total amount of $138,478,000. To the United States she exported a total value of $22,995,000, of which henequen, jute, and other textile grasses amounted to one-fifth. During ten years the exports of the United States to Mexico have more than doubled. The imports from the United States in 1900 amounted to $33,703,996, of which iron- and steel- products amounted to $14,399,403, lumber and its products, $3,029,632 ; coal, $2,478,542 ; cotton and cotton goods, $1,773,174 ; oils, $1,762,308. 126 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. CHAPTER XXII. OTHER NORTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES. I. THE CENTRAL AMERICAN STATES. — Central America, the southern extremity of North America, is a little larger than California, and comprises the five republics of Guatemala, Honduras, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica, and the British colony of Balize, or British Honduras.^ The inhabitants are mainly Indians and mixed races ; most of the whites are of Spanish descent. The greater part of the interior is a table-land of moderate height. The Pacific coast is mountainous ; the eastern coast low and marshy. Guatemala is the northernmost of the republics. By far the most val- uable product and export is coffee ; sugar, hides, indigo, rubber, and fruits follow in order. Sanjos^ and Champerico on the Pacific are the chief ports. Neiv Guatemala, the capital is a city of 72,000 people. The total population of the republic is about 1,500,000. Honduras is centrally situated with respect to the other states. The exports consist chiefly of fruits, cattle, mahogany, hides, rubber, coffee, and sugar. The mineral wealth of the country is but little developed. There is a short strip of coast-line on the- Pacific, but the greater part of the republic stretches along the Caribbean Sea a distance of 400 miles. Tegucigalpa is the capital and largest city. The total population of the republic is less than half a million. Salvador is the only Central American state having no Caribbean coast. The people are devoted to agriculture and mining. Indigo, coffee, sugar, balsam, 1 In 1 901 these five republics exported products to the United States to the total value of $9,408,823, in the following proportion: Costa Rica, ;S52,959,439 ; Guatemala, $2,190,145; Nicaragua, $2,035,636; Salvador, $1,235,000 ; Honduras, $988,606. Coffee is the largest item. In 1899 it was $4,409,000. Bananas amounted to $1,588,000, of which Costa Rica and Honduras shipped more than two-thirds. Rubber amounted to $449,000, of which Nicaragua sent more than three-quarters ; and other products were hides, sugar, drugs and dyes, cocoanuts, and lumber, The imports into the five republics in 1901 from the United States were: To Guatemala, $1,128,418; Salvador, $1,725,000; Costa Rica, $1,688,670; Nicaragua, $1,482,194; Honduras, $1,181,453; aggregating, $7,205,735, consisting principally of petroleum, food-products, and man- ufactured articles. OTHER XORTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES. 127 and silver are cxportcc]. The total population is about 900,000. The old capital, San Salvador, is surrounded by active volcanoes, and has been abandoned for another site called New San Salvador. Though the smallest of the five Central American republics, Salvador ranks second in point of population. Nicaragua is the largest in area of these republics, and has an extensive seacoast on both east and west. The central part of the country is a great fertile plain. Many rivers flow to the sea from this plain, but the San Juan is the only one that is navigable. Much of the public income is derived from the monopoly of the exports of tobacco and gunpowder. Cattle-raising and the collecting of rubber are the chief occupations of the people. There are few exports, that of coffee being the most important. Greytown, on the east coast, and San Juan, on the west coast, are the chief seaports. Leon, the former capital, and the largest city, is situated on the Pacific. Managua, the new capital, is situated upon the lake of the same name. The total population of Nicaragua is about 500,000. Costa Rica is the southernmost of these republics. Its most valuable product is coffee. Exports of fruits and tobacco are increasing yearly. San Jose \s the capital. The total population of Costa Rica is 310,000. II. THE ISLAND OF HAITI. — This island, which is inhabited mainly by negroes, is divided into two republics — Santo Domingo in the eastern, and Haiti in the western part. The island has about the same area as Maine, and a pop- ulation of over a million. The exports are chiefly tropical woods, coffee, cotton, sugar, and cocoa. ^ Port an Prince, the capital of Haiti, has a population of 50,000 ; that of San Domingo, the capital of Santo Domingo, is about 15,000. III. CUBA, the most important of the West Indies, and until January i, 1899, a colony of Spain, is about the size of the State of Missouri, and has a population of 1,573,000, equally divided between whites and blacks. The capital, Havana, is the greatest sugar-market in the world, and the third city of 1 In 1900 Santo Domingo exported to the United States, sugar to the value of $3,365,061 , cof- fee, logwood, hides and skins, and other products to the value of 53151352. The imports from the United States during the same year were cotton goods, $146,107; flour, 51441^94; iron and steel goods, fish, bags, provisions, lumber, and other products, to the total value of $1,027,297. In 1900 Haiti exported to the United States, logwood valued at $426,518; hides and skins, ;?i34,32i ; and other products, to the total value of $1,306,329. The imports from the United States in the same year were meat-products, flour, fish, cotton cloth, lumber, tobacco, soap, dairy, and other products, to the total value of $2,996,689. 128 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. the Western hemisphere in point of foreign commerce. Most of the energies of the people are turned to the industry of sugar cultivation. Most of the product goes to the United States. The cane-fields and sugar-mills of Cuba were nearly all ruined during the recent insurrection. Since their restoration the export of sugar greatly increased. The largest exports of Cuba to the United States were in 1893, when they amounted to ;^78, 000,000. Next in industrial importance are the cultivation of tobacco and the manufacture of cigars.' Iron ore, especially adapted for use in making Bessemer steel, is mined in increasing quantities in the mountains of eastern Cuba, near Santiago. All these mines are owned by American companies, and nearly the whole product, amounting in 1897 to 452,000 tons, is shipped to the furnaces of the United States. The climate of Cuba is mild and equable, and Havana has long been a popular winter resort. - Cuba is now free and independent, although the United States may veto certain possible acts in her (Cuba's) relations with foreign countries. In three huiidred years Spain never opened a single school in Cuba. During the three years that the United States occupied this island nearly one hundred school, houses were erected, hundreds of thousands of dollars were spent on school furniture and American text-books. Steam and electric car lines were built, and other internal improvements for the physical, mental, and moral good of the people made, and in 1902 a railroad was completed from Havana to Santiago, nearly the length of the island. ^ Havana tobacco, which takes its name from the port of shipment is principally grown on the southwestern extremity of the island, in a small tract about 150 square miles in area. It is well established that many so-called Havana cigars of commerce are not made from Cuban tobacco. It is asserted in some quarters that tobacco grown elsewhere is imported into Cuba to be made up into cigars, which are then exported as genuine Havanas. Cigar-making in Havana has suffered greatly from the growth of the same industry in Key West, Florida, where it is encouraged by the customs duty imposed by our government, which is greater on manufactured than on leaf tobacco. 2 In the year ending June 30, 1901, the exports of Cuba to the United States were ^$46,663, 511, and her imports from the United States ^27,007, 024. THE REPUBLIC OE BRAZIL. 129 CHAPTER XXIIT. THE REPUBLIC OF BRAZIL. Brazil became a republic by peaceful revolution late in the year 1889. It is the largest country of South America, containing nearly half the area of the continent. Its extent is nearly equal to that of the United States including Alaska, and the estimated population is fifteen millions. Portu-« guese is the language of the people, Brazil being the only one of the South American nations in which Spanish is not the national language. Although the coast -line extends four thousand miles, yet there are few good harbors ; those of Rio Janeiro, Recife, or Pernambuco, Bahia, and Belem, or Para, being the best. From the coast the land of the southern part gradu- ally rises toward the interior, until it reaches a height of from three to five thousand feet. In these higher lands the products are those of the temperate zone, while along the coast and in the river basins the vegetation is tropical. Nearly all of the productive country is a narrow belt of land, varying from fifty to four hundred miles in width, along the coast and in the valley of the Ama- zon. Here foreign energy and capital are mainly centralized. In the central and southern parts are extensive undulating plains, devoid of timber and not very fertile. The finances of Brazil have been poorly managed, and the national debt and the burden of taxation have increased year by year. The native freeborn popu- lation, numbering two-thirds of the whole people, is thriftless, and the recent abolition of slavery has added to the difficulties of the industrial situation. Im- migration has been looked to as a remedy, but the average annual increase of population from this source is only about ten thousand. Brazil has accordingly been unable fully to utilize her natural resources, which are greater than those of any other South American State. In value, the commerce of Brazil aggregates about $300,000,000 per annum. The United States and Great Britain each take one-third of the exports, and Great Britain supplies half of the imports, consisting mainly of manufactured goods. Thirty years ago the amount of our trade with Brazil was less than $15,000,000 ; it now exceeds $80,000,000, owing chiefly to our increased import 130 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. of coffee. ^ This product, of which Brazil grows more than half the world's supply, is the chief export. Nearly the whole crop is taken by the United States, our import in 1892 being over 450,000,000 pounds. This crop has always proved profitable, and the production is steadily increasing. Sugar was once a valuable export, as was also cotton ; but the shipments of both have fallen off. Tobacco is extensively cultivated, and the demand for the crop is steadily increasing ; india-rubber, from the Amazon valley, and hides furnish valuable products. These six articles form four-fifths of the total exports. Commerce between Brazil and the United States is one-sided. We buy ^80,- 000,000 worth of her products, and in return sell only about ;^ 11,000,000 worth. By the recent establishment of direct steamship communication, and as a result of the reciprocity treaty of 1891, our return trade promises a large increase. While Brazil is primarily a land of plantations, her mineral resources are of great value. They comprise gold, coal, iron, salt, and precious stones, the latter being found in greater variety than in any other country. Coal is mined in the south, and the most celebrated diamond-mines are at Serro do Frio. The vast basin of the Amazon, comprising more than one-third»of the total area, is covered with forests which contain some of the most valuable woods known to commerce. The great industry of the valley is that of rubber-getting, which is almost entirely in the hands of the half-civilized mixed Indian popula- tion ; and these have injured great rubber-producing tracts by improper treat- ment of the trees. The commerce of the United States with Brazil from 1886 to 1900 showed a healthful increase. In 1886 exports to the United States were in round numbers, $41,000,000, and in 1900 over $64,000,000. The imports from the United States increased from six and a half millions in 1886 to over eleven millions in 1900. The wonderful adaptability of the soil and climate for the production of the coffee-plant in Brazil has been a principal source of wealth to the people and revenue to the government, and as coffee consumption is constantly increasing, so this South American state has in this product alone the promise of financial 1 In 1902 Brazil exported to the United States products to the value of $79,360,000. Coffee was by far the largest export. Rubber, sugar, and hides were exported to a large amount. Other articles of less value were cocoa, fruits, wool, lumber, drugs, etc. The imports into Brazil from the United States in 1902 aggregated $10,301,130. Breadstuffs, provisions (beef- and pork-products), cotton goods, iron and steel goods, carriages and cars, kerosene and other oils, and lumber, medicines, drugs, jewelry, etc., were the imports. THE REPUBLIC OE liRAZlL. 131 prosperity. The export of coffee from lira/Jl to the United States in 1900 was 596,000,000 pounds, an increase in twelve years of nearly 160,- 000,000 pounds. The sugar-cane will thrive in all i:)arts of Brazil, but the low prices of recent years have diminished the product here as well as in the West Indies. 132 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. CHAPTER XXIV. OTHER SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES. I. VENEZUELA. — Venezuela borders on the Caribbean Sea. The greater part of the repubHc lies in the basin of the Orinoco River. The area, 439,000 square miles, is about twice that of Germany, and the population 2,445,000, nearly equals that of the State of Missouri. Political disturbances have retarded the development of the country, and progress has also befen checked by government monopolies granted upon certain native products, and on the right of steam navigation upon Lake Maracaybo. Inland, and at present beyond the reach of commerce, are great forests, extensive grazing areas, and a very fertile agricultural country. Concessions have been made for the build- ing of railways, and these are giving great impetus to the industries and com- merce of the interior. Agriculture is the leading occupation, and cattle-raising is extensively carried on upon the llanos of the Orinoco. The gold-fields, though not yet very pro- ductive, are among the richest in the world. Coal exists in considerable quan- tities ; and iron, copper, asphalt, petroleum, silver, tin, and salt abound. Within the last few years, owing to the increased development of the vast natural re- sources of the republic, the foreign commerce has quadrupled. The exports of greatest consequence are coffee and copper ; subordinate items are hides, dye woods, cocoa, and timber. Most of the trade of Venezuela is with our own country, Germany, and France. We buy of Venezuela principally coffee, and sell to her in exchange foodstuffs, cotton goods, and iron- and steel-manu- factures.^ Caracas, the capital, is the principal cocoa-market. Valencia exports coffee. Maracaybo is the chief seaport. When Columbus visited this region he found the native settlement on Lake Maracaybo built upon piles, whence the name Venezuela, "Little Venice." 1 Early in 1903, Great Britain, Germany, and Italy tried to enforce the collection of debts by blockade and bombardment, and the United States Minister was chosen by Venezuela to treat for settlement. He succeeded, and the blockade was soon raised. His success greatly increased the prestige of the United States in that country, which should help our trade there. At the same time the application of the Monroe Doctrine by this country, increased our pan-American prestige through- out the world. OTHER SOUTH AMERICAX COUMTRIES. 133 II. THE ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. —This republic occupies the south- eastern portion of the continent t)f South America. The area is about one-third that of the United States ; the population is estimated at four million. There is a large and rapidly-increasing immigration, chiefly from Italy and Spain. The republic is a pastoral country. Sheep ranges cover a vast area.^ Among the minerals known to exist are silver, copper, gold, coal, salt, and sulphur ; but the output of these is as yet quite small. The coal-fields, though undeveloped, give promise not only of furnishing sufficient coal for home needs^ but of providing an article of export to the neighboring republics. There is railway communication between Buenos Ayres, the capital, and all the important cities of the country. The railway system between Buenos Ayres and Valparaiso, recently completed, promises to be one of the greatest trunk lines, not only of South America, but of the world, as it saves the long and dangerous voyage of nearly 2,000 miles around Cape Horn. After the absorption of Patagonia by Chili and the Argentine Republic, it was found that its supposed barren wastes are interspersed with fertile valleys, fine pastures, dense woods, and every requisite for the support of a large popu- lation. The chief articles of export in the order of their value are wool, hides, skins, corn, preserved meats, live animals, flax, tallow and fat, and wheat. We buy of the Argentine Republic wool, hides and skins ; and in exchange sell lumber and manufactures in great variety.^ Thousands of tons of jerked beef are yearly shipped to Brazil and other neighboring countries. From 1880 to 1887 the commerce of the republic more than doubled, being in the latter year of greater value in proportion to the population than that of any other country in the world. The natural advantages of the Argentine Republic are very great, and everything points to its future commercial importance.^ ^ In 1899 the Argentine Republic produced 370,000,000 pounds of wool, being about one-third more than is grown in the United States. The great items of export in the same year were animals and their products to the value of $87,381,000, while other farm-products amounted to $46,692,000. 2 In 1901 the Argentine Republic exported to the United States, hides and skins, wool, and a few other articles, to the total value of $9,455,634. The imports from the United States in 1900 were in great variety, of which agricultural imple- ments amounted to $1,805,744; wood and its manufactures, $1,640,867; iron and steel goods, 52,800,131 ; oils, $1,436,647 ; together with cotton cloth, etc., to the total value of $8,1 14,304. 3 If any portion of the Western Hemisphere has a possibility of rivalling the United States in commercial energy, resources, progressiveness, and enlightment, it is the Argentine Republic. It has many of the natural resources of the United States, great extent of plains where wheat, corn, and other grain can be raised far in excess of the home demand, almost unlimited forest area of the choicest cabinet and building woods, and evidences of valuable deposits of minerals. The adjoining 134 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. There are many small seaports, but two-thirds of the foreign trade of the country is done through Buenos Ayres. This is the most energetic and progres- sive of the cities of South America. It is situated on the River Plate, about one hundred miles from its mouth, and the roadstead is an open one for the entire distance. Nearly opposite is Montevideo, in Uruguay, a city more advantageously situated, yet of much less commercial importance. By means of a sub-marine cable there is telephonic connection between the two places. More than twenty steamship lines connect Buenos Ayres with important ports in Europe. The population is over half a million. The River Plate is formed by the junction of the Parana and the Uruguay Rivers, and the Parana River is often spoken of as the Plate throughout its course. III. COLOMBIA. — The republic of Colombia is situated at the north- western extremity of South America, It includes the Isthmus of Panama as far north as the boundary of Costa Rica. Its area, 500,000 square miles, is nearly twice that of Texas ; the population is estimated at 4,000,000. Much of the surface is mountainous ; in the southeast are extensive plains. Agriculture is the predominating industry. The principal products are tobacco, cocoa, coffee, plantains, bananas, wheat and other cereals, vegetable ivory, and indigo. Cattle and horses are reared on the plains, and large quanti- ties of hides and jerked beef are produced. The forests are extensive. Among the trees are mahogany and cedar, fustic and other dyewoods, and medicinal plants. The mineral productions are gold, silver, platinum, copper, iron, lead, coal, and precious stones. The chief exports are cinchona, coffee, nuts, silver ore, cocoa, cotton, dye- republic of Paraguay, which is a feeder and tributarj- to the Argentine Republic, has a large area that will produce sugar, cotton, rice, and other semi-tropical products in abundance. Explorations have demonstrated the great value of the Patagonian accession in the south, both for raising grain and for grazing; while the farther north the republic pushes its frontier — settlers following close behind — the more fertile and productive the soil is found to be. The better part of this northern area can be reached by waterways, and where these do not exist railways are being rapidly extended. Three-fourths of a million of emigrants from Europe have settled in the republic during the last ten years, and the immigration is increasing yearly. A few years ago much of the wheat used was imported. Now wheat is among the exports, and enters into competition with that of the United States. More than enough sugar is raised to supply the home demand, and sugar is now a considerable export. The same is true of various other products of the soil. Beef and mutton are shipped in quantities to Europe. In 1 89 1 there occurred a financial panic that dealt a severe blow to the prosperity of the country, and one that will be felt for many years. The immediate cause of the crisis was the withdrawal of Russian guarantees that had been given to secure loans advanced by a syndicate of capitalists, The real cause, however, was a state of unparalleled pohtical corruption brought about by speculation in fictitious values. OTHER SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES. 135 Stuffs, balsams, hides, rubber, and straw hats. The chief imports are clothing and foodstuffs. Of far more importance than the direct commerce is the transit trade passing between the two ports of Panama and Colon, by way of the Panama railway. It is here, and following mainly the line of this railway, that the scheme of an interoceanic canal, projected under French auspices, reached its disastrous conclusion in 1888. This entire plant upon which about 5400,- 000,000 was invested has been offered to the United States for ten per cent of this amount, and a treaty with Colombia permitting us to finish the canal has been ratified (March 1903) by the United States Senate, and is now before the government of Colombia with every prospect of ratification and the com- pletion of the canal. Panama is the principal seaport, and the Pacific terminus of the isthmian railway ; Colon, or Aspinwall, is its Atlantic terminus. Bogota, the capital and chief city, is situated on a lofty plateau, and is consequently healthful, though but a few hundred miles distant from the equator. Barranqitilla, on the Mag- dalena River, and connected by a railway with Savanilla, a seaport twenty miles distant, is commercially important — nearly all the foreign trade of the republic passing through it. Our own trade with the republic of Colombia may be summarized as follows : We buy coffee and hides, and sell manufactures and foodstuffs.^ IV. CHILI. — Chili extends along the west coast of South America from Peru to Cape Horn, and is walled in on the east by the great chain of the Andes. Its area, nearly 300,000 square miles, is about twice that of the State of California ; the population is estimated at nearly three millions. Northern Chili has a desert-like surface, and would be of little value but for the deposits of guano and niter,^ and for its mines of gold, silver, and copper, in the mountainous regions back from the seacoast. The nitrates form the most important article of export to the United States. The middle part of the republic is the most populous, and is the agricultural section ; the southern part is sparsely inhabited and covered with dense forests. The population of this country, unlike that of most other South American states, consists mainly of people of pAiropean descent. Most of the land of Chili belongs to large estates, 1 In 1900 the exports from Colombia to the United States were bananas, ;5!56i,ooo; coffee, $3,082,000; hides and skins, 5649,000 ; together with cocoanuts, vegetable ivory, cacao, rubber, and other products, to the total value of $5,183,000. During the same year the imports from the United States were manufactures of iron and steel, $458,963; wheat flour, $256,627 ; together with meat and dairy-products, lumber, sugar, books, maps, and engravings, and other articles to the total value of $2,710,688. 2 The niter deposits consists chiefly of sodium nitrate, only a small quantity of potassium nitrate being found. These deposits are commercially spoken of as "nitrates." 136 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. and its cultivation is carried on by the rudest methods. A large proportion of the soil is unproductive ; yet where it is capable of tillage, it yields abundant crops. There are extensive coal-mines, and Chili supplies coal to most of the other republics of South America. The north is rich in niter and guano, the center in copper and silver, and the south in iron and coal. The exports in the order of their value are nitrates, copper, wheat, and gold. The leading imports of Chili consist of clothing, foodstuffs, and machinery. The United States buys nitrates and hides, and in exchange sells manufactured goods.^ Santiago is the capital, and Valparaiso is its port. The latter city is built at the side of a steep cliff which forms a crescent around the bay, the business por- tion being on the shore. Iquiqiic, farther north, is the port from which most of the products of the northern part are exported. A railway connects the two cities. The rivers are necessarily short and are navigable for limited distances and by small steamers only. Chili has liberal immigration laws, and is one of the most active and energetic states of South America. She recently joined with the Argentine Republic in the partition of Patagonia, and, by her war with Peru and Bolivia, added largely to her area and wealth. Chili, like other South American republics, has had her progress and prosperity seriously impeded by civil wars. V. URUGUAY. — Uruguay, south of Brazil, and east of the Argentine Re- public, is the smallest of the Sovith American republics. The area, 72,000 square miles, is about twice that of the State of Indiana; the population 900,000, is about equal to that of the State of Connecticut. There are few Indians among the inhabitants, the people being chiefly descendants of the original Span- ish settlers, together with Italians and other European immigrants. The republic is fortunately situated for commerce, having more than 600 miles of water front on the Atlantic coast and on the Uruguay and Plate Rivers. The surface is a vast grassy plain, diversified by low swells of land in the interior. The country is well watered, and the climate is not unlike that of Southern France. Fruits and vegetables are grown in great abundance and variety. The chief wealth of the country, however, centers in the grazing inter- ests ; and the exports of beef, hides, and wool are of chief importance. The agricultural resources are unsurpassed. It is said that there is not an acre of 1 In 1900 Chili exported to the United States, nitrate of soda to the value of $4,624,935 ; wool ;?202,938 ; together with hides, drugs, etc., to the total value of #7,112,826. The imports from the United States in the same year were iron and steel goods, cotton goods, kerosene and other oils, lumber, together with agricultural implements, meat-products, sugar, medi- cines, and other articles, to the total value of $3,287,565. OTHER SOUTH AAfER/CAN COUXTRIES. 137 unproductive land in the republic. The most important field-products are wheat and maize. There are several agricultural colonies in the country, composed mainly of Italians and Spaniards. The forests yield a plentiful supply of useful timber. Trade is carried on mainly with Great Britain and France. The chief wealth of Uruguay is in cattle and sheep, and the manufacture of sun-dried beef and beef extracts with other animal-products is the leading industry. In 1899 821,600 cattle were slaughtered, and the total value of the flocks and herds is estimated at over $73,000,000. The leading imports are of liquors, and manu- factured goods in great variety. We buy of Uruguay, hides, avooI, and hair, and sell in exchange lumber, kerosene, and manufactured products.' Montevideo, the capital and largest city, is situated upon a tongue of land which is washed on one side by the Atlantic, and on the other by the River Plate, which is here sixty-five miles wide. The harbor is the best south of Rio de Janeiro ; most of the trade of the republic passes through this port. By reason of its natural advantages in climate, geographical position, and soil, Uruguay has a promising future. The River Plate drains an area of more than a million square miles, and, with its tributaries, affords more navigable waters than all the rivers of Europe together. The tide from the Atlantic extends a distance of 250 miles, and there is a depth of water suffi- cient for vessels of deep draught for a thousand miles into the interior. The estimated popu- lation of the republic (for there has been no census) increased from 438,000 in 1879 to 840,000 in 1898, and much of the prosperity of the country is due to the fact that the native population has largely given place to energetic foreign immigrants. VI. ECUADOR. — Ecuador lies on the Pacific coast, between Colombia and Peru. The area, 120,000 square miles, nearly equal that of New Mexico : the population is more than a million, over half of it consisting of Indians. Agri- culture is in a backward state. Cacao is the staple product. The minerals comprise gold, sulphur, lead, iron, copper, and emeralds. Extensive forests afford timber suitable for ship-building and cabinet-work. In the highlands saddles and a coarse earthenware are made ; gold lace and filigree work are pro- duced in Quito. The manufacture of "Panama" hats is a leading industry; cordage, mats, sackcloth, and hammocks are made from the fiber of the maguey, a species of agave. The roads are very poor, even in the dry season, and during the several wet months of the year are impassible. Freight and merchandise are transported 1 In 1901 Uruguay exported to the United States, hides, fertilizers, hair, together with other products, to the total value of 31,974,977. The imports into Uruguay from the United States in the same year were kerosene and other oils, lumber, cotton goods, together \\\x\\ farm tools, drugs, cordage, rosin, lard, tobacco, etc., to the total value of 31,480,820. 138 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. by pack-animals. There arc two short railways from the coast to the interior. Trade is carried on chiefly with Great Britain. Cacao is the principal ex- port ; rubber, hides, coffee, vegetable ivory, barks, precious metals, and Panama hats are also articles of traffic.^ Quito, the capital and largest city, is nearly on the equator, at an altitude of about ten thousand feet. Guayaquil is the principal seaport. The so-called Panama hats are made here — the name coming from the fact that Panama merchants formerly controlled their sale. Guayaquil is the only place of much importance, and most of the shipments of cacao, rubber, hides, and bark pass through this port. Ecuador is a country of great resources, needing capital and people of energy for their development. VII. PERU Peru is situated on the Pacific coast, south of Ecuador, and west of Brazil and Bolivia. Its area is estimated at 460,000 square miles ; the population is nearly 3,000,000, of which the great majority are Indians and half- breeds. Along the coast the country is low. The lands lying to the eastward of the Andes are very fertile, and will be opened to enterprise and trade by the completion of railways and irrigation works now projected. The ocean cable on the coast has stations at Payta, Callao, and Lima. Peru is intersected by the head waters of Amazon, which afford it communication with the Atlantic. The chief exports are cotton, coffee, sugar, Peruvian (cinchona) bark, wool, both from sheep and from the alpaca goat, and ores. Our own trade with Peru is very small.^ It was a dispute over the nitrate beds that led to the war with Chili, which resulted disastrously to both Peru and Bolivia. When the independence of these republics was first obtained, Bolivia had a barren strip of seacoast. When, however, the niter beds were discovered and their value demonstrated, Chili asserted her ownership to them under an ancient claim. Bolivia and Peru had treaties, offensive and defensive ; and the latter unsuccessfully defended Bolivia's claim. Peru was bankrupted and demoralized by the ensuing war with Chili. 1 In 1900 Ecuador exported to the United States, cacao to the value ^771,340; india-rubber, ;?42i,283 ; coffee, with other products, to the total value of $1,524,378. In the same year Ecuador imported from the United States a vanety of articles amounting to a total value of $1,216,008. 2 In 1900 Peru exported to the United States, hides and skins, cotton, and other articles, to the total value of $2,122,543. In the same year Peru imported from the United States, farm tools, breadstuffs, chemicals, cottons, and other articles, to the total value of $1,662,475. OTHER SOUTH AMERICAN COLONIES. 139 The importance of the port of Callao has lessened ; and where hundreds of ves- sels formerly anchoretl, now hardly a dozen are found. A French company holds a monopoly of the anchorage, wharves, and shipping-rights, and has so oppressed commerce as to injure it. Lima is the capital and chief center of trade and wealth. It is connected with Callao, its seaport, by railway. Some of the largest and finest business houses in Lima are owned by Chinese merchants, who have the monopoly of trade in certain textile goods. A majority of the commerce is with the United Kingdom, while second place in trade belongs to Germany. VIII. PARAGUAY. — Paraguay lies between Brazil and Bolivia and the Argentine Republic. From the latter it is separated by the Paraguay and Parana Rivers. It is one of the smallest states of South America, and, like Bolivia, has no seacoast. The area is estimated at 140,000 square miles, and the population at over half a million. The southern part of the country is low and swampy. A large part of the northern section is covered with forests, comprising a great variety of timber. The mineral resources are imperfectly known, but iron and copper have been found in several places. Paraguay has every advantage that nature can afford, and needs only devel- opment to become of greater commercial importance. Its pastures support vast herds of cattle, and fruits in great variety are grown. The raising oi yerba mate ( Paraguay tea) is a leading industry. The majority of trade, like most South American states, is with Great Britain and Germany, and is credited to the River Plate. The manioc root, from which the tapioca of commerce is produced, is the staple diet of the people. This is to Paraguay and Brazil what rice is to China and Japan, and potatoes to Ireland. The plant grows to a height of four feet, and resembles the tomato. The stalk and leaves, when dried, serve as fodder for cattle. The principal export is the yerba mate, or Paraguay tea, made of leaves of the ilex-tree, dried, and reduced to powder. This tea is a mild stimulant, and is extensively consumed in the other countries of South America. Paraguay tobacco, a poor article, and hides, are other exports. About half the total imports of Paraguay are derived from Great Britain, and consist mainly of machinery and clothing. Asuncion, the capital, is situated on the Paraguay River. Villa Rica and Concepcion are other towns of importance. IX. BOLIVIA. — Bolivia is bordered north and east by Brazil, south by the Argentine Republic and Paraguay, and west by Peru and Chili. It is, therefore, 140 A GEOGRAPHY OF COMMERCE. an inland country, its communication with the sea being carried on through the ports of Peru, Chili, and the Argentine Republic. Recent explorations in the upper waters of the Parana, give reason to believe that Bolivia will soon be connected with the Atlantic by means of tributaries of this river, which are navigable for steamboats of considerable draught. Bolivia embraces an area of 567,000 square miles. The population, about 2,000,000 in number, is chiefly of Indian descent. The surface, a high plateau surmounted by lofty peaks of the Andes in the west, descends to a low, fertile plain in the east. Bolivia's products are mainly mineral, though there are several natural pro- ducts from the forests. The india-rubber is of the finest quality, and almost inexhaustible. Coca and cacao are important products. The plant from which coca is derived is raised in the valleys of the Andes, and exported to a consid- erable extent. The cinchona-tree, from the bark of which quinine is produced, was first discovered in Bolivia. Of late years it has been found in the forests along the entire chain of the Andes. Efforts have been made to transplant the cinchona-tree into Java, Ceylon, and India, and with such success, that much of the quinine now comes from these countries. The result of the East Indian competition has been to reduce the price of quinine more than half. Bolivia is very rich in minerals. With only the most primitive methods of mining, the silver-mines of Potosi are estimated to have produced $2,000,000,000 since their discovery. It is said that every ounce of ore that finds its way out of the Andes is carried on the back of a man or a llama, and the quartz is broken by rolling logs upon it. By most primitive methods of mining and transporta- tion the annual output of silver is over $10,000,000. Besides the precious metals, copper, lead, tin, salt, and sulphur are found. There is now a railway from Mollendo, on the Peruvian coast, to Lake Titi- caca, and some of the produce of Bolivia reaches a market by this route. Most of the exports of Bolivia, however, are sent abroad by way of Buenos Ayres. The exports comprise silver, Peruvian bark, rubber, gum, cacao, coffee, coca, copper, tin, and other ores. Silver forms two-thirds of the value of the exports. La Pas is the nominal capital and the largest city. Sucre is the seat of government. I N D E X. Heavy faced type inJicates special reference to the subject iiidexcJ. Figures refer to pages. Aden, 85. Agricultural products, i, 9, 6o. Alaska, 72. Alcohol, 24. Allegheny City, 72. Aluminum, iS. Amber, 30. Amethysts, 23. Aniline. See Dyes. Animal Products. See Beef, Pork, Hides, Leather, Furs. Animals, Live, I. Anthracite. See Coal. Antwerp, 102. Apples. See Fruits. Argentine Republic, 133, 134. Asphalt, 22. Aspinwall, 44. Australia, 86. Austria-Hungary, iiS, 119. Bacon. See Pork Products. Baltimore, 65. Bananas. See P'ruits. Bark, Tanning. See Hemlock, Oak, Birch. Barley, 4. Barometers, 17. Beacons, 39. Beech. See Lumber. Beef and Beef Products, i. Beet Sugar, 7, 92. Belgium, loi, 102. Benzine. See Petroleum. Berlin, 93. Bessemer Steel. See Iron and Steel. Bicycles, 61. Birch. See Lumber. Birmingham (England), 80. Bitumen. See Asphalt. Bituminous Coal. See Coal. Black Walnut. See Lumber. Bleaching, 29. Bolivia, 139. Boots and Shoes. See Leather. Bordeaux, 97. Boston, 65. Boston & Albany R.R., 65. Boston & Maine R.R., 65. Bottles. See Glass. Bo.xwood. See Lumber. Brass. See Copper. Brazil, 1 29-1 31. Breadstuffs, 48, 49. See Flour, Wheat, Maize. Bremen, 93. Bricks, 19. Brimstone. See Sulphur. British India, 82, 83. Bronzes. See Copper. Brooklyn, 64. Buffalo, 69. Building-stone, 18. Burlaps. See Jute. Butter, I. Butterine, 48. Buttons, 24. Cabinet-woods. See Lumber. Cable Codes. See Telegraph. Cacao. See Cocoa. Calico. See Cotton. Canada, 86. Canadian-Pacific Railway, 44. Canals, 40, 41, 42 ; England, 79 • Sweden, 116; Germany, 92; France, 95 ; Netherlands, 98 ; Belgium, loi ; China, 107 ; Russia, 109. See also Panama, Suez, and Corinth. Canal, Interoceanic, 40, 135. Candle Power, 21. Cane Sugar, 7, 128. Caoutchouc. See Rubber. Cape Colony, 89. Caravans and Routes. See In- troduction. Carbonate of Iron. See Iron. Carbonate of Soda. See Soda. Carpets, 114. Cars and Carriages. See Rail- ways. Cast Iron. See Iron. Cattle, I, 112, 137. Caustic Potash. See Potash. Cedar. See Timber. Central American States, 126. Cereals. See Items. Ceylon, 84. Champlain Canal, 40. Charcoal. See Coal. Charts, Marine, 39. Cheese, i. Chemicals. See Drugs and Chemicals. Chesapeake Canal, 41. Chestnut. See Lumber. Chicago, 69. Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy R.R. See Railways. Note. For a general historic outline of commerce (countries, people, manufactures, ship-build- ing, etc. ) the student is referred to the Introduction ; to which, e-xcept in a few cases, reference is not made in the Index. IH 142 INDEX. Chicago and Northwestern R.R. See Railways. Chili, 135, 136. China, 107, 108, Chinaware. See Pottery, Porce- lain. Chloride of Sodium. See Salt. Chocolate. See Cocoa. Cigars. See Tobacco. Cinchona, 28. Cincinnati, 71. Cinnabar. See Quicksilver. Clams. See Fisheries. Clay and Clay Products, 19. Pottery. Cleveland, 69. Clocks and Watches. See Watches. Clothing. See Woolen, Cotton, Silk, etc. Coal, 19, 20, 51, 52, 77, 78, 91. Cochineal. See Dyes. Cocoa, 4. Cod. See Fisheries. Coffee, 5, 126, 127, 130, 131. Coke, 20. Colombia, U.S., 134, 135. Commerce, History. See Intro- duction. Constantinople, 113. See Intro- duction. Consular Service, 36. Copal Gum, 30. Copper, 13, 52. Copperas, 84. Cordage. See Hemp and Sisal. Corinth Canal, 40. Corn. See Maize. Costa Rica, 127. Cotton, 9, ID, 47, 83, 90. Cotton-gin, 53. Cotton-seed and Products, 48. Crefeld, 11. Crystal. See Glass. Cuba, 127, 128. Currants (Raisins of Corinth), Cut-glass. See Glass. Cutlery. See Iron and Steel. Cypress. See Lumber. Dairy products. See Items. Damascus, 1 14. Dates. See Fruits. Delaware and Chesapeake Canal, See Canals. Delaware and Hudson Canal, 41. Delaware and Raritan Canal, 41. Denmark, 1 17. Detroit, 70. Dextrine, 30. Diamonds, 23. Dominion of Canada. See Can- ada. See^A)rugs and Chemicals, 28. Duluth, 70. Dutch Colonies. See Nether- lands. Dyes and Dyestuffs, 24. Earthenware. See Clay Products. Ebony. See Lumber. Ecuador, 137, 138. Egypt, 90, 91. Electric Appliances, 13. Electric Light, 53. Emeralds, 23, iii. Erie Canal, 40. P'arms, 56, 57, 60. Feejee Islands, 88. Fertilizers, 28. Figs. See Fruits. Fir. See Lumber. Fish, 2, 3, 73. Fish Culture, 3. Fisheries, 82, 96, 99, 116, Flax, 10. Flour. See Wheat. Food Substances, 1, 49. Forest Products. See Lumber. Formosa, 106. France, 95-97. Fruits, 5, 96. Furs and Fur Skins, 29, iii. Galena. See Lead. Galvanized Iron. See Zinc. Galveston, 67. Gas. See Coal. Gas, Natural, 22. Germany, 92-94. Glass and Glassware, 25, 26. Goatskins. See Leather. Gold, 13, 36. Grand Trunk Railway. See Railways. Granite, 18. Grape Sugar. See Glucose. Grapes. See Fruit. Graphite, iii. Great Britain, 76 to 91 ; Com- merce, 76, 77 ; Fisheries, 78 ; Manufactures, 78 ; Roads, 78 ; Canals, 79. Greece, 115. Also Introduc- tion. Guam, 75. Guatemala, 126. Gums and Resins, 30. Gunpowder. See Sulphur. Gutta percha, 31. Haddock. See Fisheries. Haiti, 127. Halibut. See Fisheries. Hamburg, 93, 94. Hanseatic League. Introduc- tion, X. Hardware. See Iron and Steel. Havre, 97. Hawaii, 73. Hemlock. See Lumber. Hemp, 10. Herring. See Fisheries. Hides, I, 51. Highways, 42, 43, 79. Holland. See Netherlands. Homestead Laws, 60. Honduras (Central American State), 126. Hong Kong, 84. Hops, 31, 32. Hungary, 118. Immigrants, 59, 60. India. See British India, 82-S5. India Rubber. See Rubber. Indian Corn. See Maize. Indigo. See Dyes. International Congress. Intro- duction, xiii. Ireland, Si. Iron, 14, 50, 51, 61. jWJ>KX. 143 Italy, 103, 104. Ivory, 32. Japan, 105, 106. Jasper, 23, 1 1 1. Java, 99. Jersey City, 64. Jewelry, 23. Jute and Jute Goods, 11. Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. St-e Canals. Kansas City, 71. Kaolin, 19. Kauri, Pine, and Gum, 30. Kerosene, 21, 22. ^cr Petroleum. Kiel Canal, 40. Korea, 106. Labor-saving Inventions, 53. Laces, 102. Lacquer-work, 105. Lands, Public, 60. Larch, 93. See Lumber. Lard. See Pork Products. Laudanum. See Opium. Lead, 16. Lead Pencils, 33. Leaf Tobacco. See Tobacco. Leather, 26, 27. Lehigh Valley R.R. St-e Rail- ways. Lemons. See Fruit. Life-Saving Stations, 39. Light. See Coal, Petroleum. Lighthouses, 39. Lima (Ohio) Oil Fields, 21. Lime, "Chloride," 29. Limestone, 18. See Building- stone. Linen. See Flax. Linen Rags. See Paper Stock. Lisle, 97. Litharge. See Lead. Liverpool, 80. Lobsters. See Fisheries. Locomotives, 37. Logwood, 25. London, 79. Louisville, 71. . Lumber, 32, 49, 50, 86. Lyons, 97. Machinery, 53. Mackerel. See Fisheries. Madder. See Dyes. Madrid. See Spain. Mahogany. See Lumber. Maize, 5, 49. Manchester (England), 80. Manchester Ship Canal, 40. Manufactured Products, 24. Maple Sugar, Maple Wood. See I>umber. Marble, 1 5. Marseilles, 97. Also Introduc- tion. Mastic, 31. Mauritius, 90. Meat-Packing, 4. Meat Products. See Items. Mediterranean. See Introduc- tion. Melbourne (Australia), 87. Menhaden. See Fisheries. Merchant Marine, Introduction, xii. Mercury. See Quicksilver. Metal Goods. See Metals. Metals of Commerce, 13. Mexican Southern R.R. See Mexico. Mexico, 124, 125. Miami Canal, 41. Milwaukee, 70. Mineral Oil. See Petroleum. Mineral Pitch. See Asphalt. Mineral Substances, 18. Minneapolis, 71. Mirrors, 17. Miscellaneous Commodities, 28. Mississippi River, 67. Missouri Pacific R.R. See Rail- ways. Molasses. See Sugar Cane. Money, defined, 36. Money in Circulation, 57. Morphine. See Opium. Mosaics, 103. Mother-of-Pearl. See Buttons. Natal, 89. Natural Gas, 21, 59. Netherlands, The, 98-100. Colonial Possessions, 99. New South Wales (Australia), 87. New Orleans, 66. New York (City), 63, 64. New York Central R.R., 43, 65. New Zealand, 88. Niagara, 59. Nicaragua, 127. Nickel, 16. Nitrates, 135. North Australia, 88. Northern Pacific R.R. See Rail- ways. North Sea Canal. See Kiel Canal. Norway and Sweden, 116. " Nut-galls. See Dyes. Nuts, 96. Oak. See Lumber. Oak-bark. See Leather. Oak-galls. See Dyes. Oats, 49. Ocean Currents, 38. Ocean Telegraphs, 45, 46. Ocean Trade Routes, 39, 40. Ohio Canal, 41. Oil Cake, 48. Oil Wells. See Petroleum. Oleomargarine, 49. Olive-oil, 104. Olives, 122. Omaha, 71. "Opium. See Drugs. Orange Free State, 89. Oranges, 5. Otter-skins, See Furs. Ox-hides. See Leather. Oysters, 3. Panama Canal, 40, 41. Panama R.R., 44. Paper, 27, 102. Paper-stock, 27. Papier mache, 27. Paraffine, 22. Paraguay, 139. Paregoric. .SV^ Opium. Paris, 96. 144 INDEX. Pearl Fisheries, 84. Pears. See Fruit. Peat, 82. Peking. See China. Pennsylvania R.R. See Rail- ways. Pferfumes, 83. Peru, 138, 139. Peruvian Eark. See Cinchona. Petroleum, 20-23, I09- See also Kerosene. Pewter. See Tin. Phials. See Glass. Philadelphia, 66. Philippine Islands, 74. Pig-iron. See Iron, Pine, 31. See Lumber. Pineapples. See Fruit. Pipe-lines. See Petroleum. Pitch. See Asphalt, Pine. Pittsburg, 72. Plate glass. See Glass. Plated-ware. See Silver. Platinum, 52, iii. Plumbago, 84. Plums. See Fruits. Poplar. See Paper-stock. Poppies. See Opium. Porcelain, 19. Pork Products, 4. Porto Rico, 74. Portugal, 120. Postal System, 45. Potash, 28. Potatoes, 6. Pottery, 19. See also Chinaware, Porcelain. Precious Stones, 23. Preserved Beef. See Beef, etc. Printing and Publishing, 69. Prunes. See Fruits. Quartz. See Glass. Queensland (Australia), 87. Qviicksilver, 16. Quinine. See Cinchona. Rails, Iron and Steel. See Cars and Carriages. Railways, 37, 43, 55. India, 83; China, 108 ; Germany, 92 ; France, 95 ; Belgium, loi ; Mexico, 124; Japan, 105; Russia, 109; Austria-Hungary, 118. Railways, Street, 56. Raisins, 115. Raritan Canal. See Canals. Raw-hides. See Hides. Raw-silk. See Silk. Reciprocity Treaties. See Intro- duction, xiii. Redwood. See Timber. Ribbons, Silk. See silk. Rice, 6. Rock-salt. See Salt. Roses, Attar of, 113. Rosewood. ^^6' Lumber. Rosin. See Gums. Rubber, 31. Rubber Goods, 31. Rubies, 23. Rugs, Oriental, Smyrna, 114. Russia, 109-111; Siberia, no, III. Russia Leather, no. Rye, 49. Safety Lamps, 20. Salmon. See Fisheries, also Alaska. Salt, 23. Saltpeter. See Nitrates. Salvador (Central American State), 126. Samoa, 75. Sandstone. See Building-stone. San Francisco, 67. Sapphires, 23. Sardines. See Fisheries. Sault Ste. Marie. See St. Mary's Falls Canal. Savings-Banks, 57. Scotland, Si. Sea-Island Cotton. See Cot- ton. Seal Fisheries. See Furs. Sewing Machines, 61. Shad-Fisheries. See Fisheries. Sheet-iron. See Iron. Shellac, Gum, 30. Shell-fish. See Items. Ship-building, 38, 54, 55, 64, 66, 81, 94. Also Introduction. Shoes. See Leather. Siberia, no, in. Siberian-Pacific Railroad, 44, 1 1 1. Silica. See Glass. Silk, II, 12, 103, 106, 108. Silk Goods, II, 12. Silver, 17, 36. Sisal Hemp. See Jute. Slate, 18. Smyrna, 113. See Introduc- tion. Soap, 28. Soda, 28. Sole Leather. See Leather. Sorghum. 7. South Africa. See Great Britain Colonial Possessions, South America, 132, South Australia, 87, Spain, 121-123. Spices, 83, 84. Spindles, 10. Spirits. See Alcohol. Spruce, 27. See Paper-stock, Starch, 6. Steam Engine, 42. Steam Navigation, 39, 42, Steel. See Iron. Steel Goods. See Iron and Steel Goods. St. Gothard Tunnel. See Italy, St. Lawrence River, 41, 42. St. Louis, 70. St, Mary's Falls Canal, 41. St. Paul, 71. St, Petersburg, 1 10. Stonew-are. See Earthenware. Straits Settlements, 85. Straw. See Paper-Stock. Submarine Cables. .S"*-^ Ocean Telegraphs. Suez. See Canals. Suez Canal, 40. Sugar, 6, 7, 97, 130, Sugar-beet, 7, 87. Sugar-cane, 7, 130, Sugar-refining, 7. Sulphur, 28, 52. INDEX. 145 Sweden. See Norway and Swe- den. Switzerland, 1 1::. Tallow. See Beef Products. Tanning. See Leather. Tapioca, 85. Tar and Pitch, 31. Tariffs. See Introduction, xiii. Tartar. See Potash, Tasmania, 88. Tea, 7. Teak. See Lumber. Telegraphs, 45, 46, 53. Telephone, 46, 53. Terra Cotta, 19. Textile Substances, g. Thermometers, 17. Tin, 17, 18, 52. Tobacco, 34, 74, 75, 84, 85, 128. Toledo (Ohio), 70. Topaz, 23, 1 1 1. Trade, Balance of, 35. Tradewinds, 38, 39. Tragacanth Gum, 31. Trans-Caspian Railway. See Russia. Transportation, 36, 46. Transvaal, 89. Treaties of Commerce. See Re- ciprocity Treaties. Turkey, Empire, 113, 114. Turpentine, 31. Sc Typewriters, 61. Pine. United Kingdom, 139. See Great Britain. United States, general survey, 47-76 ; shipping and ship- building, 38, 58 ; canals, 40, 41; roads, 42, 43; railways, 37, 55, 56; telegraphs, 45; telephones, 46; farms, 56, 57, 60 ; population, 47 ; raw prod- ucts, 47 ; manufactures, 50, 52, 53' 54. 55' 59 ; commerce, 54 ; industries, 50-53, 55, 61 ; ex- ports and imports, 62, 63. principal seaports, 63 ; lake ports, 68 ; river ports, 70 ; possessions, 72 to 76 ; policy towards her possessions, 75, 128 ; coal production, 51 ; iron and steel, 50, 51. Uruguay, 134, 136. Van Diemen's Land. See Tas- mania. Varnishes. See Gums. Vaseline. See Petroleum. Velvet, 1 1, 97. Veneers. See Lumber. Venezuela, 132. Venice, 104. Vermilion. See Dyes. Vials. See Glass. Victoria (Australia), 87. Vienna, 1 18. Vladivostok, 1 11. Wabash and Erie Canal, 41. Wales, 76. Walnuts. See Fruits and Nuts. Watches, 53. Waterways, 40, 41, 42, 79. Welland Canal, 42. West Africa, 90. Western Australia, 88. Wheat, 8, 48, 109. Whitefish. See Fish. W'hite Lead. See Lead. Windmills, 99. Wire and Wire Rods. See Iron. Wood. See Lumber. Woodenware. See Lumber. Wood-pulp. See Paper. Wood-spirits. Sec Alcohol. Wool, 12. Also Manufactures. Wool Growing. See Colonial Possessions of Great Britain. Wrought Iron. See Iron. Yokohama. See Japan. Yucatan Hemp. See Sisal. Zinc, 18. XD 1 1 73 / , .75^ < )cJe VI