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 I
 
 TRAVELS AND EESEARCHES 
 
 IN 
 
 CHALDJA AND SUSIANA 
 
 WITH AN ACCOUNT OF EXCAVATIONS AT 
 
 WARM, THE "ERECH" OF NIMROD, 
 
 SHUSH, "SHUSHAN THE PALACE" OF ESTHER, 
 IN 1849-52, 
 
 UNDER TUE ORDERS OP 
 
 MAJOR-GENERAL SIR W. P. WILLIAMS OF KARS, BART., K.C.B., M.P., 
 AND ALSO OF TUE ASSYRIAN EXCAVATION FUND IN 1853^. 
 
 BY 
 
 WILLIAM KENNETT LOFTUS, F.G.S. 
 
 ' Why dost thou build the hall, son of the winged days?— Thou lookest from thy tower to-day : yet a few 
 years, and the blast of the desert comes ; it howls in thy empty court." — Ossian. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 ROBERT CARTER & BROTHERS, 
 
 630 BROADW AT. 
 
 1857.
 
 L^^fc 
 
 TO 
 
 MAJOR-GENERAL SIR WILLIAM FENWICK WILLIAMS, 
 
 OP KAES, BART., K.C.B., M.P., ETC., 
 
 is i0lttm^ is Instrib^^, 
 
 m ADMIRATION OP HIS BRILLIANT ACHIEVEMENTS, 
 
 AND 
 
 IN GRATEFUL REMEMBRANCE OP POUR HAPPY TEARS 
 
 PASSED UNDER HIS COMMAND 
 
 UPON THE TURCO-PBRSIAN FRONTIER. 
 
 745 '.35
 
 PEEFACE. 
 
 The following pages are due to researches in that 
 remote, and but partially explored region, which, 
 from our childhood, we have been led to regard as 
 the cradle of the human race. 
 
 The matter they contain is the result of two 
 visits to the countries in question : first, in con- 
 nexion with the Turco-Persian Frontier Commis- 
 sion in 1849-52, under the orders of Colonel, now 
 Major-General Sir W. F. Williams, Bart., of Kars; 
 and secondly, in conduct of the Expedition sent 
 out by the Assyrian Excavation Fund, at the end 
 of the year 1853. 
 
 On returning to England in the middle of last 
 year, I hoped that the Committee of the above 
 Society would have published in extenso, and in
 
 vi PREFACE. 
 
 anotlier form, tlie fruits of its investigations in 
 Chaldaea and Assyria ; but, tliis plan having been 
 abandoned, I am induced to embody the records 
 of some portion of my journeys and researches in 
 the following pages. 
 
 Although this volume does not chronicle the 
 discovery of sculptured palaces, such as the sister- 
 land of Assyria has yielded, yet it comprises 
 accounts of cities existing centuries before* the 
 greatness of Nineveh rose to astonish the Eastern 
 world, and of sites containing the funereal remains 
 and relics of primaeval races. With the more 
 important of those great necropolis-cities I hope 
 to make the reader familiar. 
 
 In my account of Warka, I have, for the sake of 
 brevity, combined the results of my three visits ; 
 and, since the modern Sheah custom of burial, to 
 a certain extent, corresponds with that which pre- 
 vailed at the great Chaldsean cemeteries, I have 
 introduced, in the early part of the work, a de- 
 scription of the celebrated Persian shrines and 
 cemeteries at Meshed 'Ali and Kerbella. 
 
 Although the ruins of Babylon have been 
 repeatedly described, I have made a brief allusion 
 to them, and mentioned the most recent discoveries 
 made there, because a work on Chaldsea would be
 
 PREFACE. Vii 
 
 necessarily imperfect mtlioiit some reference to, 
 or description of, its great capital. In doing this, 
 I have touched upon some points which have not 
 hitherto been noticed. 
 
 The discoveries made at Shush, during the 
 progress of the Frontier Commission, are equally 
 interesting in a biblical, as in an historical sense, 
 for they identify, beyond reach of cavil, the exact 
 position of "Shushan the palace," where the events 
 recorded in the book of Esther took place, and 
 settle many difficult questions connected with the 
 topography of Susa, and the geography of the 
 Greek campaigns in Persia, under Alexander the 
 Great and his successors. 
 
 In the course of the work, I have had repeated 
 occasion to refer to the labours, and quote the 
 opinions of others ; in doing so, I trust that I have 
 accorded to each his due share in Chaldsean 
 research. 
 
 Since there appears to be no golden rule for the 
 orthography of Oriental names — at any rate, as 
 each wTiter on Eastern subjects adopts his own 
 method of spelling, I have chosen one which, 
 while it approximates as nearly as possible to the 
 native pronunciation, agrees likewise with the 
 written orthography. In carrying this out, I am
 
 ^^u PREFACE. 
 
 deeply indebted to Mr Redlioiise for his valuable 
 corrections; and, altbougli many well-known names 
 appear here in somewhat different guise from that 
 which they usually wear, I conceive that it is 
 better to risk the charge of pedantry than to per- 
 petuate errorso I am, nevertheless, fully aware 
 that there are several inaccuracies in this respect, 
 because the late severe illness of Mr Redhouse 
 prevented my asking his aid until some of the 
 early sheets had passed through the press. These 
 it is proposed to amend, if another edition of the 
 work be required. If, however, the accented 
 vowels be attended to, the reader will approach 
 very nearly to the native pronunciation. The a 
 is equivalent to the French a: the e to the French 
 e; i corresponds to the sound of ee; u to that of 
 00 ; and the guttural aspirate is represented in 
 such words as ' Ali and Musad. 
 
 It gives me great pleasure here to record my 
 sincere obligations to others of my friends who 
 have aided me with their advice and corrections 
 wliile the work was in the press ; more especially to 
 the Rev. Dr Hamilton, Mr J. F. Nicholson, Mr 
 Radford, ^Ir Birch, Mr Vaux, and Mr Boutcher. 
 To the last-named gentleman I am likewise in- 
 debted for the careful copies on wood of his own
 
 PREFACE. ix 
 
 original drawings, made on tlie spot for the 
 Assyrian Excavation Society, and also of those 
 (now in the British Museum) made by the friend 
 and companion of my first journey, Mr H. A. 
 Churchill. 
 
 I here likewise take the opportunity of acknow- 
 ledging the aid and encouragement aiForded to me 
 on the field of my researches. To General 
 Williams I am in an especial manner indebted for 
 the facilities which, as British Commissioner, he 
 invariably granted to me in carrying out such 
 plans as were advantageous to the success of my 
 labours. During the more recent Expedition on 
 behalf of the Assyrian Excavation Fund, my 
 efforts were materially aided by the position 
 assigned me by the Earl of Clarendon, as an 
 Attach^ of our Embassy at Constantinople during 
 the continuance of the Expedition, for which I 
 return my grateful acknowledgments. My thanks 
 are also due to his Excellency Lord Stratford de 
 RedclifFe, the first patron of Assyrian research, 
 who, amidst other and most onerous duties, applied 
 to the Porte for, and obtained, new firmans for 
 excavation. And, lastly, to Sir Henry Rawlinson 
 I desire to express my obligations for the assist- 
 ance rendered me in his then official capacity, as
 
 X PREFACE. 
 
 Consul-General at Baghdad, by liis influence with 
 the Turkish authorities and native Arab chiefs. 
 
 In conchision, I hope that the new facts and 
 observations which I am enabled to lay before the 
 reader will insure me some consideration for my 
 literary inexperience. 
 
 W. K. L. 
 
 Norwood, December 1856.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 London to Baghdad — Turkish and Persian Troubles — Colonel 
 Williams and the Frontier Commissioners — Constantinople 
 — Mesopotamia — A Flowery Wilderness — The City of Ha- 
 runu-'r-Reshid — Pestilence — Nedjib and Abdi Pashas . 1 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 Baghdad to Babylon — ^The Khan — Canals and Ancient Fertility — 
 
 Shapeless Mounds — ^Fulfilment of Prophecy . . .13 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 Hillah — Tahir Bey and the Turkish Brass Band — The Oven 
 Dance — Martial Escort — Bridge of Boats — Birs Nimrud — Its 
 true Theory — Sir H. Rawlinson's Discoveries — The Seven- 
 coloured Walls of the Temple of the Spheres — Chaldee 
 Astronomy ......... 21 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 View from Birs Nimrud — KefSl — Ezekiel's Tomb — Children of 
 the Captivity ......... 33 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Marshes of Babylon — Khuzeyl Arabs — The Euphrates, and its 
 Canals — Semiramis — Nebuchadnezzar — Cyrus — Alexander — 
 Shujah-ed-Dowla, and the Indian Canal .... 38
 
 oi CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PAOE 
 
 Kufa— A Fiery Eide— Nedjef, and the Tomb of 'Ali— Tte 
 Ghya\vr in the Golden Mosque — Fanaticism of the Sheahs — 
 Far-travelled Coffins and Costly Interments — How the Prime- 
 Minister got a Grave at a Great Bargain — Turkish Torpor and 
 Cleanliness versus Persian Dirt and Vivacity , . . 47 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Kerbella — The Governor's Dejeuner — The "Martyr" Huss^yn, 
 and his Mosque — Siege and Massacre — ^The " Campo Santo " 
 at Kerbella — Oratory of 'Ali — Magnificent Sunrise — Eastern 
 Ladies, Mounted and on Foot — The Ferry . . • , • 59 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Climate of Chaldsea — Christmas in Baghdad — Departure for the 
 South — Mubarek's Misadventure — The Kyaya of Hiilah — 
 Bashi-Bazuks 72 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 From HiUah into the Desert — Sand-drifts — Bridge-building — The 
 Surly Sheikh, and his Black Slave — Coffee-making — Rhubarb 
 and Blue PiU— New Year 1850 80 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 The Mighty Marsh — The Reed-Palace — Shooting-match — 
 NifFar — Theory on the Chaldseans — Probable Ethiopic Origin 
 — Niffar, the Primitive Calneh, and Probable Site of the 
 Tower of Babel — Beni Rechab, the Rechabites of Scripture 91 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 DfwSnfyya — Camp of Abdi Pasha — Mulla 'Ah, the Merry Ogre — 
 Sheep-skin Rafts — Statue-hunting — Hammam — Solemn Gran- 
 deur of Chaldfean Ruins — The Statue — Tel Ede — Alarm of 
 the Arabs — First Impressions of Warka , . • .105 
 
 CHAPTER XIL 
 Bedouins — MubSrek becomes useful — Ruins of Mugeyer — Cy- 
 linders — Chedorlaomer ? — Bclshazzar — The Author and his 
 Guides put to flight their Turkish Escort — Busrah — An-ival 
 in Persia 126
 
 CONTENTS. Xm 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Plans and Preparations for Excavating in Warka — ^The Party — 
 Arrival at Suk-esh-Sheioukh. — Fahad, Sheikh of the Mun- 
 tefik — Reception Tent — Falcons — The Letter and Escort . 139 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 Winter — Camel-foals — ^Tuweyba Tribe — Old Friends — Harassing 
 Labours — Dissatisfaction — Budda, the Grave-digger and Gold- 
 finder — Arab Kindness — Warka in 1854 — Difficulties — 
 Scarcity of Food and Water — Patriarchal Life in Abraham's 
 Country — Misery and Rapacity — Sand-storms , . .146 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 " The Land of Shinar "—Warka, the Ancient " Erech "— " Ur of 
 the Chaldees" — Scene of Desolation and Solitude — Enormous 
 Extent of Ruins — The Buwariyya — Reed-mat Structiu:e . 159 
 
 CHAPTER XVL 
 " Wuswas " Ruin — The Earliest Explorer — Rude Ornamentation 
 — Columnar Architecture — Palm Logs the Probable Type — 
 New Light on the External Architecture of the Babylonians 
 and Assyrians — Interior of Wuswas — The Use of the Arch in 
 Ancient Mesopotamia — Search for Sculptures — ^The Warrior 
 in Basalt 171 
 
 CHAPTER XVIL 
 
 New Styles of Decorative Art — Cone-work — Pot-work — Arab 
 Aversion to Steady Labour — Blood-Feud between the Tuweyba 
 and El-Bej — The Encounter Frustrated — The Feud Healed — 
 Diversions after the Work of the Day • , . . 187 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 The absence of Tombs in the Mounds of Assyria — Their abundance 
 in Chaldaea — W^arka a vast Cemetery — Clay Sarcophagi of 
 various forms — Top-shaped Vase, or " Babylonian Urn" — 
 Oval Dish-cover Shape — Slipper-shape — Difficulties of Re- 
 moval — Excitement of the Arabs — Gold Ornaments — Coins — 
 Vases — Terra-Cotta Penates — Light-fingered Arabs — The Or- 
 deal — Endurance of Pain — Earliest Relics . . . .198
 
 XIV CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Bank-notes of Babylon — Relics Injured by Fire — A Fruitful 
 Mound — Chamber containing Architectural Ornaments — 
 Origin of the Saracenic Style — Clay Tablets with Seal Im- 
 pressions and Greek Names — Continuance of Cuneiform until 
 B.C. 200 — Himyaric Tomb-stone — Conical Mounds — Style for 
 Writing Cuneiform — The Shat-el-Nil — General Results of the 
 Excavations at Warka — Probable Relics still Buried there . 221 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 Siukara — Decamping — Ride in a Sand-drift — The Negro Lion- 
 slayer — A Nocturnal Visiter — Dull uniformity of Sinkara — 
 The Temple of Pharra — The Dream and its Fulfilment — 
 Nebuchadnezzar and Nebonit rebuilders of Temples — ^Another 
 great Necropolis — Tablets and their Envelopes of Clay — 
 Babylonian Arithmetic — Pictorial Records — Boxers in the 
 Land of Shinar — The Dog-devourer ..... 240 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 Treasiu-es found at Tel Sifr — Juvenile Footpads — Medina — Ytisuf 
 and his Excavations at Tel Sifr — Large Collection of Curio- 
 sities in Copper — Private Records, B.C. 1500 — Female Ex- 
 cavators — The Works in Chaldsea abruptly interrupted-r- 
 Leave-taking — Grateful Labourers — Embarkation on the 
 Euphrates — River-craft and Amphibious Arabs — " The 
 Mother of Mosquitoes" 263 
 
 CHAPTER XXIL 
 Mohammerah — Intense Heat — Sickness — Legion of Blood-suckers 
 — Colony of Alexander the Great — Charax — The Delta of the 
 Tigris and Eui)hrates — Disputes between the Turks and Per- 
 sians — The Chab Aiabs and their Territories . . .279 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 Setting out for Susa — The Sulky Ferryman — Coffee-cups and In- 
 fidels — Ahwiiz — A False Alarm — Shilster-— Dilajiidation and 
 Dirt — ShSpiir and the Ca[)tive Emperor Valerian — Their 
 Grand Hydraulic Works — Festivities at Shuster — Tea — The 
 Forl)idden Beverage — Climate of Shuster — Failure in Diplo- 
 macy 287
 
 CONTENTS. XV 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 PACK 
 
 Departure from Shuster — Change of Scenery and Animal Life — 
 Huge Lizards — Botany — Geology of the Persian Steppes — 
 Shah-abttd — Dizful — Subterranean Conduits — Costume of the 
 People— The 'All Kethir Guide— The Bridge of the Biz— 
 Encampment at Shush — A Conflagration . . . ,306 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 The Tomb of the Prophet Daniel — Arabic Traditions regarding 
 him — Benjamin of Tudela's Account — Present State of the 
 Sepulchre — Spies and Persian Fanaticism — Charge of Sacri- 
 lege — Ferment in Dizful and the Neighbourhood — The 'Ali 
 Kethir Arabs — An accident befals the Author — Compelled to 
 abandon the Mounds of Shush — Battle between the 'Ali Kethir 
 and Beni Lam — Suleyman Khan the Christian Governor of a 
 Mohammedan Province — Arrival of Colonel Williams . .317 
 
 CHAPTER XXVL 
 Early History of SusA — From the days of Cyrus, Susa the Win-, 
 ter-residence of the Persian Kings — Ahasuerus identical with 
 Xerxes — Lumense wealth found by Alexander — Power of 
 Susa decUnes — Its Ruins at the present day — Abundance of 
 WUd Beasts — Imposiag aspect of Susa in early times , . 335 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 Excavations commenced by Colonel Williams — A Burglar — Con- 
 viction and Punishment — Gigantic Bell-shaped Bases of 
 Columns discovered — A Year's Interruption — Proposed Re- 
 sumption in 1852 — Journey under the Protection of the Beni 
 Lam — The Segwend Lurs — Hiring of Native "Navvies" — 
 Opposition of the Priesthood — The Cholera ascribed to the 
 late researches — The New Viceroy, Khfinler JVIirza . . 349 
 
 CHAPTER XXVin. 
 The Great Palace of Darius at Susa — Columns with Double-bvdl 
 Capitals — Trilingual Inscriptions of Artaxerxes Mnemon — 
 " Court of the Garden" of Esther — Columnar and Curtain 
 Architecture — Origin of the Susian and Persej)olitan Style — 
 Worship of Tanaitis or Venus » 364
 
 XVI CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 PAOS 
 
 Hostility and Reconciliation — An Arrival — Tlie Lur Workmen — 
 Insurrection of Seyids — Administration of Justice — ^Novel 
 Method of Smoking — Colonel Williams' Horses Stolen — An 
 Arab attack Repelled — The Haughty Hmnbled — Besieged by 
 a H^em 381 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 A Long Trench — Enamelled Bricks — Masons' Marks — A Hoard 
 of CoLas — ^Was Susa destroyed by Alexander? — Greek In- 
 scriptions — Pythagoras and the Persian Daric — Unexpected 
 Visit from the Guardian of the Tomb — Inscriptions and other 
 Early Relics on the Great Mound — ^Alabaster Vases of Xerxes 
 — Egyptian Cartouch — Mr Birch's Remarks thereon — Sculp- 
 tured Trough 396 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 The " Black Stone" — Its Discovery and Adventures — Its Con- 
 nexion with the Welfare of Khuzistan — The Plot for its Re- 
 moval Defeated — Investigations among the Rivers of Susa — 
 Identification of the " Ulai," or Eulseus — Bifurcation of 
 Modern Rivers — Sheikh AbduUa Forgiven — Friendly Parting 
 between the Arabs and the Frank 416 
 
 Chronologicax Table 435
 
 OHALD^A AND SIJSIANA 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 London to Baghdad— Turkish and Persian Troubles — Colonel Williams 
 and the Frontier Commissioners — Constantinople — Mesopotamia — 
 A Flowery WUdcrness — Tlie City of Harunu-'r-Eeshid — Pestilence 
 — Nedjib and Abdi Pashas. 
 
 For many centuries the extensive frontier between Turkey 
 and Persia lias been in an unsettled state, continually 
 changing its limits as the strength or influence of 
 either Government for the time prevailed. The afiablo 
 Persian naturally regards the haughty Osmanli in the 
 light of an intruder upon those rich plains which owned 
 obedience to the might of the Kayanians and Sassanians 
 in the days of Darab and Shapiar, Eeligious difference, 
 moreover, adds to the political animosity of the two great 
 Mohammedan powers. The phlegmatic Turk quietly 
 smokes his chibiik, swears by the beard of Omar, and 
 thanks the omnipotent Allah for all the blessings he 
 enjoys ; on the other hand, the ardent follower of the 
 martyred 'AH curses the orthodox believer, and takes 
 every opportunity to insult his patron saints. It may be 
 easily conceived that such political and religious disagree- 
 ments are frequently productive of a state of anarchy and 
 bloodshed, when the subjects of the two nations come into 
 
 A
 
 2 THE TURKO-PERSIAN FRONTIEE. 
 
 close contact. To add to tlie difficulties attending any- 
 proposed reconciliation, the frontier is inhabited by various 
 predatory races, who regard both Turk and Persian with 
 equal hatred, and who are only too happy to exercise their 
 plundering propensities by incursions into either territory. 
 The internal divisions and jealousies which exist among 
 these warlike tribes fortunately prevent them from com- 
 bining, as in the days of the Parthians, and proving 
 formidable competitors for the possession of Oriental 
 dominion. 
 
 In 1839-40, the outbreak of serious hostilities between 
 the Turkish and Persian Governments, arising from the 
 causes above mentioned, was imminent, and likely, in 
 the course of time, to endanger the tranquillity of the 
 whole world. The Cabinets of England and Russia, in- 
 fluenced doubtless by the proximity of their own fron- 
 tiers in India and Georgia to the regions in question, and 
 therefore interested in the maintenance of peace, offered 
 their friendly mediation for the purpose of restraining 
 the bellio-erent attitude of their Mohammedan neio;hbours. 
 The proposal was accepted, and commissioners from the 
 four powers assembled at Erzeriim, who, after sitting four 
 years, eventually concluded a treaty, one article of which 
 determined that representatives should be sent to survey 
 and define a precise line of boundary which might not 
 admit of future dispute. A joint commission was conse- 
 quently aj^pointed to carry out tins article. The P)ritish 
 Government selected Colonel Williams, R.A.,'"' to this ser- 
 vice, his previous experience during the protracted con- 
 ferences at Erzeriim having eminently qualified him for 
 the task now assigned him. Colonel Tcherikoff, the 
 Russian commissioner, although not a party to the treaty, 
 
 • Throughout this vohunc, "the Hero of Kars" is alhuled to uutler 
 the nuik ho held at the time as Commissioner for the delimitatiou of the 
 frontier.
 
 JOURNEY. 3 
 
 was equally well chosen to represent the Czar. With 
 these officers were associated Dervish Pasha, and Mirza 
 Jafer Khan, the commissioners for Turkey and Persia 
 respectively. Both had been educated in Europe. The 
 former enjoyed the reputation of being the most learned 
 savant among his countrymen, an excellent linguist and 
 chemist. The latter soon endeared himself to the mem- 
 bers of the various parties by his obliging manners and 
 many acts of kindness and attention. 
 
 In January 1849, I was attached by Lord Palmerston 
 as geologist to the staff of Colonel Williams, and directed 
 to lose no time in joining my chief. On reaching Constan- 
 tinople, and presenting myself, according to instructions, 
 to Lord Stratford de Redcliffe (then Sir Stratford Canning), 
 I learned that Colonel Williams and his party had set out 
 from thence on Christmas-day, and that letters had been 
 received, dated Siwas, giving a deplorable account of the 
 state of the weather and roads. The snow had fallen to 
 such an unprecedented depth, that the greatest difficulty 
 beset their journey, and at several places it was found 
 necessary, after many days' detention, to cut roads for the 
 passage of the mules. . Under these circumstances, the 
 ambassador detained me at Constantinople for a few 
 Aveeks, in the hope that the return of spring would open 
 the communications with the interior, and admit of my 
 travelling with more rapidity. 
 
 On the 7th of March I left the shores of the Bosphorus. 
 After the usual disagreeable voyage in a Black Sea 
 steamer, and a cold protracted ride across the Taurus, 
 upon which the snow still lay uncomfortably deep, I at 
 length reached Diarbekir, whence, proceeding down the 
 swollen Tigris on a "kelek," or raft of skins, I arrived 
 at Mosul on the 5th April, and there joined the British 
 commission. 
 
 It is no part of my intention to detain my readers
 
 4 RAFT ON THE TIGRIS. 
 
 with any description of " Nineveh, that great city." This 
 has been already done by another and more able pen than 
 mine. Let it suffice to state, that we beheld those asto- 
 nishing " heaps built by men's hands," and admired the 
 perseverance and determination of our countryman, 
 Layard, who, from these shapeless mounds, exhumed the 
 wondrous series of Assyrian sculptures which now forms 
 sucli an important feature in our national collection of 
 antiquities. We visited the four great mounds of Koy- 
 unjuk, Khorsabad, Karamles, and Nimrud, ma^rking the 
 angles of the parallelogTam which is supposed to aiclose 
 Nineveh. The time spent in our visit consumed exactly 
 three days, and it is probably to a similar circuit .of its 
 extent that the passage refers — " Now Nineveh was an 
 exceeding great city of three days' journey." '"" 
 
 Baghdad was appointed for the rendezvous of the com- 
 missioners ; and, as the British party was in advance of 
 the others, we floated down the Tigris on rafts, visiting 
 at our leisure all those points of interest so admirably 
 described by Rich in his " Narrative of a Residence in 
 Koordistan," and subsequently by other travel! ers.t All 
 being new to us, we fully enjoyed the opportunity, granted 
 to so few. We rambled over the desolate mound of 
 Kal'a Shergat, the ancient capital of Assyria ; we 
 landed at Tekrit, celebrated as the birth-place of the 
 romantic >Saladin, the Arab hero of the Crusades ; and we 
 stood on the plain of Dura, recalling to mind the golden 
 image erected by Nebuchadnezzar, and the unflinching 
 faith of Shadrach, Meshach, and Abed-nego. 
 
 • Jonah iii. 3. This expression may, however, refer to the thinly in- 
 habited district between the river Zab on the south, and the Khdbfir on 
 the north, which, there is equal reason to believe, constituted the Nineveh 
 of Jonah's mission. The journey between these two rivers occupies exactly 
 three days. 
 
 t Mr Layard gives a short description of the numerous ancient sites be- 
 tween Mosul and Bdghddd in his " Nineveh and Babylon," p. 404, ct scq.
 
 SCENERY ON THE TIGRIS. 5 
 
 It was midspring. Instead of the arid sands, which 
 the word *' desert " implies to the uninitiated in Meso- 
 potamian travel, broad plains of the richest verdure, 
 enlivened \yii\i flowers of every hue, met our delighted 
 gaze on either side of the noble river. Coleopterous 
 insects swarmed upon the banks, cuUing the sweets of 
 the fleeting vegetation. The cry of the velvet-breasted 
 francolin, and the sand -grouse '" rushing overhead like an 
 irresistible wind, enticed the most ardent of our party to 
 land, and indulge the love of their favourite sport. The 
 result was not unsuccessful, and little trouble was expe- 
 rienced in providing for our commissariat. Now and 
 then a herd of wild boars was discovered among the 
 jungle, or observed crossing the river : it was seldom that 
 they escaped unsaluted by a voUey of bullets, with more 
 or less effect. A bend of the stream sometimes brought 
 us suddenly upon a large Bedouin encampment, whence, 
 on observing the raft, a score or so of swarthy Arab 
 dames, with piercing black eyes and never-failing rows of 
 the whitest teeth, launched forth on inflated sheep skins, 
 and paddled out to meet the " keleks." They bore on 
 their heads bowls of milk or delicious lebben,t which they 
 disposed of in return for a few small coins. Although 
 the general aspect of the country is monotonous, there 
 is always something to amuse the traveller. Never did 
 a merrier party than ours float do^\Ti the Tigris upon a 
 fragile raft. 
 
 As Baghdad is approached, the pendent branches of 
 the graceful date-tree, and the refreshing green of the 
 pomegranate, with its bright red flowers, become more 
 and more frequent until, many miles above the city, the 
 river flows through one continuous grove. At length 
 the mosques and minarets appear ; the goal so long 
 
 • The FrancoUmis vulgaris and Pterocles arenarius of naturalists. 
 t Sour clotted milk — the usual Arab beverage.
 
 6 
 
 BAGHDAD PAST AND PRESENT. 
 
 wislierl-for is witliin siglit at last. He must be wholly 
 void of poetry and sentiment in whom the first glimpse 
 
 BiJglid^d and the Tigris. 
 
 of those shining domes does not excite at least some spark 
 of emotion. Who is there that does not recall that city 
 where the lively imagination of his youthful days was wont 
 to revel amid palaces shining in splendour, groups of blind 
 beggars, and the glories of the khalifat 1 Who is there 
 that does not exclaim, " Is this the Baghdad of Harunu- 
 'r-Eeshid and the '^Arabian Niolits ' 1 " Alas ! how fallen !. 
 The blind beggars, it is true, still cluster in the bazaars, 
 and are met at every corner of the streets — the misery 
 and filth remain — but where are the palaces and the 
 justice of the Prince of the Faithful 1 Few relics of its 
 quondam magnificence survive to remind us of the past. 
 A single minaret, a couple of gateways, the wall of a 
 college, and the conical tomb of the beautiful Zobeid, 
 are nearly all that exist of Baghdad as it was in the days 
 of its gi-eatness. To the just khalif has succeeded a race 
 of Tuikish pashas having no interest but their own 
 aggrandizement — no thought but how they can most
 
 BAGHDAD IN DANGER. 7 
 
 efFectiially cheat the revenue, enrich themselves, and pass 
 their time in gross debauchery. Exaction and vice are the 
 order of the day. Now and then honourable exceptions 
 occiu' to this general rule, but these, alas ! are few and far 
 between. But of this more anon. 
 
 At the date of our arrival (May 5) the whole popula- 
 tion of Baghdad was in a state of the utmost alarm and 
 apprehension. In consequence of the rapid melting of 
 the snows on the Kurdish mountains, and the enormous 
 influx of water from the Euphrates through the Segiawiyya 
 canal, the spring-rise of the Tigris had attained the unpre- 
 cedented height of 22^ feet. This was about five feet 
 above its ordinary level during the highest season, even 
 exceeding the great rise in 1831, when the river broke 
 down the walls and destroyed no less than 7000 dwellings 
 during a single night, at a time when the plague was com- 
 mitting the most fearful ravages among the inhabitants. 
 
 Nedjib Pasha had, a few days previously to our 
 arrival, summoned the population en masse to provide 
 against the general danger by raising a strong high 
 mound completely round the walls. Mats of reeds were 
 placed outside to bind the earth compactly together. 
 The water was thus restrained from devastating the inte- 
 rior of the city — not so eflectually, however, but that it 
 filtered throuoh the fine alluvial soil, and stood in the 
 serdabs, or cellars, several feet in depth. It had reached 
 within two feet of the top of the bank ! On the river 
 side the houses alone, many of which were very old and 
 frail, prevented the ingress of the flood. It was a critical 
 juncture. Men were stationed night and day to watch 
 the barriers. If the dam or any of the foundations had 
 failed, Baghdad must have been bodily washed away. 
 Fortunately the pressure was withstood, and the inunda- 
 tion gradually subsided. The country on all sides for 
 miles was under water, so that there was no possibility
 
 8 FEVER. 
 
 of proceeding beyond the dyke, except in the boats which 
 were established as ferries to keep up communication 
 across the inundation. The city was for the time an 
 island in a vast inland sea, and it was a full month 
 before the inhabitants could ride beyond the walls. 
 
 As the summer advanced, the malaria arising from the 
 evaporation of the stagnant water, produced such an 
 amount of fever that 12,000 died from a population of 
 about 70,000. The mortality at one time in the city 
 reached 120 per day — and no wonder, when a person 
 on being first attacked was made to swalloAAT a large 
 quantity of the juice of unripe grapes ! The streets 
 presented a shocking spectacle of misery and suffering. 
 The sick lay in every direction — at the doors of houses, 
 in the bazaars, and open spaces ; while those recently 
 smitten or just recovering were to be seen staggering 
 along by the wall sides or supported with sticks. The 
 gates of the city were beset with biers — some carried on 
 men's shoulders to the adjacent cemeteries, others on the 
 backs of mules to the sacred shrines of Meshed 'AH and 
 Kerbella. 
 
 Although our quarters were fixed in a small summer- 
 house and garden at Gherara, an hour's distance from the 
 city, the party was not exempt from the prevailing epide- 
 mic. All in turn suffered from fever, and at times there 
 was scarcely a servant, out of our large suite, able to 
 attend upon the sick. 
 
 In consequence of the delay arising from the Turkish 
 commissioner's non-arrival at the appointed time, and 
 from certain intricate questions which required a reference 
 to the home Governments, the idea was abandoned of pro- 
 ceeding to the frontier until the summer shoidd be past. 
 In fact, it would have been impossible at that season to bear 
 the fearful heat at the head of the Persian Gulf. Even 
 at Baghdad, during the day, in summer, the thermometer
 
 STATE OF THE PA SH ALIO. 9 
 
 in the shade often rises to 117^ Fahr. ; and frequently, 
 when the wind blows from the south, the oppression on 
 the senses is so great as to be almost unendurable.""'' The 
 atmosphere is, however, dry, consequently the lassitude 
 produced is not to be compared with that experienced 
 in a moist climate, hke that on the sea-coast of India, or 
 of the Gulf. The heat of the day is relieved in some 
 measure by the agreeable temperature of the night. 
 
 Our time was spent in making preparations for the ap- 
 proaching campaign, purchasing horses and mules, hiring 
 servants, and obtaining information likely to be useful 
 in the course of our future wanderings. Much of our 
 leisure was passed in the agreeable society of the English 
 residents at Baghdad ; and our sojourn there must ever 
 be a subject of pleasing reminiscence to the members of 
 the commission. Nothing could exceed the attention and 
 hospitality lavished upon us by the consul-general, Colonel 
 (now Sir Henry) Rawlinson, Captain Felix Jones, and that 
 small party of Enghshmen whose lot it was to make the 
 city of the khalifs their temporary home. 
 
 Baghdad has been so frequently described, that it forms 
 no part of my intention to dwell upon it. Other and less- 
 visited spots invite our notice. 
 
 The state of the pashalic was anything but satisfactory 
 at this period. The cruel exactions and oppressive con- 
 duct of Nedjib Pasha, who had for many years farmed 
 the revenues, were at length producing their inevitable 
 fruits. Revolt and disaffection reigned everywhere 
 among his subjects. The Beni Lam Arabs, along the 
 lower course of the Tigris, broke out into open rebellion, 
 in consequence of the pasha having placed that tribe 
 under their sworn foes, the Montefik, and thrown into 
 
 * "We now had positive evidence of the statement made to us in the 
 mountains concerning Biighddd, that birds were so distressed by the heat, 
 as to sit on the date-trees with their mouths open, panting for fresh air !
 
 10 NED JIB PASHA. 
 
 prison the two sons of their sheikli, Metlikilr — his hos- 
 tages at Baghdad — because he was several years in arrear 
 of his customary tribute. Tliey seized all native vessels 
 laden with merchandise passiug up and down the Tigris. 
 All conmnmication was interrupted between Baghdad 
 and Busrah. Caravans were detained, and the hair of 
 the camels shorn, it being the proper season for this pro- 
 cess. But the Arabs, at least, had some sense of justice — 
 the cargoes of the boats and the camels' hair were care- 
 fully laid aside, to be honourably restored to their owners 
 as soon as matters might be satisfactorily arranged ; and 
 British property was respected. 
 
 The Khuzeyl Arabs, inhabiting the marsh lands on the 
 west of the Euphrates, had torn down the dams which 
 restrained the "great river" within its proper limits, 
 and, by flooding their lands, placed themselves, for the 
 time being, utterly beyond the power of the Turkish 
 Governmeut. 
 
 The wild Madan tribes, in lower Meso^^otamia, were on 
 the point of following the example of their neighbours on 
 either side. The Bedouin Arab, taking advantage of the 
 general confusion, made formidable incursions into the 
 pashalic, and plundered all parties indiscriminately, thus 
 retaining his character as the descendant of Ishmael, and 
 fulfilling the prediction, that " his hand will be against 
 every man, and every man's hand against him."'"' The 
 prospects of the Turks in their southern province were 
 dark in the extreme. Strong representations were, how- 
 ever, made to the Porte, and resulted in the dismissal 
 of Nedjib Pasha, the instalment of the Seraskier Abdi 
 Pasha in his room, and the abolition of the system of 
 fanning the revenue by the substitution of a regular and 
 liberal salary to the new governor. The change was hailed 
 with delight throughout the whole province, and by slow 
 
 * Gcucsis xvi. 12.
 
 ABDt PASHA. 11 
 
 degrees tranquillity was restored. Nedjib Pasha shortly 
 afterwards took his departui'e for Constantinople, leaving, 
 it was said, an enormous amount of private debts unpaid, 
 but taking with him a large sum of money. It was by 
 his orders that Sofiik, the celebrated Shammar Arab chief, 
 was treacherously slain, while under safe-conduct ; and a 
 host of other serious crimes could be established against 
 him. Nevertheless, Nedjib Pasha was a politic governor ; 
 his severities being frequently well-timed, insurrection 
 was prevented in the bud. It was only by an unexpected 
 chain of disorders, which he had not the power to queU, 
 that he was driven from his long dominion. 
 
 Acting in direct opposition to the orders of his superior, 
 Abdi Pasha exhibited so much tact and good feeling dur- 
 ing his mission with the troops into the Khuzeyl territories, 
 that those refractory tribes were subdued without blood- 
 shed, and returned to their allegiance. This circumstance 
 had such weight with the Porte, that he was considered 
 the fittest person to succeed Nedjib Pasha. He was, 
 however, soon found wanting in those qualities which 
 constitute a good governor. As a soldier, he had per- 
 formed his part admirably ; but no sooner did he assume 
 the civil power than his firmness forsook him, Eesigning 
 himself to the luxury of his new position, he submitted 
 to be guided by a favourite eunuch — a sort of buffoon 
 whose gross gestures and language were unendurable by 
 Europeans. The sagacious Arabs were not long in dis- 
 covering that they might act almost as they pleased ; and 
 they did not fail soon afterwards to take advantage of 
 the circumstance. 
 
 Such was the state of affairs at the end of summer in 
 the pashalic of Baghdad, when, as soon as the intensity 
 of the heat permitted, Colonel Williams determined to 
 relieve the monotony and lassitude attendant on our long 
 detention by carrying out a contemplated trip to the
 
 12 CONTEMPLATED JOURNEY. 
 
 ruins of Babylon, and to the celebrated Persian shrines. 
 Our arrangements being effected, and the day fixed for 
 departure, we quitted our wearisome abode at Gherara, 
 crossed the ferry over the Tigris by starlight, and at 
 Khan-i-Za'ad were joined by the Russian and Turkish 
 parties, who had expressed a desire to accompany us.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Baghdad to Babylon— The Khan— Canals and Ancient Fertility— Shape- 
 less ]\Iounds — Fulfilment of Prophecy. 
 
 The distance between Baghdad and the ruins of Babylon 
 is about fifty miles, across a barren desert tract. Large 
 khans occur at convenient intervals, to provide for the 
 security of travellers against the roving Bedouins who at 
 times scour the surrounding country. A description of 
 one of these khans wiU suffice. It is a large and substan- 
 tial square building, in the distance resembling a fortress, 
 being surrounded with a lofty waU, and flanked by round 
 towers to defend the inmates in case of attack. Passing 
 through a strong gateway, the guest enters a large court, 
 the sides of which are divided into numerous arched 
 compartments, open in front, for the accommodation of 
 separate parties, and for the reception of goods. In the 
 centre is a spacious raised platform, used for sleeping upon 
 at night, or for the devotions of the faithful during the 
 day. Between the outer waU and the compartments are 
 wide-vaulted arcades, extending round the entire building, 
 where the beasts of burden are placed. Upon the roof of 
 the arcades is an excellent terrace, and, over the gateway, 
 an elevated tower containing two rooms — one of which is 
 open at the sides, permitting the occupants to enjoy every 
 breath of air that passes across the heated plain. The 
 terrace is tolerably clean ; but the court and stabling 
 below are ankle deep in chopped straw and filth. Each
 
 14 BABYLONIA. 
 
 khau Is supplied with a well, dug tlirougli the gravel into 
 the gypsiferous deposits beneath, invariably affording bad, 
 brackish Avater, which tastes, as one of our party aptly 
 described it, like a solution of leather! During the long 
 summer, these khans are frequently crowded to excess by 
 pilgrims from Persia on their way to the shrines. Each 
 caravan brings with it numbers of felt-covered coffins, 
 containino- dead bodies sent for burial in the sacred ceme- 
 teries. As pilgrims, coffins, and animals are shut up 
 together all night — or all day, as the case may be — within 
 the khans, it may be conceived that the atmosphere, 
 impregnated with noxious gases, deals death and destruc- 
 tion around. It is estimated that, in healthy seasons, a 
 fifth of the travellers, overcome with fever and other 
 diseases, find their graves in the desert ; while, ifi times 
 of cholera and epidemics, the average is much larger of 
 those who fail to return to their distant homes. 
 
 In former days the vast plains of Babylonia were 
 nourished by a complicated system of canals and water- 
 courses, which sjDread over the surface of the country like 
 net-work. The wants of a teeming population were sup- 
 plied by a rich soil, not less bountiful than that on the 
 banks of the EgyjDtian Nile. Like islands, rising from a 
 golden sea of waving corn, stood frequent groves of palms 
 and pleasant gardens, affording to the idler or the traveller 
 their grateful and highly- valued shade. Crowds of pas- 
 sengers hurried along the dusty roads to and from the 
 busy city. The land was rich in corn and wine. How 
 changed is the aspect of that region at the present day ! 
 Long lines of mounds, it is true, mark the courses of 
 those main arteries which formerly diffused life and vege- 
 tation along their banks, l)ut their channels are now 
 bereft of moisture and choked with drifted sand ; the 
 smaller offshoots are wholly effaced. " A drought is upon 
 her waters," says tlie prophet, " and they shall be dried
 
 BABYLONIA. 15 
 
 up.'"'^ All tliat remains of that ancient civilization — that 
 "glory of kingdoms," " the praise of the whole earth" — 
 is recognizaljle in the numerons mouldering heaps of brick 
 and rubbish which overspread the surface of the j)lain. 
 Instead of the luxuriant fields, the groves and gardens, 
 nothing now meets the eye but an arid waste — the dense 
 population of former' times is vanished, and no man 
 dwells there. Instead of the hum of many voices, silence 
 reigns profound, except when a few passing travellers or 
 roving Ai'abs flit across the scene. Destruction has swept 
 the land, and the hand of man been made the instrument 
 by which God has efi^ected his punishment.t But for the 
 curse upon it, there is no physical reason why it should 
 not be as liountiful and thickly inhabited as in days of 
 yore ; a little care and labour bestowed on the ancient 
 canals would again restore the fertility and population 
 which it originally possessed. It w^ould require no immense 
 expenditure of funds to clear the channels of the loose 
 sands, which have accumulated during so many centuries, 
 and to render them navigable for the shallow vessels of 
 the country. Such a work of supererogation is not, how- 
 ever, to be expected from the existing race of Turkish 
 ofiicials, and must be left until the time when the curse 
 upon it shall be removed, and European civilization, with 
 its concomitant advantages, shall penetrate into those 
 distant wilds. May that time soon arrive ! 
 
 I have been' led into this digression by the fact that 
 the Nahr Malka, one of the four main arteries which sup- 
 
 * Jer. 1. 38. 
 
 t In a review of " Johnston's Physical (Geography," contained in the 
 Edinhurgh Magazine for April 1849, the writer has well remarked that 
 " war and barrenness of soil are not the chief obstacles to population. 
 Insecurity of property implied in tyrannical governments is the great 
 depopulator. Men will not labour when they cannot be certain of the 
 fruits of their labour ; they sink into lassitude, indolence, and beggary." 
 This is a true picture of the present state of Turkey, and more especially 
 applicable to Babylonia, which has passed through so many vicissitudes.
 
 16 BABYLON. 
 
 plied Babylonia with the waters of the Euphrates, passed 
 close to Khan-1-Za'ad, and is still traceable by a slight 
 depression. It should be remarked, that the beds of 
 navigable canals are below the level of the surrounding 
 country, wdiile those of the secondary or irrigating canals 
 are above that level. This arises from the comparatively 
 shallow depth of the latter, and the rapid accumulation 
 of matter held in suspension by the water, which, on 
 deposition, raises their channels each successive year. 
 Now and then the beds of canals in action at the present 
 day are cleaned out, and the deposit, forming embank- 
 ments at the sides, prevents the flooding of the cultivated 
 land. 
 
 Between Khan-i-Za'ad and the little village of Mohawil 
 there is nothing to interest the traveller, but soen after 
 passing the date-trees and modern canal of the latter 
 place, a small mound afl"ords from its summit the first 
 glimpse of the ruins of Bab3don. Truly said the prophet 
 concerning her, " Babylon shall become heaps, an astonish- 
 ment, and an hissing, without an inhabitant." ''' Unsightly 
 mounds alone remain of that magnificence which Scrip- 
 ture so frequently dilates upon, and which the pages of 
 Herodotus so carefully describe. Who can recognise in 
 those shapeless piles, exposed to the ravages of time and 
 the destructive hand of man during twenty centuries, 
 any of its former grandeur ? 
 
 We learn from Herodotust that the great city was built 
 in the form of a square, each side of which was defended 
 by an enormous wall, measuring 120 stadia, or about 
 15 miles in length, and furnished with twenty-five 
 gates of brass ; the interior being arranged in squares 
 by streets intersecting each other at right angles. The 
 Euphrates divided the city into two parts, which were 
 connected by a bridge of immense length and width. 
 
 * Jer. li. 37. t Lib. i. c. 178, et seq.
 
 X---.. I 
 
 J L____.l 1 It 
 
 c hrtA TO vsmdh
 
 BABYLON. 1 7 
 
 According to Diodorus Siculus,'" a palace stood at eitlicr 
 extremity of the bridge : that on the eastern side measur- 
 ing 3f miles in circumference — that on the western being 
 7^ miles. He also speaks of the temple of Belus on the 
 latter side. Herodotus, however, mentions but one palace 
 and the temple of Belus. 
 
 The ruins at present existing stand upon the eastern 
 bank of the Euj)hrates, and are enclosed within an irre- 
 gular triangle formed by two lines of ramparts and the 
 river, the area being about eight miles. This space contains 
 three great masses of building — the high pile of unbaked 
 brickwork called byRicht "IMiijellibe," but which is known 
 to the Arabs as " Babel ;" the building denominated the 
 " Kasr," or palace ; and a lofty mound upon which stands 
 the modern tomb of Amram-ibn-'Ali. Upon the western 
 bank of the Euphrates are a few traces of ruins, but none 
 of sufficient importance to give the impression of a palace. 
 It will therefore be seen that the ancient and modern 
 descriptions of Babylon do not agree, unless we are to 
 consider the mounds within the triangular space above- 
 mentioned as constituting a single palace and its offices. 
 If so, where are we to look for the walls of Babylon fifteen 
 miles square 1 It has been suggested, that, by regarding 
 the great tower of the Birs Nimriid on the south, and 
 the conical mound of El Heimar on the east, as two 
 corners of a vast square, we should thus get over the 
 difficulty ; but unfortunately we have no evidence of the 
 existence of any walls around the square thus traced. 
 
 There are various causes to account for the complete- 
 disappearance of the walls and so much of the buildings. 
 Upwards of 2300 years ago, Darius, the son of Hystaspes,| 
 caused them to be demolished in consequence of a rebel- 
 lion in the city, thus bringing about the fulfilling of the 
 prophecy — " The wall of Babylon shall fall ;" " her Avails are 
 
 * Lib. ii. c. 8. t "^femoir on the Ruins of Bab^-lon." + Herod, iii. 150. 
 
 B
 
 18 BABYLON. 
 
 thrown down ;" " tlie broad walls .... shall be utterly 
 broken."'"" Diiring that period, likewise, the ruins were 
 used as a never-failing brick field — city after city was 
 built from its materials. Ctesiphon, Kiifa, Kerbella, 
 Hillah, Baghdad, and numerous other places — them- 
 selves now scarcely to be recognized — derived their supph^' 
 of bricks from Babylon ! The floods of the Eu2:)hrates and 
 the rains of winter, too, have exercised their share in bury- 
 ins and disinteoratino; the materials. All these ao-encies 
 at work have combined to render Babylon a byword 
 and a reproach among nations. Eich, and, but recently, 
 Fresnel and Layard, endeavoured by excavation to recover 
 some information from the existing mounds, lj\it they 
 encountered such inextricable confusion that they gave 
 up their several attempts in despair. 
 
 In my opinion — and I have examined the ruins on four 
 several occasions — it is now utterly impossible to recog- 
 nize one single point in them as the remains of any of 
 those sumptuous palaces described by the early historians. 
 Eich,t whose account and measurements are models of 
 careful examination, has misled himself and others by his 
 enthusiasm in endeavouring to identify certain of the 
 ruins with the descriptions of Herodotus. I grant that 
 it is a most pleasing sul)ject to speculate upon, but it is 
 perfectly hopeless, at this distance of time, to trace out any 
 plan of the ancient city as it existed in its greatness and 
 glory .| It must not be inferred from these remp.rks that 
 any douljt exists as to the identity of the ruins in ques- 
 tion with those of the sci-iptural Babylon. There cannot 
 be two opinions on that subject. Independently of the 
 
 • Jeremiah li. 44, 58 ; 1. 15. + "Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon." 
 X In 1854-55 a minute survey of Babylon and its environs was made at 
 the request of Sir Henry Rawlinson, by Captain Jones, I.N., assisted by Dr 
 Hyslop and Mr T. K. Lynch. The public will doubtless ere long be put in 
 possession of the important information which, it is said, was obtained 
 during the progress of this examination.
 
 LA YARD AT BABYLON. 19 
 
 fact that universal tradition points to this locality as the 
 seat of the Babylonian capital, no other site can be so 
 appropriately determined on. 
 
 During Mr Layard's excavations at Babylon in the 
 Avinter of 1850, Babel, the northern mound, was investi- 
 gated;""' but he failed to make any discovery of importance 
 beneath the square mass of unbaked brickwork except a 
 few piers and walls of more solid structure. According 
 to the measurement of Eich, it is nearly 200 yards square, 
 and 141 feet high. It may be suggested that it was the 
 basement upon which stood the citadel. From its summit 
 is obtained the best view of the other ruins. On the south 
 is the large mound of Miijellibe, so called from its " over- 
 turned" condition. The fragment of ancient brick 
 masonry called the Kasr, which remains standing on its 
 surface, owes its preservation to the difficulty experienced 
 in its destruction. The bricks, strongly fixed in fine 
 cement, resist all attempts to separate the several layers. 
 Their under sides are generally deeply stamped with the 
 legend of Nebuchadnezzar. Not far from this edifice is 
 the well-known block of basalt, roughly cut to represent 
 a lion standing over a prostrate human figure. This, 
 together with a fragment of frieze, are the only instances 
 of has reliefs hitherto discovered in the ruins. The last, 
 discovered by Mr Layard, exhibits two figures of deities, 
 with head-dresses resembhng those peculiar to PersepoHs 
 and Khorsabad. 
 
 On the south of the MujeUibe is the mound of Amram, 
 from which Mr Layard obtained the remarkable series of 
 terra-cotta bowls, with inscriptions in ancient Chaldsean 
 characters, supposed to have been charms used by the 
 Jews during the captivity to ward off" the Evil Ona 
 These are among the most interesting relics procured 
 from Babylon. 
 
 • * Nineveh and Babylon," p. .')04-5k 
 
 L
 
 20 BABYLON. 
 
 Various ranges of smaller mounds fill up tlie inter- 
 vening space to the eastern angle of the walls. The 
 pyramidal mass of El Heimar, far distant in the same 
 direction — and the still more extraordinary pile of the 
 Birs Nimrud in the south-west, across the Euphrates — 
 rise from the surrounding plain like two mighty tumuli 
 designed to mark the end of departed greatness. Mid- 
 way between them, the river Euphrates, wending her 
 silent course towards the sea, is lost amid the extensive 
 date-groves which conceal from sight the little Arab 
 town of Hiilah. All else around is a blank waste, recall- 
 ing the words of Jeremiah : — " Her cities are ^ desolation, 
 a dry land, and a wilderness, a land wherein* no man 
 dwelleth, neither doth any son of man pass thereby." """ 
 
 It would be useless here to enter into a more ^detailed 
 description of the ruins, because the works of Eich and 
 Layard yield all the information which is known on the 
 subject, and to them my readers must be referred. 
 
 * .Teremiah li. 43
 
 CHAPTEE III. 
 
 Hillah— Tahir Bey and the Turkish Brass Band— The Oven Dance- 
 Martial Escort — Bridge of Boats — Birs Nimrud — Its true Theory — 
 Sii- H. Rawliiison's Discoveries — The Seven-coloured Walls of the 
 Temple of the Spheres — Chaldee Astronomy. 
 
 The camp of our party was pitched on the southern 
 extremity of the mounds, near the village of Jumjiima, 
 where we were joined by Tahir Bey, the military gover- 
 nor of Hillah, one of the very few men in Turkey who 
 have devoted their time to study the profession of a 
 soldier. He was known as a dashing officer, and pos- 
 sessed that frankness and off-hand manner which stamped 
 the correctness of the character he had obtained. He was 
 a general favourite, and soon made himself at home 
 with us. He placed a guard of fifty men to look after 
 our safety during the night ; and, to ajBTord some 
 amusement, ordered out the brass band of the garrison 
 under his command, which at intervals enlivened us with 
 selections and remarkable variations from Bellini, Doni- 
 zetti, and even Strauss ! This, as may be imagined, was 
 not quite consonant to the feelings of the European por- 
 tion of the assembly, who would infinitely rather have 
 dispensed with such frivolities, and have indulged in 
 quiet contemplation on the extraordinary scene which 
 we had that day for the first time beheld. But, as there 
 was no help for it, we were obliged to conform to the 
 feelings of the majority, and to respect the attentions 
 which Tahir Bey lavished upon us. 
 
 At such times as the band ceased its somewhat dubi- 
 
 k
 
 22 THE DANCER. 
 
 ous melody, one of tliose never-failing accompaniments 
 of Oriental fetes— a dancer — was introduced to add to 
 the amusement of tlie evening. He proved to be no 
 ordinary buffoon, such as usually exhibits to an Eastern 
 audience. Hamza of Hillah was celebrated far and near 
 for his grace and modesty. He might have been about 
 eighteen years old, and was not only dressed, but ap- 
 peared like a girl, tall and slightly built. His costume re- 
 sembled that of a Spanish dancer, consisting of a tight vest 
 with loose sleeves of red silk, and a skirt of the same 
 material, which reached to below the knees, and was 
 ornamented with alternate rings or flounces of led, blue, 
 and yellow, edged with Persian shawl. This skirt was 
 called " tennur," from its resemblance to an Arab " oven." 
 On his head was a fez, with long, full blue tassel ; and 
 from his neck and breast hung numerous chains and large 
 medals of silver — presents, doubtless, from his ardent 
 admirers. The backs of his hands were adorned with 
 silver studs, and his fingers with rings, of which he made 
 the most dexterous use as an accompaniment to the 
 ^ound of the touitom. Oriental dances are usually gross 
 and indecent in the extreme : it was therefore with no 
 little surprise and pleasure that we remarked Hamza's 
 movements were entirely free from this objection, and 
 might have been witnessed by the most fastidious. His 
 grace would indeed have amused, if not charmed, any 
 audience, and, if exhibited in England, he would soon 
 have made his fortune. There not being space sufficient 
 in the reception-tent for the full display of Hamza's 
 powers, an adjournment took place to the open air. A 
 large circle was formed around a torch adapted for the 
 occasion. It was a round iron grate, raised upon a jdoIo 
 to the height of six feet from the ground. The fire was 
 fed with the bouo;hs and leaves of date-trees, which cast 
 a strong lurid light upon the spectators.
 
 THE "TENNtJR" DANCE. 23 
 
 The people of Hillah, hearing of our arrival, and judg- 
 ing that there was something to be seen, collected in 
 considerable numbers into a motley group. There was 
 the old Turk, chibiik in hand, with his venerable white 
 beard, well-wound turban, and scrupulously clean person 
 and apparel — the "dirty Arab, with his gay keffieh, striped 
 abba, and constant companion, the long spear— the 
 nearly naked water-carrier, bearing a huge bullock's skin 
 upon his broad back, and announcing his ever-welcome 
 presence by the sound of little brass bells-— here and there 
 a stray Persian, in pointed lambskin cap and long blue 
 robes, as worn ages past by his forefathers — and lastly, 
 our own attendants, exhibiting every variety of race, 
 caste, and costume between Malta and Baohdad — a com- 
 plete Babel among themselves- Tm"kisli sentinels at re- 
 gular intervals, musket in hand, kept the ring. 
 
 liamza now stepped into the circle and commenced 
 the performance of what was esteemed his most wonder- 
 ful feat — the favourite of the Turks. He began, dervish- 
 like, to move slowly round upon one spot, gradually 
 increasing his speed as the music quickened, until at length 
 he spun round with amazing velocity. He then proceeded 
 to partially divest himself of his numerous ornaments and 
 garments, but each article was taken off so slowly and 
 carefully, and the speed with which he turned was so 
 great, that, when he rapidly passed it into the hands of a 
 person stationed to receive it, the movement was scarcely 
 perceptible. Each portion of his dress thus disappeared 
 until only his under-clothing remained. Throwing a 
 shawl over his person, he now actually increased his speed 
 to a fearful velocity, until he appeared as though fixed on 
 a pivot. He then dressed ; and, after half an hour of this 
 violent exertion, suddenly ceasing his gyrations, he made 
 two or three elegant movements, salaamed the strangers, 
 and retired amidst nhouts of applause. Although not
 
 24 PROCESSION INTO HILLAH. 
 
 exhibiting the grace of his dance in the tent, as an 
 example of bodily endurance it surpassed anything of the 
 sort I had ever before witnessed. 
 
 This exhibition over, and the din of the tomtom ceased, 
 a profound stillness took possession of the camp, varied 
 only by the regular tread and challenge of the sentinel. 
 It was long, however, before I closed my eyes. The 
 excitement of visiting a spot so remarkable in the history 
 of the human race was such, that I lay awake for a length 
 of time, recalling to my mind all the wonderful events 
 which had beMlen " the golden city," and the astounding 
 fulfilment of those prophecies which refer in so remark- 
 able a manner to its present crumbling condition. No 
 one who reflects seriously on such a subject and o;i such 
 a scene can fail to be impressed with the truth of Scrip- 
 ture. 
 
 The whole camj) was early astir on the following morn- 
 ing, and we proceeded in great state towards Hillali, 
 the little capital of the surrounding Arab district. The 
 procession was led by the mounted escort which had 
 accompanied us from Baghdad, and by the detachment of 
 infantry sent from the to^vn overnight by Tahir Bey. I 
 must give them the credit of being by far the cleanest, 
 most orderly, and soldier-like fellows I had seen in 
 Turkey — vastly superior to the ill-clad wretches who 
 hung about the streets of Stambul before the war. Their 
 dress and accoutrements were good and clean, their 
 muskets and long bayonets shining as brightly as any 
 rigid disciplinarian could desire. The only thing which 
 detracted from their appearance, and rendered them some- 
 what uncouth to look upon, was, that their European-cut 
 white trousers were inconveniently small to contain the 
 Oriental baggy drawers within. Next in order were three 
 led horses of the pasha, covered with black trappings, 
 and ornamented with plates and beads of bright silver.
 
 BRIDGE OF HILLAH. 25 
 
 having much the appearance of palls appertaining to a 
 funeral procession. Behind these were two kettle-drum- 
 mers, who kejDt up an incessant tomtomming until the 
 ears ached with the intolerable din — these, of course, 
 immediately preceded the three commissioners and a 
 motley group of officers, in such costumes as each thought 
 most suitable for affordins; shelter ao;ainst the increasino- 
 heat of the rising sim. In the background came servants 
 of all classes, exhibiting as picturesque an array as can be 
 well conceived. Long strings of mules with the baggage 
 closed the procession. 
 
 Hillah is approached from the Baghdad road, by a nar- 
 row avenue, passing through the extensive date-gardens 
 which border on the river. The trampHng of so many feet 
 enveloped us in a cloud of the finest and most penetrating- 
 dust, which all were compelled to endure while almost 
 suffocated by it. At the suburbs we were received by our 
 friend the governor, who had preceded us, by the band, and 
 the bulk of the garrison. Although the dust was very an- 
 noying, it was impossible not to enjoy a scene so strange 
 and new. The sun was just beginning to shed his warming- 
 influence upon the beautiful yellow clusters of ripening- 
 dates, which hung like so many bunches of pure gold 
 collected round the ends of the tall stems. The luxuriant 
 tufts of feathery branches, and their elegantly pendent 
 form, appeared to spring from the trees, as if solely in- 
 tended to relieve the monotonous aspect of an Arab desert, 
 or to prevent the fruit under their bounteous shade from 
 being scorched and dried up under the vertical sun. 
 
 A few dilapidated houses and a small bazaar, chiefly 
 stocked with water-melons and cucumbers, guard the 
 eastern approach to the bridge of Hillah. The crossing 
 this bridge — if it could deserve the title — produced con- 
 siderable wavering and consternation among the horse- 
 men ; many of whom, it was observed, wisely dismounted,
 
 26 JEWS OP THE CAPTIVITY. 
 
 lest a false step or other accident slioiild precipitate both 
 horse and rider into the rapid Euphrates. The bridge was 
 one of boats — infirm and old — covered, like Noah's ark, 
 " without with pitch" derived from the bitumen springs 
 of Hit. From boat to boat was laid down a roadway 
 of date timber ; but so full of holes was it, that a broad- 
 stepped ladder would have answered the same purpose. 
 The oscillation produced by the passage of so many 
 horsemen, the plunging and kicking of the animals, and 
 the state of the bridge itself, rendered it a matter of no 
 small difficulty to reach the opposite bank of the river in 
 safety. As if for the sake of amusing themselves at our 
 expense, and to create as much confusion as possible, the 
 authorities in the town placed two large guns in such a 
 position as to enfilade both sides of the bridge, and fired 
 a succession of salutes — sufficient to have done honour to 
 three sultans, instead of three commissioners ! Having 
 escaped all the dangers consequent on the passage of the 
 Euphrates, we assembled at the seray, where pipes and 
 coffee were duly provided, and a few minutes' rest was 
 allowed us to collect our scattered thoughts. The seray is 
 said to have been a palace of the khalifs ; and certainly, 
 if its dilapidated condition be any warrant for this report, 
 its antiquity is undoubted. There is nothing remarkable 
 about the town of Hillah, except that, from its situation 
 on the Euphrates, it is somewhat more picturesque than 
 most Arab towns. The bazaars are extensive, and exhibit 
 the usual amount of blindness, poverty, and filth. If 
 there be one thing more tlian another which strikes the 
 visitor to Hillah, it is the large immber of Jews who 
 inhabit the place, and secure a livelihood by collecting 
 and selling antiques from the neighbouring mounds. 
 They are tlie degraded and persecuted remnant of the ten 
 thousand, whom Nebuchadnezzar carried off from Jerusa- 
 lem, still hovering around the scene of the captivity !
 
 BfRS NIMRtJD. 27 
 
 It has been often suggested, that, in consequence of the 
 frequent changes in the course of the Euphrates, the 
 western portion of Babylon was gradually washed away, 
 and that its place is now occupied by the alluvial plain. 
 Mr Layard is of this opinion."^^' But this mode of account- 
 ing for the entire disappearance of such large edifices as 
 we know, from the historical accounts, to have existed 
 on the west of the great river, is highly unsatisfactory. 
 Upon the same supposition, we should expect the eastern 
 ruins to have likewise disappeared. The opposition of- 
 fered by such a massive pile as Babel or Mujellibe could 
 not be wholly overcome, even during a lapse of centuries. 
 The result of the river's flowing at its base would simply 
 be the disintegration of a very small portion of its mass. 
 The surface of the ground between Hillah and the Birs 
 Nimriid, a distance of six miles, shews the remains of 
 old canals derived from near the present course of the 
 Euphrates, which is quite opposed to this theory. It is 
 more probable, in my opinion, that the river has not much 
 altered its channel, but that the western division of the 
 ruins, being more accessible to brick-hunters, was com- 
 pletely demolished. It appears, however, to have escaped 
 general observation, that there are mounds within the date- 
 groves of Hillah itself indicating the existence of older 
 foimdations. These may eventually prove to be a por- 
 tion of the lost western half of ancient Babylon. 
 
 There are few ruins in the world which have excited 
 such general interest and speculation regarding their object 
 and origin as the vitrified brick edifice which crowns the 
 summit of Birs Nimriid. The old Jewish traveller, Ben- 
 jamin of Tudela, in the twelfth century, regarded it with 
 devout reverence as part of the identical tower of Babel 
 destroyed by fire when the Lord scattered man abroad 
 upon the face of the earth as a punishment for his auda- 
 
 * « Nineveh and Babylon," p. 492-3.
 
 28 BIRS NIMRtJD " TEMPLE OF THE SEVEN SPHERES." 
 
 city. Many authors consider it to be the great temple of 
 Belus, described by Herodotus as having been partially 
 destroyed by Darius, about 500 B.C., and afterwards plun- 
 dered by his son Xerxes. Others, again, were inclined to 
 look on it as an observatory erected by the Chaldsean 
 priests for astronomical purposes. 
 
 It is, however, to the sagacity and learning of Sir 
 Henry Eawlinson that we are indebted for a correct 
 determination of this remarkable edifice. The excavations 
 conducted there under his directions, in 1854, confirm 
 the correctness of the observations made by Eich, Ker 
 Porter, and Buckingham, as to the existence of several 
 stages which they conceived to be visible under the 
 accumulation of fallen bricks. Sir Henry Eawlinson 
 ascertained that the structure consisted of six distinct 
 platforms or terraces. Each terrace was about 20 feet in 
 height, and 42 feet less horizontally than the one below 
 it. The Avhole were so arrano;ed as to constitute an 
 oblique pyramid — the terraces in front being 30 feet in 
 depth, while those behind were 12 feet, and at the sides 21 
 feet each. Upon the sixth story stands the vitrified mass, 
 concerning which such discussion has arisen, and which, 
 it is now suggested, was the sanctum of the temple. 
 Built into the corners of the stories were cylinders of 
 Nebuchadnezzar, designating the whole structure, " the 
 Stages of the Seven Spheres of Borsippa." Each story was 
 dedicated to a planet, and stained with the colour pecu- 
 liarly attributed to it in the works of the Sabaean astro- 
 logers, and traditionally handed down to us from the 
 Chaldfieans. The lowest stage was coloured black, in 
 honour of Saturn ; the second orange, for Jupiter ; the 
 third red, for Mars ; the fourth 3TII0W, for the Sun ; the 
 fifth green, for Venus ; the sixth blue, for Mercury ; and 
 the temple was probably white, for the Moon ! 
 
 It may not perhaps prove unacceptable to my readers
 
 CYLINDER OF " NABU-KUDURI-UZUR. 29 
 
 if I here give Sir Henry Eawlinson's translation from tlie 
 cuneiform record upon the cylinders, which is to the fol- 
 lowing effect : — 
 
 " I am Nabu-kudim-uzur, King of Babylon, the estab- 
 lished governor, he who pays homage to Merodach, 
 adorer of the Gods, glorifier of Nabu, the supreme chief, 
 he who cultivates worship in honour of the Great Gods, 
 the subduer of the disobedient man, repairer of the temples 
 of Bit-Shaggeth and Bit-Tzida, the eldest son of Nabu- 
 pal-uzur. King of Babylon. Behold now Merodach, my 
 great Lord, has established men of strength and has urged 
 me to repair his buildings. Nabu, the guardian over the 
 heavens and the earth, has committed to my hands the 
 sceptre of royalty therefore. Bit-Shaggeth, the palace of 
 the heavens and the earth for Merodach the supreme chief 
 of the Gods, and Bit Kua, the shrine of his divinity, and 
 adorned with shining gold, I have appointed them. Bit- 
 Tzida also I have firmly built. With silver and gold and 
 a facing of stone ; mth wood of fir, and plane, and pine I 
 have completed it. The building named the Planisphere, 
 "« hich was the wonder of Babylon, I have made and 
 finished. With bricks enriched with lapis lazuli I have 
 exalted its head. Behold now the building named the 
 Stages of the Seven Spheres, which was the wonder of 
 Borsippa, had been built by a former king. He had com- 
 pleted 42 cubits (of height), but he did not finish its head. 
 From the lapse of time it had become ruined ; they had 
 not taken care of the exits of the waters, so the rain and 
 wet had penetrated into the brickwork. The casing of 
 burnt brick had bulged out, and the terraces of crude 
 brick lay scattered in heaps ; then Merodach, my great 
 Lord, inclined my heart to repair the building. I did not 
 change its site, nor did I destroy its foundation platform, 
 but in a fortunate month, and upon an auspicious day, I 
 undertook the building of the crude brick terraces, and the
 
 30 BORSITPA. 
 
 burnt brick casing of the temple. I strengthened its 
 foundation, and I placed a titular record on the part I had 
 rebuilt. I set my hand to build it up and to exalt its 
 summit. As it had been in ancient times, so I built up 
 its structure ; as it had been in former days, thus I exalted 
 its head. Nabu, the strengthener of his children, he who 
 ministers to the Gods, and Merodach, the supporter of 
 sovereignty, may they cause this my work to be estab- 
 lished for ever ; may it last through the seven ages, and 
 may the stability of my throne and the antiquity of my 
 empire, secure against strangers, and triumphant over 
 many foes, continue to the end of time. Under the 
 guardianship of the Eegent who presides over the spheres 
 of heaven and tlie earth, may the length of my days pass 
 on in due course. I invoke Merodach, the king *of the 
 heavens and the earth, that this my work may be pre- 
 served for me under thy care in honour and respect 
 May Nabu-kuduri-uzur, the royal architect, remain under 
 thy protection." 
 
 The record further states, that " Nabu-kuduri-uzur's" re- 
 storation took place 504 years after the original foundation 
 by Tiglath Pileser I., who dates as far l^ack as 1100 B.C. 
 
 Antiquarians had long previously pronounced the 
 Birs Nimnid to be Borsippa, the city to which Alex- 
 ander the Great retired when warned by the Chaldaean 
 priests not to enter Babylon from the east. Every brick 
 hitherto obtained from the ruin is impressed with the 
 legend of Nebuchadnezzar. The attempted identification 
 with the tower of Babel therefore falls to the ground, 
 unless it shall be hereafter shewn that the temple restored 
 by Nebuchadnezzar was erected upon the site of a stiU 
 earlier structure.* 
 
 * Nebuchadnezzar was a great builder and restorer. His records are dis- 
 covered in every part of Babylonia, and abound in the immediate vicinity of 
 Babylon — corroborating to the fullest extent the words of Scripture : " Ib 
 not this great Babylon that I have built ?" &c. — Dan. iv. 30.
 
 VITEIFICATION OF BRICKS. 31 
 
 The peculiarities displayed in the architecture of the 
 BIrs Nimriid agree so faithfully with the Greek descrip- 
 tions of the temple of Belus at Babylon, that there can 
 be no doubt of the two buildinfrs havino; been erected on 
 the same general plan, and that, when w^e look upon the 
 existing edifice, we regard a fac-simile of the one which is 
 now destroyed. 
 
 As a discovery in art or science always leads to further 
 knowledge and information, so the seven coloured stories 
 of the Temple of the Spheres enable us fully to compre- 
 hend the hitherto dubious account of the seven coloured 
 walls of the city Ecbatana in Media, described by 
 Herodotus."^' As regards the mode in which the colours of 
 the bricks in each stage were produced, it may be sug- 
 gested that chemical ingredients were added to the clay 
 before the bricks were burned in the fuj;nace. It is more 
 difficult to explain the cause of the vitrification of the 
 upper building. My late talented friend. Captain New- 
 bold, assistant-resident in the Deccan, originated an 
 idea when we examined the Birs Nimriid in company, 
 which is, I believe, now beginning to be adopted, that, 
 in order to render their edifices more durable, the Ba- 
 bylonians submitted them, when erected, to the heat of 
 a furnace. This will account for the remarkable condi- 
 tion of the brickwork on the summit of the Blrs Nimrild, 
 which has undoubtedly been subjected to the agency of 
 fire. No wonder that the early explorers, carried a^^^ay 
 by their feelings of reverence, should have ascribed the 
 vitrified and molten aspect of the ruins to the avenging 
 fire of heaven, instead of to a more natural agency. It 
 is worthy of notice, that in several places where vitrified 
 bricks occur in Babylonia, they are associated with a 
 tradition that Nimrod there threw the patriarch Abra- 
 
 * Lib. i. 98.
 
 32 ASTRONOMY. 
 
 liam into a furnace. There appear, therefore, to be some 
 grounds for Captain Newbold's suggestion. 
 
 The Birs Nimrild, then, was a temple dedicated to the 
 heavenly bodies, where " the wise men of the Chaldees," 
 prompted by their adoration of the countless orbs, were 
 naturally led to the study of astronomy. The Chaldseans 
 were the first people who reduced their observations to a 
 regular system. On the authority of Berosus,''" it is re- 
 corded, that when Alexander took Babylon, Callisthenes 
 forwarded to his relative Aristotle in Greece a cataloo-ue of 
 eclipses which had been observed at Babylon during the 
 pre\T.ous 1 903 years. Ptolemy refers to eclipses in the year 
 720 B.C., which were derived from a Chaldaean source. It is 
 to those early astronomers we are indebted for the zodiac 
 and the duodecimal division of the day. 
 
 The expansive plains of Babylonia possess such natural 
 advantages for the study of astronomy, that we cannot 
 wonder at their ha\dng become the birth-place of that 
 science. The remarkable dryness and regularity of the 
 climate, the serenity of the sky, and the transparency of 
 the atmosphere, particularly point to that region as admir- 
 ably adapted for studies and investigations of this nature. 
 Constellations of the eighth magnitude are distinctly 
 visible to the naked eye, while between May and Novem- 
 ber meteors fall in countless numbers. Under these circum- 
 stances, when ol)servatories are being established in various 
 less favourable localities, it appears not a little strange 
 that " the land of the Chaldees " is passed over in utter 
 forgetfulness. With the appliances and correctly-adjusted 
 instruments which the march of civilization has produced, 
 what additions to our knowledge of astronomy and me- 
 teorology might we not attain by erecting an observatory 
 at such a sjDot as Baghdad or Babylon ! 
 
 * Consult Porphyr., apud Simplic, i. 2 ; also, Pliny, vii. 67.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 View from Bii-s Nimrucl — Keffil — Ezcldel's Tomb — Children of the 
 
 Captivity. 
 
 The ^dew from the summit of tlie Birs Nimriid is very 
 extensive, and its utter desolation has been the theme of 
 frequent observation. No one can stand there and sur- 
 vey the scene around without being struck with the 
 literal fulfilment of Isaiah's prophecy — " I will make it a 
 possession for the bittern, and pools of water ; and I will 
 sweep it with the besom of destruction, saith the Lord of 
 hosts."'"" Spreading out like a vast sea upon the north 
 and west is a marsh, which all the labours of the ancient 
 and modern rulers of the country have never been able 
 to subdue. In certain seasons, the waters of the Euphrates 
 rise above their ordinary level, and flood the whole surface 
 of the low lands of Chaldgea, confirming every word of 
 the prophet. 
 
 Bordering upon this marsh, a few spots attract the eye 
 and relieve the lono- level of the horizon. Due south 
 stands the little tomb of the prophet Ezekiel, and at the 
 distance of fifty miles, in the mirage of early morning, 
 may be discerned the mosque of the sainted 'Ali, glisten- 
 ing like a speck of gold as the beams of the rising sun 
 play upon its surface. Nearer at hand, on the north- 
 west, are the twin domes of Kerbella, the burial-place of 
 'All's slaughtered sons. The edge and islands of the 
 
 * Isaiah xiv. 23. 
 C
 
 34 
 
 KEFFIL. 
 
 marsh are at times dotted with encampments of Khuzeyl 
 Arabs ; and with the telescope may be distinguished 
 their numerous flocks of sheep and camels, while the hum 
 of busy voices can be distinctly heard a distance of full 
 six miles across the waters. 
 
 From the Birs Nimriid southwards, a road runs along 
 the raised bank, which here in a measure restrains the 
 marsh within bounds. A succession of large canal 
 courses, now dry, are crossed during a ride of twelve 
 miles to the Httle town of Keffil, which, from its want of 
 
 Keffil, and the Tomb of the Prophet Ezekiel. 
 
 luxuriant trees and vegetation, looks dull and sombre in 
 the extreme — a fitting place for the sepulchre of a captive 
 prophet in a strange land. There have been trees at 
 some time or other, as a few stunted palms bear witness ; 
 but, like the town itself, they have witnessed more 
 flourishing times. They are ludicrous specimens of their 
 race, and stand with their branches projecting straight 
 upwards into the air, giving them the appearance of 
 gigantic brooms. The town of Keflil is protected by a 
 high wall, and defended at intervals by small towers. An 
 old broken-down mosque, with minaret to match, stooping
 
 TOMB OF EZEKIEL. 35 
 
 to its fall — ^the spire of tlie prophet Ezekiel's tomb — and 
 the tops of the houses peeping above — are all that invite 
 further approach. Except when a crowd of pilgrims 
 collect at the annual festival, the exterior of the place is 
 deserted. 
 
 The spire of the sacred tomb is the frustum of an 
 elongated cone, tapering to a blunted top by a succession 
 of divisions or steps, cut and embellished in a peculiar 
 manner. Similar spires frequently occur upon tombs 
 throughout the East, where, as is well known, forms and 
 customs alter but little. I am therefore inclined to 
 regard the spire of the Arab tomb as analogous to the fir 
 cone so repeatedly represented on the bas-reliefs at Nine- 
 veh. The eagle-headed and other figures of the sculptures 
 appear to present the cone of Indian corn — an emblem of 
 the first-fruits of the earth — as an ofiering to the Deity 
 in the form of the sacred tree. May not the spire of the 
 modern tomb have some similar symbolical meaning 
 attached to it ? 
 
 There is no reason to believe that the tradition is un- 
 worthy of credence, which assigns to Keffil the honour of 
 possessing the bones of the prophet Ezekiel. The con- 
 tinued residence of the Jews in the land where their 
 forefathers were consigned in exile, and the respect with 
 which the tomb has for so many centuries been regarded, 
 not only by the Jews themselves, but by the Mohamme- 
 dans, ought to be considered a sufficient guarantee for the 
 correctness of the tradition. The Jewish traveller, Ben- 
 jamin of Tudela, in the middle of the twelfth century, 
 tells us, that "the monument was covered by a large 
 cupola, and the building was very handsome. It was 
 erected by Jeconiah, King of Judah, and the 35,000 Jews 
 who accompanied him." Of course, the edifice of the 
 Jewish monarch, if such ever existed, has long since fallen 
 to ruin, and the present edifice is comparatively modern.
 
 36 KEFFIL. 
 
 It is remarkably plain, both externally and internally, 
 containing two vaulted apartments — the roof of the 
 outer one being supported by heavy columns. The 
 sepulchre is cased in a large wooden box of considerable 
 age, which measures ten feet long l^y four feet high. Its 
 decoration consists of a piece of English chintz and small 
 red and green flags. The chamber itself is square, the 
 side walls being extremely dirty and greased with oil. 
 The floor is covered with a filthy matting. The vaulted 
 ceiling is very prettily ornamented with scrolls of gold, 
 silver, and bronze. Built into one corner is an ancient 
 Hebrew copy of the Pentateuch. A scanty lightr is ad- 
 mitted from above, and an ever-burning lamp sheds a 
 solemn gloom into the sanctuary. The flat terrace or 
 roof afi'ords a good view of the marshes extending to 
 the base of the little elevation upon which the town of 
 Keffil stands. The flooring of the terrace is, however, in 
 such a state of lamentable filth that the Jews might, with 
 every justice, be charged with paying little or no respect 
 to the memory of their prophet. The interior of the 
 town, in fact, is redolent with odours none of the most 
 agreeable. 
 
 A large proportion of the inhabitants are Jews, a host 
 of whom, surrounding the door of the sanctuary, looked 
 daggers as our large party, booted and spurred from the 
 journey, crossed the sacred threshold. The Oriental Jews 
 delight in wearing none but the very gayest colours, so 
 that the group which we encountered contrasted strangely 
 with the duU aspect of the place. A number of Jewish 
 ladies, carefuUy veiled from the profane eyes of strangers, 
 were also assembled on our arrival, but they had, one and 
 aU, vanished before our return from the interior of the dim 
 tomb into the glaring light of day. 
 
 Kefiil, being on the verge of the recently disturbed dis- 
 trict, had just been the scene of some hard fighting. The
 
 KEPFIL. 37 
 
 place was held by a small garrison of Turkish troops as 
 an advanced post. The Arabs in rebellion attacked and 
 took it, putting the whole garrison of sixty men to the 
 sword. On its being retaken a few days afterwards by 
 the Turks, the bodies of the poor fellows were found 
 still unburied and barbarously treated by their savage 
 enemies.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Marshes of Babylon — Khuzeyl Arabs — The Euphrates, and its Canals 
 — Semiramis — Nebuchadnezzar — Cyrus — Alexander — Shujah-ed- 
 Dowla, and the Indian Canal. 
 
 • 
 
 A NIGHT spent at Keffil during the montli of September, 
 is by no means to be envied ; the mosquitoes, malaria, 
 and damp of the marshes being all but certain to lay in 
 the seeds of fever, which is not long in appearing. 
 
 In order to reach IMeshed 'All, it is necessary to cross 
 the marsh. For this purpose boats are always to be pro- 
 cured at Keffil. They are heavy clumsy vessels, con- 
 structed of Indian teak, about 40 feet in length, with high 
 pointed prows and sterns, and flat bottoms for enabling 
 them to skim over the shallows. Each is guided by two 
 nearly naked Arabs, one of whom manages the cumbrous 
 and primitive rudder, while the other attends to a huge 
 lug-sail — if such term can be applied to a patchwork of 
 every shape and colour, fiUed with innumerable holes. 
 
 The stream flows, at the rate of four or five miles an 
 hour, through a continuous rice-field, which is prevented 
 from being completely overflooded by means of dams, 
 constructed of stakes and reed matting. Sometimes, 
 when the rise of the Euphrates exceeds its usual level, 
 the country is a vast inundation. On such occasions, 
 whole families of Arabs, with their frail dwellings of reeds 
 and tents, are swept away in a single night. These 
 calamities are but too frequent. Upon a few elevated
 
 LABOUR AND TAXES. 39 
 
 spots, small mud forts serve as citadels for refuge in case 
 of inundation or attack. The Arab inhabitants of these 
 marshes are a fine manly race, and their noble forms are 
 particularly striking. Their half-naked and deeply-bronzed 
 bodies, nourished by scanty fare, shew every muscle to 
 advantage as they propel their vessels with long poles in 
 the shallows against the wind or stream, dexterously run- 
 ning along the edge of the boat. The keflfieh, or head-dress, 
 is useless among those marshes, for the long, thick, stream- 
 ing hair of the Khuzeyl Arab acts as the most natural 
 covering, and is admirably adapted for keeping off the 
 rays of the sun. 
 
 In sailing along, every now and then we encountered a 
 noisy party in a crowded boat, who gazed with wonder, 
 not unmixed mth alarm, upon the European fleet. All 
 appeared life and activity around us in those fens — the 
 men, not languidly smoking their pij)es like the dwellers 
 in cities and loungers in bazaars, but busy at their daily 
 employments, as agriculturists should be. The women 
 were engaged about their tents with duties not less arduous 
 than those of the stronger sex.. Notwithstanding their 
 labour and acti^vdty, they are evidently in a wretched state 
 of misery, and ground down by heavy exactions. The 
 only power they possess of resisting injustice is that of 
 flooding their marshes, but this is only temporary, for 
 without cultivating, how are they and their families to 
 exist during the ensuing year"? There is not a more 
 industrious race throughout the Turkish empire, and if 
 their rulers knew but how to treat them, both would be 
 highly benefited Justice and security of property and 
 person are all that is required to effect this ; but know- 
 ingly, and with impunity, the Turkish authorities permit 
 the farmers of their revenues to oppress their temporary 
 subjects, and evince no desire to protect the labouring 
 classes. Under an enlightened government, as I have
 
 40: DIKES OF THE EUPHRATES. 
 
 previously remarked, sucli things could not be. In the 
 secluded provinces, however, the rulers are less scrupulous 
 than those nearer to the capital. The Pasha of Baghdad 
 is, as it were, an independent prince, and his words are 
 law. His emissaries, while carrying out his claims, 
 seldom fail to enrich themselves, if not to the loss of the 
 Government, at least to the oppression of the subject. 
 No wonder, therefore, that the province is in constant 
 disturbance, and that the Arabs are at times driven to 
 revolt and to the commission of barbarous acts, not 
 characteristic of their otherwise honourable and kindly 
 nature. To those who are most conversant with the Arab 
 character, it is well known that these sons of the desert 
 may be giiided like children by kindness and firmness. 
 
 The marshes of the Khuzeyl have j)layed so important 
 a part in the history of the Euphrates, from the earliest 
 times of which we have authentic records, dowTi to the 
 present day, that a few remarks upon them and their 
 connexion with " the great river " may not be unin- 
 terestino;. 
 
 During the 530 miles of its course through the flat 
 alluvial plains of Babylonia, the Euphrates does not 
 average a greater fall than three inches in the mile,'"' the 
 consequence of which is, that the low lands on either side 
 are frequently flooded during the periodical rises of the 
 river. In order, therefore, to check the dangerous super- 
 abundance of the water, and to distribute it advantage- 
 ously for the purpose of beneficial irrigation, dikes and 
 canals w^ere instituted at a very early period in the history 
 of the country, and were, m fact, essential to its very 
 
 * The Volga maybe compared with the Euphrates as regards its fall. It 
 has its origin in a small lake on the slopes of the platei. i of Valdai, at an 
 elevation of 550 feet above the level of the ocean, whence it flows in a gently 
 inclined bed to its termination in the Caspian Sea, 83 feet below the level of 
 the Euxine. Its entire fall, over a course of 2400 miles, therefore, amounts 
 to only G33 feet, or to 3-16 inches per mile.
 
 THE PALLACOPAS. 41 
 
 existence.*'^ The once fabulous Queen Semiramis,! we are 
 told, cut two artificial canals at a considerable distance 
 above Babylon, and turned the superfluous waters of the 
 Euphrates into the Tigris, by this means obviating the 
 damage which the city and surrounding country pre- 
 viously sustained from inundation. To facilitate the 
 building of brick walls cemented with bitumen along both 
 banks of the river, the same queen caused the whole body 
 of the stream to be diverted by a large canal into a pro- 
 digious lakej forty miles square, which she caused to be 
 dug on the west of Babylon. 
 
 In the days of Nebuchadnezzar, when Babylon was a 
 land of traffic and "a city of merchants," § considerable 
 attention was paid to the proper distribution of the waters 
 of the great river. The primary canals of Nahr Malka 
 and Pallacopas are attributed to that monarch. It seems 
 probable, however, that the latter work was merely the 
 re-opening of the canal dug by Semiramis, and its exten- 
 sion to the sea — thus giving two distinct branches to the 
 Euphrates. 
 
 During the effeminate dominion of the succeeding 
 Persian dynasty, it is inferred that little or nothing was 
 done towards restoring the river to its natural course, 
 so that it continued to flow into the marshes west of 
 Borsippa, or Birs Nimrud, enlarging the PaUacopas 
 opening. 
 
 * Herodotus, i. 185. Strabo, xvi. 740. Pliny, vi. 26. Diodorus Siculus, 
 ii. 100, et seq. Arrian, vii. 21 : see note, p. 42. 
 
 t An inscription upon a statue of the god Nebu, discovered at Nineveh, 
 bears the names of Phukikh and Sammuramit, leading to the supposition 
 that the queen, re^ii-esented under the Greek name of Semiramis, was the 
 Sammuramit of the cuneiform record, the wife of the scriptural Pul (the 
 Belochus of the Greeks), who reigned about B.C. 750. See the Athenaum, 
 Nos. 1388, 1476, 1503. 
 
 + Herodotus, i. 184-5. This exaggerated description undoubtedly refers 
 to the Bahr or Sea of Nedjef. 
 
 § Ezekiel xvii. 4.
 
 42 THE PALLACOPAS. 
 
 Xenophon,^'" in describing the march of the Greeks to the 
 assistance of Cyrus the Younger, along the eastern side of 
 the Euphrates, mentions four great canals crossed by the 
 advancing army, viz : — the Nahr-raga, the Nahr Sares, 
 the Nahr Malka, and the Niihr Kiitha. He, of course, 
 knew nothing of other channels on the opposite side of 
 the river ; but if, in addition to the above, it be considered 
 that the Pallacopas carried off a great portion of the 
 Euphrates towards the marshes on the west, we can per- 
 fectly comprehend that which afterwards occurred. 
 
 When Alexander the Great returned from his Indian 
 campaign, and desired to restore Babylon to 'her. fonner 
 grandeur, he found so little water passing through the 
 city, that there was scarcely depth for small boats. He 
 therefore determined on effectually closing the mouth of 
 the Pallacopas — which, according to Arrian, was 800 
 stadia, or about 90 miles, cibove Babylon — and on digging 
 a new canal, where the nature of the ground was favour- 
 able to his purpose. His historian says, " When he had 
 proceeded 30 stadia (or three miles), the ground was 
 observed to be rocky." t The passage is interpreted in 
 
 * Cycrop. i. p. 261-266. 
 
 t Arriau's account of the Pallacopas is so quaint and interesting, that I 
 venture to give a literal translation of the passage : — 
 
 " But in the meantime, while vessels are being constructed, and a harbour 
 dug at Babylon, Alexander was conveyed by the Euphrates from Babylon 
 to the river Pallacopas. This is distant from Babylon about 800 stadia. 
 Moreover, this Pallacopas is a channel cut from the Euphrates, not a river 
 rising from springs. For the Eujjhrates, flowing from the mountains of 
 Armenia, flows during the winter between banks, inasmuch as it has not 
 much water ; but when spring sets in, and much more under the heat of 
 summer, it increases greatly, and, overflowing its banks, inundates the plains 
 of Assyria. For then the snows melting in the mountains of Armenia 
 increase its waters in a wonderful manner ; and thus raised to a great height, 
 it overwhelms the Avhole region adjoining, unless any person turning it 
 aside should discharge it through the Pallacopas into the lakes and marshes 
 — which indeed, by the entrance of this channel, even to the region neigh- 
 bouring on Arabia, and from thence into stagnant places, and at length by 
 many and unknown windings, is carried to the sea. But, when the snows
 
 THE HINDlEH. 43 
 
 several different ways ; but I believe that it means 30 
 stadia above Babylon/' which might well refer to the 
 modern channel called the Hindleh — the ancient city 
 extendino; to within three miles of its mouth ; and it is a 
 curious coincidence, that near that point sandstone rocks 
 rise through the alluvium to the sm^face ! 
 
 For twenty-one centuries, since the time of Alexander, 
 the Euphrates has fluctuated between its original channel 
 through Babylon and this new opening, until at length, 
 the navigation of the latter having become interrupted, 
 an Indian prince, named Niiwab Shujah-ed-Dowla, re- 
 opened its channel one hundred years ago. Since that 
 date it has been called, after him, the " Hindleh," and has 
 
 are dissolved, especially about the setting of Vergilise, the Euphrates grows 
 small ; but, nevertheless, a great part of it is drained by the Pallaccpas into 
 the marshes. Unless, therefore, some one should again block up the chan- 
 nel of the Pallacopas, so that the water, repulsed near the banks (dams), 
 remains in the channel, it may so greatly drain the Euphrates into it, that 
 thus the fields of Assyria cannot be irrigated by it. Wherefore, a gover- 
 nor of Babylonia, with much labour, blocked up the exits of the Euphrates 
 into the Pallacopas (although they are not opened with much difficulty) ; 
 because in those parts the soil is marshy and for the most part muddy, 
 seeing that it is well washed by the water of the river, it may allow of the less 
 easy shutting out of the water : — so that they may have occupied more than 
 10,000 Assyrians three whole months at this work. When these things 
 were told to Alexander, they incited him to meditate something to the 
 advantage of Assyria. Therefore, at the point where the flow of the 
 Euphrates is drained into the Pallacopas, he resolved to dam its mouth 
 firmly up. When he had proceeded thirti/ stadia, the ground was observed 
 to be rocky, of such kind that, if a cutting were carried to the ancient 
 channel of the Pallacopas, the water might be prevented from overflowing 
 by means of the firmness of the soil, and that its escape might be able to 
 be effected without difficulty at a stated period of the year. Therefore, 
 Alexander both sailed to the Pallacopas, and descended by it to the marshes, 
 into the region of Arabia. There, having fixed on a certain convenient 
 locality, he built a city, and surrounded it with walls, and conveyed to it a 
 colony of Greek mercenaries, volunteers, and others, who, by reason of 
 their age or any debility, had become useless in war." — Arrian, Be Exp. 
 Alex., lib. vii. c. 21. 
 
 * Many authors place the Pallacopas and Alexander's cutting helow Baby- 
 lon, and so it is laid down upon many of our maps, but this is quite con- 
 trary to the ancient accounts.
 
 44 THE HINDlEH. 
 
 caused an infinity of expense and annoyance to the pashas 
 of Baghdad. 
 
 The mouth of this interesting canal is situated about 
 two miles below the khan at Mtisseib, and about six- 
 teen miles above the commencement of the existing 
 ruins of Babylon, at a point where the natural channel 
 of the Euphrates makes a slight eastern bend. When 
 greatly flooded, the violence of the stream frequently 
 breaks down the artificial barriers erected to reoTilate the 
 influx of water, and enlarges the entrance of the Hindieh. 
 Immense sums of money are expended by the Turkish 
 Government in rebuilding, repaiiing, and strengthening 
 the dam, because the river has a tendency to quit the 
 Babylon channel, and to flow westward into the marshes, 
 as in the days of Alexander. The natural efi"ect is to 
 deprive the eastern side of the Euphrates of its due irri- 
 gation, by reducing all the canals below the point of 
 bifurcation ; the villages become deserted, and the fields 
 uncultivated. On the western side, the rice-grounds of 
 the Khuzeyl Arabs are overflowed, and cultivation is 
 entirely out of the question. The chief revenues of Bagh- 
 dad being derived from these regions, it is of the utmost 
 importance that the equilibrium of the two branches of 
 the Euphrates shoidd be properly cared for. 
 
 Soon after the accession of Abdi Pasha to the govern- 
 ment of the pro\T.nce, like aU his predecessors, his attention 
 was directed to this subject. The force of the stream, 
 caused by the extraordinary rise of the river, had carried 
 away every trace of the former dams, and enlarged the 
 mouth of the Hindieh to such an extent, that the 
 Euphrates bid fair to disapj)ear into the western marshes. 
 He therefore cut a new channel, 120 feet broad, at a 
 short distance above the bifurcation, wliich relieved the 
 pressure, and enabled him to effect the building of a new 
 and strong dam of osiers, reeds, and earth, at the mouth
 
 THE WESTERN EUPHRATES. 45 
 
 of tlie Hinclieli, while tlie quantity of water admitted 
 into the new cut was regulated by two solid brick piers, 
 with sluice-gates eighty feet wide. 
 
 Notwithstanding all this expense and trouble, the river 
 in 1854 overcame all obstacles, and once more regained 
 possession of the marshes. Flowing southwards a few 
 miles, a deep stream, 180 feet wide, with banks 10 or 20 
 feet high, the Hindieh enters and is lost in the great 
 inundation, extending on the north and west of the Birs 
 Nimrud, passes Keffil and the ruins of Kiifa, and ulti- 
 mately debouches into the great inland freshwater sea of 
 Nedjef 
 
 No modern traveller has yet succeeded in following the 
 entire course of the ancient Pallacopas, but traces of its 
 channel are still visible on the east of the town of 
 Nedjef* 
 
 The great sheet of water, the Bahr-i-Nedjef, extends 
 forty miles in a south-easterly direction, and at its south- 
 ern extremity gives out two considerable streams, Shat- 
 el-Khilzif and Shat-el-Atchan, which subsequently unite, 
 and are known by the latter name. Further to the south, 
 five laroe bodies of water have their origin from the 
 Atclian, and, uniting, constitute the Huran. This, after 
 flowing about thirty miles, eventually joins the Atchan, 
 and the two rivers form what is called the AVestern or 
 Semava branch of the Euphrates. All the above branches 
 are navigable when the mouth of the Hindieh is open, and 
 it is by them that merchandise is conveyed from Busrah 
 to Hillali. When the great annual rise of the Euj)hrates 
 
 * The marshes between the mouth of the Hindieh and the Bdhr-1-Nedjef 
 were first surveyed by Mr T. K. Lynch of Baghdad, who there frequently 
 met with the banks of an ancient canal — the Nahr-Algam — which may be 
 the veritable channel of the Pallacopas. This gentleman communicated an 
 interesting memoir on his researches to the Royal Geographical Society. 
 The region has been since examined in more detail during the survey of the 
 environs of Babylon by Captain Jones, I.N.
 
 46 ** PALTJDES BABYLONIA." 
 
 occurs, thewliole region, from the Bahr-i-Nedjef to Semava, 
 is one continuous inundation, called the " Khor Ullah," or. 
 Marshes of God/'' Here and there it is dotted with 
 thousands of small islands, separated from each other by 
 an infinity of streamlets. It was amid the innumerable 
 channels of these Paludes BabylonicB that Alexander was 
 overtaken by a storm, and all but lost, during his sail 
 down the Pallacopas.t 
 
 It is only when the mouth of the Hindleh is opened by 
 the destruction of the dams that the modern traveller is 
 enabled to see the Paludes Babylonice as Alexander saw 
 them. When, however, the Hindieh is closed effectually for 
 a time, the Khiizif and Atclian cease altogether to exist, and 
 the toAvn of Semava is supplied by two smaU canals derived 
 from the HiUah branch of the Euphrates, near Dlwanleh. 
 Such was probably the case during the labours of the 
 officers in the Euphrates expedition under Colonel Chesney, 
 as the streams flomng from the Bahr-i-Nedjef are not laid 
 down on any map. Instead of them, however, there is 
 the course of an extinct river-bed passing east of the 
 Bahr-1-Nedjef to Semava, which may represent the Palla- 
 copas of Alexander in a portion of its course. 
 
 * Between Semdva and the southern extremity of the B4hr-i-Nedjef, the 
 marshes were, I beheve, wholly unexplored, until T succeeded in sailing in 
 a native vessel up the Hdrdn and Atchdn, to Shindfieh, the residence of 
 the Khuzeyl Sheikh. They are for the first time laid down on the map 
 which accompanies this volume. 
 
 t Arrian, vii. 22, and Strabo.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Kufa— A Fiery Ride— Nedjef, and the Tomb of 'Ali— The Ghyawr in 
 the Golden Mosque — Fanaticism ot the Sheahs — Far-travelled 
 Coffins and Costly Interments — How the Prime-Minister got a 
 Grave at a Great Bargain — Turkish Torpor and Cleanliness versus 
 Persian Dirt and Vivacity. 
 
 A SAIL of four hours and a half from Keffil clown the 
 stream brings the pilgrim to a little tomb dedicated to 
 Nebbl Yunus (not the prophet of Nineveh, but a much 
 more modern personage). Here the freights are dis- 
 charged from the boats, and the journey to the shrine of 
 'All again commences by land, passing over a spot cele- 
 brated in modern history. 
 
 Sa'ad ibn 'Abu Wakkas, after the signal battle obtained 
 by the Moslems at Kadessiyya, and the capture of the 
 wealthy city Madayn, would fain have pursued Yezde- 
 glrd, the last of the Sassanian kings, to the Persian 
 mountain fortress of Hoi wan. He was restrained from 
 doing so by the cautious Khallf Omar, who feared lest his 
 generals, in the flush and excitement of victory, might 
 hurry forward beyond the reach of succour. The climate 
 of Madayn proving unhealthy to his troops, Saad was 
 ordered by the khallf to seek some favourable site on the 
 western side of the Euphrates, where there was good air, 
 a well-watered plain, and plenty of grass. Sa ad chose 
 for this purpose the village of Kiifa, which, according to 
 tradition, was the spot where the angel Gabriel alighted 
 upon earth and prayed — where the waters of the deluge
 
 48 HOT PJDE. 
 
 first burst forth from the ground — and where Noah 
 embarked in the arl^ ! The Arabs further pretend that 
 the serpent, after tempting Eve, was banished to this 
 place. Hence, they say, the guile and treachery for which 
 the men of Kiifa were proverbial. The city which rose 
 upon this spot became so celebrated, that the branch of 
 the Euphrates upon which it stood was generally denomi- 
 nated Nahr Kiifa. The most ancient characters of the 
 Arabic alphabet are termed Kufic to the present day. It 
 was here, too, that the unfortunate 'Ali — the son-in-law 
 and successor of the Prophet — was assassinated, in the 
 fifth year of his khalifat, by the three fanatic loaders of 
 the Karigites.'"' Of Kufa there now only remain a few 
 low mounds and a fragment of wall. Although the city 
 is said to have extended to Kerbella, forty-five miles dis- 
 tant, there are fewer relics of its greatness now visible 
 than of Babylon, which was in ruins upwards of a thou- 
 sand years before the foundation of Kufa ! Whatever may 
 have been the fertility of Kufa in the days of Sa'ad ibn 
 'Abil Wakkas, it has none to boast of now. 
 
 From Kufa to Meshed 'Ali is a distance of 7 miles, over a 
 gravelly soil, utterly devoid of vegetation. It was one of 
 the hottest rides I ever remember to have experienced. 
 There was not the slightest breath of air to dissipate the 
 heat. The dome and minarets of Meshed 'All quivered 
 in the mirage. The gravel reflected the sun's rays 
 so powerfully as to cause men and animals to seek for 
 temporary shelter under the scanty shade of the little 
 round towers which at intervals guard the road. Our 
 very dogs howled piteously being obliged to follow us, 
 lest they should be left behind. Whenever the eye rested 
 for an instant on any object, it felt scorched and 
 
 * For an interesting account of the scenes with which KAfa is connected 
 at the commencement of the Mohammedan era, see the " Lives of the Suc- 
 cessors of Mohammed," by Washington Irving.
 
 HIE A — NEDJEF. 49 
 
 bloodshot. An umbrella was useless, for, altliougli it 
 served to break the vertical heat of the mid-day sun, it 
 concentrated the rays reflected from the ground, and 
 afforded a welcome shade to the few flies which were able 
 to exist in such a fiery atmosphere. Never was I more 
 gratified than in gaining the tents, already pitched in a 
 large oblong space within the walls, and near one of the 
 gates of the town of Nedjef. Tahir Bey, who accom- 
 panied us, had insisted upon this arrangement; he would 
 not be answerable for our security in the desert outside, 
 because many roving parties of Bedouins were reported 
 to be in the neighbourhood. 
 
 Nedjef was founded on the site of ancient Hira, which, 
 in the early part of the first century, gave origin to a race 
 of Arab kings, who subsequently acknowledged allegiance 
 to the Persians, and acted as lieutenants of Irak. During 
 the third century, many Jacobite Christians, driven by per- 
 secutions and disorders in the Church, took refuge at 
 Hira ; and, shortly before the birth of Mohammed, the 
 king of Hira and all his subjects had embraced Christi- 
 anity. Much is said of the splendour of the capital, 
 which possessed two large palaces of extraordinary 
 beauty. When 'Abil Beker, in the second year of the 
 khalifat, undertook to execute the injunction of the 
 Prophet, and to carry out the gigantic task submitted to 
 him of converting the whole world to Islamism, he 
 entrusted the conquest of Hira to the energetic Khaled. 
 The city was speedily taken, its palaces stormed, its king 
 killed in battle, and 3,n annual tribute of 7000 pieces of 
 gold imposed upon the kingdom. This was the first 
 tribute ever levied by Moslems in a foreign land, and 
 Hira was the first place beyond the confines of Arabia 
 occupied by their advancing hosts.'"* 
 
 * See Washington Irving's " Lives of the Successors of Mohammed,'" 
 already referred to. 
 
 D
 
 50 VISIT TO THE MOSQUE. 
 
 Nedjef is at the present day, however, far more cele- 
 brated as the spot where the body of the murdered 'All 
 was consigned to the tomb, and that magnificent mosque 
 erected over it, which annually attracts thousands of 
 Sheah Mohammedans to perform a pilgrimage to its 
 shrine, invariably known to the Persian as "Meshed 'All." 
 
 The town is situated on a cliff of reddish sandstone 
 and gravel forty feet high, overlooking the Bahr-i-Nedjef. 
 It is said to bear a striking resemblance to Jerusalem in 
 its general appearance and position. The walls are in 
 excellent repair, and surrounded by a deep and wdde 
 moat, now without water. On one side, this moat follows 
 the line of a natural ravine, exhibiting a good geological 
 section on its sides. The water of the Bahr, when con- 
 nected with the Euphrates, is sweet and drinkable, but 
 when the mouth of the Hindieh is completely closed, it 
 becomes very unpalatable, and the people of Nedjef are 
 then obliged to convey water from Kiifa. This condition 
 of the water arises, as previously stated, from its con- 
 nexion with rocks of the gypsiferous series. The level of 
 the sea, observed from Nedjef, has undoubtedly under- 
 gone considerable change — two distinct ranges of cliffs 
 mark its former extent at different epochs. 
 
 It is seldom that a Christian has the opportunity of 
 entering a Mohammedan place of worship, much less such 
 a sacred mosque as that of Meshed 'All. We were all 
 naturally anxious to visit it, and experienced no very 
 insuperable objection on the part of our Silnni compa- 
 nions to aid in the accomplishment of our wish. Tahir 
 Bey, like most others of his sect and race, took a pleasure 
 in causing the Sheah Persians to " eat dirt" at the hands of 
 the Ghyawr. As military governor of the district, he had 
 accompanied us with a strong escort, for the double pur- 
 pose of guarding and doing honour to our party. The 
 troops were now drawn up under the latter pretext, but
 
 PERSIAN ART. 5) 
 
 in reality to conduct us to the mosque, and be prepared 
 for any emeute wliicli migiit arise in consequence of our 
 temerity. The inhabitants, in accordance with their 
 Oriental customs, rose and saluted, or returned the salutes 
 of Dervish Pasha and Tahir Bey as we passed through 
 the bazaars ; but they bestowed a very doubtful and 
 scrutinizing glance on the large party of Firenghis. A 
 crowd gathered as we marched onward, and, on approach- 
 ing the gate of the outer court, the threatening looks and 
 whispered remarks of the groups around made it evident 
 that we were regarded with no especial favour. The 
 troops drew up outside the gate, and, as any hesitation on 
 our part might have produced serious consequences, we 
 boldly entered the forbidden threshold. 
 
 It is all but impossible to convey to the mind of an- 
 other the impression produced on the senses by the first 
 inspection of a Persian mosque. The extreme richness 
 and brilliancy of the polychromatic decoration, and the 
 exquisite harmony of the whole, cannot fail to leave a 
 lasting impression. 
 
 It has been said, and is generally recognized, that the 
 Arian races, among whom the Persians are included, 
 are wanting in originality of design. This is not, how- 
 ever, borne out by facts, because no Oriental people 
 exhibit more original taste than the Persians in beauty 
 of design and the power of expressing it, as exhibited in 
 their edifices and works of art. Mr Fergusson, in his 
 " Hand-Book of Architecture," "' well remarks on this 
 subject, that '' they are now too deeply depressed to 
 attempt much ; but it only seems to require a gleam of 
 returning sunshine to enable them again to rival in art 
 the ancient glories of Ninoveh and Persepolis." 
 
 Like the generality of mosques, that of Meshed 'Ali is 
 arranged in the form of a rectangle. The mausoleum 
 
 ♦ Vol. i., p. 411.
 
 52 MOSQUE OF MESHED 'alI. 
 
 stands nearly in the centre of a large court, the walls 
 of which, as well as those of the principal building, are 
 adorned from top to base with square encaustic tiles. 
 The design on these is a succession of scrolls, leaves, and 
 doves wrouglit into the most intricate patterns. The 
 colours, though bright, are so admirably and harmoniously 
 blended and softened down by lines of white, that the 
 surface appears like a rich mosaic set in silver. Each wall 
 is divided by two tiers of blind arches, ornamented 
 throughout in sunilar manner, above each of which are 
 texts from the Koran, written in letters of gold. Two 
 highly-decorated gateways, deeply set in lofty fiat 4)anels, 
 give admission to the great court of the mosque, and 
 serve to relieve the otherwise monotonous aspect of the 
 enclosure. The summit of the mausoleum walls are like- 
 wise surrounded by passages from the Koran. At three 
 corners are minarets, two of which in front are covered 
 throughout with gilt tiles, said to have cost two tomans 
 (£1 sterling) each. These, together with a magnificent 
 dome of the same costly material, give to the tout 
 ensemhle a gorgeous appearance. Seen in the distance, 
 with the sun shining upon it, the dome of Meshed 'All 
 might be mistaken for a mound of gold rising from the 
 level deserts. Before the door of the shrine stands an 
 elegant fountain of brass, bright and poHshed like the 
 dome itself. 
 
 If the court of this remarkable building be so gorge- 
 ously and extravagantly adorned, we may perhaps credit 
 the accounts of its internal richness and magnificence. 
 Slabs of the purest gold are said to pave the floor- 
 ing of the sanctuary, and utensils innumerable and 
 of unknown value — the gifts of the pious — to decorate 
 the shrine. If all be true which Oriental tongue speaks, 
 we are called on to believe that a mint of untold treasure 
 lies concealed in the vaults below. The tomb of the
 
 POPULAR INDIGNATION. 53 
 
 great saint was not for infidels to approach and defile ; 
 but the Gliyawr were perfectly content with the sight 
 they were permitted to behold in the court of the mosque, 
 in wliich there was more than sufficient to engage atten- 
 tion and excite admiration. It is exceedingly strange 
 to remark how the same observances have prevailed 
 unchanged from early times. We read that, eighteen 
 centuries ago, our Saviour went up to Jerusalem, " and 
 found in the temple those that sold oxen, and sheep, and 
 doves, and the changers of money sitting." ^'' So in the 
 court of Meshed 'All a constant fair is carried on at stalls, 
 which are supphed with every article likely as offerings 
 to attract the eye of the rich or pious — among these 
 white doves are particularly conspicuous. 
 
 We did not tarry long, as it was evident, from the 
 demeanour of those around us, that we Avere not welcome 
 pilgrims to the holy shrine ; we therefore slowly retired, 
 casting a last lingering glance on this noble and fasci- 
 nating specimen of Persian art. It was only on emerging 
 from the gateway that we for the first time perceived the 
 object for which the Turkish troops had accompanied 
 us. Aware of the excitable feelings of the Persian crowd, 
 Tahir Bey had taken all parties unawares, by marching us 
 direct to the mosque before the people could comprehend 
 his intention, or collect for the purpose of resistance. He 
 subsequently acknowledged that in returning he was not 
 a httle alarmed at the aspect of the populace. Kindly 
 feeling and hospitality were certainly not at that moment 
 engraven on their countenances. It is difficult to forget 
 the expression of passion which greeted any of the party 
 who accidentally brushed against the robe of a " true 
 believer." The injm^ed " professor of the faith " hastily 
 drew back, muttered an audible curse on the unclean 
 Firenghi, and proceeded on his way to wash and cleanse 
 
 • John ii. 14.
 
 54 CARRIAGE OF CORPSES. 
 
 himself from tlie polluted touch, or put his hand on the 
 handle of his broad-bladed dagger, as if about to inflict 
 summary vengeance for the insult he had received.- 
 Nedjef and Kerbella are notorious for the fanatics who 
 congregate to those places from all quarters. If they had 
 been aware of Tahir Bey's intention to admit us to the 
 mosque, there is no doubt that they would have collected 
 in front of the gates and made open resistance to such an 
 iniquitous proceeding on the part of a Mohammedan. As 
 it was, we had the satisfaction of beholding the interior 
 of a mosque, to which but few Europeans are ever likely 
 to obtain access. 
 
 The profound veneration in which the memory of 'Ali 
 is regarded by his followers, causes Nedjef to be the 
 great place of pilgrimage for the Sheah Mohammedans, 
 by whom the town is entirely supported. At a low 
 average, 80,000 persons annually flock to pay their vows 
 at the sacred shrine, and from 5000 to 8000 corpses are 
 brought every year from Persia and elsewhere to be buried 
 in the ground consecrated by the blood of the martyred 
 khalif. The dead are conveyed in boxes covered with 
 coarse felt, and placed two on each side upon a mule, or 
 one upon each side, with a ragged conductor on the top, 
 who smokes his kaliyun and sings cheerily as he jogs along, 
 quite unmindful of his charge. Every caravan travelling 
 from Persia to Baghdad carries numbers of coflins ; and it 
 is no uncommon sight, at the end of a day's march, to 
 see fifty or sixty piled upon each other on the ground. As 
 may be imagined, they are not the most agreeable com- 
 panions on a long journey, especially when the unruly 
 mule carrying them gets between the traveller and the 
 wind ! 
 
 The fee charged by the authorities of the mosque 
 for burial varies from 10 to 200 tomans (£5 to £100), 
 and sometimes much more. It is entirely at the discre-
 
 BURIAL OF THE DEAD. 
 
 55 
 
 tioii of the mullas, and they proportion it according to 
 the wealth or rank of the deceased. On the arrival of a 
 
 Carriage ol Corpses. 
 
 corpse, it is left outside the walls, while the relatives or 
 persons in charge of it (frequently the muleteer of the 
 caravan) endeavour to make a bargain for its final rest- 
 ing-place. Several days are frequently spent in vain over 
 these preliminaries. At length one party or other gives 
 way — generally the relatives — as the corpse, after many 
 days' and frequently months' carriage in a powerful sun, 
 has disseminated disease and death among its followers, 
 who are glad to rid themselves of its companionship. 
 The place of sepulture for the lower classes, or for those 
 whose friends are unwilling to pay for a vault within the 
 sacred precincts of the mosque, is outside the walls on the 
 north side of the city, where the graves are neatly con- 
 structed with bricks, and covered with gravel or cement 
 to preserve them from injury. When the corpse is to be
 
 56 NEDJEF. 
 
 buried withiii the walls, it is conveyed into the town. 
 The officers of interment then generally find some pretext 
 for breaking the former compact, and the unfortunate 
 relatives are under the necessity of striking a fresh and 
 much harder bargain. 
 
 The same system of official fleecing is adopted at the 
 adjoining city of Kerbella, where a story is told of the 
 manner in Avhich Hadji Mirza Aghassi, a rascally ex- 
 prime minister of Persia, outwitted the cuj)idity of the 
 hard-hearted cemetery authorities. He was known to be 
 enormously wealthy, and had gone to Kerbella that the 
 sanctity of the spot, where he proposed to lay his bones, 
 mio;ht in some measure atone for the crimes he had com- 
 mitted. On his deathbed, he sent to inquire what sum 
 would be demanded for a vault within the moscjlie, and 
 was informed that no less than 2000 tomans (£1000) was 
 expected from so great a man as an ex-prime-minister. 
 He then sent to ask the fee for a hole outside the town. 
 Thinking he was joking at their expense, the mullas 
 replied in dudgeon "a keran" (one shilling). The old 
 fellow at once closed the bargain, and was actually buried 
 in the common ground ! His tomb is marked by a simple 
 brick monument, which attracts much attention because 
 it covers the bones of a " great" scoundrel. 
 
 But to return to Nedjef. The constant influx of Persians 
 is vastly enriching the place, as proved by its recent en- 
 largement, and the rebuilding of new walls round a great 
 part of its circuit. To remedy the inconvenience at times 
 resulting from the want of good water, a new canal is in 
 course of construction direct from the Euphrates, which, 
 being excavated in solid rock to the depth of fifty feet, 
 will, when finished, reflect great credit on their skill 
 as engineers. Workmen are seen busily engaged in 
 building and restoring houses, and tradespeople appear 
 to thrive. But there is always a remarkable contrast
 
 DISAGREEABLE DISCOVERY. 57 
 
 betAveeii tlie life and activity of a Persian and the dulness 
 and decay of a Turkish city. There is, however, one 
 point in which the better-clad Turk surpasses his Eastern 
 neighbour ; he always exhibits the flowing sleeve of a 
 clean under garment, but the Persian has no regard what- 
 ever for personal cleanliness, and even a royal prince sel- 
 dom indulges in the luxury of a change of linen. 
 
 The curiosity of the inhabitants of Nedjef was exhibited 
 more than is usually the case with Orientals. They col- 
 lected in large numbers at a respectful distance from our 
 tents ; some even went so far beyond their ordinary 
 habits, as to bring their harems to indulge in a prolonged 
 stare at the wonderful Ghyawr who had the audacity to 
 enter their mosque. The night was oppressively hot, and, 
 confined within the close walls, we felt it doubly so from 
 previously sleeping in the open desert. 
 
 The governor took every precaution against danger and 
 insult, by placing a strong guard around our tents — sen- 
 tinels being stationed at very short intervals apart. But 
 for this foresight, it is possible to conceive what the 
 audacity and fanaticism of the Shealis might have dared 
 and effected during the darkness of night. All, however, 
 pas,sed off quietly, and long before dawn the Firenghi 
 camp was astir. While the tents were being struck, we 
 were suddenly assailed by the most foul and unbear- 
 able stench ; several persons retched violently, all being 
 more or less affected. It was afterwards ascertained that 
 a large pile of coffins, which had stood for several days in 
 the fierce sun, waiting for the concluding bargain between 
 their owners and the authorities, had been hastily removed 
 on the previous day to afford space for our camp. They 
 were placed out of sight in an adjoining empty space, 
 enclosed by a high wall, but the morning breeze blowing 
 from that direction, unfortunately revealed that which it 
 was never intended should be made known to us. It was
 
 58 EFFECTS OF LIGHT, 
 
 fortunate this did not occur during the night, or we 
 might have been smitten with severe illness. Welcome 
 was the bugle sound that summoned us to mount our 
 steeds and ride forth once more into the pure atmosphere 
 of the Arab desert. 
 
 On quitting Nedjef the commissioners were, of course, 
 saluted by the garrison, who were drawn up outside 
 the gate for the purpose, and by the cannon from the 
 w^alls. As the red light momentarily flashed upon the 
 golden dome of the mosque, the effect, viewed through 
 the column of white smoke, was such as few artists can 
 paint. The dead gold mass was for the instant ilUmiined 
 with a colour rivalHng even that of Mont Blanc viewed 
 from Geneva at sunset. There was a sublimity about 
 the scene which did not fail to impress the minds of all 
 who witnessed it. As if for the sake of contrast, the sun 
 immediately afterwards rose, and with his rays enveloped 
 the mosque in a flood of dazzling brilliancy.
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Kerbella — The GoYomor's Dejeuner — The "Martyr" Husseyn, and Ms 
 Mosque — Siege and Massacre — The " Campo Santo " at Kerbella — 
 Oratoiy of 'All — Magnificent Sunrise — Eastern Ladies, Mounted and 
 on Foot — The Ferry. 
 
 The direct road from Nedjef to Kerbella runs along tlie 
 skirt of the great Arabian desert, but is little frequented 
 on account of the danger from Bedouin plunderers — none 
 but large and well-armed parties daring to follow it. 
 Within sight on the east are the marshes of the Hindieh, 
 otherwise the route is entirely without water. We met 
 nothing, and saw nothing worthy of notice to relieve the 
 tedium of this desert journey, except here and there an 
 Arab tomb, with a few reeds stuck into the sand in lieu 
 of gravestones, and now and then a human skull or 
 the skeleton of a camel— the remains probably of some 
 poor wretches overcome by fatigue and thirst, whose 
 strength failed them before the long-coveted draught 
 could be attained. 
 
 The approach to Kerbella is somewhat more hvely than 
 that to Nedjef An abundance of date-trees surround 
 the town, and several buildings erected outside the walls 
 imply a greater amount of security from the roving tribes. 
 At the outskirts are several kilns, where bricks of similar 
 size and form to those of Babylon are made for modern 
 purposes. 
 
 Here a reception and scene awaited us much resem-
 
 60 TURKISH HOSPITALITY. 
 
 bling that which greeted our arrival at Hillah. The 
 civil governor came forth to pay his respects, accom- 
 panied by the mullas and grandees of the mosques, in 
 extensive tiu'bans of the finest and cleanest white muslin, 
 embroidered with gold, and otherwise most picturesquely 
 attired. In truly Oriental style, they informed us that 
 their houses and all they possessed were at our disposal, 
 a compliment which, in common with many others, means 
 nothing, or, as the Osmanli would express it, " bosh." As 
 before, a band endeavoured to execute its best airs on the 
 joyful occasion, but, as every man played his own tune, 
 at his own time, and with all the lungs whicli nature had 
 endowed him with, it is totally impossible to say what 
 
 was the orioinal air. Seldom is heard such a discordant 
 
 ... 
 
 din ; it was laughable beyond endurance. With this too 
 great attention, in a cloud of dust we entered the gates 
 of Kerbella, and dismounted at the seray, where, after 
 coffee and pipes, the worthy governor, who had been 
 previously informed of our expected arrival, announced 
 that he would be highly honoured by our taking break- 
 fast. 
 
 The tents had but just arrived, so there was little 
 prospect of our meal being prepared for some time. The 
 invitation was therefore accepted, and we were duly 
 ushered into an adjoining room, where, around a huge 
 tray, raised a foot from the ground, we sixteen hungiy 
 travellers sat down upon the cushioned floor. The com- 
 ponents of the entertainment were pillaf, a few vegetables 
 cooked in a variety of ways, and one small dish of meat 
 — all, it is true, pleasantly flavoured with lemon, but so 
 overwhelmed with grease, %that, unless the guests had been 
 hungry beyond description, they would have fared but 
 badly. Each dish, however, was rapidly emptied of its 
 contents, as hand after hand was thrust into the well- 
 piled heaps. The whole entertainment was concluded
 
 PLANS DEFEATED. 61 
 
 with a large bowl of — not intoxicating liquors (Moham- 
 medan hospitahty, of course, does not admit of such 
 forbidden draughts) ; but — mild innocuous sherbet, into 
 which we dived strange-shaj^ed wooden spoons, one being 
 supplied to every two or three persons present. When 
 the satisfied guests ceased from their labom^s and looked 
 around upon their friends, the mutual examination was 
 repaid by the sight of greasy hands and well-oiled beards. 
 This ample feast duly fitted us for a ramble through the 
 town and a visit to such " lions " as Kerbella contained. 
 
 Throughout the East news flies with unaccountable 
 rapidity, and it is frequently impossible to trace its 
 origin. An instance of this occurred at Kerbella on the 
 occasion of our visit. Although we had travelled in the 
 most speedy manner from Nedjef, our proceedings at 
 that place had got wind, and we found the gateway of 
 the great mosque of Husseyn filled with a crowd of raga- 
 mufiins, most forbidding in appearance, armed with 
 clubs, sticks, and daggers to oppose our entry. At the 
 head of the group stood a dervish ^\ith demoniacal 
 expression of countenance. A tuft of shaggy hair hung 
 from the top of his otherwise bald head, and his felt 
 garment, scarcely sufticient to cover his nakedness, was 
 patched with divers colours, and in every direction. 
 With his legs astride, a dagger in one hand, and a for- 
 midable bludgeon over his shoulder, he looked the picture 
 of a rascal capable of any mischief, and ready to excite 
 the multitude to commit any excess. During our stay 
 at Kerbella, this dervish acted as a species of evil spirit, 
 watching our movements, and following us about from 
 place to place. The mullas from the interior made a 
 sign that we should not apjDroach. We were therefore 
 oblio;ed to rest contented with a distant view. Tahir 
 
 CD 
 
 Bey dared not to force a passage ; nor would it have 
 been prudent to do so, as it was clear that the populace
 
 62 MASSACRE OF HUSS^YN. 
 
 was prepared for resistance. Although the soldiers might 
 have beaten off an undisciplined mob, we should not have 
 been justified in the attempt. Tolerably good views of 
 the mosques were, however, obtained from houses in their 
 immediate vicinity. Two or three of our Christian 
 attendants, favoured by some of their Mohammedan 
 fellows, succeeded in gaining admission to the mosque of 
 Husseyn ; but they were soon discovered, beaten with 
 sticks, stoned, and turned out along with their intro- 
 ducers. They might congratulate themselves in getting 
 off so easily. A short account of the origin of these 
 monuments may not be without interest to ' th^ unini- 
 tiated in Arab history. 
 
 On the death of 'All, the fourth khalif, according to 
 the Sunnis, in the fortieth year of the Hegira, his eldest 
 son Hassan was elected as his successor ; but, lacking the 
 energy and courage necessary during the civil wars that 
 distracted the early periods of the Moslem empire, he 
 shortly afterwards abdicated in favour of Moawyah, his 
 father's great opponent, and was murdered nine years 
 afterwards at the instigation, it is supposed, of Yezid, the 
 son of Moawyah. When Yezid succeeded his father in 
 the khalifat, his first aim was to secure undisputed pos- 
 session of power. He therefore endeavoured to extract 
 an oath of fealty from, or to compass the death of, Hus- 
 seyn, the second son of 'All, who inherited the daring 
 character of his father. Husseyn discovered the plot, and 
 escaped with his brothers and family to Mecca, where he 
 declared himself openly in opposition to Yezid. On 
 receiving overtures of assistance from the people of Kilfa, 
 he set out for that city with a small force ; but soon dis- 
 covered that the Kufites were fickle and faithless. Obeid- 
 'allah, the governor, acting with promptitude, sent out 
 strong forces to intercept Husseyn's approach, whose little 
 party was surrounded at Kerbella, and cut off from the
 
 MEMORY OF HUSS^YN. 63 
 
 waters of the Euphrates, so that they suffered the extre- 
 mities of thirst. After various parleys, orders were issued 
 by Obeid'allah to 'Amar, in command of the khalif s forces : 
 — " If Husseyn and his men submit and take the oath of 
 allegiance, treat them kindly ; if they refuse, slay them — 
 ride over them — trample them under the feet of thy 
 horses ! " Husseyn, seeing that all hope of honourable 
 terms was vain, resolved to die, but to die bravely. His 
 little band determined to share his desperate fortunes. 
 A general assault was at length made upon his camp, 
 which, being skilfully arranged, was for a time success- 
 fully defended. Numbers, however, ultimately prevailed, 
 and Husseyn, faint from loss of blood, sank to the earth, 
 and was stripped ere life was fled. Thirty wounds were 
 counted on his body. His head was sent to Obeid'allah ; 
 and Shemr, who carried the order for his death, with his 
 troops, rode forward and backward over the body, as he 
 had been ordered, until it was trampled into the earth. 
 Seventy-two followers of Husseyn were slain, seventeen 
 of whom were descendants of Mohammed's only daughter, 
 — among them Husseyn's brother ^Abbas. The only per- 
 sons who escaped from this massacre were the women 
 and children, with 'All-ezgher, the son of Husseyn, from 
 whom are descended the modern " Seyids." ""' 
 
 The Persians hold the memory of Husseyn in great 
 veneration, entitling him Shahid, or the Martyr. He 
 and his lineal descendants for nine generations are en- 
 rolled among the twelve Imams or pontiffs of the Persian 
 creed. The first ten days of the month of Moharrem are 
 held sacred, in commemoration of the strife between 
 Husseyn and his enemies, and are called " 'Ashiera," 
 the tenth day being kept with great solemnity as the an- 
 
 * This interesting, but cruel, episode in Moslem history is given, with 
 affecting details, in Washington Irving's " Lives of the Successors of Mo- 
 hammed," from which the above account is partially extracted.
 
 64 SIEGE OF KER BELLA. 
 
 uiversaiy of his martyrdom/'' A splendid mosque was 
 erected in after years on the spot where he fell, and to 
 which, it is said, the body of his brother Hassan was 
 removed. An inferior one was dedicated to 'Abb^s, their 
 brother, who shared the fate of Husseyn.t 
 
 The mosque of Husseyn is very similar in plan to that 
 of Meshed 'All, but cannot be compared with it for rich- 
 ness of decoration, cleanliness, or state of repair. The 
 dome only is gilded. One of the three minarets appears 
 in imminent danger of falling into the court below, the 
 walls of which are in a most dilapidated condition. This 
 state of things arises from the occupation of ttie gity by 
 the Turkish troops under Daoud Pasha of Baghdad. 
 Nedjef and Kerbella, being sanctuaries of high repute, 
 were resorted to by every class of ruffians and ba*d cha- 
 racters, the extent of whose outrages became so glaring 
 that it was necessary to suppress and root them out 
 from their places of concealment. The pasha made him- 
 self master of Nedjef ; but Kerbella, being thus rein- 
 forced by the expelled " Yerrimasis," held out during a long 
 siege. An approach was made to the weakest part of the 
 walls, where a breach was eventually effected. The sol- 
 
 * These fetes are celebrated among the Persians with theatrical represen- 
 tations of the scenes attendant on the death of Huss6yn, for an account of 
 which I may refer the reader to Lady Sheil's amusing " Glimpses of Life 
 and Manners in Persia," p. 125. 
 
 t At the distance of a day's gallop from Kerbella is another site of 
 extreme interest in the history of the Arab conquest, El Kadder, the 
 ancient Kddessiyya, where Sa'ad ibn 'Abd Wakkds, the founder of Ktifa, 
 utterly vanquished the vast Porsian host, and seized the sacred standard 
 of the Dardfash-1-K4wdni, the loss of which was regarded as a symbol of 
 the loss of power by the Persians. With the disaster at Kddessiyya the 
 rule of the Sassanian kings terminated, and the religion of Mohammed 
 spread unchecked throughout L-^n. Kddesslyya has been visited by two 
 Englishmen — Messrs W. B. Barker and Boulton — who met with extensive 
 ruins and halls. These are ornamented with a range of masks, carried 
 round the archivolts of the arched roofs, in the same style as at Al Hddhr 
 in the desert near Mosul, where they present such a remai'kable feature in 
 Sassanian architecture.
 
 CEMETERY AT KERBELLA. 65 
 
 diers entered, and the place was given over to pillage, 
 when the most dreadful scenes took place. The troops 
 poured volleys among unoffending women and children, 
 and massacred the inhabitants within the very mosques. 
 Tahir Bey himself was an officer at this cruel siege, and 
 received his promotion in consequence. With his own 
 hand he cut do'v^Ti three of the Yerrimasis, while his men, 
 dragging forth seventy from among a party of women, with 
 whom they had taken shelter, shot them on the spot ! 
 
 The marks of this celebrated siege are still visible in 
 various parts of the town. Opposite to the seray, the 
 houses demolished have never been rebuilt, but exhibit a 
 wretched scene of destruction. The mosques suffered 
 seriously, and the ravages of the cannon-balls are dis- 
 tinctly traceable on their domes, as well as in the walls 
 of the town, where the holes made have not been repaired. 
 The date-trees also exhibit evident marks of the injuries 
 received from a cross fire, which for a leng-th of time 
 prevented the batteries of the Turks from making the 
 breach. Several have holes through the centre of their 
 stems, others have large pieces torn from their sides ; one 
 still flourishes, although the branches are merely con- 
 nected with the stem by a narrow strip of wood on one 
 side ; some have never recovered the effect of theii" 
 wounds, but stand like stunted poles, without foliage."' 
 
 The arrangements for the disposal of the dead at Ker- 
 bella are on the same system as at Meshed 'Ali ; but the 
 numbers conveyed thither yearl}^ are considerably larger 
 — Kerbella being, for some reason or other, both pecu- 
 liarly aristocratic and popular. It is always alluded to 
 by the Persians in preference to Meshed 'Ali. Little 
 respect is shewn to the dead in committing them to th-^ir 
 
 * It was chiefly in consequence of this siege, that hostilities had almost 
 taken place between the Turkish and Persian Governments, as stated in the 
 opening chapter of this volume. 
 
 E
 
 66 *' TENT " OF 'ALf. 
 
 last resting-place, a grave being dug of barely sufficient 
 depth to cover tbe coffin, which is hastily and unceremo- 
 niously covered up. Cemeteries throughout the East are 
 generally kept in tolerable order; but at Kerbella no 
 care is exhibited, the brickwork of the graves has fallen 
 in, and the ravages of dogs, jackals, and hyaenas may be 
 observed in the holes they have made, and in the foul 
 shreds of every hue and colour torn from the coffins and 
 bodies of the corpses. It might be thought that, seeing such 
 a disgusting sight, the thousands of pilgrims who return 
 to their homes would be induced to discountenance the 
 system of conveying the remains of their friends to this 
 place. Such, however, is not the case ; and the desire to 
 be buried on a spot rendered sacred by the blood of a 
 martyr, prevails over all other considerations, and a 
 tomb at Kerbella, or Meshed 'All, is looked on as an 
 expiation for the greatest crimes, and a surety that, at 
 the day of judgment, the pardoned sinner will rise into 
 the seventh heaven.'"' 
 
 This system of forming cemeteries, and com^eying the 
 dead for interment to some distant and sacred spot, has 
 prevailed from very early times among different nations. 
 I shall, have, ere long, to describe some remarkable ancient 
 cemeteries, which, from their magnitude, could never have 
 originated from a fixed population in the immediate 
 neighbourhood, unless aided by an accumulation from 
 many distant localities. 
 
 Outside the gates of Kerbella is a small oratory, said to 
 have been erected on the spot where the great 'All had a 
 celebrated vision in his tent, and, from that circumstance, 
 it is called " the tent of 'Ali." It is a dodecagon, having 
 six entrances, and is surrounded by a covered veranda 
 
 • These are not, however, the only sacred burial-places to which the 
 Persians resort. Kathemd'in near B%hddd, Sdmdra, Meshed, and Koom 
 are all likewise hallowed from possessing the bones of the descendants of 
 'Ali.
 
 STRANGE EFFECT. 67 
 
 supported on columns. Judging from the cracks in the 
 building, it is not destined to stand for any great length 
 of time. The whitened walls were written over with 
 many extracts from Persian poets and modern effusions, 
 but the place was anything but clean. Two cunning- 
 looking Persian muUas received us, but objected to our 
 entering with our boots. Having no desire to insult theii- 
 prejudices we abstained from going beyond the veranda : 
 but the Turkish officer accompanying us took no notice of 
 the objection, and walked boldly in. " By 'Mi's beard ! 
 why do you enter this clean and holy place to pol- 
 lute it with your unclean feet ?" said one of the guar- 
 dians, in angry expostulation. " My boots are quite as 
 clean as your filthy floor ! Look — see the dirt upon it ! 
 AVhen you clean your floor Pll take off my boots ; but I 
 am not going to soil my feet to please you," was the 
 answer returned, to the intense disgust of the mullas. 
 
 The bazaars of Kerbella are well supplied with all 
 kinds of grain, and articles from every part of the world 
 carried thither by the pilgrims. It is celebrated for the 
 manufacture of filio;ree-work, and for elaborate ens-ravins: 
 upon the nacreous valves of the pearl oyster {avicula 
 margaritifera), obtained from the fisheries at Bahreyn, in 
 the Persian Gulf. 
 
 Travellers love to descant on the beauties of Eastern 
 cities ; but it is seldom that it falls to their lot to witness 
 such wonderful effects of light as fell under my own 
 observation on this short journey. Early on the morn- 
 ing of departure from Kerbella, I took a stroll to a little 
 distance from the Avails, and beheld a magnificent spec- 
 tacle as "the glorious orb of day" rose above the hori- 
 zon, and gradually lighted up the golden dome of the 
 great mosque. The dark and comparatively sombre green 
 surface of tliat which enshrines the bones of 'Abbas still 
 remained enveloped in a thick curtain of blue mist, until
 
 68 ORIENTAL LADIES. 
 
 an orange or deep red tint crept slowly over the principal 
 features of the edifice. This continued during the space 
 of at least two minutes, when the strange and fairy-like 
 effect was dispelled by the bright sunshine. While it 
 lasted, it was truly imposing and enchanting. 
 
 From Kerbella our party returned direct to Baghdad, 
 followino; for a considerable distance the course of a canal 
 derived from the Euphrates, which, on account of its 
 flowing to the tomb of the saint, is called Husseynlyya, 
 The quantity of earth deposited, and frequently thrown 
 out of its bed, is so great as to form an enormous line of 
 mound on either side. Unless attention in this reject is 
 paid to iriigating canals, they soon become choked with 
 sediment, and cease their operations. The path to Miis- 
 seib, being traversed by so many pilgrims and caravans 
 on their Avay to and from Kerbella, is completely cut up 
 by parallel tracks, and more beaten than any other 
 throughout the East. It is, however, generally considered 
 unsafe, and a large caravan was said to have been bodily 
 carried off by the Bedouins two days before we passed 
 along it. Fearing a like fate, some Persian ladies, with 
 their attendants, begged they might be permitted to take 
 advantage of our escort. 
 
 The custom, universally adopted by Oriental ladies, of 
 riding astride like a man, is certainly the most ungrace- 
 ful that can be conceived. Enveloped in the ample folds 
 of a blue cotton cloak, her face (as required by the strict 
 injunctions of the Koran) concealed under a black or 
 white mask, her feet encased in wide yellow boots, and 
 these in turn thrust into slippers of the same colour, her 
 knees nearly on a level with her chin, and her hands 
 holding on by the scanty mane of the mule — an Eastern 
 lady is the most nncouth and inelegant form imaginable. 
 On foot, too, her appearance is not much improved ; for 
 the awk\v< rd l^oots and slippers compel her to slide and
 
 THE FERRY-BOAT. 69 
 
 roll along in such an ungainly manner as forcibly to 
 remind tlie beholder of a duck waddling to a pond, or of 
 a bundle of clothes on short thick stilts. To complete 
 the picture, it must be left to those European ladies who 
 have had the fortune to gain admission to the privacy of 
 a harem, to state whether the tone and conversation of 
 their Mohammedan friends is more pohshed and elegant 
 than their external appearance ; many a fair form is 
 concealed beneath a rough exterior ; but, if we may judge 
 of the fair sex of Islam by the native Christian ladies, 
 I fear the answer will not be satisfactory. I remember 
 on one occasion seeing an Armenian beauty at a fete 
 presented with a choice bouquet. On receiving it, she 
 languidly rose from the embroidered ottoman, and then 
 — ^to the utmost surprise and indignation of the giver — 
 deliberately sat upon it ! 
 
 The Euphrates at Miisseib is crossed by ferry-boats — 
 huge, unwieldy apparatuses, roughly built of planks over- 
 laid with bitumen, and each capable of containing some 
 dozen loaded animals, and a motley throng of human 
 beings, men, women, and children. A low projecting bow 
 acts as a landing-jetty, and the craft is guided by a rud- 
 der of most complicated construction, sufficiently large to 
 steer a vessel three times its size. Men, with poles in the 
 shallow water and rude oars in the stream, propel the 
 mass onwards ; and thus, after an infinity of shouting, 
 and screamino;, and invocations of 'All, the boat reaches 
 the opposite shore. A throng of ragged pilgrims, on 
 their return from Kerbella, had just preceded our party, 
 and were squabbling who should first enter one of these 
 Noah's arks, when our cavasses — with the usual prompti- 
 tude and small sense of justice which these officers possess 
 in so pecuhar a manner — rushed into the crowd, and, by 
 dint of tongue and stick, fighting their way through it, 
 seized the beleaguered boat for our especial use. Ex-
 
 70 CROSSING THE RIVER. 
 
 eluded from it, the struggle for supremacy was trans- 
 ferred to the craft alongside, and the usual scene at 
 a ferry occurred. Every would-be passenger endea- 
 vours to obtain a footing for himself and his animal, 
 whether horse, mule, or — still more useful "friend of 
 man" — the donkey, whose slit nostrils and raw hide 
 prove that his services are scarcely appreciated as they 
 ought to be. Footing once secured, the difficulty is, how 
 to induce the frightened animals to raise their other three 
 feet from terra firma into the same position, but caresses 
 and hard thumps, kicks and curses, usually effect the 
 desired object. When the boat is crammed so full that 
 no restless animal can stir, the boat is shoved off, and the 
 living mass takes its chance of floating or sinking, "as 
 Allah wills it" — the gunwale within an inch or two of the 
 water-level. The animals of our party, however, usually 
 crossed the river in the more expeditious and primitive 
 manner represented in the Assyrian bas-reliefs. The 
 common herd was driven into the water, and compelled 
 to swim the stream, but grooms led the more valuable 
 horses by their halters into the river, and swam across 
 with them, urging the unwdlling with barbarous grunts, 
 such as can only proceed from an Arab mouth. The pads, 
 saddles, and bridles were passed over with the baggage 
 in the boats. All crossed safely to the opposite side. 
 
 Miisseib is a miserable but busy place, supported 
 entirely by the traffic to and from Kerbella. Large 
 quantities of grain from the land adjoining the Euphrates 
 were being thrashed, and a number of women were em- 
 ployed in grinding it with the ordinary stone hand-mill 
 of the country. Nearer to the river, men were mending 
 kiifahs — those round boats described by Herodotus as 
 used in his time upon the rivers of Babylonia, — made 
 of reeds, coated inside and out Avith melted bitumen, 
 derived from the springs of Hit, higher up the Euphrates.
 
 MtJSSEIB. 71 
 
 Others were employed in making baskets from the stems 
 of the liquorice-plant [Glycyrrhiza glabra), which they 
 adeptly twisted together. Above the village, on the 
 eastern side, a sud or dam of earth had been recently 
 constructed at a point where the river had, during the 
 season of flood, burst upon the land, and swept all before 
 it as far as the ruins of Babylon. At a few miles from 
 Miisseib we rejoined the road previously traversed be- 
 tween Baghdad and Hillah, and reached the former place 
 without new adventure.
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Climate of Chaldaea — Christmas in BdghdSd — Departure for the South 
 — Mubarek's Misadventure — The Kyaya of Hillah — ^Bashi-Bazuks. 
 
 Further political questions detained the coniniisj^ioners 
 at Baghdad until the end of December, when the decree 
 was issued for our proceeding to the frontier. It was 
 arranged that the H.E.LC/s armed steamer, Nitocris, 
 under the command of Captain Fehx Jones, whose inti- 
 mate knowledge of the country and amiable disposition 
 are so well known to travellers in that remote region of 
 the globe, should convey the whole party to Mohammerah, 
 the southern point of the disputed boundary line. The 
 mules, horses, and servants were to proceed by land, 
 guarded by the troop of cavalry appointed by the 
 Turkish Government as its due portion of an escort to 
 accompany the commissioners during the progress of 
 their labours. It was proposed that this party should 
 travel by the direct route through Lower Mesopotamia, 
 instead of the more beaten track along the western side 
 of the Euphrates. As the route by the Jezlreh'"" had 
 been scarcely visited by Europeans, I naturally felt a 
 strong desire to take advantage of the opportunity now 
 afforded of breaking new ground. I was influenced by a 
 twofold object : that of examining the geology of the 
 Chaldsean marshes, and that of exploring the ruins of 
 
 • Jezireh means " island," and, although a misnomer, is aj^plied to the 
 whole of Mesopotamia between the two rivers Tigris and Euphrates.
 
 PREPAKATIONS AT BAGHDAD. 73 
 
 Warka, to which native tradition assigns the honour of 
 being the birthplace of the patriarch Abraham. Colonel 
 Williams, ever ready to afford facilities to scientific enter- 
 prise, not only granted a willing consent to my proposal 
 to join the overland party, but also suggested that Mr 
 Churchill should accompany me. 
 
 In order that some idea may be formed of the difficul- 
 ties and dangers attending a journey into Lower Baby- 
 lonia or Chaldsea Proper, I may here mention, that, 
 during spring and summer, when the Hindieh branch 
 of the Euphrates is closed, the greater part of the country, 
 from above lat. 32°, is a continuous marsh towards the 
 south, quite impassable except in canoes called ter- 
 radas. In these the natives are enabled to keep up com- 
 munication among themselves on the spots of elevated 
 land which raise their heads above ihe surrounding 
 swamps. The heat, however, prevents the approach of 
 travellers. In autumn these inundations rapidly subside, 
 but the resultant malaria is so great as to deter any 
 European from invading this terra (if it can be so caUed) 
 incognita. The only season of the year, therefore, which 
 frees Chaldsea from water and fever is the winter, when the 
 air becomes rarified. The great alternations in tempera- 
 ture which here take place are scarcely to be credited. 
 No sooner does the ardent heat of summer abate, than 
 cool breezes begin to blow, and the thermometer quickly 
 falls below the freezing point. This is due to the fact 
 that the soil of the marshes is a comparatively recent 
 deposit from the retiring sea of the Persian Gulf, and is 
 therefore highly impregnated with marine salts, across 
 which the wind in its passage is rendered intensely cold. 
 T have myself seen the Arabs, completely benumbed, drop 
 from their saddles. But during winter another obstacle 
 opposes progress. A very large portion of the country, 
 which was a few months previously covered with inunda-
 
 74 INACCESSIBILITY OF CHALD^A. 
 
 tion, is now waterless, sometimes for two or three days' 
 journey. The Arab tribes, too, are perfectly wild and 
 uncontrolled, regarding strangers among them with in- 
 finite suspicion. 
 
 Under such unpromising circumstances, it is not at 
 all surprising that this region has been so little visited, 
 and that so many monuments of its past history still 
 remain to be explored. In no other part of Babylonia is 
 there such astonishing proof of ancient civilization and 
 denseness of population. Some lofty pile is generally 
 visible to mark the site of a once-important city ; while 
 numerous little spots, covered with broken potte«"y, point 
 to the former existence of villages and of a rural popula- 
 tion. Traces of old canal-beds prove the care with which 
 the whole country was watered when the marshes were 
 confined within proper limits, and the land of the Chaldees 
 flourished. 
 
 Christmas-day was spent in great festivity at the hos- 
 pitable and well-ordered board of the British Eesidency, 
 where all the Europeans at Baghdad met, as customary, 
 to celebrate our great Christian festival. On the. second 
 morning afterwards, a gathering took place outside the 
 gates of the city, at the little bridge over the Mess'iidi 
 canal, preparatory to our long journey. The caravan was 
 of considerable size, being composed of the servants and 
 animals belonging to the four commissions — the whole 
 escorted by four light guns, and one hundred well- 
 mounted, well-armed Turkish cavalry. The little red 
 and white pennants attached to the lances of the soldiers 
 imparted a gay and lively appearance to the cavalcade as 
 it moved along. 
 
 We pursued the road previously travelled to Hillah, 
 which place we reached in a heavy shower of rain on the 
 third day. Here an accident happened, which was near 
 proving fatal to a wild Dhefyr Arab, named Miibarek,
 
 STARTING. 75 
 
 whom I had taken into my service, at the suggestion of 
 Captain Jones, for the purpose of protecting my little 
 party in case of any temporary separation from the main 
 body during my researches. I was unwilling to be entirely 
 dependent on the troops for guidance and safe-conduct, 
 and it is always advisable, on entering an unknown 
 region, to secure the protection of a native, or one well 
 acquainted with the people amongst whom the traveller 
 has to pass. The Dhefyr Arabs belong to the true 
 Bedouin tribes, and roam from the western shores of the 
 Persian Gulf, along the banks of the Lower Euphrates, 
 far into the deserts of Arabia. They bear the character 
 of being more cruel and bloodthirsty than the generality 
 of Bedouins ; but they claim a species of freemasomy 
 among other tribes — any ragamuffin among them enjoy- 
 ing the privilege of protection in an extraordinary way. 
 
 In the present instance, however, the Dhefyr proved to 
 be rather an embarrassment than a gain to my party ; for 
 his depredations had so frequently been extended into the 
 marshes on the east of the Euphrates, that there w^as no 
 good feeling manifested towards him. Of this, however, 
 I was not aware at the time of engaging him. Miibarek 
 was not one of the brightest nor most prepossessing of 
 Arabs. He was little in stature, ugly in couiitenance, 
 dirty in person, and his abba and kejffieh were both in the 
 last stage of decay. He brought with him another of his 
 tribe — a half-witted fellow, named Mayiif, whose drolleries 
 served to amuse the tedium of the barren, cheerless 
 desert. Just before reaching the point at which the road 
 turns through the gardens towards the bridge, Miibarek's 
 horse, a spirited little animal, with only a halter on his 
 head, took fright, leaped a wall, and tore away at a 
 furious pace among the thickly-planted date-trees. The 
 Arab, of course, had no control over his steed, and ran 
 the chance of getting his brains dashed out by coming
 
 76 THE DHEFYR AEAB. 
 
 in contact with a tree. The horse rushed onwards 
 nothing daunted by the labyrinth he had to tliread, until 
 his feet becoming entangled in the work of some cotton- 
 spinners, he threw his rider with great violence. The 
 poor fellow lay senseless, with the blood streaming from 
 his mouth and nostrils, when an Arab bystander hastened 
 to bring him round in the most approved native manner. 
 Eaising the injured man in his arms, he shook him 
 exactly as a farmer shakes a sack of wheat to settle down 
 the grain ! By so doing, it was supposed that the blood 
 would be expelled from the head into its right place. 
 After several repetitions of the operation, the, patient 
 opened his eyes, gave a deep exclamation of "Allah! 
 Allah !" picked up his spear, and then, apparently little 
 the worse for his accident, staggered after his truant and 
 unmanageable steed. 
 
 On gaining the western side of the bridge, we learned 
 that the Tui^kish officers of Dervish Pasha's suite had 
 kindly exerted themselves in obtaining quarters for my- 
 self and companion at the house of Sheblb 'Agha, the 
 Kyaya of Hillah, a venerable gentleman with long flow- 
 ing beard of the purest white, whose visible family con- 
 sisted of his brother — a fac-simile of himself — and three 
 sons, varying from nine to twelve years of age. The 
 boys, all handsome little fellows, standing with the ser- 
 vants in the presence of their father and his guests, pre- 
 sented us with coffee and the usual accompaniments on 
 our arrival. Our kind host insisted on supplying our- 
 selves, servants, and animals, with food and provender 
 during our stay in Hillah. Anxious to obtain as much 
 information as possible on the subject of our journey, I 
 inquired concerning our line of route, and ascertained 
 that he had visited Niffar, one of the great ruins in 
 the centre of the Jezlreh. I therefore asked if he had 
 seen the stone obelisk which is said to lie near the mound.
 
 SHEBfB 'aGHA. 77 
 
 Shebib 'Agba stroked his beard, considered for a moment, 
 and then replied, that — " By Allah ! he did not remember 
 to have seen any such stone ; but the Arabs tell a story 
 that sometimes they see a boat jutting out of the ruins, 
 which shines like gold, with a flame of fire proceeding 
 from its centre ; but, Mashallah ! the Arabs are so alarmed 
 at the sight, they dare not approach ! " He could, of 
 course, give no further information concerning this won- 
 derful apparition. 
 
 The rain continuing to fall in torrents during the greater 
 part of the day, we were confined to the house. In the 
 interval three Jews called on the kyaya, and entered 
 into a long but animated discussion with him on the 
 subject of an overcharge of taxes. One of the Israehtes 
 was a voluble and accomplished orator, rolling forth the 
 Arabic gutturals with all the roundness and fluency of a 
 true son of the desert. He certainly made use of his 
 talents to the utmost, but whether with or without effect 
 on the purse-strings of the kyaya, I cannot say, because 
 I quitted the house before his oration was concluded. I 
 may here notice a fact, which must infallibly occur to 
 the observation of travellers. When two Englishmen 
 meet, the "weather" is generally the introduction to 
 other topics of conversation, but is soon forgotten in the 
 interest of other subjects. Throughout the East, how- 
 ever, " money" is the all-absorbing theme. Money begins 
 and ends a conversation. The word " piastre," " keran," 
 or "fluce," invariably occurs within the first few sen- 
 tences, and as invariably ends the debate ! Frequently, 
 after a lengthened discussion on the subject, a little dirty 
 bag is produced from the inner folds of the dress, and 
 two or three small coins are counted out with the greatest 
 deliberation. 
 
 I was now informed, to my great disappointment and 
 vexation, that the troops had received counter-orders,
 
 78 FRESH AREANGEMENTS. 
 
 and were to proceed by the ordinary road from Hillah 
 by the west of the Euphrates. Thus all my plans and 
 arrangements appeared in a fair way of being frustrated. 
 I was not, however, disposed to resign them without an 
 effort, and therefore set out mth my companion to con- 
 sult with our good friend Tahir Bey, who fortunately 
 happened to be in the town. He was as frank and 
 hearty as ever, but strongly endeavoured to dissuade me 
 from my intention. He represented truly the kind of 
 country we should have to traverse : the great inunda- 
 tions, and the wild character of the native Arabs, likely 
 to rebel against the government at any m^me^t. See- 
 ing, however, that his representations did not alter my 
 determination, he recommended me to take a few Bashi 
 B^ziiks, or irregular horsemen. On my assenting to this, 
 he immediately issued his orders, and, moreover, volun- 
 teered to furnish me with letters to certain sheikhs, 
 through whose tribes we should have to pass. I felt 
 highly pleased at the promptitude he shewed in meeting 
 my wishes, and took leave, anticipating the delightful 
 prospect before me of entering on ground hitherto un- 
 trodden by Eiu'opean foot. 
 
 It was arranged that the bulk of our animals should 
 proceed with the troops under the charge of a cawas, 
 the mir-i-akhor (master of the horse), and the greater 
 number of servants, while a small proportion was set 
 apart as our own especial convoy. 
 
 At sunset, we sat do^vn to an Arab dinner provided 
 by our host. After much entreaty the old gentleman 
 consented to sit with, instead of waiting upon us. We had 
 already discussed one greasy dish, and were waiting for 
 another, when my servant unfortunately placed wine 
 upon the table. Sheblb Agha, like a good Mussulman, 
 jumped up as if shot through the heart ; nor could all our 
 entreaties, nor even the removal of the alarming bottle of
 
 ICETTLE-DRUMS, AND CONSEQUENCES. 79 
 
 forbidden liquid, prevail on liim to resume his seat at the 
 board. He had sat with Grhyawr who drank wine ; they 
 were not therefore fitting companions for one of the 
 faithful ! 
 
 The continued rain during the night delayed the ap- 
 pearance of our future escort, which did not shew itself 
 till the sun shone forth late the following morning, Avhen 
 eight well-mounted Bashi Bazuks, with two drummers, 
 mustered before the door of Shebib 'Agha's house. There 
 is something irresistibly absurd to the European traveller 
 for the first time riding out of a town preceded by his 
 guard and a couple of fellows beating a monotonous 
 sound out of a pair of bad kettle-drums. It was with 
 some difficulty, under such circumstances, that we could 
 compose our risible faculties so as to act our parts with 
 due and proper decorum, while the shopkeepers and 
 passengers in the bazaars stood in respectful attitudes 
 and received the salutes to which they were entitled. I 
 was not sorry, when, outside the date-groves, the musi- 
 cians announced their intention of returning into town. 
 On the receipt of a small " bakhshish," they hastened to 
 the bosom of their families, while we made for the heart 
 of the desert.
 
 CHAPTEE IX. 
 
 From Hillah into the Desert — Sand-drifts — Bridge-building — ^The Surly- 
 Sheikh, and his Black Slave — Coffee-making — Rhubarb and Blue 
 Pm— New Year 1850. 
 
 • 
 
 Directing our course towards the ruins of Niffar, our 
 first two days' journey was, for the most part, across 
 a level and sandy desert, intersected by an infinity 
 of ancient water-courses, whose streams had centuries 
 back ceased to flow, their very existence being sometimes 
 only faintly indicated by the darker colour of the soil, 
 arising from the salts contained in it. Now and then a 
 low mound or a few fragments of pottery, bricks, and 
 glass, assisted us to beguile the time by speculations and 
 discussions on the former inhabitants of the land, and 
 in making comparisons between the past and present. 
 Like Paley's watch on the heath, what reflections may not 
 a fragment of pottery stir up ! In this manner, and in 
 taking careful notes and observations of the route, the hours 
 passed rapidly, and we fully enjoyed the novelty of the 
 scene before us in that deserted and barren plain — for 
 so it may be called, because the inhabited and cultivated 
 spots are so few and far between, in comparison with the 
 wide expanse of rich land uninhabited and uncultivated, 
 throughout Mesopotamia. Independently, however, of 
 the strange associations called forth by bricks and pot- 
 tery, the journey was delightful, from the very uncer- 
 tainty attending its course, from the excitement of
 
 BASHtYYA. 81 
 
 knowing that an unexplored region lay before us, and 
 from the enjoyment of the pure freshness of the desert 
 air after the recent rain. Even the scanty Arab tents — 
 although presenting the usual scene of squalid filth, and 
 (as one is disposed to conceive) consequent misery — had 
 some variety in their character and disposition. Deter- 
 mined on being pleased with anything, it would have 
 been a sad pity if we had been disappointed. 
 
 The only point worthy of notice during the first day's 
 journey was a remarkable range of low sandhills, which 
 alter their form according to the direction of the wind. 
 It has been conceived that their presence is due to springs 
 of water below the surface ; but Mr Layard offers another 
 explanation. During his journey in 1850-51, across this 
 region, he mentions having passed two or three places 
 where the sand, issuing from the earth like water, is 
 called " Aioun-er-rummel," sand-springs.^" I observed no 
 such phenomenon ; but consider these hills as the van- 
 guard of those vast drifts which, advancing from the 
 south-east, threaten eventually to overwhelm Babylon 
 and Baghdad. Further in the interior, these drifts are 
 largely developed, and spread over large tracts of country 
 not occupied by the marshes. They are temporarily 
 arrested at this particular locality by the decayed stumps 
 of numerous tamarisk bushes, that project and appear 
 to be the nuclei around which the drifts accumulate. 
 
 The advancing and destructive progress of the sand is 
 seen at the little hamlet of Bashiyya, about five miles 
 farther. The square walls of an enclosure gave shelter 
 and security to a few families, who supplied us, during 
 our first night's encampment, mth fowls and milk — the 
 usual luxuries of Arab life. A large grove of date-trees, 
 also surrounded by walls, flourished along the bank of an 
 old canal-bed, and shaded an old Arab tomb. The term 
 
 • " Nineveh and Babylon," p. 546. 
 F
 
 82 
 
 SAND-DRIFT3. 
 
 " khithr " (verdure) is peculiarly appropriate to spots 
 where a patch of green, or even a single tree, relieves 
 the dull monotony and continued glare of a desert soil — 
 and it is therefore frequently applied to these oases. 
 
 On subsequently visiting Bashiyya, in January 1854, a 
 great change had come over it ; the sands, drifting from 
 the south-east, had produced a desolation as imposing as 
 that of Nineveh or Babylon. Its inhabitants were gone, 
 the walls were barely visible above mounds of sand, 
 the canal courses were utterly extinguished, and the 
 date-trees rapidly dying from the lack of necessary 
 moisture. 
 
 The invasion of this drift-sand is also observable at 
 Niliyya,'"" about nine miles east from Bashiyya. This 
 
 Mohammedan Ruins at Nflfyya 
 
 famous Arab city is mentioned by 'Abiil-Fedah as existing 
 in his time upon the great canal of Nil, from which it 
 
 • Duringmy journey in 1854, through the Jezlreh, in charge of the expe- 
 dition sent out under the auspices of the Assyrian Excavation Society, I 
 visited these ruins in company with Messrs Lyncli and Boutchcr. They 
 were of great size, but so concealed under the sand-drifts that it was im- 
 possible to ascertain their full extent. The principal buildings remaining, 
 are a few fragments of an old mosque, and some piers of a bridge over the
 
 BUILDING A BRIDGE. 83 
 
 took its name. In 1848, the sand began to accumulate 
 around it, and in six years the desert, within a radius of 
 six miles, was covered with little undulating domes, while 
 the ruins of the city were so buried that it is now impos- 
 sible to trace their original form or extent. This feature 
 is to be expected in a low flat country, recently (in a geo- 
 logical point of view) reclaimed from the sea, as we know 
 to have been the case with Chaldaea. 
 
 For the next few days, pointed or domed buildings, 
 erected over the bones of some imam (holy man, or 
 influential chief), served at intervals for marks to guide 
 our path, being of infinite value to the traveller in these 
 deserts. They indicate Hkewise that a much larger popu- 
 lation obtained in comparatively modern times. During 
 two days' journey from Hillah, several of these white 
 tombs dot the horizon, and are known by the name of 
 the saint buried at each, such as Imam Khithr, Imam 
 Ashjeri. 
 
 The son of the sheikh at Bashlyya undertook to guide 
 the party to the tents of Sheikh Mulla 'All, to whom we 
 carried letters from Tahir Bey. A vast inundation from 
 the Shumeli Canal, derived from the Euphrates, obliged 
 us to make a considerable detour before reaching the 
 bridge by which all traflic is carried on. It proved to be 
 a single date log thrown across the stream ; but it 
 afibrded such a precarious footing, that the first mule 
 
 bed of the Nil, which passed through the centre of the city. There was no 
 appearance of any relics earlier than the Mohammedan era ; if such exist, 
 they are buried under the more modern debris. Seen from Niliyya are the 
 following mounds : — 
 
 Zibbar, four miles distant, bearing 
 
 ElMeherf, 
 
 El Bershieh, 
 
 21° 
 
 35' 
 
 48 
 
 10 
 
 64 
 
 45 
 
 123 
 
 10 
 
 131 
 
 30 
 
 ■ni Tri -o r , J two ruuied buudmgs, 
 
 El Khitheriat, ) ^ ' . . . . 
 
 Habil-i-Sakr, a large ruin of black stone, said to be six or 
 
 seven hours from Bdgdddieh, on the Tigris. ... 41
 
 84 ARAB CURIOSITY. 
 
 on attempting to cross slipped and fell sideways on the 
 bank. The cook's stores, onions and lemons, pots and 
 kettles, were seen floating in joint fellowship down the 
 canal. My people and the Bashi Bazuks endeavoured to 
 raise the prostrate beast, but to no purpose. A few 
 Arabs from the adjoining tents gathered round, but 
 shewed no disposition to assist, until the soldiers had 
 recourse to their whips, and thus secured a few volunteers. 
 The mule raised, they were next set to repair their own 
 bridge, which otherwise would have been allowed to rot. 
 Several labourers returning from the plough were also 
 gently pressed into the service. In a quarter of an hour 
 the bridge was completed, by laying a second date log 
 parallel with the first — a quantity of camel's thorn being 
 then thrown down as a foundation, and loose earth placed 
 on the top. 
 
 When all were safely across, we soon reached the large 
 encampment of MuUa 'All, whose great black tents spread 
 along the bank of the canal. Our arrival was the signal 
 for the gathering of a crowd, and we were regarded 
 somewhat in the light of monkeys or dancing dogs in a 
 rural English village. The amazement and curiosity of 
 the Arab community was great while they paived the 
 strange garments of the Firenghis, and expressed odd 
 notions concernins; their make and fabric. The little 
 naked children seemed to partake of the general excite- 
 ment. After a steady survey of a few seconds, the youth- 
 ful fry, with their stomachs swelled to deformity from 
 eating rice, and their mouths besmeared with dates, 
 scampered off to relate their impressions to their mothers, 
 who» afraid of the evil eye, scrutinized our persons and 
 movements from behind the recesses of their tents. 
 
 Having a long journey before us, we did not dismount : 
 in fact, it was useless to do so ; the sheikh being a very 
 old man, and on the point of death. I therefore merely
 
 SHEIKH SAID's tent. 85 
 
 requested that a guide might accompany us to the next 
 encampment on the road to NifFar. In due time four 
 Arabs were added to the party, and we travelled onwards 
 to the camp of Sheikh Said. In the east, at the distance 
 of about ten miles, a great mass of unbaked brickwork, 
 the ancient mound of Zibliyya/"' shone brightly against 
 the setting sun. 
 
 Darkness overtook the party before arriving at the 
 camp of the sheikh, conveniently situated near the tomb 
 of an imam, on the verge of the great AfFej marshes. The 
 sheikh himself, a tall, stout, short-necked bull of a fellow, 
 with a decided enlargement of one eye, which gave a very 
 sinister expression to his countenance, advanced to the 
 entrance of his tent to bid us welcome, and invited us to 
 take a seat at his fire while our own tents were being 
 pitched. We were accordingly ushered in. Two exceed- 
 ingly greasy pillows of striped silk were placed on an 
 equally dirty fragment of Turkey carpet, and we were 
 duly installed into the seats of honour. As we entered, 
 fresh fuel was added to the blazing fire upon the ground, 
 producing a smoke so dense, that our eyes, not having 
 served an apprenticeship in such an atmosphere, were 
 completely blinded, and we remained for some time in 
 utter ignorance of the sort of den we were in. When at 
 length my vision had in some measure overcome the pun- 
 gency of the smoke and penetrated through its density, 
 I discovered that w^e sat under a huge black goats'-hair 
 tent, sixty feet long and twenty feet broad, supported in 
 the centre by poles fourteen feet high. The sides were 
 all pegged closely to the ground, so that the only means 
 
 * I likewise visited Zibliyya in 1854. It appears to be an edifice, measur- 
 ing forty-four paces square at the base, and fifty feet high, raised upon a 
 low mound of similar construction. From the relics discovered around, it 
 probably belongs to the Parthian era. Mr Layard visited Zibliyya in 1851, 
 — the year following the journey above described, — and it is mentioned at 
 l)age 569 of his " Nineveh and Babylon."
 
 86 ARAB LEVEE. 
 
 of exit for the smoke were througli tlie entrance and the 
 wide meshes of the tent itself. Rather less than one- 
 third of the space was partitioned off by a screen of the 
 same black stuff. This was the private apartment of the 
 sheikh and his family, although I could perceive no bright 
 eyes of Araby maids peering at us from behind it. As 
 soon as our seats were taken, numerous dusky forms 
 stalked in, made a haughty salaam, and took their several 
 places in silence on the ground around the fire. It was 
 impossible to resist a smile as we surveyed the group and 
 observed ourselves to be the focus of their attraction. A 
 hundred black eyes, with every expression from utter 
 astonishment to utter rascality, stared at us uninter- 
 ruptedly, from fifty heads, stretched forward from the 
 bodies to which they severally belonged, the better to 
 examine our strange physiognomies and still stranger 
 garments. Each soon began to make personal remarks 
 in a whisper to his neighbour, or expressed them openly 
 for the benefit of the assembled divan. Never had I 
 before seen such a levee of savages — villany, deceit, and 
 crime appeared to be the distinguishing characteristics of 
 their features. This is the result of oppression. How 
 different were these Madan Arabs from the free and 
 noble Bedouin, who treats the Turkish pasha as an 
 equal ! 
 
 My first visit to a large Arab tent prepossessed me in 
 favour neither of Arab cleanliness nor of Arab hospitality, 
 as the event will shew. In due time there appeared a 
 nearly naked black slave, with legs and arms so lengthy 
 and disproportioned that he might have been a resusci- 
 tated figure from the temples of Rameses or Amenophis ! 
 Stalking up to the fire, he commenced the important 
 operation of preparing coffee. He first arranged in line a 
 series of coffee-pots, of every size from the great grand- 
 father of coffee-pots, black with age and fire, to the
 
 COFFEE-MAKING. 87 
 
 infant coffee-pot just made, and bright from the hands of 
 the tinman. Then came the j^f^^ter-familias — a huge old 
 fellow, wrapped up in the most careful manner in an old 
 piece of abba stuff. As the kawaji unwound the nume- 
 rous dirty folds, I was at a loss to conceive the meaning 
 of all this care, but it eventually proved that pater- 
 familias was the receptacle into which were collected the 
 dregs and leavings of all the great coffee drinkings of the 
 Kerbiil tribe from time immemorial. This was placed 
 on the fire, and the operator, in the most theatrical 
 manner, then bared his arms and legs, tucked his abba 
 under him, and commenced the scientific process of roast- 
 ing and pounding. A large iron utensil, having some 
 relationship to a gigantic spoon on three legs, was next 
 produced, and also put upon the fire. The negro then 
 thrust his hand into some inscrutable corner of his robe 
 and drew forth a small bag, from which he extracted 
 two handfuls of coffee-berries, looking round at the same 
 time, as much as to say, " You observe they're genuine 
 Mocha!" These he threw into the capacious spoon, and 
 continually turned them over with a flat shovel until the 
 aromatic flavour, permeating through the tent to the olfac- 
 tories of every person present, pronounced them to be 
 duly roasted. Then the berries were pounded in a wooden 
 mortar with a copper pestle — and here it was that the 
 negro exhibited his skill, as he rang out various notes in 
 the most scientific and artistic manner from the rude 
 instruments on which he performed. When sufiiciently 
 pulverized, the coffee was confided to the gTcat grand- 
 father of pots, and a quantity of the delectable fluid 
 above mentioned was poured upon it. Then all the 
 family of coffee-pots took their turn at boiling it until 
 the infant in his juvenile brightness had performed his 
 part, and the negro skeleton advanced to present a cup 
 of the beverage for my consideration.
 
 88 USE OF MEDICINE. 
 
 The behaviour of the sheikh was, however, so extraor- 
 dinary during all the above process, that it was evident 
 we were not welcome guests. From the time of our arrival, 
 he kept giving a continued succession of orders to his ser- 
 vants, in an unpleasant manner and flustering voice, turning 
 his back most uncivilly upon his guests, and scarcely deign- 
 ing to answer the few questions which were addressed to 
 him. In order to shew we were aware of his incivility, 
 and also offended by it, we rose when the coffee was handed, 
 took a haughty leave of the astonished sheikh, and retired 
 to our tents, which were by that time ready for our recep- 
 tion. This movement had the desired effect. ^Ve had 
 scarcely reached our tents when, as anticipated, the sheikh 
 followed. He was received very coldly, and scarcely 
 received a reply to his oft-repeated question — " Wallah ! 
 Beg, what is the matter '? " At last he added, " I hope 
 you are not offended. I should not have treated you so 
 ill, but I did not understand who you were ! " He then 
 begged us to forget what had occurred, and to take 
 coffee with him, which was brought before he received a 
 reply. Having reduced the uncivil fellow to reason, it 
 was unnecessary to take further notice of the intentional 
 insult we had received. I therefore accepted his coffee ; 
 after which he became communicative, and endeavoured 
 to make himself agreeable. 
 
 He was not long in asking if either of us were an 
 hekim, or doctor, and if we possessed any medicine. His 
 gross body had an enormous boil on an indescribable 
 portion of his carcass, for which he required some remedy, 
 and begged so energetically, that I at length agreed to give 
 him a blue pill and a dose of rhubarb, but I quite forgot 
 to see him swallow the former. Most jDrobably it was 
 wrapped in a dirty rag, and laid aside among his treasures 
 until some of his friends might be ill, when, whether the 
 malady were fever or cholera, a spear wound or dysentery,
 
 LED A DANCE. 89 
 
 the sheikh would produce his supposed talisman for all 
 ills, and, possibly, kill his patient. 
 
 As to our visiting NifFar, he recommended our going 
 forward to the next encampment of the Affej tribe, which 
 was nearer to the ruins ; but, as I was desirous of spending 
 New Year's day on the mounds, I endeavoured to persuade 
 him to furnish us with guides. After presenting various 
 obstacles, he at length agreed that his son and four horse- 
 men should accompany us. There was no further cause, 
 for the night at least, to complain of incivility or Avant of 
 attention. Ourselves, servants, and animals were supplied 
 with every requisite which an Arab camp can furnish. 
 
 The New Year of 1850 was ushered in with a fog 
 so dense that the sheikh again endeavoured to dissuade 
 us from our purpose, but, being determined on the sub- 
 ject, we started as arranged overnight. We rode for about 
 an hour, while the sheikh's son continually urged me to 
 give up my visit till another opportunity, and I began to 
 suspect that he never intended we should reach Niffar. 
 I was at length confirmed in this view by discovering oui 
 own tracks on the ground, and that we had been led 
 a complete circuit round Sheikh Said's camp ! I was 
 naturally highly incensed at this conduct, and, on the 
 guides declaring it impossible to reach the ruins and return 
 before dark, I required them to conduct me to Shkyer, 
 the abode of a sheikh of that name, brother of Aggab, 
 chief of the Affej. I had afterwards reason to know that 
 Sheikh Said was at feud with the tribes between his camp 
 and Niffar : hence his great unwillingness to aid us in 
 visitinsf the ruins. On reachino; within half a mile of 
 Shkyer, our guides left us to introduce ourselves to the 
 amphibious inhabitants of the Affej marshes. 
 
 Hitherto our journey had been through the districts of 
 the Zobeid Arabs and their tributaries. Their chief, who 
 farmed the revenues for the pasha, boasted of a Turkish
 
 90 THE WADf BEY. 
 
 title to his name, and was called the Wadi Bey. In con- 
 sequence, however, of his oppressive conduct and extor- 
 tionate demands, the tribes over whom he ruled — for they 
 included others besides the Zobeid — were continually in 
 rebellion. They complained, and with justice, that the 
 Wadi robbed them and debauched their families, leaving 
 neither food nor honour for themselves. In making 
 known their complaints to the pasha, they exclaimed, 
 "Send soldiers, slay us, cut off our heads, we will not 
 obey him any longer." In consequence of these com- 
 plaints, the Wadi Bey had recently been deposed by Abdi 
 Pasha, and was then in prison at Miisseib to' answer the 
 charges brought against him. It was generally under- 
 stood that the pasha intended taking the government of 
 the tribes into his own hands — an arrangement which 
 appeared to be perfectly satisfactory to the iU-used Arabs. 
 Great jealousy and mistrust reigned, however, among the 
 various neighbouring tribes during the interregnum, and 
 it was on this account that the son of Sheikh Said refused 
 to accompany us into the village of Shkyer. Before reach- 
 ing it, we exjDerienced the awkwardness of travelling 
 among marshes. Our animals were slipping and sliding 
 about, out of one buffalo track into another, and had the 
 greatest difficulty in keeping on their feet. An hour's 
 scrambling in this way at length brought us to the village, 
 where we were honourably and hospitably received by 
 the aged Sheikh Shkyer and his numerous sons.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Tlie Mighty Marsh — The Reed-Palace — Shooting-Match — Niffar — 
 Theory on the Chaldaeans — Probable Ethiopic Origin — Niffiir the 
 Primitive Calneh, and Probable Site of the Tower of Babel — Beni 
 Eechab, the Rechabites of Scripture. 
 
 We had now reached the commencement of those 
 immense marshes which extend almost uninterruptedly 
 to the Persian Gulf, and which, as I have previously said, 
 cause the country under their influence to be a complete 
 terra incog^iita. The swamps occupied by the Affej 
 Arabs stretch, during the low season, from the Euphrates 
 on the west, into the very heart of the Jezireh, and in 
 some places even join those of the Tigris. It is impos- 
 sible to state their area ; but it is calculated that they 
 support a population of 3000 families, who pay an annual 
 tribute of 100,000 piastres (above £900) to the Pasha of 
 Baghdad. Abdi Pasha, however, thinking they were able 
 to bear a considerable increase of taxation, proposed to 
 double the above sum for the following year. The Affej 
 were in no small state of fermentation and alarm — com- 
 plaining bitterly of the treatment they had at various 
 times received from the authorities of Baghdad. Nedjib 
 Pasha had thrice blown their fragile towns about their 
 ears with cannon. These consist entirely of reed huts, 
 the reeds being tied in large bundles, and neatly arched 
 overhead. This primitive construction is covered exter- 
 nally with thick matting, impervious to rain. The riches
 
 92 THE MtJTHIF. 
 
 of the AfFej are indicated by rows of huge reed cylin- 
 drical baskets, containing the grain upon which they 
 subsist. Rice is produced in great abundance along the 
 edges of the marsh ; but the whole of their fields were, 
 at the season of our visit and for a third of the year, 
 entirely under water. Communication is kept up, as on 
 the marshes of the Hindieh, by means of long, sharp, 
 pointed terradas, constructed of teak, and measuring 
 twelve or fourteen feet long, by a yard in width. The 
 AfFej tribe is divided into two nearly equal parts, governed 
 by two brothers, Aggab and Shkyer — the former being 
 the accredited head of the whole. " , 
 
 We were conducted to the muthif, or reception-hut of 
 the chief, which resembled the other habitations of the 
 place, but was of gigantic size, forty feet long, and eighteen 
 feet high. It boasted the almost fabulous ao-e for a reed 
 building (if the Arabs might be credited) of no less than 
 half a century, and appeared likely to last as lo7ig again, 
 but its interior was black with soot and smoke from the 
 fire which invariably burned under the arch, and had no 
 means of exit but the entrance facing the marsh. After 
 sitting a short time in this primitive palace, the sheikh 
 himself, an old man of seventy on crutches, came to wel- 
 come us ; three of his sons having, in the interim, done 
 the honours of hospitality. The manly and open counte- 
 nances of the AfFej are remarkably striking, and differ so 
 much from those of the Zobeid that they are at once pi'o- 
 nounced to be of another orioin. Their rich scarlet dresses 
 — for the AfFej are great dandies — and brightly stri^Ded 
 kefFiehs produced a remarkably brilliant and gay scene as 
 they sat with their backs against the sides of the long 
 milthif. The manners of the AfFej are much more prepos- 
 sessing and polished than the other tribes of the Jezireh. 
 
 In approaching the reed town, along the edge of the 
 marsh, my companion had dismounted to shoot a fran-
 
 MtJBAREE. 93 
 
 colin, and his fame as a flying-sliot spread far and near. 
 Sucli a prodigy had never before been seen among the 
 AfFej marshes. The double-barrelled gun was handed 
 round the miithif, and examined amid exclamations of 
 surprise and delight ; but the percussion caps were a 
 complete puzzle to the whole assemblage. The springs of 
 the powder-flask and shot-belt were equally a source of 
 astonishment. A shooting-match was proposed ; and 
 shortly afterwards, Churchill and Mohammed, the sheikh's 
 eldest son, were skimming about on the marsh in a narrow 
 terrada, the depth of the water generally not exceeding 
 three feet. The Eno;lishman fired six times to the Arab's 
 once, amidst rounds of applause and loud clapping of 
 hands. The powder and shot of the latter were separately 
 weighed in a rude scale, from one end of which was sus- 
 pended a piece of lead, and from the other a hollow reed 
 closed at one extremity ; the process of loading his heavy 
 unwieldy gun was therefore long and tedious ; and the 
 result of his day's sport anything but satisfactory to his 
 self-esteem. The wondrous performance of my fellow- 
 traveller spread far and near ; and, four years afterwards, 
 they reminded me of the manner in which he brought 
 down the flying birds. The shooting-match is a subject 
 of conversation to this day. 
 
 In the course of the day our guide, Miibarek, who, it 
 will be remembered, was engaged to conduct us and 
 secure our safety during the journey, was recognized by 
 the Arabs couching in a dark corner of one of the tents, 
 as a Bedouin thief, notorious for stealing by night. His 
 tribe, too, was at blood-feud with the Affej. Had it not 
 been that he was attached to my party, his life would 
 have paid the penalty of his temerity in venturing among 
 his enemies. Well knowing this, he did not therefore 
 dare to shew his face outside the tent all the time of my 
 stay at Shkyer.
 
 94 DIFFICULTIES. 
 
 It is altogether beyond the comprehension of an Arab 
 that a person should travel several days for the mere 
 purpose of gratifying his curiosity by the sight of an 
 ancient mound — they are always under the impression 
 that a search for treasure is the true but concealed object ; 
 and it is next to an utter impossibility to shake this 
 belief. 
 
 From some cause or other, the ruins of Niffar appear 
 to be an object of peculiar dread to the Arabs ; the 
 inhabitants of Shkyer exhibited the same disinclina- 
 tion to accompany us as Sheikh Said's people had pre- 
 viously done. Before quitting Baghdad, I had been 
 warned that difficulties of every kind would be thrown 
 in my way, and that I should be very fortunate in suc- 
 ceeding. After a long conversation to no purpose, I 
 declared my determination to set out for Niffar alone, if 
 the sheikh would not oblige me by sending a guide. It 
 was thereon arranged that his second son, Bulath, and 
 a few horsemen of the tribe, should be ready at day- 
 dawn. 
 
 We were up betimes on the following morning, but 
 the promised escort was by no means ready. It was then 
 for the first time explained that the whole tribe could not 
 muster more than three horses — buffaloes they had in 
 plenty, but they were not available for such a ride as was 
 before us. It was therefore necessary to accommodate 
 them with our own animals ; and at length, after consi- 
 derable delay, the party started from the village. The 
 expedition consisted of ourselves, young Sheikh Billath, 
 two servants, six Bashi Baziiks, and six Arabs. The 
 road being, as a matter of course, pronounced insecure, 
 we were armed to the teeth, and might easily have been 
 mistaken for a plundering party, instead of antiquarians 
 on our way to visit an old ruined city. Once free from 
 the mud and water of the marshes, we hastened over the
 
 THE NIL. 95 
 
 plain at a merry rate, in order to liave time at the mounds. 
 We were assured that the way was long, and truly so we 
 found it. In order to avoid the marsh on the south of 
 us, it was necessary to make a detour of at least seven- 
 teen miles. Several considerable mounds, and various 
 old canals, were crossed — one of which, bearing directly 
 from Zibliyya, was of considerable size, and must have 
 been a main stream. It was called Derb-el-Jababara,'''' 
 or "the Giant's road." The Euphrates is described by 
 the Arab historian, Abiil-Fedah, as in his time striking 
 off from the modern channel immediately above the 
 mound of Babel at Babylon. Its sunken bed may still 
 be traced on the west of the red pile of El Heimar, which 
 some authors include within the circumference of the 
 great city of Nebuchadnezzar. Its course terminated in 
 the Tigris above Kut-el-'Amara, the ancient Apamea. A 
 main artery, derived from the old Euphrates near the 
 city of Niliyya, flowed southwards towards NifFar. Its 
 channel is now, however, lost in the marshes at the base of 
 the mounds, but is again traceable near Warka. The waters 
 had but recently retired from the surface of the desert, 
 and our horses sank deep into the soft and yielding soil.t 
 On approaching a hollow among the ruins, we came 
 suddenly upon two or three Zobeid shepherds and their 
 flocks, who, notwithstanding the assurance of our friendly 
 disposition, made a precipitate retreat to their distant 
 tents. 
 
 As Niffar is supposed to stand upon the northern con- 
 fines of Chaldfea, it will not be out of place here to give 
 
 * The word "jabbar," or "giant." is the particular title used in the 
 Hebrew Scripture as applied to Nimrod. The name occurring at Niffar is 
 an additional reason why the reputed antiquity of the site should be re- 
 garded as authentic. 
 
 t The best approach to Niffar is from the Tigris, on which side the 
 ground is firm ; but the distance is great, and the desert entirely with- 
 out water. Sir Henry Eawlinson, I believe, twice visited Niffar from that 
 direction, and placed it in latitude 32° ?' 3" N.
 
 96 THE CHALDEANS. 
 
 briefly an account of its early inhabitants, and their 
 origin — as far, at least, as our present knowledge con- 
 cerning them will admit of. The Chaldseans are alluded 
 to in the Bible under various conflicting denominations. 
 At one time they are spoken of as colonists ; "' at another 
 as priests and astrologers ; t and, lastly, as a conquering 
 nation from the north.J Hence has arisen a diversity of 
 opinion as to who and what they were. 
 
 The recent researches made in the interpretation of 
 the primitive cuneiform inscriptions have led to the not 
 inconsistent belief, that, in the earliest ages previous to 
 the historic period (which commenced with the empire oi 
 Nimrod), the region on the north of the Persian Gulf was 
 probably inhabited by a Semitic race, which was gra- 
 dually dispossessed by a powerful stream of invasion or 
 colonization from the south. The Hamitic or Scythic 
 element, which prevails in the most ancient cuneiform 
 records throughout Babylonia and Susiana, points to 
 Ethiopia as the mother country of the new settlers. 
 They appear to have crossed the Bed Sea and the penin- 
 sula of Arabia, leavins; traces of their mioTation alonej 
 the shores of the Persian Gulf. In the language of the 
 inscriptions, they are called "Akkadim" — a name pre- 
 served in one of their cities, the Accad of Genesis — and 
 their first settlements are concluded to have been Erech 
 and Ur, the modern sites of which are represented by 
 the ruins of Warka and Miigeyer. The existence of a 
 Hamite race in this region is confirmed by Herodotus,§ 
 who distinguishes the Eastern Ethiopians of Asia from 
 the Western Ethiopians of Africa by the straight hair of 
 the former and the curly hair of the latter. Homer || 
 speaks of them as "a divided race — the last of men — 
 
 * Genesis xi. 31 ; xii. 1-4 ; xv. 7. t Daniel i. 4 ; ii. 2 ; iv. 7 ; v. 7-11. 
 X Jer. X. 22 ; Hab. i. 6, &c. § Book vii. 69, 70. 
 
 II Odysa., i. 22.
 
 THEORY RESPECTING THE CHALDEANS. 97 
 
 some of tliem at the extreme west, and others at the 
 extreme east." Memnon, who aided Priam against the 
 Greeks at the siege of Troy, is mentioned as an Ethiopian ; 
 but his seat of empire was at Susa, which was called, 
 after him, " the Memnonium." 
 
 In the name of Kudur-Mapula, who had the title of 
 " ravager of Syria," Sir Henry Eawlinson identifies the 
 Chedorlaomer of Scripture.'"" In his father's name, Sinti- 
 Shil-Khah, and in that of TirBiak on the Susa records, 
 the last element, hhak, is in all probability the hah or hyc 
 of the shepherd-kings who overran Lower Egypt B.C. 
 2084. 
 
 These coincidences are, to say the least, very extra- 
 ordinary, and certainly denote a common origin between 
 the Chaldseans of Scriptiu^e and the Eastern Ethiopians. 
 
 At this distance of time it is, of course, impossible to 
 define the original limits of Chaldsea, but it seems probable 
 that, from a minute settlement at first, the dominion of 
 the Chaldees extended over the loAver plains of the great 
 rivers into the mountains of Elymais and Media, Hamitic 
 dialects being recognised in the rock inscriptions of Mai 
 Amir in Persia, westward to Malatia in the centre of 
 Asia Minor, and as far north as the lakes of Van and 
 Urumia. 
 
 With the rise of the Assyrian power in the thir- 
 teenth century B.C., the Semitic races appear to have in 
 turn gained the ascendency, and spread over the low 
 countries ; at the same time, the language gradually 
 acquired a Semitic character, but still maintained an ad- 
 mixture of Hamitic roots. Into the mountainous region, 
 however, the Semites found difficulty in penetrating, and 
 it is doubtless to the Hamites still dwelling there, retain- 
 ing aU their warlike propensities, and constituting the 
 flower of the Babylonian army, that the Jewish Scriptures 
 
 * Genesis siv,. 
 G
 
 ^8 THE CUNEIFORM CHARACTER. 
 
 refer when they say, " I will bring evil from the north, 
 and a great destruction,"""' meaning the destruction of 
 Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, "king of the Chaldees."t 
 
 But it is in a more restricted sense that Isaiah J alludes 
 to " the Chaldeans, whose cry is in their ships" — a people 
 of aquatic habits and maritime position, agreeing well 
 with the descriptions given by Ptolemy § and Strabo, || of 
 a people bordering on Arabia and the Persian Gulf, and 
 into the marshes of whose territories, according to Pliny, t 
 the Tigris emptied itself in its course to the sea. From 
 these authorities we are led to conclude, that Chaldsea 
 Proper extends from about the latitude of HiUah to the 
 Persian Gulf, xnd from the verge of the great Arabian 
 deserts on the ivest, across the plains and marshes of tbe 
 Mesopotamian rivers, to the parallel of Hawiza: on the 
 confines of ancient Susiana. 
 
 With regard to the language of this early people, 
 whether we call them Hamites, Scyths, or Chaldees, I 
 cannot do better than quote from the writer of an inte- 
 resting article in a recent periodical : ''''""" — 
 
 " They were in reality the inventors of the cuneiform 
 character, having first made rude pictures of natural 
 objects, after the manner of hieroglyphs, which in pro- 
 cess of time assumed the form of letters, possessing a 
 phonetic power, and having some correspondence with 
 the title of the original object which they were intended 
 to represent. It seems likely that this alphabet had been 
 in use at least a thousand years before it was employed 
 to represent the sounds of a language like the Assyrian, 
 difiering wholly in structure and character from that for 
 which it was originally invented. Hence it happened, 
 that -when the Semitic people began to make this use of 
 
 • Jer. iv. 6. t 2 Chron. xxxvi. 17. X Chap, xliii. 14. 
 
 § Book vi. 20. II Book i. 4. 1 Book vi. 27. 
 
 ** Nctice of Colonel Rawlinson's researches in " The Monthly Review of 
 Literature, Science, and Art," vol. i. page 45.
 
 CHALDEAN ASTKONOMY. 99 
 
 it, they found it necessary to retain the old Scythic values 
 of the letters, and therefore only modified the existing 
 alphabet in such a manner as to give to each character 
 the power which belonged to the Semitic synonym for 
 the original Scythic term." The science of Assyria, even 
 to the latest times, appears to have been recorded in the 
 old Hamite language, so that the acquisition of this 
 tongue was regarded as an essential part of Assyrian 
 education. 
 
 At the present day, it is well known there are some 
 tribes in the highlands of Kurdistan called KaldanI, or 
 Chaldseans, who profess Christianity, and are a brave, 
 hardy race. One theory concerning their origin is, that 
 they are the descendants of the original inhabitants of 
 Chaldaea, who were driven into those fastnesses by the 
 after-spread of the Semitic races.'"* 
 
 The original colonists are, it is supposed, alluded to by 
 Moses under the name of "Nimrod," which signifies 
 " those who are found," or, " the settlers." Their Hamitic 
 descent is confirmed by the application of the name Cush 
 (the father of Nimrod), under various modifications, to 
 different sites in the territory north and east of Baby- 
 lonia — for instance, Sh\lsh, Cutha, Kiishasdan, Shiister, 
 Cossoea, &c. 
 
 The frequent mention of the Chaldseans as priests and 
 astrologers may be accounted for by their having brought 
 with them, in their migration, a knowledge of the sciences 
 at that time far advanced in Egypt. Hence it was that 
 
 * The various theories advanced concerning the Chaldseans have been so 
 frequently quoted in other recent works, that I refrain from a repetition of 
 them in this volume. The reader may, therefore, be referred to Baillie 
 Fraser's " Mesopotamia and Assyria," and Vaux's valuable resum^ of mo- 
 dern discoveries, entitled " Nineveh and Persepolis." The discussion in 
 detail will be found in Faber's "Origin of Pagan Idolatry," Beke's "Origines 
 Biblicse," Bochart's " Geographia Sacra," Dr Grant's " Lost Tribes," and 
 Ainsworth's reply, MichaeUa' " Specim. Geograph. Hebrseor. Ext.," Layard'a 
 " Nineveh," &c. &c.
 
 100 NIFFAR. 
 
 there existed at Bahylon in tlie time of Alexander the 
 Great a record of eclipses which had taken place from the 
 year 2234 B.C.'" — a date nearly corresponding with that 
 assigned to the commencement of Nimrod's empire as 
 given in the marginal references of our Scriptures. We 
 are also told by Strabo,t that the Chaldseans had two 
 schools for the study of astronomy ; whence the learned 
 men were called Borsippeni and Orchoeni, 
 
 A further proof of the Eg}^otian origin of the Chal- 
 dees is derived from the fact, that, in addition to the 
 ordinary lunar year, they made use of a solar one for as- 
 tronomical purposes, wliich was divided, aftei? the manner 
 of the Egyptians, into montlily sections. The adoration 
 of the heavenly bodies, which we know to have prevailed 
 among the Hamite tribes, appears to have introduced a 
 system of polytheism among the Semites, whose religion 
 in its primitive state consisted in the worship of one 
 supreme and omniscient Creator. This subject is not, 
 however, one for me to investigate. 
 
 It may not l^e uninteresting at this point to state the 
 opinion of Sir Henry Rawliuson on the important ruins ot 
 Niffar. He considers that " the names of the eiglit primeval 
 cities, preserved in the tenth chapter of Genesis, are not 
 intended to denote capitals then actually built and named, 
 but rather to point out the localities where the first colo- 
 nies were established by titles which became famous 
 under the empire, and which were thus alone familiar to 
 the Jews." He regards the site of Niffar as the primitive 
 Calneh — the capital of the whole region. It was dedi- 
 cated to Belus, and was called the city of Belus. Hence 
 he concludes that this was the true site of the Tower of 
 Babel ; and that from it originated the Babylon of Nebu- 
 chadnezzar, on the banks of the Euphrates, at Hillah. The 
 existing remains were built by the earliest king of whom 
 
 * On the authority of BerosuB. t Book xvi. 739.
 
 RUINS OP NIFFAR. 101 
 
 we have any cuneiform monuments, about 2300 B.C., but 
 whose name cannot be read with certainty. It was then 
 called Tel Anu, from the god Anu, our scriptural Noah, 
 who was worshipped there under the form of the Fish 
 God Oannes, of whom we have representations on the 
 bas-reliefs of Nineveh ; the name Nifhir was subse- 
 quently given to it. The old titles were retained when 
 the Talmud was composed, the writers of which say that 
 Calneh was NifFar, and they call the place Nineveh ; but 
 the Nineveh of Assyria was certainly at Mosul — "Out 
 of that land went forth Ashur and builded Nineveh.""^'' 
 
 The present aspect of NifFar is that of a lofty platform 
 of earth and rubbish, divided into two nearly equal parts 
 by a deep channel — apparently the bed of a river — about 
 120 feet wide. Nearly in the centre of the eastern por- 
 tion of this platform are the remains of a brick tower of 
 early construction, the dehris of which constitutes a conical 
 mound rising seventy feet above the plain. This is a 
 conspicuous object in the distance, and exhibits, where 
 the brick-work is exposed, oblong perforations similar to 
 those seen at the Birs Nimriid, and other edifices of the 
 Babylonian age. The western division of the platform 
 has no remarkable feature, except that it is strewed with 
 fragments of pottery, and other relics of a later period 
 than the tower above alluded to. At the distance of a 
 few hundred yards on the east of the ruins, may be dis- 
 tinctly traced a low continuous mound — the remains, 
 probably, of the external wall of the ancient city. As to 
 the obelisk, the particular object of my visit, the Arabs 
 positively declared that there was one, but none of them 
 had seen it, or could indicate its position in the mounds. 
 
 * For the above notices on the origin of the Chaldaeans and early history 
 of NifFar, I am mainly indebted to Sir Henry Eawlinson's numerous me- 
 moirs, contained in the publications of the Royal Asiatic Society, in the 
 " Proceedings of the Royal Geogr. Society for 1856," p. 47, and pages of the 
 " Athenaeum."
 
 102 BENf RECHAB. 
 
 It is unnecessary to dwell at greater length on these 
 ruins, because Mr Layard has given a detailed account 
 of his researches there in 1851.'"' I myself visited NifFar 
 a second time in 1854, when his trenches were scarcely 
 recognizable — in a year or two more they will be entirely 
 filled up with drifted sand. Although no very remarkable 
 discovery has yet been made at NifFar, it cannot be 
 regarded as thoroughly explored ; and the extensive area 
 of the ruins encourages the hope that at some future 
 period excavations may be successfully resumed. 
 
 On the west and south of Niffar there extends a region 
 of marshes, hitherto un visited — a complete chain otnatural 
 defences for the wild Madan Arabs, who dwell among 
 them upon the slightly elevated ridges which at inter- 
 vals raise their heads above the inundation. It is entirely 
 owing to the presence of these swamps that the tribes 
 in the interior are so little under the dominion of the 
 Turkish Government. Joining to the AfFej district are 
 the territories of the Beni Eechab,t whose independent 
 chief, named the Amir or Prince, claims descent from the 
 original possessors of the soil. He is the sworn ally of 
 the great Muntefik sheikh ; and when that tribe is at war, 
 the followers of the Amir, with their long muskets, fight 
 side by side with those of the modern King of the Arabs. 
 The Beni Eechab are a remarkable race, and in them we 
 may probably recognize the descendants of the Rechab- 
 ites, who, in the days of Jehoiakim, King of Judah, were 
 made an example to the Jews of a people who, unlike the 
 chosen race, obeyed the precepts of their forefathers. 
 When wine was placed before them in the temple by 
 Jeremiah, they refused to partake of it, saying, " Thus 
 have we obeyed the voice of Jonadab the son of Eechab 
 our father in all that he charged us, to drink no 
 
 * " Nineveh and Baloylon," chap. xxiv. 
 t Literally, " sons of the stirrup."
 
 THE RECHABITfiS. 103 
 
 wine all our days, we, our wives, our sons, nor our 
 daughters ; nor to build houses for us to dweU in : 
 neither have we vineyard, nor field, nor seed : but we 
 have dwelt in tents, and have obeyed, and done accord- 
 ing to all that Jonadab our father commanded us. But 
 it came to pass, when Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon 
 came up into the land, that we said. Come, and let us go 
 to Jerusalem for fear of the army of the Chaldeans, and 
 for fear of the army of the Syrians : so we dwell at Jeru- 
 salem/' ■^'* 
 
 It is by no means improbable that at the taking of 
 Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar a few years later, the 
 Eechabites were oblio;ed to follow the fallen fortunes of 
 their allies the Jews, and that the Chaldsean marshes 
 were assigned to them as a residence in the land of their 
 conquerors.t Their descendants are still to be found in 
 the same locality, but instead of being a dependent, they 
 have become an independent race. But whatever may 
 have been the result of their intercourse with the Jews, 
 the observance of their ancient customs remains un- 
 changed, like that of all the wild Arab hordes. There is 
 not sufficient proof, in the name alone, that the modern 
 tribe of Beni Eechab are the Eechabites of the Scriptures, 
 but the tradition of their early possession of the country, 
 the title of Ainlr so unusually applied' to an Arab chief 
 of this region, and the peculiarity of feature which distin- 
 guishes the tribe, certainly afford some ground for the 
 opinion here advanced. 
 
 The Beni Eecliab are extremely jealous of strangers, as 
 I once experienced, and it is not safe to venture among 
 them without the Amir's protection. In countenance they 
 
 * Jer. XXXV. 8-11. 
 
 t Whether these Beni Rechdb are related to the tribe of the same name 
 whom the Jewish traveller, Benjamin of Tudela, mentions as dwelling in 
 the deserts of Yemen, and observing the precepts of the Talmud, I am 
 unable to say. They may be divisions of the same tribe.
 
 104 BISMYA AND PHARA. 
 
 bear a strong resemblance to the Jews, and may easily be 
 distinguished from the surrounding Arab tribes ; I am not 
 aware, however, that they have any traditions of a former 
 connexion with the Jewish nation. Unlike their aflable 
 neighbours of the Affej, they are sullen and morose, un- 
 willing to give information, and infinitely more addicted 
 to plunder than to any other occupation. The sway of 
 the Amir extends from the Afiej southwards to near the 
 mounds of Hammam hereafter mentioned, and as far 
 east as the Tigris, along the banks of which he exacts 
 black-mail from all native vessels plying between Baghdad 
 and Busrah, although he himself pays no tribute to the 
 Turkish Government. 
 
 Amono' the marshes of the Beni Eechab are several 
 important ruins, of which Bismya, distant about twenty- 
 five miles south-east of NifFar, is the most remarkable. 
 These two ancient sites, however, are separated by a 
 great extent of marsh, so that Bismya is still unex- 
 plored. I have seen it at the distance of about ten 
 miles, and, from its low but spreading outline, I believe 
 it to be of very ancient origin. This form is, for the 
 most part, common to mounds of remote age in Chaldsea, 
 and proves that after-generations have not built upon the 
 older remains. 
 
 Phara is another of the Beni Eechab mounds, abound- 
 ing in small antiques, such as signet-cylinders, rude 
 bronzes, and figures carved in stone. According to the 
 Amir, such articles " flow like water " from the mound. 
 It is consequently much resorted to by antique-hunters, 
 who find a ready sale for their treasures among the 
 Europeans at Baghdad. At Phara I obtained a very 
 interesting Egyptian amulet.
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 Diwaniyya — Camp of Abdi Pasha — Mulla 'All, tlie Merry Ogre — Sheep- 
 skin Rafts — Statue-huntiiig — Hamraam — Solemn Grandeur of Chal- 
 dsean Paiins — The Statue — Tel Ede — ^Alarm of the Arabs — Fkst 
 Impressions of Warka. 
 
 After a minute inspection of the ruins of NifFar, we 
 returned to Slikyer, whicli we reached before sunset. 
 
 Had it not been that we were the bearers of letters 
 to Abdi Pasha, who was then at Diwaniyya, I should 
 have made an effort to penetrate through the Beni 
 Rechab. As it was, however, our course lay south-east- 
 ward from Shkyer, encountering considerable difficulties 
 by the way. The marsh was wide, and, although not 
 generally deep, intersected by numerous streamlets from 
 the Euphrates, which rendered the passage of the horses 
 and baggage-mules no easy task. Sheikh Shkyer under- 
 took that some of his people should conduct them by a 
 circuitous route, so as to avoid the main inundation, 
 but they were still obliged to ford in three feet water 
 for an hour, and to swim across the deeper streams. 
 The baggage and saddles were conveyed with ourselves 
 in terraclas through the open marsh and straight long 
 lanes or ditches of reeds, only sufficiently wide to admit 
 of two boats passing each other. The reeds formed walls 
 on either side to the height of twelve or fourteen feet, 
 and excluded every breath of pure air. 
 
 The animals having at length joined us, we mounted,
 
 106 THE PASHAS LABOURS. 
 
 and traversed some groves of fine tamarisks to the little 
 hamlet of Yiisufiyya, surrounded by date-trees, upon the 
 left bank of an important trunk stream of the same name. 
 This canal, derived from the Euphrates a few miles above 
 the town of DIwanl}ya, conveys a deep flow of water into 
 the interior for the purposes of irrigation in those locali- 
 ties where the elevation of the land is uninfluenced by 
 the rise or fall of the marshes. The Yiisufiyya, at about 
 seventeen miles from its source, is divided into three parts 
 — one of which, called the Shat-el-Kahr, falls into the 
 marshes of the Shat-el-Hie, at the junction of that branch 
 of the Tigris with the Euphrates. None of these streams 
 are fordable, consequently the depth and width of the 
 Yiisufiyya is considerable. It is crossed in a rude boat at 
 the village, beyond which Diwanlyya is an hour distant. 
 
 Our tents were pitched after sunset above the town, on 
 the left bank of the Euphrates. The pasha, with a camp 
 of 3000 men, was stationed on the opposite side, having 
 just concluded one of those Sisyphian labours, previously 
 mentioned, which each successive governor of Baghdad is 
 obliged to undergo, namely, the reconstruction of the 
 dam at the mouth of the Hindieh. He was now sta- 
 tioned at Diwaniyya for the fourfold purpose of testing 
 the result of his work, of arranging matters consequent 
 on the AVadI Bey's deposition, of curbing the universal 
 disposition to rebel against the Ottoman rule, and, lastly, 
 of collecting arrears of tribute. 
 
 When daylight on the following morning revealed our 
 position, the appearance of tents on the opposite side of 
 the river caused a considerable stir in the camp of His 
 Excellency : for it was beyond the comprehension of 
 the Turks that ordinary travellers could surmount 
 the su})posed insuperable difliculties of the marshes ; 
 and — unless we liad dropped from above — there was no 
 other method by which we could have got there. Mes-
 
 THE FAVOURITE EUNTJCH. 
 
 107 
 
 senger after messenger arrived in kufalis to satisfy the 
 curiosity of their masters concerning the rank, quality, 
 and destination of the new comers. In due time, having 
 previously announced our arrival to the pasha, we crossed 
 the river, and were received on landing by an officer in 
 waiting. Instead, however, of conducting us to the pre- 
 sence of the pasha, he led us — probably bribed to do so 
 — to the tent of MuUa 'Ali, the little eunuch and buffoon, 
 of whom I have abeady spoken as possessing the confi- 
 dence of the governor. His purpose, no doubt, was to 
 satisfy himself on the objects of our journey, and the 
 cause of our visit to the pasha, 
 
 Mulla 'Ali was originally a slave of a former pasha, 
 but his antics and jokes were so efiective that he obtained 
 his freedom, and subse- 
 quently rose high in favour 
 with 'All and Nedjib Pa- 
 shas. It was impossible 
 to guess his age, but, as he 
 sat doubled up on a carpet, 
 covered with a huge furred 
 cloth tunic and an enor- 
 mous dark -green turban, 
 he was one of the most 
 repulsive creatures which 
 the eye could well encoun- 
 ter. His face more resem- 
 bled that of the monkey 
 tribe than anything else 
 I can conceive. His mouth 
 
 stretched nearly from ear to ear, and the latter append- 
 aoes stood out from each side like those of an ass. 
 Teeth he had none, so that his tongue, as if too large for 
 his mouth, frequently lolled out, giving him the appear- 
 ance of an idiot. His face, thin in the extreme, was 
 
 Mulla 'AH.
 
 108 THE FAVOURITE EUNUCH. 
 
 puckered into a thousand wrinkles, the bones projecting, 
 and the skin of the colour and consistency of hard leather. 
 The whole of his features were condensed into an expres- 
 sion of low cunning, cupidity, cruelty, and lust, which no 
 one could behold without shuddering. His character did 
 not belie his appearance. He was at one time made chief 
 over certain Khuzeyl tribes, but his conduct was such that 
 it was found necessary to remove him. Money was his. 
 chief object, and he extorted it without scruple. When 
 he failed by the usual means, he tried torture, and took 
 as much delight in the sufferings of his unfortunate vic- 
 tims as either Nero or Caligula, His favourite punishment 
 was to bury an offender alive with his hands tied, leaving 
 only his shaven head above ground, but this was smeared 
 over with honey to attract reptiles and insects 1 The wretch 
 took his pleasure in frequently going to grin and make 
 faces at the poor victim, who, however, without food, 
 and under an almost vertical sun, was soon relieved by 
 death from the tortures and atrocities he suffered. It is 
 difficult to comprehend how a man so kind and himiane 
 as Aljdi Pasha could consent to the companionship of a 
 creature so ^dle and abominable, but wherever he went, 
 JMulla 'Ali accompanied him, whatever state-matter he 
 had to transact, MuUa ^Ali was consulted. It is true 
 that the eunuch was full of anecdote, and his drolleries 
 made the staid pasha laugh in the midst of the most 
 sober affairs, but that was no excuse for giving coun- 
 tenance to a creature who had lost all human feelings. 
 However gross or insulting the buffoon's jests might be, 
 the paslia was always ready with a hoarse laugh. On 
 one occasion, I remember seeing IMuUa 'All, like a huge 
 toad, publicly spit upon the person of an European gentle- 
 man. The pasha, as usual, exercised his merriment ; but 
 in an instant afterwards looked serious, for it occurred to 
 him that this was a matter beyond a joke.
 
 INTEEVIEW WITH THE PASHA. 109 
 
 This paragon of ugliness and cruelty received liis visi- 
 tors without rising, merely motioning us to be seated on 
 the carpet near him. Salutations and compliments were 
 soon dispensed wdth, by his abruptly demanding in one 
 breath, " where we had come from, where we were going, 
 and what we wanted 1 " The answer appeared to amuse 
 him exceedingly, for he burst forth into an inordinate fit 
 of laughter, in which he was joined by his attendants, who 
 gathered behind their master to ascertain the subject of 
 gossip for the day. A more out-at-heel squad can seldom 
 be seen. Every one grinned from ear to ear, in imitation 
 of their master, at the very idea of two Englizi passing 
 through the Madan country, into which no Turk ever yet 
 dared to venture — being pronounced beyond the pale of 
 the pasha's authority. Midla 'Ali became guinea-yellow 
 with excitement at the bare possibility of such an attempt 
 being successful, and at the greater probability of our 
 being spitted on Arab spears. He told some horrid stories 
 of cruelties perpetrated by the Madan tribes ; but these 
 were so contrary to their nature, that I set them down 
 as instances of his own barbarity. Not finding us dis- 
 posed to believe all he said, he endeavoured to amuse his 
 audience at our expense by turning round and remark- 
 ing : — " What a pleasure it would be to hear that the 
 Arabs had made donkeys of them ! " The reply was, that 
 " if the Arabs did so, he should not," and so we left him 
 huddled up in his furs. 
 
 We found the Pasha of Baghdad sitting on the edge of 
 a high bank overlooking the river, with that expression 
 of utter stolidity which characterizes the Turkish features. 
 Ask a grave old Turkish gentleman what he is thinking 
 about, and his answer will invariably be, " By Allah ! 
 what should I think of 1 Nothing." So, doubtless, Abdi 
 Pasha thought of " nothing" as our approach woke him 
 from the slumber into which his cogitations had fallen.
 
 110 PREPARATIONS AND START. 
 
 He received us graciously, but could by no means com- 
 preliend tlie object of our proposed journey on the easteim 
 side of the Euphrates. As to Warka, or the region where 
 it is situated, although within his own territories, he knew 
 nothing whatever. The official map called for gave no 
 further explanation ; whereupon he seemed to conclude 
 that Warka must be an exceedingly dangerous place, for 
 he remarked in a decided manner, " You cannot go ; I will 
 not be answerable for your safety." Expostulation had 
 little or no effect, and although I repeatedly released him 
 from all responsibility, the same answer was returned — 
 " It is impossible ; you must travel with the troops and 
 animals by way of Semava." Seeing that no good could 
 be effected by reasoning on the absurdity of his fears for 
 our safety, I merely asked for a small party of Bashi 
 Baziiks, in lieu of those who had brought us to Diwaniyya, 
 and firmly stated my intention of continuing my journey 
 as previously arranged at Baghdad. Having done so, I 
 left him biting his lip and wondering at European obsti- 
 nacy. My impression was, that he did not wish strangers 
 to see the little authority he exercised over the tribes. 
 
 During the remainder of the day, the necessary pre- 
 parations were made for entering an unknown region. 
 Several skins were purchased to enable our crossing any 
 streams and marshes which might fall in our way. The 
 services of a Jebur Arab Sheikh, called Mahmild, whose 
 camp lay on our route near the verge of the Amir's terri- 
 tories, were secured ; and, early on the following morning, 
 nothing was wanting but the promised escort. It was 
 some time before the pasha could be prevailed on to con- 
 form to my wishes, but at length sixteen rudely equipped 
 horsemen crossed the river, and we sallied forth from the 
 groves of Diwaniyya in search of novelty and adventure, 
 exulting at the result of continued obstinacy and deter- 
 mination.
 
 PEIMITIVE EAPTS. Ill 
 
 For three days our road lay across a level and un- 
 interesting desert, at times interrupted by a detour to 
 avoid a marsh, or by a halt to cross a broad and deep 
 water-course. In such case the loads were unpacked, 
 and the inflated sheep-skins tied to our tent-poles or 
 branches of tamarisk — thus forming a primitive raft. 
 Reeds were then placed on this framework in order to 
 keep the passengers and luggage dry. In this manner 
 aU were floated across to the opposite side, while the 
 horses and mules swam over. Sometimes, when the 
 stream was very rapid, the kelek or raft was attached 
 to a rope, and prevented from floating down the current. 
 
 One of the most important water-courses was the 
 Fawar, derived from the Yusiifiyya, and terminating in 
 the marshes on the banks of the Euphrates. The Fawar, 
 in its turn, gave ofl" a considerable branch called the 
 Turunjiyya, which supplied some smaU kal'as and the 
 cultivated land adjoining them. The Arab owners, how- 
 ever, declining the payment of their taxes, had endea- 
 voured to shew their independence by destroying a dam 
 so that the water of the Fawar might be transferred 
 to the channel of the Turunjiyya, and subsequently into 
 a marsh surrounding their abodes. Abdl Pasha had sent 
 Mustapha Bey, the kyaya of Baghdad, with a large force 
 to bring these refractory Arabs to reason. His first care 
 was to close the mouth of Turunjiyya with a strong dam 
 of earth and brushwood, and afterwards to attack a fort 
 to which the Arabs retreated. He was successful in his 
 efforts, and took possession of the fort on the very day 
 we passed — the defenders ha^dng decamped during the 
 night, carrying with them all their goods and chattels. 
 
 We crossed the Fawar at the ruins of a modern town 
 caUed Siik-el-Fawar (Fawar Market), once a consider- 
 able and thriving place — the centre of a large district 
 like Suk-esh-Sheioukh. It originally belonged to the
 
 112 OLD KIVER-BED. 
 
 Mimtefik x\ral.)S, and was surrounded at intervals by 
 small martello towers, for defence against more unsettled 
 neighbours. 
 
 I have already had occasion to allude to the effect 
 produced by the destruction of the dam on the Eu- 
 phrates above Babylon, at the mouth of the Hindleh.^' 
 Nowhere is this effect better observed and understood 
 than at Siik-el-Fawar. In consequence of the breaking 
 of that dam about twenty-five years ago, the water 
 deserted the channels and streams on the east of the 
 Euphrates. Siik-el-Fawar, among other places, became 
 a sufferer by the catastrophe, and was soon ^afterwards 
 abandoned. Decaying date-trees, and ruins of well-built 
 mud huts, extend half-a-mile along both sides of the 
 channel, harbouring only wild beasts and reptiles! The 
 pasha's recent work had restored a copious stream to the 
 bed of the Fawar, and water was flowing towards spots 
 which had for many years been without moisture. 
 
 On the third day's journey from Diwanlyya, we reached 
 a deep river-bed, now dry, called by the Arabs " Slikain," 
 or " Es-Sahain," which was said to have also become dry at 
 the same time as the Fawar. The great size of the chan- 
 nel, measuring 270 feet wide by 15 or 20 deep, shews its 
 importance. Whether it had ever been the course of the 
 Eupln-ates, it was difficult to decide on a casual examina- 
 tion. It is by no means improbable that it is a continua- 
 tion of the ancient Nil, previously lost to sight in the 
 marshes of Niffar. At any rate, its course singularly 
 coincides in a'cneral direction with that of the Nil. 
 
 Parallel with our road could be traced the course of 
 the Shat-el-Kahr — a continuation of the Yusiifiyya — 
 here and there indicated on our east by a mud fort or 
 enclosure. Numerous small mounds, too, began to spring 
 up in advancing southward, while the path was constantly 
 
 * Seo page 44.
 
 GRANDEUR OF CHALDEAN RUINS. 113 
 
 strewed with fragments of bricks and pottery. It was 
 evident that we were approaching the seats of ancient 
 civiHzation, and the neighbourhood of once populous 
 cities. The further we proceeded, the more clearly was 
 this manifested. 
 
 Our new guide, M4hmud, having mentioned the exist- 
 ence of a large statue at a ruin named Hammam,''^ I deter- 
 mined on directing our course to the east of the road we 
 were pursuing, in order to ascertain the truth of his 
 account, because little reliance can usually be placed on 
 Arab information upon such points. After passing several 
 coni=?i'lerable mounds on either side, we at length, before 
 sunrise on the morning of the fourth day's ride from 
 Diwanlyya, caught a glimpse of the goal we sought. 
 
 I know of nothing more exciting or impressive than 
 the first sight of one of those great Chaldsean piles loom- 
 ing in solitary grandeur from the surrounding plains and 
 marshes. A thousand thoughts and surmises concern- 
 ing its past eventful history and origin — its gradual rise 
 and rapid fall — naturally present themselves to the inind 
 of the spectator. The hazy atmosphere of early morning 
 is peculiarly favourable to considerations and impres- 
 sions of this character, and the gray mist intervening 
 between the gazer and the object of his reflections, im- 
 parts to it a dreamy existence. This fairy-like effect is 
 further heightened by mirage, which strangely and fan- 
 tastically magnifies its form, elevating it from the ground, 
 and causing it to dance and quiver in the rarefied air. 
 No wonder, therefore, that the beholder is lost in pleasing- 
 doubt as to the actual reality of the apparition before 
 him. 
 
 The ruins of Hammam measure about a mile in diame- 
 
 ♦ The site of Hammdm, " a bath," is believed by Sir Henry Rawliiison 
 to represent the Gulaba of cuneiform inscriptions. See Proceedings of 
 Royal Geographical Society for April 1856, p. 47. 
 
 H
 
 114 
 
 EUINS OF HAMMAM. 
 
 ter, and consist of a series of low undulations around a 
 orand central tower, whose remarkable form cannot fail 
 
 Ruins of Hamm^im. 
 
 to attract attention. Owing to the falling away of the 
 brickwork at its sides and base, and to the projection of 
 its upper parts, this building has, in the distance, under 
 the influence of mirage, the appearance of a gigantic 
 nuishroom. Its total height is about fifty feet, of which 
 twenty is a conical mound supporting a mass of unbaked 
 brickwork. Its original form has evidently been square, 
 but the sides are now reduced to seventy-eight feet each, 
 and the angles are rounded off. Judging by other ruins 
 of similar character, and by the numerous broken frag- 
 ments lying upon the sloping sides of the mound, it was 
 probably faced externally with kiln-baked bricks. The 
 most northerly angle points twenty degrees east of north. 
 A deep channel, formed by the rains of winter, divides 
 each side into equal parts, and leaves the angles projectino- 
 like four rounded turrets. The action of the weather, 
 too, has likewise worn away these apparent towers, and
 
 THE ANCIENT STATUE. 115 
 
 exposed a layer of reeds at tlie summit of each. The 
 bricks used in the construction of this edifice measure 
 fourteen and a-half inches square by five, or five and 
 a-half inches thick, and are composed of sun-dried clay, 
 mixed with barley-chaff and chopped straw. Each row 
 is separated by a layer of reeds, which project and shelter 
 the bricks beneath them from the influence of the weather. 
 It is difficidt to conceive the purpose of this and simi- 
 lar edifices throughout Babylonia, unless we assume them 
 to have been platforms for the erection of temples, such 
 as may be seen in a state of better preservation at Birs 
 Nimriid and Mugeyer. That the ruin at Hammam was 
 a portion of a temple devoted to the worship of a Chal- 
 dsean divinity, is moreover inferred from the statue which 
 lay about two hundred yards from the north-west corner 
 of the ruin ; this bore all the characteristics of a sacred 
 idol. Unfortunately it has suffered much from ill-usage, 
 being not only l^roken, but otherwise maliciously defaced. 
 According to the information of our guide, this inte- 
 resting statue was perfect about two years previously, 
 but was broken with large hammers by a tribe "^'^ who 
 work in iron near Stik-esh-Sheioukh, in the expectation 
 of finding gold in its interior. It had likewise been used 
 as a target by the Arabs for ball-practice , but the frac- 
 tures bore evidence of having been effected at an earlier 
 period than my informant admitted. ' 
 
 * B3' this description must be implied tlie Sabseans or Christians of St 
 John — a strange race of whom Uttle is known. They are probably a relic 
 of the old inhabitants of the country. I doubt their ability to break so 
 large a block of stone ; and it is not their custom to travel about with the 
 large implements of their trade. My friend Professor Peterniann, the emi- 
 nent Oriental linguist and savant of Berlin, passed nearly the whole of the 
 year 1854 at Si^ik-esh-Sheioukh among the Sabl. We may shortly expect 
 some valuable information from his jjen concerning them. A few families 
 reside at Shuster and Dizful, where they ai-e dreadfully persecuted by both 
 Persians and Arabs. General Williams, with the humanity which distin- 
 guishes him, obtained a firman from the Shah for their protection.
 
 116 THE ANCIENT STATUE. 
 
 ^ Tliis statue represents a male human figure, of tlie 
 natural size and correct proportions, cut out of finely- 
 grained black granite, and executed with remarkable skill. 
 The torso is broken at the waist, where the hands are 
 clasped in front, as if holding a garment thrown loosely- 
 over the left shoulder. The right shoulder is bare, with 
 a defaced inscription in Babylonian characters cut upon 
 it. The head'"' and arms are unfortunately gone. This 
 frao-ment measures sixteen inches from the neck to the 
 waist, and nineteen inches between the shoulders. The 
 second piece, representing the lower part of the body, has 
 been severed from the former, and measures two feet six 
 inches. The surface is much broken ; but upon the 
 right hip and side there is another defaced inscription, 
 bordered with a deep fringe similar to that represented 
 on the Assyrian sculptures. The third and last fragment 
 is a shapeless block, thirteen inches long and ten inches 
 wide, polished on one side, and exhibiting a trace of gar- 
 ment fringe. 
 
 Statues of Babylonian workmanship being extremely 
 rare, I packed the pieces in the best manner which 
 circumstances would admit, and brought the awkward 
 loads on the backs of our mules to Busrah, whence 
 they were shipped for England. These fragments, 1 
 believe, are the only specimen of an undoubted Baby- 
 lonian statue in Europe ; but I am sorry to remark that 
 they still lie neglected in the vaults of the British Mu- 
 seum. t 
 
 Want of time prevented my making a thorough exa- 
 mination of the other ruins of Hammam. As they do 
 not appear to have been occupied by succeeding dynas- 
 
 * In the possession of Captain Lynch, C.B., I.N., is a very beautiful head 
 of similar stone, which probably belongs to this statue, having been repre- 
 sented to him as obtained from this neighbourhood. 
 
 + In 1854 I obtained a similar, but smaller, statue from the neighbouring 
 mound of Yokha, which wa.s likewise sent to England.
 
 mAdan alarm. 117 
 
 ties, they will probably afford valuable information con- 
 cerning the Chaldasan period. If excavations are ever 
 again undertaken in those regions, Hammam is one of 
 those sites which deserves early attention.'"' 
 
 AVithin sight of Hammam, about six miles distant in 
 the south-south-west, rises another lofty and imposing 
 pile, called Tel Ede, or Yede. Towards it our course was 
 next directed. 
 
 We had by this time reached the limits of the Mun- 
 tefik territories, inhabited by the wildest of those Md- 
 dan tribes who acknowledge fealty to the great sheikh. 
 As we advanced in a compact party, we were espied by a 
 few Arab shepherds tending their flocks, which find 
 excellent grazing on the short grass produced by the 
 early rains among the sand-hills. Alarmed at the sight 
 of so many horsemen, they took up their position on a 
 small mound, elevated a black keffieh upon a spear, sang 
 their war-cry, and danced like spirits demented. In a few 
 minutes they were joined by others of their tribe, who 
 joined in the song and dance, until they were almost lost 
 to our sight in the dense cloud of dust created by their 
 frantic evolutions. When they considered their numbers 
 sufficiently strong, this half-naked band of savages — 
 their abbas bound round their waists, their heads bare, 
 and their long black locks flowing wildly in the breeze — 
 formed in the most approved style of Arab array, and ran 
 at a rapid pace, with spear and club in hand, to meet the 
 supposed enemy. 
 
 The whole neighbourhood was in a state of the 
 greatest excitement and alarm. The sheep and cattle 
 were being driven towards the tents for protection; 
 
 * When I i^assed through the country a second time in 1854, it was my 
 intention to have commenced operations at Hammdm on behalf of the 
 Assyrian Excavation Society ; but the want of water in the Shat-el-Kahr, 
 which flows within a few miles of these ruins, compelled my seeking a more 
 ehgible locality.
 
 118 mAdAn alarm. 
 
 tlie women collected in numbers together upon the 
 mound which their heroes had just quitted, urging 
 them on to brave deeds by their shriU and constant 
 tahlehl — a sound intermediate between a haUoo, a whistle, 
 and a scream, which rings through the nerves like a gal- 
 vanic shock. The warriors approached us in admirable 
 order, as if they had passed through many a field-day, 
 and were quite prepared to do or die, as brave hearts 
 should, in defence of their ladies fair. Arranging them- 
 selves in two long lines, at equal intervals apart, in num- 
 ber about sixty, they then advanced, in New Zealand 
 fashion, with a kind of running dance, chanting .their 
 war-song, and throwing their weapons high into the air, 
 to catch them again, with inimitable dexterity, in their 
 descent. Tliey were apparently led by an old man with 
 a luxuriant white beard, who sang the solo parts, and 
 was otherTvdse exceedingly active in the whole business. 
 ]\lahmud rode forward to exj)lain that we came in peace, 
 and not in war ; whereupon the announcement was 
 received with a jeH of indescribable expression. One of 
 our horsemen foohshly fired a pistol while they danced 
 rou]id about our party, which added tenfold to the 
 general excitement. Positive exhaustion alone obliged 
 them to desist. Then came inquiries and explanations, 
 which resulted in their insisting on our taking up our 
 quarters for the night at their encampment, shewing 
 that genuine hospitality to strangers which does so much 
 honour to the Arab character. They would take no 
 excuse, and, seizing the bridles of our horses, were about 
 to drag us thither with good-humoured force. I was not, 
 however, inclined to forego my visit to Tel Ede, and 
 therefore entered into an amicable arrangement, by which 
 they agreed to conduct the mules and baggage to their 
 tents, while we rode forward to the ruins. 
 
 The gxeat pile of Tel Ede much disappointed my ex-
 
 TEL EDE. 
 
 119 
 
 pectations. It is a huge artificial mass of solid sand, 
 ninety feet high, the circumference of its base measuring 
 
 Tcl Ede. 
 
 2500 feet. Its form is irregular, and its largest diameter 
 from north-west to south-east. Its highest point is at the 
 north-west. The south-west face is steep and inacces- 
 sible ; while that on the opposite side is furrowed by deep 
 rain-channels. The north-west side is much weathered, 
 and exhibits a section of its compact sandy mass.'"" The 
 effect of rain and wind is to cut large holes deeply into 
 the surface. The long ridge-like ranges of small mounds 
 at its north-east base are covered with the usual relics 
 — such as fragments of bricks, pottery, and glass — but 
 they are still unexamined by the spade, and await the 
 investigation of some future adventurer. 
 
 At first sight, I was almost induced to consider Tel Ede 
 a continuation of a range of sand-hills which bear away 
 from it towards the south-east ; but its dimensions and 
 
 * Mr Taylor excavated deeply into a similar conical mound, called Um- 
 wdweis. A high wind arising during the night, completely carried away its 
 summit : so light were the particles when loosened.
 
 1 20 CONICAL MOUNDS. 
 
 coiupactness, as well as its evident connexion with tokens 
 of ancient remains at its base, do not confirm this suppo- 
 sition. Moreover, I afterwards ascertained that similar 
 conical mounds occur in various parts of Chaldaea, in- 
 variably surrounded by, or connected with, lesser mounds 
 undoubtedly artificial. They appear to have been citadels 
 or temples of the same period as the adjacent ruins ; but 
 it is remarkable that they bear on their summits no trace 
 of brickwork, and are merely cones of solid earth and 
 sand. In two instances, I caused excavations to be made 
 into similar but smaller conical mounds at Warka ; but 
 from top to base they exhibited no change of character ; 
 nor did they contain the slightest clue to their origin. 
 Until such be obtained, we must remain in ignorance on 
 the subject. 
 
 Having completed our casual survey, we regained the 
 baggage and servants at the Arab camp, two miles dis- 
 tant, where our tents were already pitched among the 
 sand-hills. Our hosts belonged to the Madan Arabs — 
 those of the lowest caste, who are emjDloyed by the supe- 
 rior Arabs in tending buffaloes and cattle, or in cultivat- 
 ing maize on the edges of the inundations. Ignorant and 
 despised, they live in the most primitive state of bar- 
 barism, their only wants being those of absolute necessity. 
 At times, when the Euphrates fails in its annual rise to 
 overflow their lands, the destitution of the Madan is 
 extreme, and they are even reduced to the alternative of 
 digging up roots to support a miserable state of poverty 
 and hunger. Their ignorance is extreme ; and I could 
 scarcely believe that very few among them had ever seen 
 a mule, until their genuine surprise was evident at those 
 which carried our ba2;o;ao;e ! Suk-esh-Sheioukh and 
 Semdva are immense cities in their estimation ; Baghdad 
 and Busrah are far beyond the limits of their peregrina- 
 tions ; Stambiil and the Sultan they have barely heard of.
 
 THE MADAN ARABS. 121 
 
 Like hyaenas or jackals, they congregate amid the burial- 
 places, or pitch their tents upon the ruined cities of the 
 past, without the slightest reverence for or knowledge of 
 the people by whom those monuments were raised. These 
 mounds yield them utensils for their camp and frequently 
 gold from a ransacked tomb, which is disposed of to 
 wandering Jews for a few dates, valueless cotton fabrics, 
 or rude ornaments for their women. Unlike the Bedouins, 
 Httle reliance can be placed upon their word, and they do 
 not scruple to plunder, both openly and secretly, from 
 their enemies and friends without distinction. It is true, 
 that during my subsequent stay among them nothing was 
 positively taken from my teot ; but they could not resist 
 the desire to pilfer whenever opportunity was afforded 
 them. Cupidity is their weak point ; for a trifle they 
 will cringe Hke the most abject slave, and condescend to 
 the meanest artifices to obtain what they crave. Fickle 
 and almost unmanageable, few persons can conceive the 
 difficulties to be encountered in undertaking excavations 
 among them. It was only by employing parties from 
 several tribes, and pitting one against the other, that I 
 succeeded in carrying on researches in the region they 
 occupy. Jealousy and ill-wiU had great effect upon them. 
 The Jebiir and other tribes employed in the excavations 
 at Nineveh are comparatively civilized ; but the Madan 
 of Chaldsea are little superior to the buffaloes they tend, 
 and are regarded as destitute of feeling by the superior 
 class of Arabs. Yet they are not altogether without 
 good qualities. Merry and good-humoured, they contrast 
 advantageously with the neighbouring tribes of the 
 Amir, and the sullen Beni Lam across the Shat-el-Kalir. 
 Their hospitality knows no bounds, and they wiU willingly 
 share with the passing traveller the little stores they pos- 
 sess, until the whole has disappeared. In the present 
 instance, our large party quickly demolished tlieir stock of
 
 122 THF MAdAN ARABS. 
 
 barley, aucl before morning all the rice of tlie encamp- 
 ment was consumed by our animals."^' 
 
 The Madan are slightly built, but well-formed, strong, 
 and active. Their skin, exposed to all temperatures, from 
 25° to 150° Fahr., is tanned to a deep swarthy hue, and 
 seldom, even in the coldest weather, covered with more 
 tlian a single abba, made of goat's hair. Keffiehs or 
 head-dresses appear to be despised ; their hair, hanging 
 in thick plaits, or more commonly in a state of nature, 
 is so plentiful, that it alone affords sufficient pro- 
 tection from the summer's sun. Their eyes, wild but 
 expressive, shine with a brightness seldom mtnessed in 
 oiu? own humid climate ; while their teeth, from eating 
 only vegetable food, can vie in whiteness with the purest 
 ivory. Fire-arms are ahnost unknown among the Madan ; 
 but no man leaves his tent without a favourite spear or 
 bitumen-headed club, of which he is prepared to make 
 good use whenever opportunity arises or necessity re- 
 quires. Feuds are of continual occm-rence, either with 
 their neighbours or among themselves. The -period of 
 our visit, notwithstanding the warnings of the pasha and 
 the Turkish authorities, was peculiarly favom^able ; a 
 peaceful cahn prevailed after the raging storm which had 
 just ceased with the change of governors. 
 
 Throughout this journey, the only real annoyance I 
 experienced was from the Bashi Baziiks. Accustomed to 
 plunder and abuse all who came in their way, they were 
 with difficulty restrained from ill-treating their kind 
 Arab hosts ; and it was only by constant entreaties and 
 threats that they were compelled to desist. The Arabs 
 frequently complained to me of their conduct ; and often, 
 when I expressed a probability of my returning among 
 them, I was greeted with the remark, " Come, Beg, we 
 shall be glad to receive you as a brother, but do not 
 
 • See chapter xiv. for further description of the ]\Idddu Arabs.
 
 NIGHT SCENE. 123 
 
 bring the nizam (soldiers) with you. We will guard you 
 better than they I " I took their advice on my return 
 among them, and did not, in this case, regret having 
 trusted to their word. 
 
 As an instance of the security of a stranger in an Arab 
 camp, a scene may be related which took place at this 
 locality. Guards had, as usual, been placed around our 
 tents, and every person had retired to rest, when — by 
 accident or design, whether by friend or foe it is impos- 
 sible to say — a pistol was fired in the immediate neigh- 
 bourhood of my tent. The whole encampment was in- 
 stantly roused, and a report spread that an enemy was 
 in the neioiibourhood. The war chant of our hosts was 
 echoed on all sides from distant encampments ; the 
 sounds, at first low and indistinct, gradually becoming 
 louder and nearer, at length made us aware that large 
 bodies of the Madau were advancing to the rescue. The 
 efiect was startling and grand, as the dead silence of 
 night was broken by an excitement of this natm^e. Two 
 or three hundred men were speedily gathered round our 
 tents, and joined in the same wild chant, grunting, yell- 
 ing, and dancing without cessation. At length it was 
 discovered that an enemy did not exist, and each party 
 slowly retired to its own encampment, but it was long- 
 before all became once more still. 
 
 From our night's resting-place, the outhne of the 
 lofty and imposing mounds of Warka was distinctly 
 visible. The magnitude of the ruins determined me to 
 send on the baggage a couple of hours further to another 
 Arab camp, so that, if requisite, we might have the op- 
 portunity of renewing acquaintance with them on the 
 morrow. 
 
 On again emerging from the low sand-hills upon the 
 open plain, we crossed a plot of ground, covered with a 
 natm-al carpet of the richest green. The grass, incited
 
 124 FIRST VIEW OF WARKA. 
 
 by the few liglit showers recently fallen, was being 
 eagerly cropped by numerous herds of graceful gazelle, 
 which left their browsing as the party approached, and 
 bounded off in long lines to search for a quieter retreat. 
 The scene before us was exciting. Even the staid Bashi 
 Bazuks were moved beyond their wont, and, packing up 
 their long chibiiks, set spurs to their horses. Uttering 
 wild cries, they vainly attempted to overtake the frighted 
 herds, or played at jerid among themselves for their 
 own and others' amusement, leaving deep tracks in ^he 
 soft green sward. The scene, too, was doubly enjoyable 
 by comparison with the sterile and glaring desert, at the 
 commencement of our journey : while the sight of Warka 
 within a few miles' distance, and the discussion naturally 
 raised by its proximity, created a measure of excitement 
 and delight in my companion and myself which none but 
 ardent antiquarians on new ground can fully appreciate. 
 Three massive piles rose prominent before our view 
 from an extensive and confused series of mounds, at once 
 shewing the importance of the ruins which we — their 
 first European visitors — now rapidly approached. The 
 whole was surrounded by a lofty and strong line of 
 earthen ramparts, concealing from yiew all but the 
 principal objects. Beyond the walls were several conical 
 mounds, resembling, in their general form, that of Tel 
 Ede — one of which equalled in altitude the highest struc- 
 ture within the cii'cumscribed area. Each step that we 
 took, after crossing the walls, convinced me that Warka 
 was a much more important place than had been hitherto 
 supposed, and that its vast mounds, abounding in objects 
 of the highest interest, deserved a thorough exploration. 
 I determined, therefore, on using every effort to make 
 researches at Warka, which, of all the ruins in Chald£Ba, 
 is alone worthy to rank with those of Babylon and 
 Nineveh.
 
 IMPORTANCE OF WARKA. 125 
 
 All tliat could be effected at this visit was to make a 
 careful map of the place, and to take such general notes 
 as mio-ht be hereafter useful. Its most remarkable feature 
 is the enormous accumulation of sepulchral remains of 
 extraordinary character, which at once prove it to have 
 been a vast necropolis, dating probably from times the 
 most remote. As the importance of Warka requires a 
 separate chapter to describe its wonders, I shall defer 
 that account for the present. 
 
 On this occasion, Mr Churchill and myself spent nearly 
 two days upon the ruins, and succeeded in obtaining 
 several small articles and executing some drawings which 
 indicated the great antiquity of the site. With these we 
 once more resumed our journey, fearing lest, by a longer 
 stay, we might be too late to rejoin the Turkish troops 
 accordino; to arrano-ement at Suk-esh-Sheioukh. It was 
 with no little regret, therefore, that we were compelled 
 to leave a spot so replete with interest.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Bedouins — Mubjirek becomes useful — Euins of Mugeyer — Cylinders — 
 Chedorlaomer ? — Belshazzar — The Author and his Guides put to 
 flight their Turkish Escort — Busrah — Arrival in Persist. 
 
 From Warka we rode nine miles in a south-soutli-east 
 direction, over a desert frequently covered with marsh, 
 to a new kal'a called Diiraji,'"' on the banks of the 
 Euphrates, near which our road passed over low rough 
 ground, dead rushes, and old channels of the river — the 
 evidences of former inundations. Here we encamped for 
 the night, within sight of three remarkable piles of past 
 greatness — Tel Ede, Warka, and Sinkara — the last of 
 which I succeeded in visiting on subsequent occasions, 
 and which will be described in due time. 
 
 Our course from Duraji followed along the left bank 
 of the Euphrates to the marshes at the confluence of the 
 Shat-el-Hie and Shat-el-Kahr with that river. At the 
 parallel of Baghdad, the level of the Euphrates is so 
 much above that of the Tigris, that the water of the for- 
 mer flows into the latter by a canal called the Seglawiyya. 
 As the two rivers pursue their course southward, the 
 Euphrates descends with more rapidity, and, at 3 1 " north 
 latitude, is for the first time joined by the water of the 
 Tigris through the channel called the Shat-el-Hie, which 
 bifurcates from the main stream at Kut-el-'Amara. The 
 Shat-el-Hie, in conjunction with the Shat-el-Kahr, forms 
 
 * From the number of " francolin" which abound there.
 
 BEDOUINS. 127 
 
 an extensive marsli, out of which a single stream finds its 
 way to the Euphrates. Just above the point of junction 
 a kufah ferry is maintained, by means of which we 
 crossed to the western side, where we suddenly found 
 ourselves among a number of Bedouin encampments of 
 Aneiza and Dhefyr tribes, Avho, for the sake of the water 
 and vegetation of the Euphrates, usually frequent its 
 banks at that season of the year. It was then that we 
 experienced the benefit of Miibarek's escort. Several 
 times strong parties of horsemen, attracted by the sight 
 of a caravan, were in the act of swooping down upon our 
 little party, when the wild fellow, whose eye always first 
 detected their movements, urged his horse to full speed 
 and rode forth to meet them. An embrace from each of 
 the Arabs usually greeted our friend, a short conversation 
 ensued, and they quietly retired in the direction from 
 which they had come, while Miibarek returned in 
 triumph to announce the success of his interview. With 
 his aid we passed unmolested over some cultivated lands 
 belonging to a tribe of Agayl Arabs, opposite Imam 
 Sherifeh, Avliose hospitality we sought for the night 
 within sight of the great temple of Milgeyer. At this 
 point commences the line of date-groves which extend 
 in uninterrupted succession along both banks of the river 
 to its embouchure at the head of the Persian Gulf. A 
 messenger from the sheikh of the Muntefik was here aw^ait- 
 ing the arrival of the Turkish troops and animals, which, 
 notwithstanding our zigzag route and detention at Warka, 
 liad not yet arrived at the rendezvous. 
 
 The unexpected delay of the Turkish escort afforded 
 me the much-coveted opportunity of turning aside to 
 examine the jVTiigeyer, of which Mr Eaillie Eraser gives 
 a short description in his volume on " Mesopotamia and 
 Assyria."""' Erom the Agayl camp to the ruins was a 
 
 * Pa<?e 148.
 
 128 
 
 RUINS OF MtJGEYER. 
 
 distance of nine miles, but at a point further to the south 
 the Euphrates approaches within six miles. During the 
 high inundations of the river, however, ]\Iugeyer is com- 
 pletely surrounded by water, and is, like Warka, unap- 
 proachable on any side except in boats. 
 
 The ruins consist of a low series of mounds, of oval 
 form, the largest diameter from north to south measuring 
 rather more than half a mile. 
 
 The name Mdgeyer is, however, peculiarly given to a 
 remarkable building, seventy feet high, which stands 
 near the north end of the mounds, and is the only 
 example of a Babylonian temple remaining in goojil pre- 
 servation, not wholly covered by rubbish. It is built 
 of large bricks, and from their being " cemented with 
 bitumen " originates the modern name of Miigeyer."'" It 
 
 consists of two distinct but 
 massive stories, having the 
 plan of a right-angled paral- 
 lelogram, the longest sides of 
 which are the north-east and 
 south-west. One angle points 
 due north, which feature, I 
 may remark, is observable 
 in all edifices of true Chal- 
 dsean origin. As each story 
 rises, it gradually slopes in- 
 wards at an angle of nine 
 degrees, for the purpose, 
 doubtless, of bearing great 
 superincumbent pressure, and 
 to this fact may be attribu- 
 ted the remarkably perfect 
 condition of the whole remaining edifice. The lower 
 story is, moreover, supported by buttresses thirteen inches 
 
 * Frequently, but incorrectly, called Umgheir. 
 
 Plan of the Grout Temple of Mflgeyer.
 
 RUINS OF MIJGEYER. 129 
 
 deep, and, with the exception of those at the angles, 8 
 feet wide. The longest sides — the north-east and south- 
 west — measure 198 feet each; the others only 133 feet. 
 The number of buttresses on the south-west are nine, 
 and on the north-west six. Those of the other sides 
 are concealed in rubbish. Whether intentional or not, 
 the above measurements and numbers are in the ratio 
 of 3 : 2. 
 
 The basement or lower story is 27 feet in height, and 
 exhibits but one entrance, 8 feet wide, on the north-east 
 side, which leads from the base to the summit of the 
 building. Between the stories is a gradual, stepped in- 
 cline, about 7 feet in perpendicular height, which may,, 
 however, be accidental, and arise from the destruction of 
 the upper part of the lower story. 
 
 The upper story is 1 4 feet in height, surmounted by 
 about 5 feet of brick rubbish. As far as I could ascer- 
 tain, the sides of this story are without supporting but- 
 tresses, measure respectively 119 by 75 feet, and recede 
 several feet from the lower wall ;'^'* but the whole of the 
 south-east side of the edifice is in ruins, so that it is 
 impossible to say whether the length of the upper story 
 exceeded 119 feet. It rather struck me, however, from 
 the gradual incline from top to base, that a grand stair- 
 case, of the same width as the upper story, occupied this- 
 side of the structure. 
 
 Various piles of rubbish occur at different parts, and 
 render it difficult to give detailed measurements. The 
 Miigeyer appears to stand on a mound about 20 feet high. 
 The exterior of the whole edifice is faced, to the thickness 
 
 • Mr Taylor remarks that " the second story is close up to the northern 
 end of the first." There are, however, 30 feet between the summit edge of 
 the first and the base of the second. Mr Taylor must intend to say that the 
 second story is closer up to the edge of the first at its north-west end 
 than at its south-east, the respective measurements being 30 feet and 4T 
 feet.
 
 130 MR Taylor's cylinders. 
 
 of 10 feet, with red kiln-baked bricks, but tlie whole 
 mass of the interior is built of partially burnt, or sun-dried 
 bricks. Those of the lower story are smaller than those 
 in the upper, and are cemented with bitumen, while the 
 hitter are fixed with ordinary lime mortar. These differ- 
 ences arise from the fact that the two stories were not 
 erected by the same monarch. The whole surface is 
 pierced with oblong apertures resembling those at the 
 Bii's Nimriid, Akker Kiif, El-Heimar, and numerous other 
 Chaldaean edifices. 
 
 Subsequently to this visit, at the request of Sir Henry 
 Eawlinson, excavations were undertaken in 1854 /or the 
 British Museum at the Milgeyer by my friend Mr Taylor, 
 her Majesty's Vice-Consul at Busrah, while I was myself 
 engaged at Warka for the Assyrian Excavation Fund. 
 I again took the opportunity of revisiting the site. Mr 
 Taylor,'^ with astonishing patience and perseverance, 
 penetrated through the solid mass of brick-work to the 
 very heart and base of the edifice without discovering any- 
 thing to reward his labours, or to throw light on its con- 
 struction or object ; until, in excavating at the south 
 corner of the upper story, he found, at a depth of six 
 feet below the surface, a perfect inscribed cylinder, stand- 
 ing on one extremity in a niche formed by the omission 
 of one of the bricks in the layer. He afterwards sank 
 shafts at the other corners, and secured a precisely similar 
 record from each, all of which are now deposited in the 
 British Museum. This discovery at Milgeyer convinced 
 him that the commemorative cylinders of the founders 
 were always deposited at the corners of Babylonian edi- 
 fices. With this knowledge before him, Sir Henry Raw- 
 linson, in the following autumn, at once disinterred his 
 beautiful cyUnders of Nebuchadnezzar from the corners 
 
 • See that gentleman's Memoir on the result of his excavations, in the 
 •Tournal of the Royal Asiatic Society," vol. xv., p. 260.
 
 UR OF THE CHALDEES (?) 131 
 
 of one of the lower platforms at the Birs Nimriid, to the 
 great amazement of his Arab workmen. "^^ 
 
 From his examination of the numerous brick and 
 cylinder inscriptions obtained at Mugeyer, Sir Henry 
 Eawhnson reo;ards this as one of the earhest, if not the 
 very earliest, of the sites colonized by that Ethiopic or 
 Scythic invasion, to which reference has already been 
 made.t Tliese records bear the names of a series of kings 
 from Urukh, B.C. 2230, to Nabonidus, B.C. 540. Among 
 others, is that of Kudur-mapula or Chedorlaomer. The 
 temple was dedicated to Sin or " the moon," which 
 element was preserved by the Greeks in the name 
 Mesene, applied by them to the surrounding region ; 
 and also in that of Camarina, derived from the Arabic 
 word Tcamar, " the moon," assigned by Eupolemus to 
 either Miigeyer or Warka. The most important identifi- 
 cation, however, is that of IMiigeyer with the Biblical Ur 
 of the Chaldees, which Sir Henry EawlinsonJ supposes to 
 be complete, from having read the name Hur upon the 
 cylinders. In support of this proposed identification, he 
 states that one particular parish of this place was called 
 Ihra, from which he supposes Abraham to have set out 
 on his journey to Canaan, and from whence originated 
 the word Hebrew.^ This appellation is usually supposed 
 to be derived from Heher, the alleged ancestor of Abraham, 
 or from a Hebrew verb which signifies to pass over, in 
 consequence of the patriarch having crossed the Euphrates. 
 This latter, however, cannot be the correct derivation, 
 
 * See the " Athenaeum," No. 1421, for Jan. 20, 1855, p. 84. 
 
 t At page 95. 
 
 X This great authority has elsewhere frequently expressed his belief that 
 Warka is Ur of the Chaldees, deriving his opinion from the fact that it was 
 known to the Talmudists and early Arabs as the birthplace of Abraham, 
 and that it is even named Ur by the early Arab Geographers. See " Jour- 
 nal of the Royal Asiatic Society," vol. xii., p. 481 ; and " Twenty-ninth An- 
 nual Report," p. 16. 
 
 § See " Proceedings of Royal Geographical Society," vol. i, p. 47.
 
 132 BELSHAZZAR. 
 
 because, whether Abraham previously resided at Mugeyer 
 or Warka, it would have been unnecessary to pass over 
 the great river, if in his time it flowed, as some suppose, 
 considerably eastward of those places and joined the 
 Tigris, as before stated, at Kiit-el-Amara. The above 
 proposed derivation of the word is therefore equally rea- 
 sonable with one of the two usually adopted ; but at the 
 same time, it must be confessed that the ordinary accep- 
 tation of Hebrew as a patronymic from Heher is still 
 more worthy of credit. 
 
 The cylinder inscriptions of Mugeyer are invaluable 
 documents in confirming the authenticity and truth of 
 Scripture. They not only inform us that Nabonidus, last 
 king of Babylon, repaired the Great Temple of the Moon 
 at Hiir, but they also explain who Belshazzar was, con- 
 cerning whom the early Bible critics have in vain endea- 
 voured to reconcile conflicting statements. In the Book 
 of Daniel,*"' he is alluded to as the king of the Chaldees 
 when Babylon was taken by the united armies of the Medes 
 and Persians. The account of Berosus does not, however, 
 agree with that of Scripture. It states that Nabonidus, 
 after being utterly routed in the open plains by Cyrus, 
 shut himself up in the city of Borsippa, but was soon 
 obliged to surrender his person to the conqueror, t From 
 Daniel, therefore, we are led to conclude that Belshazzar 
 was the last Chaldaean monarch ; while Nabonidus is 
 represented in the same capacity by Berosus. Hero- 
 dotus only adds to the difficulty by calling Belshazzar 
 and his father Labynetus — which name is certainly a cor- 
 ruption of Nabonidus.J 
 
 Sir Henry Rawlinson's reading of the Mugeyer cylin- 
 ders entirely reconciles these discrepances. The records 
 
 ♦ Daniel v. 30. t In Joseph. « Contr. Apion.," i. 20. 
 
 X It is likewise stated in Joseplms, Antiq., x. 11, 2, that Baltasar was 
 called Naboandel by the Babyloiiinns.
 
 CEMETERY. 133 
 
 distinctly state that Bel-shar-ezer (Belshazzar) was the 
 eldest son of Nabonidus, and tlaat lie was admitted to a 
 share of the government. 
 
 When Cyrus took Nabonidus, Belshazzar was regent or 
 governor of Babylon, and, to all intents and purposes, 
 king of the Chaldees. 
 
 Amongst other discoveries made by Mr Taylor at 
 Mugeyer was that of a house or oratory, in a small 
 mound covered with clay and scoria, near the eastern 
 angle of the great temple, erected on a mound or foun- 
 dation of sun-dried bricks. The ground plan of the 
 edifice is that of a cross. The exterior was ornamented 
 with perpendicular stepped recesses, thickly coated with 
 bitumen. This coating may have arisen from the oozing 
 out of that material between the bricks during the de- 
 struction of the edifice by fire, of which there were evident 
 symptoms. Many of the outer faces of the bricks were 
 inscribed. A thin coating of enamel or gypsum-plaster 
 appears to have been laid over the surface, upon which 
 the characters were stamped. These were remarkably 
 fine ; but the material was too brittle to admit of their 
 being well preserved, and chipped off with a touch from 
 the finger-nail — a sufficient proof of the antiquity of the 
 edifice in which these bricks occurred, because, in like 
 manner, they could not have been extracted from any 
 other place without damage to the inscriptions. 
 
 This building, too, has settled the important architec- 
 tural question, whether the Babylonians were acquainted 
 with the arch. Two regularly constructed semicircular 
 arches, running through the entire thickness of the walls, 
 are in admirable preservation — the bricks being wedge- 
 shaped to form the voussoirs. 
 
 Mr Taylor also ascertained that the rest of the oval 
 space occupied by the ruins was a cemetery of the primi- 
 tive ages ; his account of the tombs and their contents
 
 134 FRAGMENTS. 
 
 forms by far the most interesting portion of his memoir 
 on the subject.'" As I shall have occasion to refer to 
 similar objects in the accoimt of my own researches, it 
 is unnecessary to allude to them further in this place, 
 except to remark that they are all referable to the Baby- 
 lonian epoch. 
 
 About two hundred yards from the north-east side of the 
 great temple, Mr Churchill discovered three large blocks 
 of black granite projecting from the ground. On clearing 
 the earth from around them, some parts exhibited a :dne 
 polish, but they were too much broken to admit of their 
 original form being distinguished. They probably^ be- 
 longed to an altar. One bore a fragment of inscription ; 
 another had a plain upper surface, with a moulding, 
 eight inches in depth rounded off at the angles, passing 
 along the top of each side : two ojDposite surfaces bore in 
 high relief an ornament resembling the capital letter A 
 reversed, and supporting the moulding : of the other 
 two sides, one was plain and the other broken. Like the 
 fragments of the statue at Hammam, they probably be- 
 longed to the slu'ine of the deity, which stood upon the 
 principal building.t From the summit of Miigeyer are 
 distinctly discernible the ruins of Abii-Shehreyn, also sub- 
 sequently examined by Mr Taylor. 
 
 During the time we were exploring the ruins, the 
 Turkish escort passed us at the distance of two or tliree 
 miles. Some of the most intelHgent officers, seeing the 
 huge edifice on their flank, formed a small party and 
 gallojDcd towards it. Having reached within a mile of 
 Miigeyer, they were surprised to observe two or three 
 human beings upon the summit apparently regarding the 
 
 * " Notes on the Ruins of M6geyer," in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic 
 Society, vol. v., p. 260. 
 
 t Mr Churchill's drawings, with copies of the inscriptions here discovered, 
 were deposited iu the British Museum.
 
 DEFEAT OF THE ESCORT. 135 
 
 movements of the troops. Under tlie impression that 
 the place was a deserted ruin, this unexpected apparition 
 alarmed them. They halted, and watched for a few 
 minutes. Two more figures were seen scrambling up 
 from the opposite side, which served to confirm their 
 fears. Eiding back with all speed, they gave the alarm 
 that a large body of Arabs were lying in ambush to 
 attack the party. Preparations were therefore duly made 
 for a stout resistance. The mules, servants, and bas-sage 
 wefe placed in the centre, the troops arranged around 
 them in square, the four guns placed at the corners so as 
 to receive the enemy with a cross fire. Thus in a compact 
 mass, they marched rapidly across the desert to Arjah, 
 where we rejoined them, and then for the first time 
 learned the commotion and alarm that we had unwit- 
 tingly occasioned. It appeared that while I was engaged 
 with Mr Churchill in taking measurements and notes on 
 the ruins, some of our escort had climbed upon the sum- 
 mit, and given rise to the idea that an ambush was pre- 
 pared for the Turks. It was a subject of considerable 
 merriment for the rest of the journey, that two English- 
 men, one servant, half-a-dozen Bashi Baztiks, and an Arab, 
 had caused the retreat of a squadron of well-armed Turkish 
 cavalry ! 
 
 From Arjah, we all travelled in company to Swaij, the 
 usual residence of the Sheikh of the Muntefik — a distance 
 of only a few miles — where we rested for the remainder 
 of the day, and made arrangements for crossing the desert 
 to Busrah. Swaij is within a mile of the Arab town of 
 Siik-esh-Sheioukh ; but, as is well-known, an Arab chief 
 infinitely prefers the freedom and security of the open 
 country to the treachery of town walls. In accordance 
 with this feeling, Fahad, the then Sheikh of the powerful 
 tribe of the ]\Iuntefik, pitched his tent, and held his royal 
 state, like his predecessors, at Swaij. His immediate
 
 136 THE SHEIKH OF THE MUNTEFIK. 
 
 retainers were encamped around liim, and thus he lived 
 with his flocks and herds patriarchal as Abraham him- 
 self. He behaved with princelike hospitality, supplying 
 the whole of the caravan and troops mth provisions, 
 not only for that day, but for the three days' journey 
 before us. 
 
 He exhibited his independence, however, by receiv- 
 ing the Turkish officers witliput rising, and scarcely 
 deigning to speak to them — an indignity which they 
 did not readily forget, and which, it is said, in common 
 vdih. other causes of complaint, shortly afterwards re- 
 sulted in his being removed by order of the government. 
 He also issued an order that no Turkish officer or soldier 
 on horseback should enter the town of Suk-esh-Sheioukh 
 upon any pretext. 
 
 It was my intention to have paid my respects to this 
 King of the Arabs, but he unfortunately retired to his 
 harem sooner than usual, probably to shew his dignity, 
 and also to rid himself of his Turkish guests, who did not 
 fail to remind him of the suzerainty of the Porte. On 
 sending my regrets at not having had the opportunity 
 of waiting upon him, I received a gracious answer — a 
 cup of hot bitter coffee — and a gracious visit from his 
 secretary. 
 
 At Suk-esh-Sheioukh the Bashi Bdzilk horsemen and 
 our Dhefyr guides left us, carrying with them ample pre- 
 sents for their services. Mubarek, who on first quitting 
 Baghdad was rather in the way than otherwise, proved 
 eventually not only useful as a guide but as a safeguard 
 from the Bedouins. He soon became attached to our 
 party, and sang as merrily as his cousin Mayiif On 
 making him a present, I remarked that — as he had eaten 
 the bread of the Firenghi, been saved from his enemies 
 the Affej, and treated well during the journey — I 
 hoped he would not forget these circumstances, but
 
 THIRSTY RIDE. 137 
 
 return good for good, by looking after the safety of any 
 unfortunate European who might happen to fall into the 
 clutches of his tribe. Drawing himself up to his full 
 height, he replied : — " Beg ! the Dhefyris have heard in 
 their deserts that the Englizi speaks the truth, but they 
 have never met with such a wonder. I shall tell them, 
 inshallah ! on my return, what I did not before credit, 
 that the Englizi never lies — his word is as straight as my 
 spear ! For the kindness you have shewn me, the Dhefyr 
 will prove his gratitude when a Firenghi crosses his path ! 
 For your sake he shall be my brother ! " The last 1 heard 
 of the wild fellow was, that, with the present received, 
 he had purchased a swift-footed delul, and set out to re- 
 join his tribe on a plundering expedition. 
 
 Between Siik-esh-Sheioukh and Busrah is a distance of 
 about seventy miles across an undulating tract of gravel 
 and gypsum. A few wells alone supply small parties 
 with bad brackish water, but these were totally insufficient 
 for so many men and horses as composed our caravan ; 
 it was, therefore, necessary to strike a more easterly 
 course towards the marshes of the Euphrates. After 
 suffering thirty-two hours' thirst under a hot sun, 
 our poor animals were completely exhausted, and could 
 with difficulty be prevented from over-filling themselves, 
 when they reached the inundation. Three troop-horses 
 died in the course of the night from the effect of drink- 
 ing to repletion. 
 
 I need not detain my readers with an accoimt of the 
 remainder of the journey. We reached Zobeir in safety, 
 crossed the great inundation which threatens shortly to 
 overwhelm the declining city of Busrah, passed through 
 its mouldering walls and pestilential atmosphere, and 
 floated down its narrow inlet shrouded in groves of 
 pomegranates, dates, and acacias to the noble Shat-el- 
 Arab— the combined stream of the Tigris and Euphrates.
 
 138 BUSEAH AND THE SHAT-EL-ARAB. 
 
 Fleets of merchant vessels a few years ago used to anchor 
 in the deep channel of this magnificent river ; but, owing 
 to the neglect and ignorance of the Turkish authorities, 
 commerce is now at a stand-still, and the only vessels, 
 which annually enter the commodious port, are two 
 belonging to English merchants resident at Baghdad, and 
 occasionally a frigate of the East India Company's squad- 
 ron in the Persian Gulf. 
 
 From the eastern bank of the Shat-el-Ar4b, a six hours' 
 ride across the desert brought us to the camp of the fron- 
 tier commissioners, outside the extensive date-groves of 
 Mohammerah in Persia.
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Plans and Preparations for Excavating in Waeka — The Party — Arrival 
 at Suk-esh-Sheiouldi — Faliad, Sheikh of the Muntefik — Reception 
 Tent — Falcons — The Letter and Escort, 
 
 As soon as Colonel Williams was made acquainted with 
 the results of this journey, and had examined the relics, 
 plans, and drawings brought from Warka, he readily 
 listened to my suggestions that excavations should be 
 conducted on a small scale at those ruins. To his libe- 
 rality and patronage of science are due the first-fruits 
 of Chaldgean exploration. Supplying the necessary funds 
 for the purpose, he directed me, after a few days' rest, 
 to return to Warka, with instructions more especially to 
 procure specimens of the remarkable coffins of the loca- 
 lity, and such objects as might be easily packed for trans- 
 mission to the British Museum. 
 
 I hastened to Busrah, purchased implements, and laid 
 in a little store of trifling articles — such as keff'iehs, 
 dresses, tobacco, pipes, needles, dates, &c., which I might 
 give to the Arabs as presents, or barter for small anti- 
 quities in their possession. 
 
 On setting out from Busrah, my party consisted of 
 nine. First, my servant Ovannes, a shrewd Armenian 
 Christian, who spoke seven of the native languages ^nth 
 fluency, and who served me faithfully during the con- 
 tinuance of the frontier commission ; he had previously 
 been in the service of Colonel Rawlinson, and spent 
 the greatest part of his life with Englishmen ; he was
 
 140 THE MUNTEFIK RECEPTION-TENT. 
 
 one of the most thoughtful, useful fellows I met with 
 during nearly six years' experience in the East. There 
 were, besides, a c^was, a groom, a tent-pitcher who also 
 acted as cook, three muleteers, and two guides, with 
 fifteen horses and mules. The dislike exhibited by the 
 Arabs to the Turkish troops told me that I should be 
 safer and more welcome alone. I therefore declined to 
 apply for letters from the Pasha of Busrah, and set out 
 without so much as either asking or requiring his aid or 
 protection. 
 
 After a tedious and uninteresting journey of little more 
 than three days, without adventure worth recording, we 
 once more arrived at Suk-esh-Sheioukh. The cawas was 
 sent forward with a message to the Sheikh of the Munte- 
 fik at Swaij, that one of the English officers, who had 
 passed through a few days previously with the Turkish 
 troops, desired an interview with him. On my arrival, I 
 learned that Fahad was in his harem, and about to per- 
 form his devotions, it being just mid-day ; but he sent me a 
 polite invitation into his reception-tent, which stood upon 
 the open desert, accessible to the whole tribe. It was a 
 large white canvas tent supported on two poles, with a 
 lining of pink calico and doulile roof, the lower of which 
 served as a kind of canopy, and was edged mth what had 
 been gold fringe, but which had now assumed every colour 
 of the rainbow. This tent was a recent present from the 
 new pasha, when friendship was re-estabhshed between 
 the noble house of Muntefik and the government of 
 Baghdad on the accession of Abdi Pasha to power. The 
 sides of the tent were spread with narrow carpets, and, 
 at the upper end, the seat of honour was indicated by a 
 large cushion of striped silk backed with two pillows of 
 blue plush. Upon these I took up my position, and 
 endeavoured to amuse myself until the sheikh had con- 
 cluded his prayers.
 
 SHEIKH FAHAD. 141 
 
 An ugly black slave seems usually chosen to perform 
 the office of kawaji to a great sheikh, as though his 
 colour were peculiarly fitted for presiding over cinders 
 and cooking utensils. This worthy soon made his ap- 
 pearance, and forthwith proceeded with his important 
 functions, surrounded by his family of coffeepots close 
 outside the tent. Attracted by the sight of these 
 preliminaries, and knowing from them that some 
 guest had arrived to the tribe, the elders and warriors 
 began to collect, sit down in the tent, and stare with 
 untired gaze at the strangely accoutred traveller. After 
 an interval of half-an-hour the sheikh was announced, 
 and all rose to receive him while yet distant some hun- 
 dred paces from the tent. Two or three of the assembly 
 tried by repeated gestures to induce me to follow their 
 example, but, as dignity would have been compromised 
 by a too hasty show of obedience, I retained my seat, to 
 their utmost consternation, until Fahad was close at hand. 
 Although his harem was not 500 yards from the recep- . 
 tion-tent, he rode a magnificent black mare, hung round 
 with red tassels and Arab paraphernalia, and was 
 attended by about fifty of his immediate followers. In 
 approaching, he saluted the crowd, and was received by 
 each man present with his hand on his heart, but a proud 
 inclination of his body, as much as to imply, " We reve- 
 rence you as the head of our tribe ; but you are, never- 
 theless, only a man like ourselves." While he dismounted 
 and advanced towards me, an opportunity was aflbrded 
 of observing his appearance. 
 
 Sheikh Fahad (the tiger) was a tall, stout, handsome 
 man, forty-five or fifty years of age, with regular features, 
 and the slightly aquiline nose so peculiar to the high-class 
 Arab. His forehead was lofty and expansive, full of 
 thought and energy. The expressive black eyes, as they 
 glanced from one to another of the party, beamed with
 
 142 SHEIKH FAHAd's RECEPTION. 
 
 kindness and good liumour ; but it was not difficult to 
 conceive them assuming a very different aspect on other 
 occasions. Conscious of his importance, high Ijirth, 
 and dignity, he Ijestowed his salaams with the grace and 
 pride of a monarch saluting his abject slaves, rather than 
 as the head of a little republic where fraternity, liberty, 
 and equahty prevailed. Yet the Muntefik were proud of 
 their sheikh. He was just such a man as a powerful and 
 warlike race desire for their chief. He was brave in 
 battle, sage in council, hospitable and generous ; but un- 
 bearable in his demeanoLu: towards the Turks, whom he 
 treated with the utmost contempt and disdain. Although 
 he had recently sworn fealty to the pasha at Baghdad in 
 humbled pride, he now assumed the state and dignity of 
 an independent prince in his native wilds. It was the 
 true Arab feeling which induced him to treat the Turkish 
 officers with such rudeness on their late visit, mingled 
 probably with a desire to gain more effectually the hearts 
 of his tribe — to the sheikhship of which he had but recently 
 succeeded by the death of his brother Bender, He wore 
 the usual striped keffleh, and black abba embroidered on 
 one shoulder with gold. 
 
 He bade me welcome with the greatest affability as we 
 seated ourselves on the silken lahdf. A salaam to the 
 assembly was the signal for all to be seated. Coffee 
 and pipes were duly handed to the principal parties, and 
 the conference then commenced. My object in visiting 
 him was to secure his protection while in his territories. 
 Knowing that Arabs care nothing for the antiquities of 
 their deserts, provided they are not golden treasures, I 
 concluded that it was best to be frank and open with him. 
 
 He was evidently in good humour — a white day on his 
 calendar — so, in oriental style, I endeavoured to gain his 
 good opinion with a few pointed compliments. I thanked 
 him for Jiis attention and liospitality on my former visit,
 
 INTERVIEW WITH SHEIKH TAHAD. 143 
 
 and regretted not having had the opportunity of person- 
 ally expressing my obligations on that occasion ; adding, 
 that a favour shewn to me was, in fact, an exhibition of 
 friendship and esteem towards the Saltan of my country. 
 This little speech had the desired effect. He was thence- 
 forward, in Eastern phrase, " my friend, my servant, my 
 — anything I pleased ! What could he do for me V On 
 expressing my desire to visit Warka, and that he would 
 send some of his people to accompany and protect me, he 
 instantly replied : — " I am your slave. Some Arabs are 
 dogs, but the tribes of the Muntefik are my servants. 
 You and your property are as safe with them, as in the 
 shelter of my own tent." He immediately called two of 
 his nobles by name, who stepped forward, made their 
 salaams, and received his orders to bring their mares to 
 the tent. Durino; their absence, the followino; conversa- 
 tion ensued : — " Do many Europeans pass through Siik- 
 esh-Sheioukh ?" — "No! what should induce them to 
 come so far from their own homes in Firengistan'?" — 
 " The Arab loves the shade of his own tent, and the 
 Firenghi is equally attached to the land of his birth, but 
 the latter travels into far distant countries, to see the 
 world, gain instruction, and impart it to his friends on 
 his return. Some travel on business — others for pleasure. 
 Many, like myself, are partial to visiting old ruins, like 
 Babel, Niffar, and Warka. The Arabs think us mad for 
 our pains !" — "Perhaps so. What is the use of your see- 
 ing them V — " They afford us many relics — such as writing 
 on bricks — ^which throw hght on the past not otherwise 
 obtainable. From them we learn that our forefathers 
 were yours also \" He seemed to doubt this fact, for how 
 could a Ghyawr be related to a good Mussulman ! At this 
 stage of the conversation, one of the bystanders stepped 
 forward, and said that I had already been to Warka, and 
 got some small antiques from the Madan. "for which,
 
 144 THE ARAB LEVEE. 
 
 masliallali ! the Firenglii paid nine herdns, when they 
 were not worth a fice. By Allah ! what I say is true \" 
 Fahad appeared pleased that I had spent money among 
 his people ; but his informant, after true Arab fashion, 
 had magnified the amount ninefold ! The sheikh, how- 
 ever, understood the object of this information, and said, 
 laughingly : — " You had better go with the Beg, and see 
 if you can't find something worthy of his acceptance, for 
 which he will pay you at the same rate." 
 
 The secretary was sent for, and ordered to write a 
 letter to Sheikh Debbi, at Diiraji, instructing him to re- 
 ceive me safely across the Euphrates, and to attend ^le to 
 Warka, Sinkara (which place had not been mentioned), 
 and any ruin I desired to visit within the hmits of his 
 jurisdiction. When I might be pleased to return, he was 
 to see me again safely conveyed across the Euphrates. 
 
 Diuins: all this time the Arabs continued to arrive, 
 until there were about two hundred within the tent. 
 Each man on entering advanced into the centre, made 
 his salaam to the sheikh, and then retired to take his 
 place, either among the free Arabs who sat on the narrow 
 carpets, or among the servants and slaves who stood 
 behind. A large semicircular space was thus left in 
 front of the chief. It was higjily amusing to watch 
 the free Arab, marching straight to a spot where it ap- 
 peared impossible for him to wedge himself into the 
 crowded row. The occupants, however, invariably arose, 
 and in an instant the wedge was inserted and seen squat- 
 ting upon the carpet. The decorum of the whole assembly, 
 and the implicit obedience and respect paid to the chief, 
 struck me particularly. If such were not mere outward 
 shew, and faith were really to be placed in his followers, 
 the Sheikh of the Muntefik is no mean personage, and is 
 not to be despised by the Turkish or any other govern- 
 ment* Better to have him a friend than a foe. It is
 
 THE sheikh's charge. 145 
 
 asserted that in a few hours he is able to raise a body of 
 50,000 well-armed men. 
 
 Fahad was an ardent sportsman, and kept his leash of 
 falcons. As a portion of his state, the beautifid birds were 
 placed in the centre of the area ; while the falconer, in 
 his crimson dress and plaited locks, shewed off the docility 
 and grace of his pet birds, amid the frequent plaudits of 
 the sheikh and the assembled Muntefijis. 
 
 At length the secretary finished the letter, and the seal 
 of the sheikh was duly affixed thereto. The two guides, 
 having brought their black mares to the tent, were then 
 called in, and received the letter in charge with the in- 
 junction : — " You see this Beg sitting by my side ; attend 
 him wherever he i)leases to go, let him do what he wishes 
 at Warka and Sinkara, and take care to bring him back 
 in safety to this tent." Then turning to me he said :— 
 " All that you required is done." Taking this as a hint, 
 I returned thanks, paid my salaam, and departed — the 
 sheikh rising as much as, in his opinion, a strict Mussul- 
 man consistently could do towards a Christian. I left 
 the tent much pleased with my reception and the result 
 of the interview.
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Winter — Camel -foals — Tuweyba Tribe — Old Friends — Harassing La- 
 bours — Dissatisfaction — Budda, the Grave-digger and Gold-finder — 
 Arab Kindness — Warka in 1854 — Difficulties — Scarcity of Food and 
 Water — Patriarchal Life in Abraham's Country — Misery and Rapa- 
 city — Sand-storms, • 
 
 It was now winter in the Arab plains, and the thermo- 
 meter stood below freezing-point as we advanced north- 
 ward from the sheikh's encampment. On quitting the 
 date-groves, clouds concealed the sun, and the wind 
 blew so keen and cuttingly across the level desert, that 
 it was necessary frequently to dismount and walk, that 
 the blood might be kept in proper circulation. Al- 
 though I had crossed the snows of the Alps and the 
 Taurus, I never before experienced such an intensity of 
 cold. I was almost paralyzed, not from the lowness of 
 the temperature, but from the passage of the wind over 
 the soil impregnated with saltpetre ; we were as if in a 
 spacious refrigerator. The Arabs, with their bare feet 
 resting in large iron stirrups, were completely benumbed 
 and useless, frequently falling from their faithful mares, 
 and requiring to be again lifted into their saddles. 
 Wherever we passed an encampment, a ^vl'etclled camels'- 
 dung fire imparted a degree of warmth to the half-clad 
 Arabs, which only caused them to feel the cold more 
 acutely. They sat shivering and grinning, their faces 
 alone visible from beneath their rags, and bearing more 
 resemblance to monkeys than living human beings. All
 
 CRUEL PUNISHMENTS. 147 
 
 had dreadful coughs, and their constant barking jarred 
 horribly on the ear. It is almost incredible that the Arab 
 of the Tigris and Euphrates can endure such extremes of 
 temperature as there prevail — at one season scorched 
 under a burning sun, at another almost frozen to death. 
 The same coarse abba which shades him from the heat in 
 summer is his only protection against the cold of winter ! 
 We again crossed the Euphrates. 
 
 The Sheikh of the Muntefik was at this time about 
 taking stock, and the banks of the river were covered with 
 immense flocks of camels, sheep, and cattle. Many were 
 the inquiries made whether the bridge of boats was yet 
 built which was to convey them across the great stream 
 to Swaij. It was the foaling season, and the camel-herds 
 were actively engaged in protecting the young. Numbers 
 recently foaled, and unable yet to walk, were being care- 
 fully carried in arms to the tents for protection from the 
 killing wind. 
 
 On the second day from Swaij, I alighted at the reed 
 muthif of Sheikh Debbi, at Dilraji, whom I had seen on 
 my previous visit. The Madan tribes above Suk were 
 governed by a deputy of Fahad's. For many years this 
 honour — and profit — were enjoyed alternately by two 
 brothers, Sa'dun and Debbi. The former was then in 
 power, and Debbi was his lieutenant. In authority the 
 latter was a great tyrant, and delighted in inflicting 
 severe punishments for small crimes. Many poor wretches 
 were shewn me as instances of his cruelty — one had lost 
 his hand, another his foot, and a third was hamstrung 
 and appeared on crutches dragging behind him the use- 
 less limb ! 
 
 Debbi received the great sheikh's letter with becoming 
 respect, and did the honours of hospitality right nobly. 
 A few minutes sufiiced to prepare a bountiful meal, of 
 which I was not sorry to partake, for the cold and wind
 
 148 A DAINTY MEAL. 
 
 had given me a ravenous appetite. A dirty reed basket 
 was speedily laid on the ground, containing freshly-baked 
 flaps of bread, and the grilled shoulders of a young lamb, 
 accompanied with a bowl of lebban, or soured milk. In 
 true Arab style, I set to with fingers and teeth — the 
 native knife and fork — and enjoyed a delicious meal. 
 My two Arab guards and Debbi himself seemed to do 
 tlie same, for, between us, the eatable contents of the 
 basket effectually disappeared. The bones, however, were 
 destined to undergo another polishing, for, on removal 
 from the banqueting-hall, I saw them between the teeth 
 of two or three Arabs seated near the entrance, while an 
 expectant crowd stood round awaiting their turn. 
 
 The nearest Arab encampment to the ruins of Warka, 
 was that belonging to the Tuweyba tribe of the Beni 
 Hacheym,'"' situated on the right bank of the Euphrates, 
 at the distance of six miles. To this, therefore, it was 
 arranged that I should proceed, and pitch my tent during 
 my temporary stay. Debbi, in conformity with the orders 
 of his liege lord, mounted his mare and accompanied me. 
 We travelled north-westward about ten miles, among a 
 succession of ravines cut by the river during its seasons 
 of flood, and ultimately arrived at our destination. 
 
 I was soon recognised by the Arabs, who proved to be 
 those I had previously made acquaintance with upon the 
 ruins, and from whom I had purchased several antiques. 
 Their bright eyes and smiles satisfied me that I was 
 regarded as a welcome guest. The sheikh, Azayiz-es- 
 Salem, was ill in bed, but his son-in-law, Hennayin, came 
 out to greet me, and held the bridle of my horse while I 
 
 * The names of the Beni Hdcheym tribes are — 
 
 1. Thfidlem 4. El-Ezowyer 7. Mtish'dla 
 
 2. El-bti-Hassd,n 5. El-'Abbds 8. Jii'dber 
 
 3. Ez-Zaydd 6. El-Hadjll 9. Tuweyba. 
 
 The last-named tribe possesses about 100 tents, or 500 souls. Concerning 
 the other tribes, I could obtain no positive information.
 
 THE TUWEYBA TRIBE. 149 
 
 dismounted. One of Fahad's men, as a superior being, 
 adcbessed liim and the crowd, which unceremoniously- 
 seated itself in a circle around the new comers : — " Doo;s : 
 this Beg is an officer of the Sultan's ; if any harm happens 
 to him, or if the least article belonging to him is stolen, 
 you and your wives shall be taken w^ith your hands 
 bound to Sheikh Fahad, and you will not soon forget the 
 punishment you will receive." All bowed their heads, in 
 impUcit obedience to the great power, with exclamations 
 of " Wallah \" Hearing the guides giving imperious 
 orders, I feared the Arabs might imagine they were to 
 supply everything in Oriental style — gratis, and therefore 
 called the sheikh's representative aside, to tell him that 
 it was my wish to pay for all articles, at a reasonable 
 price, and even a little above actual value. If, however, 
 he attempted to be exorbitant in his demands, I threat- 
 ened to leave the settlement of his account to the Sheikh 
 of the Muntefik. Hennayin seemed to be delighted, but 
 in a short time, Arab-like, asked six shamies (9s.) a-day 
 for each worlanau, the ordinary wage being a twelfth 
 part of that sum — to which he at length decreased his 
 demand. 
 
 On the follomng morning I started with a party of 
 excavators for the ruins, and continued my labours for 
 three wrecks. My work was harassing in the extreme. 
 At sum'ise I set out with the Arabs for the mounds, a 
 distance of six miles, and never left them during the 
 whole day. The soil was so light that, in walking from 
 trench to trench, my feet were buried at each step. The 
 Arabs required constant direction and watching. It was 
 usually long after sunset ere we returned to camp, 
 stumbling every instant over the broken ground. A few 
 minutes sufficed for me to swallow the food my cook had 
 prepared, when, almost tired to death, I was obliged to 
 lay down plans from mv rough notes, write my journal,
 
 150 DISSATISFACTION IN CAMP. 
 
 and pack the objects procured in the course of tlie day. 
 On many occasions, it was two o'clock in the morning 
 before I retired to rest, perfectly benumbed from the in- 
 tensity of the cold, which even the double walls of my 
 little tent could not exclude. 
 
 Debbi on the second day begged j^ermission to return to 
 Duraji, pretending that he had received a pressing mes- 
 sao'e from his brother Sa'dun. He left behind him a 
 servant to look after my safety, kissed the hands of 
 Fahad's people, and prayed them, by all that was holy 
 and sacred, to take the greatest care of my precious 
 person and goods, " for," said he, " should anything hap- 
 pen to him, woe betide me !" Two days later, the Mun- 
 tefik guides themselves also asked permission to return 
 home, because Fahad and all his people were about to set 
 out in a few days for the pastures beyond JMugeyer with 
 all their flocks and herds, and they natiu-ally desired to 
 accompany them. I was not sorry to lose these gentry, 
 for they evidently rough-rode the poor Tuweyba tribe, 
 treating them like " dogs " as they had styled them. 
 
 No sooner, however, were my protectors gone than my 
 troubles began. The fickle character of the Madan re- 
 quired fresh excitement ; many of them were soon tired 
 of their new employment ; they desired another scene. 
 A portion of the tribe had already departed to commence 
 their cultivation on the flooded banks of the Shat-el- 
 Kahr, Avhich had now for the first time overflowed for 
 several years ; the rest were all anxiety to follow. Daily 
 they became more importunate, but were still detained 
 by the sheikh's son-in-law, Hennayin, whom I had gained 
 over to second all my plans, it beiAg no part of my 
 intention to quit Warka until the objects of my journey 
 were secured. Hennayin, at my instigation, sounded the 
 feelings of the Arabs, and found that more than half their 
 number was willing to remain and work. The remainder,
 
 DANGER. 151 
 
 headed by the sheikh's brother, insisted on going and 
 taking all the tribe with him, although the poor sheikh 
 himself was too ill to bear the fatigue of a joui-ney, and 
 wished to remain. 
 
 At length the dissatisfied portion of the community 
 contented themselves by decamping during the night — 
 not, however, before they had set fire to the brushwood 
 at the back of my tent with an evident desire to burn it 
 down. Each following day shewed a decrease in the size 
 of our little encampment, until at length Sheikh Azayiz 
 sent me word to say, that he would no longer be respon- 
 sible for my safety, as his tribe was at feud with all around, 
 and nothingwould delight his enemies more than to pounce 
 upon him in his present undefended state. He suggested 
 that we should all decamp to Duraji, promising to remain 
 with the workmen who adhered to my party. This ar- 
 rangement was carried out, and, during the remainder of 
 my stay, my tent was pitched under the walls of Sheikh 
 Debbi's kala'a, nine miles from the ruins. 
 
 Of the Arabs who remained with me there were some 
 who had passed their lives in ransacking the ruins for 
 gold, and who consequently were acquainted with every 
 hole and corner of the place. Among these was an old 
 fellow, named Budda, whose locks had grown gray during 
 his avocation as a "grave-digger." Shrewd, active, and 
 energetic, the head of every piece of fun or mischief, 
 whether in leading a chorus or in attacking the enemy, 
 old Budda was regarded as the father of his tribe, and 
 had much more positive influence over his fellows than 
 either Azayiz or Hennayin. Whenever a quarrel took 
 place, Budda was appealed to as judge : whenever an 
 opinion was required, Budda was the counsel employed : 
 in fact, Budda was the genius of the Tuweyba tribe, and 
 at his death will doubtless be dubbed an Imam! He soon 
 became as necessary to me as he was to his own people ;
 
 152 
 
 THE GRAVE-SEEKERS. 
 
 and all works requiring particular care were confided to 
 Budda's direction. He delighted when the day's labour 
 
 was over to steal softly 
 into my tent, sip a cup 
 of coffee, and recount 
 his wild adventures. 
 His httle gray eyes 
 sparkled, and his 
 wrinkled smihng face 
 beamed with delight, 
 when he was informed 
 that he was appofnted 
 sheikh of the work- 
 men. His favourite 
 position was to sit on 
 his heels and place 
 upon his knees his 
 bony hands, which, 
 from continual grub- 
 bing in the earth, had 
 grown long and sharp 
 hke. those of a mole. His dress was a respectable white 
 abba, which he wore round his waist, his head being 
 wrapped in an ample keffieh, almost the only one in the 
 tril)e. 
 
 Next in intelligence was his son Gunza with the squeaky 
 voice, a miserable, lanky fellow, having sharjD hatchet fea- 
 tiu-es, and long jet-black locks, well greased and plaited 
 by his newly-married wife. He too was a general favour- 
 ite ; and, next to his father's, the falsetto voice of Gunza 
 was heard a-bove all others in their wild yells and songs. 
 He was a good workman, extremely docile, affectionate 
 and obliging. His skin was as brown as his abba, which 1 
 never saw on his shoulders ; keffieh he scorned to wear. 
 His father had brought him up to be a professed coffin- 
 
 \i(S ^^ 
 
 Budda.
 
 TRAITS OF CHARACTER. 153 
 
 breaker, and it was incredible with what cunning and 
 cleverness he set about his work. He was a perfect ferret, 
 and might frequently be seen burroAving in a hole into which 
 it seemed almost impossible that he could have crept. 
 
 Then came his cousin Suweyd, a tall handsome fellow, 
 who delighted in a short spear and a thick head of hair, 
 which, being seldom combed, hung about his ears and 
 neck ad libitum. Suweyd was fond of cringing, and was 
 frequently ill-tempered, but he was strong, and esteemed 
 a good warrior as well as an active workman. 
 
 With these three and Hennayin, who was deputed to 
 use the influence and power of his father-in-law Sheikh 
 Ajzayiz, and who rendered me valuable assistance, I con- 
 trived to guide the unwieldy spirits of the Tuweyba.. 
 Notwithstanding their wild looks and bad character, they 
 exhibited many good traits. They could not understand 
 my ha^T-Ug any other object but that of searching for gold 
 like themselves, and were disappointed at my not having 
 found any. Soon after commencing excavations, Gunza 
 one mornino' came to me with the foUowino' offer : — 
 " Beg ! you have now been with us several days, and spent 
 much mone)/" to no purpose : let us choose a place where 
 to dig, and, inshallah ! we shall soon find heaps of gold !" 
 It is needless to say that these heaps existed only in his 
 good-natured imagination. 
 
 In returning from the ruins at night I always made it 
 a practice to ride along with the Arabs and enter into the 
 spirit of their amusements. This, I believe, told strongly 
 in my favour. Often, when a franpolin sprang up before 
 the party, and a well-aimed shot with a bitumen-headed 
 club or stick brought down the game, the lucky sports- 
 man would throw it on the ground before my horse and 
 beg my acceptance of it. Occasionally one of my wild 
 friends would rush into my tent, holding out a hen's 
 egg : — " We receive presents from you. Beg, daily, but
 
 154 WARKA IN 1854. 
 
 have nothing to give in retiu-n worthy of your accep- 
 tance. What else but food have we to offer? All I 
 possess is a hen ! See, she has just laid an egg ; pray, 
 Beg, accept it." Similar instances of a kind disposition 
 evinced themselves ; and I passed a pleasant time on the 
 whole with this rude and primitive tribe. 
 
 During the month spent at the camps of Azayiz and 
 Debbi, my first collection of antiquities was sent from 
 Warka to the British Museum, but my principal dis- 
 coveries were effected during a subsequent visit, when, 
 accompanied by Mr Boutcher the artist, I passed the 
 three first months of the year 1854 at the same locality, 
 in charge of the expedition sent out under the auspices of 
 the Assyrian Excavation Fund. Few explorers can have 
 more difficulties to experience than I had on that occa- 
 sion. After having passed, with numerous adventures and 
 mishaps from Niffar, through the intricate marshes of the 
 Affej, the unknown swamps under the independent sway 
 of the Amir, and a three-days' waterless desert, I found 
 that a little revolution had taken place around AVarka 
 during my absence. The Tuweyba tribe had been driven 
 out of Mesopotamia across the Euphrates, Sheikh Debbi 
 had fled with his people from Kala'a Duraji, and there 
 were no Arabs nearer the ruins than at the httle village 
 of El-Kliithr on the Euphrates, nine miles distant, conse- 
 quently too far off to admit of my carrying on effective 
 operations for any length of time. To this place I was, 
 however, driven, in order to make my preparations and 
 collect a staff of workmen. The sheikh at El-Khithr 
 proved to be an ignorant cross-grained fellow, evincing 
 no desire to aid me, and exorbitant in all his demands. 
 It is true that he permitted some of his tribe to work in 
 the ruins for a few days at high wages : but there was no 
 dependence to be placed in liim, and he at last absolutely 
 refused to supply me with workmen.
 
 DIFFICULTIES ATTENDING EXCAVATIONS. 155 
 
 Hearing that my Tuweyba friends were encamped about 
 a day's journey off, I despatched a messenger to Azayiz, 
 who speedily made his appearance in company with ohi 
 Budda. Loving were the greetings that passed between 
 us, and many were the hugs which Azayiz bestowed on 
 me. Budda, however, as an inferior, contented himself 
 with imprinting two respectful kisses on my left shoulder. 
 Azayiz was willing to place his tribe at my disposal : but 
 it was in fearfully bad odour with all around, more espe- 
 cially with the Wadi, into whose hands the Warka terri- 
 tory had now passed. On my promise to give him a 
 written guarantee for his security, he brought over about 
 thirty men, and pitched his tent near mine. This num- 
 ber not being, however, sufficient for my purpose, more 
 were sent for. I likewise accepted an offer of labourers 
 from Tamar, Sheikh of E1-' Abbas tribe, which was sta- 
 tioned near the junction of the Semava and Hillah streams 
 of the Euphrates. Finding that my force was increasing, 
 the El-Khithr tribe rebelled against the authority of their 
 sheikh, and voluntarily offered their services : I selected 
 as many men as were required, and at once decided on a 
 change of quarters. 
 
 AVhile these arrangements were in progress, a few Arabs 
 were employed in digging wells midway between El- 
 Khithr and the ruins, in the dry deep channel of an old 
 offshoot from the Euphrates. The experiment succeeded, 
 and a supply of brackish water was obtained, sufficing 
 for a time to satisfy our wants. The camp was then 
 removed from the bank of the great river into the desert 
 beside these wells, which was the nearest position to the 
 ruins affording water. Azayiz brought his tent, but the 
 workmen contented themselves with rude shelters of 
 camel's thorn, fetched from the side of the Euphrates, 
 and interposed between themselves and tlie wind, which 
 at times blew most bitterly cold. Fuel was procured by
 
 156 PRIMITIVE MODE OF LIFE. 
 
 digging up decayed roots of tamarisk, which were here 
 and there to be found under the sandy soil. This served 
 to keep in their bodies some sparks of warmth, as they 
 sat shivering over their watch-fires at night. The water, 
 however, at length became undrinkable — even the Arabs 
 refused to touch it. It was, therefore, necessary to pur- 
 chase camels, by means of which valuable animals sweet 
 water from the Euphrates was daily conveyed, not only 
 to the camp, but also to the working parties at the 
 mounds. 
 
 Nothing could exceed the primitive mode of life which 
 we led in this region of Abraham's birthplace. In the 
 patriarchal style, we were surrounded by our people — our 
 flocks and herds, asses and camels, were daily driven 
 to browse by the river side in the morning, and back to 
 the camp at night. A few of the Arabs brought their 
 wives with them, who baked flat loaves of barley bread 
 in their native ovens for the wants of the community. 
 Little enough, it is true, had the poor Arabs : and we 
 were frequently obliged to provide for them out of our 
 scanty store when their own was exhausted. The extreme 
 scarcity of food Avas, perhaps, oiu* greatest difiiculty. In 
 consequence of the river having failed to overflow its 
 natural banks for the four years since my former visit, 
 the small plots of cultivation which formed the chief 
 support of the Madan tribes had utterly failed, and 
 reduced them to a state of the most abject destitution. 
 They had httle or nothing to support life beyond the 
 roots dug out of the ground, or the plunder obtainable 
 from neighbouring tribes. A dearth of provisions every- 
 where prevailed along the banks of the Lower Eu- 
 phrates, so that barley had risen fourfold beyond its 
 usual price. On first commencing operations, the oflal 
 thrown out from our cook's tent was greedily seized and 
 devoured by the poor, half-starved wretches, who, how-
 
 MISERY AND RAPACITY. 157 
 
 ever, fared better as tlie excavations progressed, and ttey 
 received the reward of their daily labours. Hunger 
 makes all men selfish, and in most cases alters all the 
 better feelings of our nature. The Tuweyba tribe, which 
 were previously in comparatively affluent circumstances, 
 and had engaged my sympathies on account of their 
 good-natured hospitality, were now become perfect demons 
 of avarice and rapacity. They insisted on being paid 
 their wages every night, so that, as there was much diffi- 
 culty in obtaining coin, I was frequently obliged to reduce 
 my customary number of hands until a fresh supply 
 reached me. There was not sufficient small clianoe to 
 pay each man separately, so that a deputy was chosen for 
 parties of four or five, and the wages were handed over 
 to him in their presence. Then began a violent discus- 
 sion about the due partition of the spoil. Each man 
 tried to cheat the other, and argued his own case, at the 
 full pitch of his voice, in rich, round Arab gutturals. 
 The furious gesticulations that accompanied the dispute 
 seemed frequently to threaten an open breach of the 
 peace, but only ended in talk and abuse. They would sit 
 for hours over their watch-fires, discussing the knotty 
 question implicated in a black ^3/ce ; and often, when it 
 appeared to be settled, and the angry voices had subsided 
 to their natural tone, the smothered flame woidd break 
 out afresh with more impetuosity than before. Half the 
 night was frequently spent in such debates, which invariably 
 ended in some poor fellow being defrauded by his friend. 
 The scenes which these quarrels gave rise to, under the 
 light of the pale moon and the red glare of the tamarisk 
 fire, were such as would have formed a fine subject for the 
 painter. Each man was the guardian of his own wealth, 
 and dared not trust liis little skin of flour to the care of 
 his neighbour : whether in camp or on the ruins, every 
 one carried his supply tied up in his abba, which, when
 
 158 SAND-STORMS. 
 
 measured out to be made into bread by the women, never 
 passed out of its owner's vision V' 
 
 The great difficulty was, as I have said, how to buy 
 provisions, for, on account of the scarcity, not a single 
 article could be obtained in the neio'hbourhood for love 
 
 o 
 
 or money. It was therefore necessary to send for all our 
 suj^plies to Suk-esh->Sheioukh, a distance of sixty miles ; 
 and, as the desert did not furnish a blade of grass, our 
 animals, too, were obliged to be provided with barley and 
 straw from the same place. 
 
 In ordinary seasons, the inundation of the Euphrates 
 extends to the very base of the mounds, and renciers 
 approach impossible from the east except by boat. It is 
 upon the newly-deposited soil left by the retiring waters, 
 that the Arabs cultivate crops of maize for their next 
 year's subsistence ; it may therefore be well conceived 
 that their condition was not enviable when their hus- 
 bandry failed for several successive years, and they had 
 no other means of support. 
 
 Another difficulty considerably impeded excavations. 
 It was my desire to have encamped amid the mounds 
 themselves ; but this was impossible, in consequence of 
 the frequency of sand-storms induced by the slightest 
 breath of air. While all around was in comparative 
 stillness, Warka was enveloped in a dense cloud of impal- 
 pable sand, which occurred at least twice or thrice a- week, 
 and rendered our situation at times extremely disagree- 
 able. The workmen were driven from the trenches, and 
 these were drifted up in the course of a few hours. So 
 densely was the air impregnated with the flying atoms, 
 that the Arabs themselves often lost their way in return- 
 ing to camp. Yet, beyond a certain distance from the 
 ruins, scarcely a breath of wind was perceptible, and the 
 atmosphere remained clear and tranquil. 
 
 * For a farther account of the character of the Mdddn, see page 122.
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 "The Land of Slilnar "— Warka, the Ancient " Erecli "— " Ur of the 
 Clialdees" — Scene of Desolation and Solitude — Enormous Extent 
 of Euins — The Buwariyya — Reed-mat Structure. 
 
 Of tlie primeval cities founded by Nimrod, tlie son of 
 Cusli, four are represented, in Genesis x. 10, as giving 
 origin to the rest : — " And tlie beginning of liis kingdom 
 was Babel, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh, in the 
 land of Shinar." 
 
 The position of this land of Shinar is a much disputed 
 point, and grave discussion has arisen concerning its 
 identification. Some writers, from similarity of nam.e, 
 contend that it refers to the modern district called Sinjar, 
 in Mesopotamia, between Mosul on the Tigris, and Biron 
 the Euphrates ; but the coincidence goes no further, for 
 Shinar is described in the Bible as "a plain," whereas 
 Sinjar is an undulating, rocky region, traversed by a range 
 of lofty limestone mountains. Under these circumstances, 
 the supposed identity fails, and we are compelled to look 
 elsewhere for the first settlements. 
 
 Others, with more reason, point to a district much 
 further to the south, where are the remains of innumer- 
 able ancient cities, regarded by Jewish tradition as the 
 country Shinar, from whence that nation originally pro- 
 ceeded. In confirmation of this, Babylonia, in the old 
 cuneiform inscriptions, is called by the same name, —
 
 160 DERIVATION OF THE NAME " WARKA. 
 
 Shinar, and it is likewise still preserved in the important 
 ruins of Sinkara. 
 
 The site of Babel is, moreover, traditionally assigned to 
 the same region, and the large ruins near Hillah on the 
 Euphrates are generally supposed to represent it. If this 
 l^e admitted, we ought naturally to seek for the other 
 three cities of the primitive kingdom in the adjacent 
 region. Without, however, attempting to identify Accad 
 or Cahieh, which would be foreign to onr purpose, let us 
 see if there be any site which will correspond with the 
 biblical Erech — ^the second city of Nimrod. 
 
 About 120 miles south-east of Babylon, are ^ome 
 enormous piles of mounds, which, from their name and 
 importance, appear at once to justify their claim to .con- 
 sideration. The name of Warka is derivable from Erech 
 without unnecessary contortion. The original Hebrew 
 word "Erk," or "Ark," is transformed into "Warka," either 
 by changing the aleph into van, or by simply prefixing the 
 vau for the sake of euphony, as is customary in the 
 conversion of Hebrew names to Arabic. If any depen- 
 dence can be placed upon the derivation of modern from 
 ancient names, this is more worthy of credence than most 
 others of like nature. 
 
 Some persons derive Warka from the Arabic root Hrh, 
 " a branch or vein," from whence originates the modern 
 name of the region — Irak-Arabi ; but it must be remem- 
 bered that the Arabic language is not to be depended 
 on for the root of such an ancient name as Erech. 
 " Country of arteries" would otherwise be a very apj)ro- 
 priate name for a region intersected with canals. 
 
 Sir Henry Rawlinson states his belief that Warka is 
 Erech, and in this he is supported by concurrent testimony. 
 Although he has been unable to read its cuneiform name 
 with precision, it is generally designated as " the city," jpar 
 excellence. He therefore ascribes to Warka a very high
 
 If if ^¥ W^ 
 
 (ancient erech .) 
 
 Bimdrieh 
 
 Larifr Ruiti 
 FartJuatt ■'! Tmrr 
 Rrhtirr of Chru-s __ 
 
 A 
 B 
 C 
 D 
 E 
 
 (email mound (eaccavaud ) F 
 i^cf.k & Parthian mound C 
 
 Sivria nieundd . H 
 
 Snilpturein Basait.^ I 
 
 Xiift'iaji . 
 
 Mflund 
 
 Tpwerot'Bnck Jtfajos 
 Ormcalmcitrui 
 SW.Siputre nunaxd' 
 TahleC taraff 
 Mffund 
 
 bed called 
 
 1 Ni^ 
 
 W^V
 
 f>^ ^ 
 
 * 
 
 (ANCENT ERtCH.) 
 
 . o 
 
 '■v_/^ 
 
 
 f 
 
 X 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 :r
 
 WARKA *' UR OF THE CHALDEES." 161 
 
 antiquity, and regards it as the motlier-city from wliicli 
 all others sprang.'"' It is not improbable that Herodotus re- 
 fers to Warka when he speaks of Arderikka,t corresponding 
 with the Chaldsean Ar'a de Erek, or Land of Erech. 
 
 A trace of the same name appears to exist in Orchoe of 
 Alexander's time. We are told by Pliny| that the inha- 
 bitants of that city diverted the waters of the Euphrates 
 for the purpose of irrigating their lands ; and it is likewise 
 mentioned by Strabo§ as a city which possessed an 
 university for the study of astronomy, from whence 
 originated the sect of Chaldaean philosophers called 
 Orchoeni, in contradistinction to those of Borsippa. The 
 near correspondence of the two names, the discovery of 
 very early cuneiform, as well as of Greek, records at 
 Warka, the immensity of its ruins, and the sacred 
 character attached to them, are certainly highly favour- 
 able to the identity of Warka with the primitive Erech, 
 and the Greek Orchoe. 
 
 It has been elsewhere observed, || that previous to the 
 discovery of the Mugeyer cylinders. Sir Henry Eawlinson 
 definitely concluded that Warka was, moreover, Ur of 
 the Chaldees, from whence Abraham migrated into Syria. 
 He remarks that a very ancient and valuable manuscript 
 in his library determinately connects the ruins of Warka 
 with Ur : — " The traditionists report that Abraham was 
 born at El Warka, in the district of Edh-Dhawabi,1F on 
 the confines of Kaskar, and that his father afterwards 
 moved to. Nimrod's capital, which is in the territory of 
 Kutha. As-sudi, however, states that when the mother 
 of Abraham found herself pregnant, Azer (the biblical 
 Terah) feared lest the child should perish, so he went out 
 
 * See page xvi. of the Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the Royal Asiatic 
 Society, 1852 ; and Proceedings of the Royal Geogr. Society, vol. i., page 47« 
 t Herodotus, i. 185. % Pliny, vi. 27. § Strabo, xvi. 739. 
 
 II At page 131, IF Dowab, in Persiaji, means " two rivers." 
 
 L
 
 ] 62 UNAPPROACHABLE POSITION OF WARKA. 
 
 with her to a country between Kufa and Wasit, which 
 was called Ur."'"" This tradition of Abraham's birth- 
 place at Warka, however, originated not with the Arabs, 
 but with the Jews, and is therefore more deserving 
 credence. 
 
 Without desiring to claim for Warka more honour 
 than the place is duly entitled to, may we not, although 
 admitting the correctness of the reading " Hur" on the 
 Mugeyer cylinders, still, consistently with this ancient 
 tradition, regard Warka as Ur, on the supposition that 
 this name is apphed — not to a city — but to a district of 
 the Chaldees, which included both the ruined sites of 
 Warka and Mugeyer '? In this light " Ur of the Chaldees" 
 is, I believe, regarded by some authorities on this subject. 
 
 If Mugeyer be Ur, we have likewise the same root in the 
 name Orchoe. I therefore agree with Mr Baillie Fraser,t 
 in his remark that " Warka may possibly represent 
 Orchoe of the Chaldaeans, while the term Orchoe may be 
 nothing more than a mere modification of the ancient 
 Erech, and Warka or Irka a more modern pronunciation 
 of both." 
 
 Having made these preliminary remarks on the still 
 obscure origin and history of Warka, I proceed to describe 
 the present aspect of these very remarkable ruins. They 
 stand in latitude about 31° 19' N. and in longitude about 
 45° 40' E., and are distant four miles from the nearest 
 point on the eastern bank of the Euphrates. An elevated 
 tract of desert soil, ten miles in breadth, is slightly 
 raised above a series of inundations and marshes caused 
 by the annual overflowing of the Euphrates. Upon this 
 
 * "Journal of Royal Asiatic Society," vol. xii., p. 481 ; note. 
 
 t " Mesopotamia and Assyria," p. 115. In several recent works, the names 
 Mdgayah, El-Asayleh, or " the place of pebbles," and Senkereh are, on the 
 authority of Colonel Chesney, applied to the ruins of Warka. The Arabs 
 of the locality, however, do not know them by any such names ; and Sinkara 
 is an independent ruin, 15 miles east-south-east of Warka.
 
 SOLITUDE AND DESOLATION. 163 
 
 are situated not only Warka, but Sinkara, Tel Ede, and 
 Hammam — all unapproachable, except from November 
 to March, during which months the river assumes its 
 lowest level, and occasionally admits of access. This belt 
 of elevated soil extends from a few miles south of Warka, 
 in a N.E. direction, to the meres of the Affej already men- 
 tioned. Towards the south and east the land of Chaldaea 
 is swallowed up in a chain of marshes, through which, at 
 long intervals, an island or an ancient mound appears 
 above the horizon of waters. This character of the dis- 
 trict appears from historical evidence to have obtained 
 from the earliest times, and is duly represented in the 
 Nineveh sculptures during the period of Sennacherib. 
 While the inundation prevails, reeds and coarse grass 
 skirt the border of the water, and a few stunted tamarisk 
 bushes flourish for a time at a little higher level ; but 
 with the retiring of the water vegetation rapidly dies, 
 and in a few short weeks nothing but dried rushes and 
 leafless twigs are to be seen on a parched sandy desert. 
 
 The desolation and solitude of Warka are even more 
 striking than the scene which is presented at Babylon 
 itself. There is no life for miles around. No river 
 glides in grandeur at the base of its mounds ; no green 
 date groves flourish near its ruins. The jackal and the 
 hyaena appear to shun the dull aspect of its tombs. The 
 king of birds never hovers over the deserted waste. A 
 blade of grass or an insect finds no existence there. The 
 shrivelled lichen alone, clinging to the weathered surface 
 of the broken brick, seems to glory in its universal 
 dominion upon those barren walls. Of all the desolate 
 pictures which I have ever beheld, that of Warka incom- 
 parably surpasses all. There are, it is true, lofty and 
 imposing structures towering from the surrounding piles 
 of earth, sand, and broken pottery, but all form or plan 
 is lost in masses of fallen brickwork and rubbish. These
 
 164 GENERAL VIEW AND EXTENT. 
 
 only serve to impress the mind more fully with the 
 complete ruin and desertion which have overtaken the 
 city. Its ancient name even is lost to the modern tribes, 
 and little is kno\\Ti with certainty of its past history. 
 Nineveh, Babylon, and Susa have their peculiar traditions, 
 but ancient Warka and its sanctity are forgotten as though 
 they had possessed no previous existence. 
 
 Standing upon the summit of the principal edifice called 
 the Buwariyya,'"" in the centre of the ruins, the beholder is 
 struck with astonishment at the enormous accumulation 
 of mounds and ancient relics at his feet. An irregular 
 circle, nearly six miles in circumference, is defined hf the 
 traces of an earthen rampart, in some places forty feet 
 high. An extensive platform of undulating mounds^ 
 brown and scorched by the burning sun, and cut up by 
 innumerable channels and ravines, extends, in a general 
 direction north and south, almost up to the wall, and 
 occupies the greatest part of the enclosed area. As at 
 Niffar, a wide channel divides the platform into two 
 unequal parts, which vary in height from twenty to 
 fifty feet ; upon it are situated the principal edifices of 
 Warka. On the western edge of the northern portion 
 rise, in solemn grandeur, masses of bricks which have 
 accumulated around the lower stories of two rectangular 
 buildings and their various ofiices, supposed to be temples, 
 or perhaps royal tombs. The bleached and lichen-covered 
 aspect of the surface attests the long lapse of ages which 
 has passed since the enterprising hand of man reared 
 them from above the surrounding level desert. Detached 
 from the principal mass of platform are several irregularly- 
 shaped low mounds between it and the walls, some of 
 which are thickly strewed with lumps of black scoria, as 
 though buildings on their summits had been destroyed 
 by fire. At the extreme north of the platform, close to 
 * A on General Plan.
 
 GENERAL VIEW AND EXTENT. 165 
 
 the wall, a conical mound'"- rears its head from the sur- 
 rounding waste of ruins — the barrow probably of some 
 ancient Scyth. Warka, in the days of her greatness, was 
 not, however, confined within the limit of her walls ; her 
 subiu'bs may be traced by ruined buildings, mounds, and 
 pottery, fully three miles beyond the ramparts into the 
 eastern desert. Due north, at the distance of two miles 
 from the Buwariyya, is the dome-shaped pile of NufFayji,t 
 which rivals the central ruin itself in height, and stands 
 the advanced guard of the city. Near it several smaller 
 barrows are strewed around without apparent order or 
 design. On the north-east is another large mound,J re- 
 sembHng, but smaller than, Nuffayji. 
 
 Forlorn splendour and unbroken solitude reign undis- 
 turbed on the ruins. AVith the exception of the Tuweyba 
 tribe, the Arabs shun a site which is held to be the abode 
 of evil spirits, and none will dare to pass a night upon the 
 doleful spot. 
 
 The view of the surrounding horizon is not more cheer- 
 ino- than that of the desolate scene within the walls. 
 
 o 
 
 During seasons of drought (for I have visited Warka at 
 no other time), seldom is an Arab tent or herd of cattle 
 discernible on any side. In the clear sky of morning or 
 evening it is only possible to make out a few spots which 
 mark the winding course of the Euphrates at the junction 
 of the Hillah and Semava streams, El-Khithr trees and 
 Kala'a Duraji — old settlements casually inhabited. 
 
 Tel Ede on the north-north-east, Sinkara on the east- 
 south-east, and a few date-trees on the marshes of the 
 Kahr, are all that the eye finds to dwell upon in the 
 opposite direction. The intervening space is a dry, barren 
 and dismal desert, void of water, vegetation, and inhabi- 
 tants. The prophecy of the coming desolation of Babylon 
 is equally applicable to AVarka : — " It shaU never be 
 * F on Plan. t J on Plan. X M on Plan.
 
 1G6 EXTERNAL WALLS. 
 
 inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to 
 generation : neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there ; 
 neither shall the shepherds make their fold there/"'' For 
 probably eighteen centuries, Warka has stood deserted and 
 in ruins as she now appears. No wonder therefore, that 
 her history is lost in the oblivion of the past ! 
 
 The external walls of sun-dried brick enclosino; the 
 main portion of the ruins may be traced without much 
 difficulty throughout their entire circuit. They assume 
 the form of an irregular circle five-and-a-half miles in 
 circumference, with shghtly perceptible angles towards 
 the cardinal points. • 
 
 They attain their highest elevation on the north-east 
 side,t where they are between forty and fifty feet q,bove 
 the plain, but the great quantity of rubbish lying at their 
 base proves that their original height was considerably 
 more. The width may have been perhaps twenty feet. 
 
 From this point they trend away towards the south, 
 gradually decreasing in height until they become level 
 with the desert, exhibiting at intervals traces of the brick- 
 work itself. For the most part, however, they have long 
 Bince lost all marks of their origin, and cannot be distin- 
 guished from a simple earthen ramj)art. Many breaks 
 occur along this portion of the walls, some of which were 
 undoubtedly entrances. 
 
 From south to west the course of the wall is only dis- 
 cernible from the desert itself by the darker colour of the 
 soil and the remains of semi-oval turrets, fifty feet apart. 
 These were open towards the city, and possessed walls 
 from four to five-and-a-half feet in thickness. 
 
 Towards the north-west the wall may be followed over 
 
 several large mounds, covered with black slag and scoria, 
 
 like the refuse of a glass factory. It is not improbable 
 
 that this was the site of the furnaces where the glazed 
 
 • Isaiah xiii. 2(1^ f Near the conical mound marked F on the Plan.
 
 THE BUWAUfYiTA. 167 
 
 pottery hereafter alluded to wets made. Pottery, vitrified 
 and inscribed bricks, scoria, and glass, are elsewhere found 
 in abundance on the surface of the ruins. 
 
 Of the three great edifices'"' which rise conspicuously 
 from the surface of the ruins, that called Buwariyya is not 
 
 The BuwSriyya Euin at Warka. 
 
 only the most central, but the most lofty and ancient. 
 At first sight it appears to be a cone, but further exa- 
 mination proves it to be a tower, 200 feet square, built 
 entirely of sun-dried bricks. On excavating at its base- 
 ment there was discovered, on the centre of each side, a 
 massive buttress of peculiar construction, erected for the 
 purpose of supporting the main edifice. Unlike Milgeyer 
 and other Babylonian structures, the lower tower of the 
 Buwariyya is without any external facing of kiln-baked 
 brickwork, its place being, however, supplied by the 
 above-mentioned buttresses. This, together with the pri- 
 mitive manner in which the central portion is arranged, 
 leads to the supposition that it is a very early struc- 
 ture. Sir Hemy Rawlinson confirms this conclusion, by 
 reading the name of King Urukht upon the brick legends 
 
 * A, B, and C on the Plan. 
 
 t See inscriptions page 169. This king also built Mligeyer and NifFar.
 
 1 68 THE buwArIyya. 
 
 of the buttresses, which record the dedication of the edifice 
 to " Sin," or the " JMoon," by that monarch, who is sup- 
 posed to have lived about 2230 B.C. The total height of 
 the Buwariyya is perhaps 100 feet above the desert plain, 
 but only 27 feet of the internal brickwork emerges from a 
 mass of rubbish, w^hich slopes in a gradual descent from 
 the summit and entirely covers up the buttresses. The 
 sides are deeply cut and furrow^ed by rain channels and 
 ravines. The sun-dried bricks are of various shapes and 
 sizes, which is contrary to the custom in later edifices. 
 They are rudely moulded of very incoherent earth, mixed 
 with fragments of pottery and fresh-water shells,* and 
 vary in size from 7 to 9 inches long by 7 inches wide, 
 and 3 or 3^ inches in thickness. 
 
 The name "Buwariy^^a," in Arabic, signifies "reed mats," 
 which term is similarly applied to other mounds in Meso- 
 potamia, in the construction of which the reed matting is 
 used as a new foundation for the successive layers of 
 bricks. Eeeds are placed at intervals of 4 or 5 feet, and 
 serve to protect the earthen mass from disintegration, by 
 projecting beyond the external surface. Four or five 
 rows of bricks are laid horizontally under and upon each 
 layer, and cemented in mud, but the remainder are placed 
 lengthwise on edge, with their flat surfaces and narrow 
 edges facing outwards. The same oblong apertures, wdiich 
 usually characterize edifices of this description, are ob- 
 servable here. The summit of the existing ruin is per- 
 fectly flat, and measures 68 feet from north to south. At 
 one point are traces of a brick superstructure, with inscrip- 
 tions of Sin-shada, who lived about 1500 B.C., and the 
 rubbish, mixed with bitumen, on the exterior, appears to 
 have faUen from it. We therefore conclude that Sin- 
 shada repaired or rebuilt the upper terrace of the.Buwari^'ya 
 which had been erected 800 years previously by his pre- 
 decessor, Urukh, in the same manner as Nebuchadnezzar,
 
 RECORDS OF URUKH, 2230 B.C. 
 
 169 
 
 at a later period, repaired the terraces of the Birs Nimrud, 
 constructed 500 years before liis time. 
 
 The buttresses which have been referred to are 19 feet 
 high, and each is divided into two equal parts, by an 
 inter v^ening space of 1 
 
 foot 9 inches. Each 
 portion is 2 feet 2 
 inches thick, and pro- 
 jects 7^ feet from the 
 unbaked central mass, 
 against which the two 
 parts of the buttress 
 are united by a strong 
 wall. The flat bricks 
 are cemented with 
 thick layers of bitu- 
 men, so firmly adher- 
 
 Stamped Inscription of Urukh iu Monograms. 
 
 ing together that they can with difficulty be separated. 
 Each brick is inscribed with eight lines of complicated 
 mouogrammic characters, peculiar to the earher cunei- 
 form inscriptions. 
 The greater num- 
 ber are stamped, 
 but in some the 
 inscriptions are 
 written, and ex- 
 hibit the manner 
 in Avhich the 
 stamped mono- 
 grams are consti- 
 tuted. 
 
 I destroyed a 
 
 PTPat nOVtion of a inscription of Uruth in ordinary cuneiform characters. 
 
 buttress, and dug a considerable distance into the western 
 angle of the internal mass of brickwork, for the piu'pose
 
 170 THE BlTW'ARfYYA ENCLOSURE. 
 
 of discovering the dedicatory cylinders, which IVIr Tay- 
 lor's excavations at Mugeyer proved to be deposited at 
 the corners of Babylonian edifices. It is, however, pro- 
 bable that they had long previously been destroyed by 
 the fall of brickwork, and therefore my search for these 
 valued records was fruitless. 
 
 The Buwariyya stands at the western angle of a large 
 enclosiure, 350 feet long by 270 feet wide, which evidently 
 extended around it, and reached to the south-east edge 
 of the great platform. Distinct walls of vitrified bricks, 
 bearing the name of Merodach-gina, 1400 B.C., ^ are trace- 
 able in different places. 
 
 "Without extensive excavations it would be impossible 
 to understand the original plan or disposition of the nu- 
 merous walls which appear from under masses of unbaked 
 brick. It is probable that they acted as supports, and 
 served to prevent outward pressure. 
 
 The south-east portion of the enclosure is traversed by 
 numerous ravines, which penetrate deeply into the mound, 
 and expose several of these walls. Wherever trenches 
 were opened at this locality they revealed the same un- 
 baked mass intersected by rectangular walls cemented in 
 bitumen.
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 "Wuswas" Ruin — The Earliest Explorer — Rude Ornamentation — 
 Columnar Architecture — Palm Logs the Probable Type — New Light 
 on the External Ai'chitecture of the Babylonians and Assyrians — 
 Interior of Wuswas — The Use of the Arch in Ancient Mesopotamia 
 — Search for Sculptm-es — The Warrior in Basalt. 
 
 By far the most interesting structure at Warka is that 
 called " Wuswas." ''' It is contained in a spacious walled 
 quadrangle, the eastern corner of which is 840 feet from 
 the Buwariyya. Its north-western side is on the edge of 
 the great platform. The enclosure is oblong, and includes 
 an area of more than 7^ acres ; the north-west and south- 
 east sides respectively measure 650 feet and 500 feet. 
 All the buildings at Warka point with one corner to the 
 true north, and, this being likewise the case at Mugeyer, 
 I presume that such arrangement obtained generally 
 in Chaldsean architecture, perhaps for astronomical pur- 
 poses. The walls of the enclosure are now reduced to 
 long, high ridges of bricks and mortar. A large court on 
 the level of the platform occupies the eastern corner, and 
 is approached by an entrance through each of its external 
 walls. A third gateway on the south-west led to a ter- 
 race in front of the principal building. 
 
 A second court, at a lower level, occupies a correspond- 
 ing position at the north angle, and likewise approaches 
 the main structure, probably by a flight of steps. A large 
 
 * B on Plan.
 
 172 
 
 THE SACRILEGIOUS NEGKO. 
 
 gateway gives entrance to this court from the north- 
 west. 
 
 The remainders of the north-west and south-east sides 
 are elevated terraces, parallel with the walls of the prin- 
 cipal edifice, that on the north-west being of considerable 
 width. 
 
 The most important and conspicuous portion of this 
 great enclosure is the structure on the south-west side, 
 which gives its present name to the i-uin. It is said to 
 be derived from a negro called Wuswas, who, a few years 
 ago, observed a wall on the south-west side, and began 
 
 to make an exca- 
 vation, under the 
 impression that he 
 would find gold 
 within. After pe- 
 netrating fifteen 
 feet through soKd 
 brick-work he dis- 
 covered a valu- 
 iihle ring, but one 
 of the saints of 
 the Mohammedan 
 calendar appeared 
 in a vision, and 
 warned him that 
 his act of spolia- 
 tion was sinful, 
 and that, if he 
 still persisted in 
 his wicked pro- 
 ject, paradise and its hiiris would not be his future lot. 
 Wuswas was alarmed, but, unwilling to part with the 
 treasure he had already acquired, disappeared, and it is to 
 this day unknown whether he had been torn to pieces 
 
 The Excavation at TVuswas.
 
 THE WUSWAS RUIN. 1 73 
 
 by wild beasts, or wlietlier tlie Moliammedan saint liad 
 forthwith transported him to the seventh heaven. The 
 superstitious Arabs have never since dared to enter the 
 excavation, although they have no hesitation in ejecting 
 the bones of the dead from the tenements where they 
 have for ages reposed. The excavation made by Wuswas 
 shewed an act of patience and perseverance foreign to the 
 Arab character, and exposed a thickness of walling which 
 is, at first sight, likely to lead to the erroneous conclusion 
 that the great pile was a solid mass. This ruin is 246 
 feet long by 174 feet wide, and stands 80 feet above the 
 plain. On three sides are terraces of different elevations, 
 but the fourth or south-west presents a perpendicular 
 facade, at one place 23 feet in height. 
 
 Like all Babylonian and Assyrian ruins, the Wuswas 
 building is elevated on a lofty artificial platform 50 feet 
 high, which has perhaps been added to that of the Buwa- 
 riyya. The enormous amount of rubbish which encumbers 
 its summit, sides, and base, gives some slight idea of the 
 magnitude of the edifice, and excites unbounded surprise. 
 It rises from 2 to 6 feet above the building, completely 
 fills every chamber, measures from 20 to 30 feet from 
 the base of the external walls, and extends down the 
 slope of the mound — a truncated pyramid of broken 
 bricks and mortar. 
 
 At my second visit, on returning from Mohammerah, 
 I remarked certain architectural peculiarities, which sub- 
 sequently induced me to undertake excavations on the 
 site of Wuswas's labours. Trenches were therefore di- 
 rected against the fa§ade, where there appeared a proba- 
 bility that an entrance might be efi"ected into the interior. 
 The immense accumulation of fallen brickwork rendered 
 excavation a work of considerable danger, and required 
 the greatest care to prevent the workmen being buried 
 up by the giving way of the loose material. Appliances
 
 174 
 
 SOUTH-WEST FACADE. 
 
 like stays or shoring were 
 unprocurable in the de- 
 serts ; we laboured in the 
 most primitive manner. 
 
 The edge of a broken 
 wall was, in the first place, 
 laid bare at the summit, 
 and the uniformity of its 
 outline induced me to ex- 
 cavate at four difierent 
 localities, but . it soon 
 I became evident * that 
 I neither entrance nor 
 I window ever existed on 
 ^ this side ; at the same 
 i time, it afforded the first 
 I glimpse of Babylonian 
 I architecture, exhibiting 
 I peculiarities so remark- 
 \ able and original as to 
 I pronounce at once its 
 I undoubted antiquity. It 
 I furnishes a new page to 
 I the annals of architec- 
 ^ tural art. 
 
 The facade measures 
 174 feet in length, and, 
 as before stated, in some 
 places 23 feet in height. 
 With this elevation, it is 
 not difficult to complete 
 a restoration of the entire 
 front to that height. Al- 
 though the portions un- 
 
 The right half of the Plan is a horizontal section through the columns—
 
 RUDE COLUMNAR ARCHITECTURE. 1 75 
 
 covered possess no beauty comparable with, the artistic 
 conceptions and productions of subsequent ages, a broad 
 air of grandeur must have attended the immense size and 
 heio-ht of the edifice. Such buildino;s as those at Warka 
 must have been imposing in the extreme. 
 
 At the base of the ruin a narrow terrace, 3-|- feet wide, 
 coated with a thin layer of white plaster, runs the entire 
 length of the facade. From this, in one unbroken per- 
 pendicular line, without a single moulding, rises the main 
 wall, which is subdivided by slight recesses 1 2^ feet long. 
 Nothing can be more plain, more rude, or, in fact, more 
 unsightly than the decoration employed upon this front ; 
 but it is this very aspect — this very ugliness, which 
 vouches for the originality of the style. It has long been 
 a question whether the column was employed by the 
 Babylonians as an architectural embellishment. The 
 Wuswas fa9ade settles this point beyond dispute. Upon 
 the lower portion of the building are groups of seven 
 half-columns repeated seven times — the rudest perhaps 
 which were ever reared, but built of moulded semicircular 
 bricks, and securely bonded to the wall. The entire 
 absence of cornice, capital, base, or diminution of shaft, 
 so characteristic of other columnar architecture, and the 
 peculiar and original disposition of each group in rows 
 like palm logs, suggest the type from which they sprang. 
 It is only to be compared with the style adopted by 
 aboriginal inhabitants of other countries, and was evi- 
 dently derived from the construction of wooden edifices. 
 The same arrangement of uniform reeds or shafts, placed 
 side by side, as at Wuswas, occurs in many Egyptian 
 structures, and in the generality of Mexican buildings 
 before the Spanish invasion. It is that which is likely to 
 
 the other half a section through the recesses of the upper story. The only 
 portion of the fagade exposed before the excavations was around the hole 
 dug by the negro, of which an engraving is given on page 172.
 
 176 RUDE COLUMNAR ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 originate among a rude people before the introduction of 
 the arts. 
 
 There is not a line in the facade to which foreign 
 influence can be traced. In place of a plinth, a fillet of 
 plaster, 1^ inch high, re-connects the line of wall broken 
 by the successive groups of columns. In similar manner 
 above them a horizontal band passes flush with the wall. 
 The otherwise monotonous character of this portion of the 
 front is in some measure varied by the nearer arrange- 
 ment of the two outward groups of columns. 
 
 From the horizontal band, immediately above the three 
 central columns of each group, rises a stepped recess If 
 foot deep, surmounted by a larger and a smaller crescent 
 — a sacred emblem of Chaldsean worship. On either side 
 of these recesses, over the first and seventh columns of 
 each series, is a chasing, containing, in its upper half, a 
 column similar to those before described. 
 
 The rest of the front at intervals is perpendicularly 
 subdivided by chasings 7 inches deep, extending unin- 
 terruptedly from the terrace to the highest point of the 
 building now remaining. This chasing occurs in many 
 other Chaldeean ruins — at the small oratory at Mugeyer 
 and on the great temple at Sinkara — and may be regarded 
 as a chief characteristic of Babylonian architectural 
 ornamentation. 
 
 The whole front has been undoubtedly coated with 
 white plaster from 2 to 4 inches thick, which seems to 
 have suffered more from the fall of the upper portion of 
 the building than from its anterior exposure to the 
 weather. It exhibits no trace of colour. 
 
 I have entered upon the above details, because we 
 previously knew little or nothing regarding the external 
 architecture of the Babylonians, or of the Assyrians. It 
 is true that the lower story of the great temple at Mugeyer 
 has stood exposed for centuries in good preservation, but
 
 GROUPS OF COLUMNS THE PREVAILING TYPE. 177 
 
 it is without the peculiar features above described. At 
 the Birs Nimrud, too, so little of the edifice was visible 
 under the superincumbent pile of rubbish, and that little 
 in such a deplorable state of ruin, that it is impossible to 
 gain any light upon the subject. These were the only 
 two Babylonian edifices which, previous to the discovery 
 of Wuswas, exhibited any external features. Neither Mr 
 Layard's excavations at Koyunjuk and Nimrud, nor 
 those of M. Botta at Khorsabad, furnished any idea as to 
 the exteriors of the Assyrian palaces. Except at the 
 grand entrance of Sargon's palace at Khorsabad, and that 
 of Sennacherib at Koyunjuk, guarded by their colossal 
 bulls and attendant human figures, no portion of the 
 outer walls of an Assyrian palace had ever, up to that 
 time, been uncovered. For the first time, then, Wuswas 
 advances some positive data by which to reconstruct the 
 exterior of a Ninevite palace. It is not, however, extra- 
 ordinary that this had previously escaped discovery. 
 The walls of the palaces erected by the Assyrian kings 
 were merely composed of unbaked bricks, which, in a 
 more humid climate than that of Chaldsea, crumbled 
 away when they ceased to be cared for, forming a com- 
 pact mass with the earth and rubbish under which they 
 were eventually buried. Khorsabad, however, appears 
 to have escaped the destruction which befell the other 
 palaces of Assyria, and to have continued in a remarkably 
 perfect condition when explored by the French Govern- 
 ment. To the perseverance of M. Victor Place, the late 
 French Consul at Mosul, is due the credit of having first 
 discovered and exposed the exterior of an undoubted 
 Assyrian edifice. It is remarkable that not only was the 
 discovery made about the time of my excavations at 
 Wuswas, but also that the architectural peculiarities of 
 the two edifices are so similar that no possible doubt can be 
 thrown on their common origin. The whole exteriors of 
 
 M
 
 1 78 REVIVAL OF THE STYLE UNDER THE SASSAFIANS. 
 
 the tower and harem of Sargon, at Khorsab^d, exhibit a 
 modified representation of the Wuswas fa9ade ; the same 
 rude cohimns, without capital or base, are ranged in sets 
 of seven together, side by side ; and the same dentated 
 recesses or chasings separate the groups, varied only by the 
 insertion of a single column, or a cluster of three, between 
 them. The wall at Khorsabad unfortunately terminates 
 before the columns have attained their full height; con- 
 sequently, this portion of the Wuswas design with its 
 crescents are not visible. Wuswas therefore still remains 
 the most perfect exterior of its class. 
 
 I several times subsequently uncovered columns ar- 
 ranged in Hke manner, with chasings at their sides, on the 
 exterior of the south-east palace at Nimrud. 
 
 At a later date. Sir Henry Rawlinson ascertained that 
 the same system of half-column groups and chasings 
 occurs on the lowest terrace or story of the Birs Nimrud ; 
 but the results of his discoveries at that locality are as yet 
 only partially made public. 
 
 That groups of columns and double recesses were the 
 prevailing type of Assyrian and Babylonian external 
 architecture there can be little doubt, and future excava- 
 tions in those countries may develop the fact more fuUy."^^' 
 
 This native style ceased with the introduction of Greek 
 art and its chaste ornamentation during the occupation 
 of the country under the Seleucidae ; but a slight revival 
 probably took place under the Sassanians. We have 
 several edifices of the latter period, such as the Tauki Kesra 
 at Ctesiphon, and the Palace of Firuzabad in Southern 
 Persia, which in all essential particulars so much resemble 
 Wuswas as to prove that the Sassanians borrowed most 
 
 * In several Koyunjuk sculptures, one of ■which is engraved in Mr 
 Layard's " Nineveh and Babylon," p. 647, the double recesses or chasings 
 are i)reuisely delineated, and afford further proof — if such be required — 
 of their adaptation to the exterior of Assyrian edifices.
 
 INTERIOR OF WUSWAS. 
 
 179 
 
 tions, 
 proved 
 is not 
 
 of their peculiarities from earlier native examples.* In 
 the two buildings mentioned, we have the same dull, 
 heavy aspect, without break or window, and the same 
 repetition of inelegant columns and narrow arches, which 
 take the place of stepped recesses in the earlier edifices. 
 
 Having said thus much on the external character of 
 Wuswas, it is time to explore its interior. Here, however, 
 I experienced much difficulty. It has been already 
 stated that the enormous thickness of the south-west wall, 
 and the accumulation of bricks, are likely to lead to the 
 conclusion that the 
 building is of solid 
 construction. Sub- 
 sequent excava- 
 however, 
 
 that this 
 
 the case, 
 but that a prin- 
 cipal entrance,t 
 with plain brick 
 jambs, conducts 
 into a laro;e outer 
 court, with cham- 
 bers on either side. 
 Beyond it is an- 
 other haU similar- 
 ly arranged. My 
 excavations were 
 commenced on the 
 summit, at the 
 south - west side, 
 
 where certain hollows and lineal elevations of bricks 
 indicated faint outlines of rooms. But the immense 
 
 • Fergusson's " Illustrated Handbook of Architecture," vol. i., p. 373. 
 t Ate. 
 
 Plan of the Great Edifice at Wiiswas.
 
 180 ARCHED UOOF. 
 
 tliic'kuess of the walls compared witli tlie size of the 
 chambers, for a length of time defeated my purpose, and 
 I was almost incHned to the belief that the great mass of 
 bnildino; was a solid block of brickwork. Success, 
 however, ultimately rewarded my labours, and I had 
 the satisfaction of at least tracing the walls of nearly 
 seven chambers, the general arrangement of which 
 resembles, in a remarkable manner, that of the Assyrian 
 palaces, as respects want of uniformity in size and shape, 
 and the position of the doorway at the sides rather than 
 the centres of the rooms. The largest chamber or hall ''"' 
 measures fifty-seven feet by thirty feet ; and the smallest, t 
 adjoining it, nine feet by thirty feet. A shaft was dug in 
 the former, and the rul^bish entirely cleared out o^" the 
 latter to the depth of twenty-three feet and a half. The 
 walls were rudely plastered, but did not exhibit any trace 
 of colour. Portions of date-wood were found in the small 
 chamber, and apertures for beams are traceable in the 
 walls twelve feet from the brick pavement. These extend, 
 however, only partially the length of the room, leaving a 
 space by which light may have passed to the lower 
 apartment, or by which a stair may have communicated 
 between the upper and ground-floor rooms. The other 
 chambers must have been in some measure lighted from 
 above, but the precise mode is conjectural, eince there is 
 neither window nor door along the whole leng-th of the 
 front by which light could have been admitted.| 
 
 * A of Plan. t B of Plan. 
 
 1 In the above description of the architectural peculiarities of the 
 Wuswas edifice, I have largely availed myself of the valuable and concise 
 report which, at my request, Mr Boutcher prepared on the spot for the 
 Committee of the Assyrian Excavation Fund. I take this opportunity of 
 expressing my obligations to that gentleman for the great assistance he 
 afforded me in my labours both in Chaldeeaand Assyria, and of directing 
 attention to the very beautiful collection of drawings which he made dur- 
 ing the continuance of the expedition. These drawings are now deposited 
 in the British Museum, and in the collection of the Eoyal Asiatic Society,
 
 THE ARCH versus THE COLUMN IN ASSYRIA. 181 
 
 The rubbish, as I have before mentioned, completely 
 filled every chamber ; so that, having ascertained the 
 non-existence of sculptures in two apartments, I did not 
 deem it advisable to explore further. This extent of 
 rubbish, taken in connexion with the great thickness 
 and arrangement of the walls, gives some idea of the size 
 and roof of the fallen superstructure. On reference to the 
 plan, it will be observed that there is a great dispropor- 
 tion in the relative thickness of the flank and front walls 
 of the building, but, if we consider the wall of the fa9ade 
 to be the side waU. of the two large chambers, its thickness 
 may be accounted for. On further examination we shall 
 find the jianh walls of every chamber thicker or slighter 
 in proportion to the width of the chamber, which is 
 precisely what would be necessary, if, as I believe, each 
 chamber were covered with a brick arch, 
 
 I am here induced to make a few remarks on the con- 
 struction of the Assyrian palaces. In his admirably 
 conceived restorations, Mr Fergusson"' everywhere adopts 
 the conclusion that, as the span between the walls was 
 frequently too great to admit of the roof being supported 
 by horizontal beams, the Assyrians had recourse to 
 columns in preference to all other modes of building. He 
 supports his arguments by examples derived from India, 
 Persia, and elsewhere, and his reasoning is clear and 
 satisfactory, as far as it goes. It may be presumptuous 
 in me to differ from one who has so intimately investi- 
 gated this and similar subjects, but it strikes me, from 
 actual observation of these ruins, that Mr Fergusson's 
 theory is founded in error. It is perfectly true that the 
 Assyrians used the column, because the bases are still 
 found — but always at doorways and not within the 
 
 and will well repay the examination of those interested in the subject of 
 Chaldaean and Assyrian antiquities. 
 • " Nineveh and Persepolis Restored," p. 270 at seq^.
 
 182 THE ARCH Versm the column in ASSYRIA, 
 
 rooms ; — they have never yet been discovered in the latter 
 position. When Mr Fergusson arrived at this conclusion 
 he was not aware that the Assyrians really made use of 
 the arch on a grand scale ; but this has since been fully 
 proved at Khorsabad, where magnificent arches, of sun- 
 dried brick, still rest on the massive backs of the colossal 
 bulls which guard the great gateways leading into the 
 city, and shew that, not only did the Assyrians under- 
 stand the construction ot an arch, but also its use as a 
 decorative feature. 
 
 However admirably an open chamber, supported on 
 columns, might be suited to the lofty or cooler regions of 
 Persia or India, w^here refreshing breezes at intervals 
 relieve the heat of the day, they are not well adapted to 
 the continuous sultriness of an Assyrian climate. The 
 natives of Mosul, at the present day, do not use columns 
 in preference to arches, and my belief is that customs 
 have not much altered in that region since the days of 
 Sennacherib. To exclude heat and rain, nothing can 
 be better adajDted than the lofty arch, as it is still there 
 employed. The Hght is frequently admitted by small 
 windows, immediately under the spring of the arch. A 
 similar mode of lighting, I have no doubt, prevailed in 
 the ancient palaces, than which a better system could not 
 be adopted for the display of their wonderful bas-rehefs. 
 These never look so well as in a trench, with the sub- 
 dued light admitted through a small hole above. The 
 great thickness of the walls in the Nineveh palaces is, I 
 am convinced, due to the fact that the rooms were 
 vaulted, as first suggested by M. E. Flandin.'"' An 
 arch, constructed of such mud bricks as those still 
 standing at Khorsabad, would in its fall cover up and 
 preserve the sculptures uninjured, exactly as they are 
 disclosed to us by the excavations. This, too, will account 
 • " Kevue des Deux Mondes."
 
 THE AGE OF THE WUSWAS EDIFICE. 183 
 
 for the great quantity of earth which fills all the chambers 
 of the palaces.'"' This is precisely what has happened at 
 Wuswas with the brickwork of the superstructure, and 
 which I have little doubt was vaulted. 
 
 The bricks used ill the construction of this edifice mea- 
 sure twelve and a half inches square by three inches thick. 
 Each is marked on its under side wdth a deeply impressed 
 triangular stamp or wedge, which may here be regarded 
 as a sacred emblem, as it certainly is upon the altar in 
 the National Library at Paris, and on many Babylonian 
 cylinders. This Rtamp undoubtedly indicates the charac- 
 ter of the edifice in which it so repeatedly occurs. 
 
 In addition to this wedge-shaped stamp, a few bricks 
 are likewise impressed with an oblong die, bearing thirteen 
 lines of minute cuneiform characters, resembling those 
 which occur on clay cylinders, but so extremely indistinct 
 that it is quite impossible to copy the legend. Sir Henry 
 Eawlinson, on examining one of these, was inclined, 
 from the apparent simplicity of a few characters, to regard 
 them, not as Babylonian, but as Parthian, or even late 
 Sassanian ; and he therefore pronoimced the building of 
 Wuswas to belong to a post-Babylonian age. He argTied, 
 too, that there was nothing Babylonian in the character, 
 design, or architecture of the building, which W'Ould 
 favour the idea of its greater antiquity. This was, 
 however, pre^dous to M. Place's discoveries at Khorsabad, 
 and to Sir Henry KawHnson's own excavations at the 
 
 * The vaulted roofs of the houses and mosques at Mosul are, however, 
 constructed of gypsum plaster and broken bricks, the terraces being covered 
 with mud and earth. Such may have been the case in the palaces of 
 ancient Nineveh, The numerous fragments of bricks and lumps of decom- 
 posing gypsum in the soil above the sculptures, is strong presumptive 
 evidence that this plan of constructing their roofs was adopted by the 
 Assyrians, This explanation w'ould entirely do away with the necessity for 
 columns, and the difficulty of erecting vaulted arches of mud bricks over 
 rooms thirty-three feet wide, which is the chief objection raised to the sys- 
 tem of arched roofing at Nmeveh.
 
 184 THE AGE OF THE WUSWAS EDIFICE. 
 
 Bii's Nimriid — at both which places, as I have elsewhere 
 mentioned, precisely the same architectural features were 
 met with in edifices of undoubted Assyrian and Baby- 
 lonian origin. Admitting the possibility that the Sassanians 
 adopted in full the style of the Babylonians, it is extremely 
 improbable that it should have remained wholly unin- 
 fluenced by the introduction of a more classic taste during 
 the Greek occupation of Mesopotamia ; and that a style 
 so rude and unsightly should have endured unchanged 
 even during the dominion of the Persians, who, long pre- 
 vious to the Parthians and Sassanians, were far advanced 
 in art. Such, we know, was not the case ; and, altlit)ugh 
 they may have retained the elements of the Babylonian 
 style, all the Sassanian edifices with which w^e. are 
 acquainted exhibit a decided advance in art, and an 
 adaptation of the more elegant designs of the "West. 
 
 I cannot therefore conform to the opinion that the Wus- 
 was temple is either a Parthian or a Sassanian structure. 
 Although it has hitherto yielded no records to decide 
 the point satisfactorily, I would fain believe that such 
 will ultimately be recovered to prove its undoubted 
 Babylonian origin. It is impossible at present to assign 
 to it other than an approximate date. From the discovery 
 of a few fragments of bricks, bearing the name of Sin- 
 Shada — probably derived from the upper story of the 
 Buwariyya, and built into the entrance jamb — it cannot be 
 older than 1500 B.C. (the probability is that it is much 
 later), and, as the style of architecture seems to have been 
 at its height in the times of Sargon and Nebuchadnezzar, 
 Wuswas temple was perhaps erected about the seventh or 
 eighth century B.C. 
 
 With regard to the object for which this immense 
 edifice was built, it is, of course, presumptuous to pro- 
 nounce an opinion with so little to guide us. The wedge, 
 as a sacred emblem, might equally well be applied to a
 
 CHALD^A GENERALLY WITHOUT SCULPTURES. 185 
 
 palace, a temple, or a royal tomb. It will, I fear, be long 
 before auy positive data can be obtained to decide the 
 question. The fact, however, that Warka was a great 
 Necropolis, and that the Greek historian Arrian says that 
 the Assyrian kings were buried somewhere in the Chal- 
 dgean marshes, rather tends to the supposition that two at 
 least of the monster edifices at Warka were among the 
 tombs of the kings to which Arrian alludes.''" 
 
 With the exception of several fragments of coloured 
 enamelled bricks, similar to those found on the ruins of 
 the Kasr at Babylon, there was nothing in or around the 
 edifice which indicated the mode of decoration employed ; 
 and as Wuswas failed to yield sculptured bas-reliefs, we 
 must, I fear, give up all hope of discovering works of this 
 nature in Babylonia. It is not, however, surprising that 
 the palaces and temples of this region should be without 
 sculptured slabs, because the alluvial plains of the lower 
 Tigris and Euphrates do not furnish stone suited to the 
 purjDose. Any that might be used must have been pro- 
 cured at great expense, and conveyed a considerable 
 distance down the river. Bricks and plaster, therefore, 
 naturally took the place of the gypsum slabs which 
 adorned the palaces of Assyria, and were obtainable in 
 any quantity from the quarries in the neighbourhood of 
 Nineveh. 
 
 Warka, however, is not without one specimen of ancient 
 sculpture. My friend Mr T. Kerr Lynch (who took ad- 
 vantage of my last journey to accompany me from Bagh- 
 dad on a Adsit to the ruins) in passing over the mounds, 
 directed my attention to an isolated lump of basalt pro- 
 jecting through the soft and yielding soil. It lay about 
 400 feet south of the Buwariyya upon the slojDe of the 
 great platform. t On turning over the block, it proved 
 
 * Arrian de Exped. Alex., vii. 22. 
 t At I on the General Plan.
 
 186 THE WARRIOR IN BASALT. 
 
 to be a fragment of coarse columnar basalt, nearly 
 four feet long, but broken into four pieces. Three sides 
 were uncut, but the fourth bore upon it a rude figure 
 in low relief. A warrior was represented in short tunic, 
 confined round the waist with a girdle. In the belt 
 was a short sword or dagger. The long hair was bound 
 round the head Avith a narrow fillet. The left arm 
 crossed the breast, while the right, raised and wielding a 
 short spear, was in the act of striking a prostrate foe or 
 animal, which did not, however, appear on the sculpture. 
 The design was very spirited, and the outline remarkably 
 correct, but the execution was rough and unfinished. 
 There was a certain archaic character about the bas-rehef 
 which marked it as one of the earliest relics on the ruins. 
 The Arabs, seldom accustomed to see blocks of stone upon 
 the mounds, invariably regard them as talismans or trea- 
 sures. The sculpture in question was so looked on by 
 my Tuweyba friends, who have little respect for any- 
 thing but gold. In hope of finding its interior filled 
 with gold, they had lighted fires around it at various 
 times ; but, observing the little efiect thus produced, 
 they managed to break it by other means. It had suf- 
 fered considerably from exposure and iU-usage, and was 
 valueless to bring away as a work of art. 
 
 This discovery caused me to expend much time and 
 labour in its vicinity, searching for the locality from 
 whence it had been derived, and where I imagined there 
 might be other specimens of a similar kind. My work, 
 however, resulted in total disappointment.
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 New Styles of Decorative Art — Cone-work — Pot-work — Arab Aversion 
 to Steady Labour — Blood-Feud between the Tuweyba and El-Bej 
 — The Encounter Frustrated — The Feud Healed — Diversions after 
 the Work of the Day. 
 
 About one hundred feet north of tlie sculpture just 
 described, close to tlie southern angle of the Buwariyya 
 enclosure, I was fortunate in meeting with the remains 
 of an edifice,''" which bears analogy to that of Wuswas, 
 and is, without exception, perfectly unique in its con- 
 struction. Situated nearly on a level with the desert, 
 it may also be regarded as of early origin, and although 
 only a fragment, it yields to none in interest. I had 
 frequently noticed a number of small yellow terra-cotta 
 
 Terra-cotta Coue, natural size. 
 
 cones, three inches and a half long, arranged in half 
 circles on the surface of the mound, and was much 
 perplexed to imagine what they were. They proved 
 to be part of a wall, thirty feet long, entirely composed 
 of these cones imbedded in a cement of mud mixed 
 * At E ou Plan.
 
 188 
 
 WALL OF TERRA-COTTA CONES. 
 
 with chopped straw. They were fixed horizontally with 
 their circular bases facing outwards. Some had been 
 dipped in red and black colour, and were arranged in 
 various ornamental patterns, such as diamonds, triangles, 
 zigzags, and stripes, which had a remarkably pleasing 
 effect. The wall which these cones ornamented consisted 
 
 
 _J^1_J.. I -l.-L_!-, 
 
 Elevation and Plan of the Terra-cotta Coue "Wall, Warka. 
 
 of a plane surface fourteen feet ten inches long, broken away 
 for a short space in the centre, and projecting one foot nine 
 inches beyond a series of half-columns, arranged precisely 
 as in the Wuswas facade side by side. Two of these 
 columns appeared on one side of the projection, and six on 
 the other. Each differed from its next neighbour in design, 
 but that first from the plane wall only measured one foot 
 eio;ht inches in diameter, while the others were each two feet 
 six inches. It would have been interestino- to have ascer- 
 tained that the number of columns in each group agreed 
 with those at Wuswas, but unfortunately the wall ceased 
 before completing the number — seven, and the height of 
 the whole did not exceed six feet. Trenches in various 
 directions failed to discover other portions of this edifice ; 
 neither could any trace of walling behind the cones be 
 distinomished from the surroundino- mass of earth. That 
 some supporting wall formerly existed is, however, evi- 
 dent from the slender nature of the remainino- fabric.
 
 CONES OF TERRA-COTTA. 189 
 
 In ancient Egyptian tombs, similar but much larger 
 cones are found, with hieroglyphs stamped upon their 
 bases, several specimens of which are in the British Mu- 
 seum. They are supposed to have a sepulchral character, 
 and to have been let into the wall at the entrance of the 
 tomb, although they have never been observed in that 
 position. The hieroglyphs are probably the names of the 
 deceased. No marks or inscriptions occur on these Warka 
 cones, but there is every reason to suppose that they were 
 in a similar manner connected with the burial of the 
 dead. The ascertained fact, before noticed, that the site 
 was a vast cemetery, is strong presumptive evidence in 
 favoiu' of this conclusion. 
 
 Cones of the same kind are of frequent occurrence upon 
 the ruins of the great platform, sometimes firmly fixed 
 together in strong white plaster or cement, but no other 
 building w^as observed with them in situ. There is, how- 
 ever, little doubt that several might be discovered by 
 largely excavating in the mounds. Similar cones are 
 found in many other ruins of undoubted Babylonian age, 
 which, unlike Warka, have escaped being built upon by 
 succeeding races. Mr Taylor discovered them plentifully, 
 both at Mugeyer and Abu Shehreyn, at which latter place 
 they occurred ten inches in length, composed of limestone 
 and marble, and sometimes with a rim round the edge 
 filled with copper.'"' They were, undoubtedly, much used 
 as an architectural decoration in Lower Chaldsea, and 
 always in connexion with sepulchral remains. 
 
 Cones, or rather horns of baked clay, frequently occur 
 on the same ruins, inscribed round the thick part of 
 the circumference in early and complicated cuneiform 
 characters. They, however, appear to have been attached 
 to some other object, and are usually bent at the summit 
 
 * See Mr Taylor's Memoirs on the I\Iligeyer and Abu Slielireyn, in the 
 "Journal of the Eoyal Asiatic Society," vol. xv., pages 268, 274, 411, 416.
 
 190 POT-WORK DECORATION. 
 
 of the cone. One of these, obtained by me at Warka, 
 bears on it the name of Bel or Belus. It is engraved in 
 Mr Layard's "Nineveh and Babylon," p. 564, and is now 
 in the British Museum. 
 
 Warka is a complete mine for extraordinary and un- 
 heard-of modes of decoration in architecture. Within a 
 stone's throw of the south-west fa9ade at Wuswas, is 
 another mound crowned with a curious building, which 
 has some points of resemblance to the cone-brick structure 
 last described. It rises abruptly from the base of the 
 artificial mound'"* on which the AVuswas ruin stands, and 
 appears to have been a tower of unbaked brick. • My 
 attention was particularly directed to it by the enormous 
 quantity of broken pottery and conical ends of. jars 
 which lay around. On excavating midway up its north 
 side, I came upon a kind of basement or perhaps terrace 
 of mud-brick abutting against a mass of compact earth. 
 Upon the latter was raised a wall composed entirely of 
 unbaked bricks, and a peculiar species of conical vase, the 
 fragments of which lay strewed on the surface. This wall 
 was traced about one hundred feet, but was extremely 
 irregular in plan, at one point projecting forward four feet, 
 then roundino; off" and recedins; eioht feet. It afterwards 
 assumed its original direction for forty-three feet, then 
 made an obtuse angle, and finally bore away as before, 
 when I ceased to follow it further. Above the foundation 
 were a few layers of mud-bricks, superimposed on which 
 were three rows of these vases, arranged horizontally, 
 mouths outward, and immediately above each other. 
 This order of brick and pot-work was repeated thrice, 
 and was succeeded upwards by a mass of unbaked bricks. 
 The vases vary in size from ten to fifteen inches in length, 
 with a general diameter at the mouth of four inches. 
 The cup or interior is only six inches deep, consequently 
 
 ♦ At L oil the General Plan.
 
 THE GREAT RUIN. 191 
 
 the conical end is solid. The cup was formed by a 
 regular turning apparatus. These vases, from their great 
 thickness throughout, are capable of bearing very con- 
 siderable pressure, although the greatest proportion of 
 them was broken by the superincumbent mass of earth. 
 With their circular mouths outwards they produced a 
 very strange effect — more striking even than that of the 
 painted cone edifice already described. 
 
 It is difficult to conceive the piu-pose for which these 
 vases were designed. We know, however, that large in- 
 flated vases were sometimes built into the walls of the 
 Greek rooms, for the purpose of making the choruses 
 resound during their revels ; but in this case the vases 
 were within, not outside a chamber, and had spacious, 
 instead of extremely narrow and shallow cups. The 
 vases at AVarka could not therefore have been applied to 
 the same use. Excepting as another apphcation of the 
 cone for an ornamental design, it is difficult to conceive 
 their utility, but it is not improbable that the same system 
 of architectural embellishment may be traced in the 
 tasteful designs of vases and pipe-tiles, which form such 
 elegant open-work patterns in the terrace walls of Mosul 
 and other Eastern towns on the tops of the houses, 
 where the natives sleep during the hot nights of summer. 
 The interior of this structure appeared to be wholly 
 composed of mud bricks and earth. An excavation was 
 made into its centre without yielding any further infor- 
 mation. 
 
 Separated on the south from this incomprehensible build- 
 ing and from that of Wuswas by a deep ravine, is a second 
 immense structure"' which resembles Wuswas in area and 
 general disposition of its plan and offices, except that it 
 has no external court. The bricks are of the same size 
 and make, and are impressed with a similar triangular 
 ♦ C on the General Plan.
 
 192 ' ARAB AVERSION TO WORK. 
 
 stamp. It is in like manner encumbered with nibbish 
 which covers its summit and sides, but it is more 
 massive and lofty than AVuswas, and consequently more 
 imposing in the distance. Both edifices were probably 
 erected about the same time, and for a similar purpose, 
 and fell to ruins together. Having failed to make any 
 discoveries of importance in the interior of Wuswas, I did 
 not attempt excavations at this edifice, because the 
 immense exjDense and danger attending the removal of 
 the bricks were scarcely counterbalanced by the probability 
 of any adequate residt being obtained. 
 
 The Arabs, moreover, were unused to such severe 
 labour, and could with difficulty be persuaded to work in 
 these piles of bricks. Their whole lives had been ^pent 
 in the open desert with their clubs and spears, either 
 attacking their foes or defending their tents. They could 
 scarcely brook the degradation of being employed like 
 fellahs or day-labourers, — while the continuous work, 
 without any corresponding result, was almost beyond the 
 endurance of their sanguine temperaments. It would 
 have been impossible to have kept them at the excavations 
 had there not been a constant dread of attack from without, 
 — and mutual jealousy among the three tribes employed. 
 The simial that human beino-s were seen in the horizon 
 was hailed by me with pleasure, because the excitement 
 of a few minutes relieved the ill-suppressed grumbling 
 of hours. The appearance of one of my workmen on the 
 summit of the Buwariyya, waving a piece of black rag on 
 a spear, produced a general ferment. Implements were 
 thrown aside, the war-cry was raised, and a general rush took 
 place to the central ruin. Each party ranged itself round 
 its acknowledged sheikh, dancing, yelling, grunting, and 
 throwing their spears and clubs into the air in a state of 
 the most extraordinary excitement, which did not cease 
 till they were completely exhausted. When the supposed
 
 BLOOD-FEUD WITH BEDOUINS. 193 
 
 danger passed away, all returned to their work with re- 
 newed goodwill and energy. 
 
 On one occasion only was there any positive danger. 
 A strong party of the Suweyd division of El Bej Be- 
 douins, numbering about two hundred tents, crossed the 
 Euphrates, and encamped with their flocks, herds, and 
 at least one thousand camels, within sight of my Uttle 
 settlement and the ruins. How their flocks found sub- 
 sistence in that barren desert was utterly beyond my 
 comprehension. They must have speedily demolished all 
 the scanty supply of camel's thorn on the bank of the 
 river, because in a few days they again decamped east- 
 wards. The day after their arrival, one of the inferior 
 sheikhs, mtli a small party of the tribe, passed through 
 the ruins on his way to pay his respects to the Sheikh of 
 the Muntefik. The Tuweyba workmen were in a dreadful 
 state of alarm, because there was blood-feud between 
 them and El Bej, wliich arose when Sa'dun, the patron 
 of the Tuweyba, was at enmity with the Wadi four years 
 previously. At his instigation the Madan tribes attacked 
 and robbed these Bedouius of their cattle, several men 
 being kUled on either side. The Tuweyba audaciously 
 defied all the laws of honour, and outraged all the fine 
 feelings of the high-class Arabs, by stripping the wife of 
 the Wadi, whom they accidentally encountered, of every 
 article of clothing and jewellery upon her person. Nothing 
 could excuse such an indignity. It is for acts such as this 
 that the Madan are regarded by the Bedouins and more 
 honourable Arabs in the light of beasts and " dogs," as 
 they were called by my Muntefik guards. The sheikh, 
 however, behaved well when he encountered his foes at 
 Warka, and promised there should be no fighting while 
 the Tuweyba were under my iDrotection, adding : — " You 
 are a stranger in the land, and El Bej has no desire to act 
 inhospitably to strangers; — but for your presence the 
 
 N
 
 194 MISCHIEF-MAKERS. 
 
 Tuweyba would have been attacked long ago 1 ** On 
 departing, lie left a horseman behind to look after the 
 safety of my excavators. 
 
 On the day following this meeting, a scene took place 
 which might have resulted in serious consequences. It 
 so happened that I had remained in camp to prepare for 
 the departure of a messenger conveying letters to Bg-gh- 
 dad. A large number of Bedouins went up from their 
 tents to the mound with the evident intention of creating 
 mischief. They first of all accosted my servant Ovannes, 
 peremptorily demanded tobacco, and followed him from 
 trench to trench, repeating their demand with much in- 
 solence and abuse, and finally turning upon the Tuwey- 
 ba, whom they endeavoured to excite by threats and 
 hard names. The horseman, who had been left to care 
 for our safety, without hesitation seized the ringleader, 
 and would have tied and beaten him with the assistance 
 of the Tuweyba, if Ovannes had not very properly in- 
 terfered. The Tuweyba were highly exasperated at the 
 insults heaped on them, and were with the greatest 
 difiiculty restrained by my overseers from making an 
 attack upon the peace-breakers. Ovannes, who had 
 frequently shewn himself equal to an emergency, and 
 who possessed a much more courageous sj)irit than is 
 generally evinced by natives of the country, mounted 
 a horse, and rode off at full speed to the Bej camp. 
 He had ascertained that it was only an inferior sheikh 
 of the tribe who had granted his protection, but 
 the great chief, Tellag-ibn-Terrif, still remained to be 
 propitiated. Ovannes rode directly up to the sheikli's 
 tent, demanding to see him and to know if Tellag had 
 instructed his people to act as they had done. TelMg 
 declared they had done so. "wdthout his knowledge ; 
 whereon Ovannes dismounted, and, as a stranger, re- 
 quired his protection for ourselves and the workmen.
 
 SCENE AT THE BEDOUIN CAMP. 195 
 
 Tellag, like a true Bedouin, struck by the blunt, straigbtfor- 
 ward manner of Ovannes, expressed his sorrow at Avhat 
 had occurred, and repeated the promise previously made, 
 that as long as he continued in the neighbourhood, there 
 should be no dissension between the Bej and the Tuwey- 
 ba. Coffee was introduced as the bond of contract, and 
 they were in the act of vowing eternal friendship when 
 the horseman, who had taken part in the disturbance, 
 rushed in, and began to abuse Tellag in strong terms for 
 allowing his people to create a quarrel after the promise 
 made by the absent sheikh. Tellag endured his reproofs 
 for some time in tolerable patience, but at last got up 
 and repeatedly struck the horseman on the face, who in 
 turn became exasperated, and attempted to spear Tellag, 
 when Ovannes got between them. Our champion then 
 ran out of the tent, and, in his excessive indigna- 
 tion, speared some half-dozen camels belonging to the 
 man who had been the chief cause of the disturbance. 
 
 Tellag kept his word. The next morning he paid me a 
 visit, we broke bread together, and were from that mo- 
 ment sworn friends. I was subsequently indebted to 
 him for several acts of kindness, and, under his safe- 
 guard, was enabled to reach many points in the interior 
 of the Jezireh which would have been otherwise impos- 
 sible. Before quitting the country, I had the satisfac- 
 tion of healing the feud between the Bej and the 
 Tuweyba, and the compact was finally sealed by the 
 latter agreeing to pay Tellag a tribute of thirty sheep- 
 skins for the ensuing year ! 
 
 The journey of four miles and a half to the mounds, 
 arid the same distance back to camp every day, was a 
 fatiguing and tedious process ; nevertheless it was ab- 
 solutely necessary that it should be performed, and we 
 beguiled the Aveariness of the way to the best of our 
 ability. Every morning before sunrise the implements
 
 196 OUR DIVERSIONS. 
 
 were distributed to tlie workmen, witli which, their chibs 
 and their spears, they set out for the mounds in separate 
 parties according to their tribes. It was amusing to see 
 how clannish they were, the members of each tribe con- 
 gregating together, and singing in opposition their own 
 peculiar war-cry. Sometimes they would jog along in 
 compact colimins, singing a low, monotonous chant, while 
 their bodies swayed to and fro in keeping time. At 
 others, especially when the day's work was concluded, 
 they would become more excited, perform a war-dance, 
 advance and retire, yell and throw up their spears, as if 
 feigning an engagement. At one time they would re- 
 gard me as their chief, dance round my horse, brandish 
 their spears and pretend to defend me against an un- 
 seen foe ; at another I was an enemy, and they would 
 unite forces to charge me, with sparkling eyes and shew- 
 ino; their white teeth in excessive delioht. Now and 
 then they would challenge me to a race, and the whole 
 party would set off at full speed, seemingly untired in 
 spite of their hard day's labour. Notwithstanding their 
 wretchedness, they were a happy, careless race, easily 
 pleased and easily excited. With all their faults, (which 
 were those arising from circumstances rather than dis- 
 position,) they were amenable to kindness, and might be 
 soon rendered useful members of society under proper 
 guidance. 
 
 When it is considered that the chief occupation of 
 these ]\Iadan Arabs is to rob and plunder without 
 discrimination, and that I went among them a stranger, 
 without introduction, for the sake of excavating into 
 the mounds which they regarded in the light of a gold 
 mine, it is highly creditable to their liberality and 
 tolerance that they offered no oj)position to my j^roceed- 
 ings. It is true that they were paid for their labours ; 
 but there is no reason why they should not have proved
 
 AHAB TOLERANCE. 19 V 
 
 faithless to a gliyawr just as to one of their own race, and 
 have stripped me of all I possessed previous to my de- 
 parture from among them. The Tuweyba considered 
 Warka to be their own peculiar property, and made con- 
 siderable profit by ransacking the tombs for treasure.
 
 CHAPTEE XVIIl. 
 
 The absence of Tombs in tbe Mounds of Assjria — Their abundance in 
 Clialdsea — Warka a vast Cemetery — Clay Sarcophagi of various 
 forms — ^Top-shaped Vase, or " Babylonian Urn " — Oval Dish-cover 
 Shape — Slipi^er-shape — Difficulties of Removal — Excitement* of the 
 Arabs — Gold Ornaments — Coins — Vases — Terra-Cotta Penates — 
 Light-fingered Arabs — The Ordeal — Endurance of Pain — Earliest 
 Relics. 
 
 It is a remarkable fact that, in spite of the long suc- 
 cession of years during which excavations have been car- 
 ried on by the English and French Governments in the 
 mounds of Assyria, not a single instance has been re- 
 corded of undoubted Assyrian sejDulture. It is true 
 that Mr Layard considers the great cone at Nimrud to 
 have been a royal tomb, and that I myself opened a rude 
 vault, seventeen feet below the floor of the south-east 
 palace at the same locality ; yet, in the one case, no 
 human remains were found, and in the other, there was 
 no positive evidence of their true age.'"' The natural 
 inference therefore is, that the Assyrians either made 
 away with their dead by some other method than by 
 burial, or else that they conveyed them to some distant 
 locality. If, however, Assyria be without its cemeteries, 
 Chaldsea is full of them ; every mound is an ancient 
 burial-place between Niffar and Mugeyer ! It would be 
 
 * The tombs which Mr Layard examined above the south-east palace, 
 Nimrtid, and those discovered by Mr Vice-Consul Bassam at Koytiujuk, were 
 undoubtedly of post-Assyrian date.
 
 CHALD^A THE BURIAL-GROUND OF ASSYRIA. 199 
 
 too much, with our present knowledge, to say positively 
 that Chaldsea was the necropolis of Assyria, but it is by 
 no means improbable that such was the case. Arrian,"^^ 
 the Greek historian, in describing Alexander's sail into 
 the marshes south of Babylon, distinctly states that most 
 of the sepulchres of the Assyrian kings were there con- 
 structed, and the same position is assigned them in the 
 Peutingerian tables. The term Assyria however, in the 
 old geographers, is frequently applied to Babylonia, and 
 the tombs alluded to may therefore be those only of the 
 ancient kings of Babylonia. Still, it is likely that the 
 Assyrians regarded with peculiar reverence that land 
 out of which Asshur went forth and builded Nineveh, 
 and that they interred their dead around the original 
 seats of their forefathers. 
 
 Whether this w^ere so or not, the whole region of 
 Lower Chaldaea abounds in sepulchral cities of immense 
 extent. By far the most important of these is Warka, 
 where the enormous accumulation of human remains 
 proves that it was a peculiarly sacred spot, and that 
 it was so esteemed for many centuries. It is difficult 
 to convey anything like a correct notion of the piles 
 upon piles of human relics which there utterly astound 
 the beholder. Excepting only the triangular space be- 
 tween the three principal ruins, the whole remainder of 
 the platform, the whole space between the walls, and an 
 unknown extent of desert beyond them, are everywhere 
 filled with the bones and sepulchres of the dead. There 
 is probably no other site in the world which can com- 
 pare with Warka in this respect; even the tombs of 
 ancient Thebes do not contain such an aggregate amount 
 of mortality. From its foundation by Urukh until 
 finally abandoned by the Parthians — a period of pro- 
 bably 2500 years — Warka appears to have been a sa- 
 
 * De Exped. Alex., vii. 22.
 
 200 GENERAL USE OF CLAY. 
 
 cred bui'ial-place ! In the same manner as the Persians 
 at the present day convey their dead from the most re- 
 mote corners of the Shah's dominions, and even from 
 India itself, to the holy shrines of Kerbella aud Meshed 
 'All, so, doubtless, it was the custom of the ancient people 
 of Babylonia to transport the bones of their deceased rela- 
 tives and friends to the necropolis of Warka and other 
 sites in the dread solitude of the Chaldsean marshes. 
 The two great rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, would 
 like the Nile in Egypt afford an admirable means of con- 
 veying them from a distance, even from the upper plains 
 of Assyria."^'" 
 
 I was nowhere enabled to ascertain how deep in the 
 mounds the funereal remains extend, although in several 
 instances trenches were driven to the depth of thirty feet, 
 beyond which the extreme looseness of the soil prevented 
 my continuing the excavations with safety to the work- 
 men ; but I have every reason to believe that the same 
 continuous mass of dead reaches to the very base of the 
 highest portion of the central platform — a depth of sixty 
 feet. On this account there is considerable difliculty 
 in obtaining information concerning the most ancient 
 mode of disposing of the dead at Warka. It is only at the 
 edges of the mounds where least built upon, that the un- 
 doubted primitive tombs and their accompaniments occur. 
 
 In a country where stone is not procurable, the most 
 natural material for architectural and domestic use is 
 clay. This is abundant in the plains of the Euphrates. 
 Not only were the edifices of Chaldsea, as we have seen, 
 
 * At Baghdad a custom prevails which is derived from a period long 
 anterior to the rise of Mohammedanism, and perhaps connected with 
 some ancient ceremony attending the transport of the dead. When a pei'- 
 sou is sick, a relative fastens a lighted taper to a piece of wood, commits 
 it to the stream of the Tigris, and prays for the recovery of his friend. 
 Should the light be extinguished before it recedes from his sight, he con- 
 cludes that all hope is past.
 
 "dish-cover" coffin, and contents. 201 
 
 constructed of clay-brick, but the same material in a 
 modified form was adapted to the manufacture of small 
 utensils and extended even to sepulchral vases. The 
 invention of the potter appears to have been racked in 
 designing new forms, and their endless variety through- 
 out Chaldsea may eventually prove of much use in deter- 
 mining the age of the ruins where each occurs. In the 
 same way several different forms of funereal jars and sar- 
 cophagi have prevailed at certain distinct periods, the dates 
 of which are ascertained by means of accompanying relics. 
 
 The earliest and most common form throughout Baby- 
 lonia, and the one which prevailed down to the time of 
 the Parthians, is the large, top-shaped vase, well known 
 as the " Babylonian urn." It is lined inside with bitumen, 
 and has its mouth usually covered with bricks, but many 
 at Warka possess a cover of the same material cemented 
 to the urn. They contain the bones of a human being, 
 or only a single head, with engraved cylinders and gems, 
 beads and neck ornaments, and rings cut out of marine 
 shells. Sometimes two of these vessels are placed mouth 
 to mouth, and then cemented together, one mouth fitting 
 into the other with great exactness ; such contain one or 
 more bodies. 
 
 Another undoubtedly early form is very curious and 
 original. It resembles an oval dish-cover, the sides slop- 
 ing outwards towards the base which rests on a projecting 
 rim. The dimensions vary from four to seven feet long, 
 about two feet wide, and from one to three feet deep. On 
 carefully removing this cover, the skeleton is seen reclin- 
 ing generally on the left side, but trussed like a fowl, the 
 legs being drawn up and bent at the knees to fit the size 
 of the cover. Sometimes the skull rests on the bones of 
 the left hand, while those of the right holding cyHnders of 
 agate or meteoric stone, and small personal ornaments, 
 have fallen into a copper bowl in front. In one instance
 
 202 GLAZED COFFINS. 
 
 'I ascertained that an enormous quantity of hair was con- 
 fined in a finely-netted head-dress, the meshes of which 
 were distinctly discernible. There were also fragments 
 of blue linen wpoii various parts of the skeleton, and the 
 remains of a wooden box, which had contained two ma- 
 rine shells'^''' (a murex and a cone) of the same species as 
 those occmTing abundantly in the ruins. The bones of 
 the toes, fingers, ankles, and wrists, were encircled with 
 bangles or rings of brass. Large jars and small sher- 
 behs or drinking vases were placed with the body beneath 
 the sepulchral cover. This mode of burial was not fre- 
 quently observed by me at Warka, but, when it did'occur, 
 it was always at the extreme edge of the mound, nearly 
 on a level with the plain. Mv Taylor, however, dis- 
 covered a mound full of these dish-cover coffins at Mu- 
 geyer, which ruin has never, as I have already said, been 
 built upon subsequently to the Babylonian period. With 
 each skeleton at that locality was a shallow and extremely 
 delicate baked-clay dish containing date-stones ; and 
 another with the bones of fowls, fish, and other remains 
 of food. The skull lay on a sun-dried brick, containing 
 some white substance, which was in some cases covered 
 by remnants of a tasselled cushion of tapestry.t 
 
 Various other forms of pottery of minor importance 
 were applied to the purposes of burial ; but they all 
 sink into insignificance when compared with the glazed 
 earthen coftins, whose fragments occur in such amazing 
 abundance on the surface of the mounds at Warka, as 
 to mark them as one of the chief peculiarities of those 
 
 * The women of the I\riidiin Arabs at the present day ornament their 
 hair and head-dresses with similar shells, derived from a littoral marine 
 deposit of very modern geological formation, occurring in the region of the 
 marshes. 
 
 t I must refer, for farther information on this subject, to Mr Taylor's in- 
 teresting "Memoir on the !Mtigeycr." See Journal of the Eoyal Asiatic 
 Society, vol. xv., p. 2G9 et seq.
 
 SLIPPER-SHAPED COFFINS. 203 
 
 remarkable ruins. As civilization progressed, they appear 
 to have superseded the more rude descriptions of burial 
 vases, and to have been generally adopted, not only at 
 Warka, but also at NifFar, Zibliyya, and other localities 
 throughout Chaldsea. The piles on piles of these coffins 
 are self-evident proofs of the successive generations by 
 whom this method of burial was practised. I will not 
 venture to guess at the date of their first introduction, 
 but they were certainly in use at Warka, and that com- 
 monly, when the place was abandoned by the Parthians, 
 whose curious coins occur upon the surface. 
 
 These remarkable coffins are slipper-shaped, but more 
 elegant and symmetrical than that homely article. The 
 oval aperture by which the body was admitted, is flattened 
 and furnished with a depressed ledge for the reception of 
 a hd, which was cemented with lime mortar. At the 
 lower extremity is a semi-circular hole to prevent the 
 bursting of the coffin by the condensed gases. The upper 
 surface of each coffin generally — and the lid sometimes — 
 is covered with elevated ridges, plain or ornamental ; 
 forming square panels, each of which contains a similar 
 small embossed figure, representing a warrior in close 
 short-fitting tunic and long loose nether garments. He 
 stands with his arms akimbo and his legs astride ; in his 
 belt is a short sword, and on his head an enormous 
 coifiure, of very curious appearance. The whole costume 
 bears a striking resemblance to that with which we are 
 well acquainted on coins and sculptures of the Parthian 
 and Sassanian periods. The head-dress reminds me of 
 that occurring upon the skull under the dish-cover just 
 alluded to. The whole visible surface of the coffin is 
 covered with a thick glazing of rich green enamel on the 
 exterior, and of blue within the aperture, the former 
 colour probably arising from chemical decomposition and 
 long exposure.
 
 204 
 
 SLIPPER-SHAPED COFFINS. 
 
 M 
 
 V'M
 
 EXTERNAL ORNAMENTATION. 
 
 205 
 
 The material of which the coffins are composed is yellow 
 clay, mixed with straw, and half-baked. The unglazed 
 
 Lid of Coffin (length 2 feet 2 iiichen). 
 
 Figure on Coffins (length 6| inches). 
 
 surface of the interior, as well as the bottom, is marked 
 with impressions of the reed-matting 
 upon which it rested during the pro- 
 cess of manufacture. 
 
 Sometimes the coffins are glazed, but 
 without figures, at others they are per- 
 fectly plain. Upon one are three figures 
 which differ considerably from the rest. 
 They are represented in short dresses, with 
 large bushy wigs confined in netting, 
 and carrying some article in their hands 
 which resembles a square box. A portion 
 of this coffin is in the British Museum. 
 
 In one instance only did I observe 
 two lids to a coffin. The glazed speci- 
 men,^' likewise in the Museum, was 
 
 * Of which a woodcut is given above. 
 
 Figure on Coffin (length 
 7 inches).
 
 206 EXPOSURE OF THE DEAD. 
 
 broken, and lay within the aperture, protected by an un- 
 glazed one, puffed out in the centre and pierced by a small 
 hole like the crust of a meat pie. 
 
 The coffins generally are loosely surrounded with 
 earth, and lie, without order, upon and near each other. 
 Many, however, are built up singly, or two together, in 
 brick vaults cemented with lime. As the same mortar 
 is used to fasten down the lid of the enclosed coffin, the 
 inference is that the coffin was first placed in the position 
 it was destined to occupy, and then that the body was 
 put into it when in situ. From the fragile i^ature and 
 weight of the composition, it is improbable that th^ coffin 
 was carried to the mound with the dead inside. 
 
 I have observed that coffins were discovered at the 
 depth of thirty feet below the surface, and that they 
 probably descend to near the base of the mound. This 
 depth and the yielding nature of the soil are opposed 
 to the supposition of their having been buried in the 
 usual way, and seem rather to imply that they have 
 gradually accumulated. It is generally supposed that 
 the ancient inhabitants of Persia — certainly the Sassa- 
 nians — exposed their dead like their modern descendants 
 the Parsees of India. I am inclined to believe that a 
 species of exposure was practised at Warka, the body 
 being placed in a coffin, cemented down, and left to be 
 covered up by the drifting sand, which, as previously 
 mentioned, is roused by the slightest breath of wind. In 
 this manner we can account, not only for the depth below 
 the surface, but also for the extremely small layer of fine 
 sandy earth which intervenes between the vertical rows. 
 
 The Arabs have long been attracted by the gold orna- 
 ments which the coffins contain, and break himdreds 
 every year for the purpose of rifling them. In searching 
 for this purpose, they drive their spears as far as pos- 
 sible into the light soil. If the spear-head chance to
 
 ARABS SEARCH FOR GOLD. 207 
 
 strike against any impediment, the wild fellow sounds to 
 ascertain if it be a coffin or a vault, and by tbe vibra- 
 tion produced he knows whether he has gained his ob- 
 ject. The spear is then thrown aside, and he begins to 
 work with his arms and hands like a mole. If an 
 obstacle — a brick for instance — present itself, recourse is 
 had to the spear point, which acts the part of lever and 
 pickaxe. In this manner he successively grubs and picks 
 until his perseverance has succeeded in clearing away 
 the soil from the upper part of the coffin. The spear 
 again does its duty in deliberately breaking into the 
 tenement of the dead, and the Arab carefully turns over 
 the frail relics of humanity with his dagger, until he secures 
 his spoil. As soon as this sacrilegious process is con- 
 cluded, he breaks a hole through the bottom of the coffin 
 to ascertain if there be another imrdediately below, and 
 if so, to repeat his former labours. By this process the 
 whole surface of the mounds is covered with innumer- 
 able holes and broken pottery, w^hich at first render either 
 walking or riding a matter of perplexity and danger. 
 
 The object of my second journey to Warka was 
 to endeavour to obtain a specimen of these extraor- 
 dinary coffins, in order that it might be forwarded 
 to the British Museum. In this, however, I experi- 
 enced much more difficulty than was anticipated. In 
 digging trenches, I ascertained that those near the sur- 
 face were considerably weathered, while those below 
 were saturated with moisture, and frequently crushed 
 by the superincumbent weight. They invariably fell to 
 pieces in the attempt to stir them. Sometimes the con- 
 tents were removed, and at other times the earth, which 
 had accumulated inside through crevices, was whoUy 
 allowed to remain, or was partially cleared out; pieces of 
 carpet and abbas were tied round, and poles placed 
 below them to give support ; but aU to no purpose. After
 
 208 DIFFICULTIES OF REMOVING COFFINS. 
 
 several days of anxious labour, and the demolition of 
 perhaps a hundred coffins, I almost despaired of success. 
 
 The Arabs were anxious that I should be pleased, and 
 were as annoyed as myself at our fruitless endeavours. 
 At last the good-natured Gunza took hold of my sleeve, 
 and addressed me on behalf of his fellows : — " Oh, Beg ! 
 you take much trouble to get one of these pots of the 
 old Kaffirs — may they be cursed! — and have brought 
 with you spades and shovels from a great distance for 
 this purpose. Our hands were not made to use such 
 implements, which are the tools of the Fellah, not of the 
 Madan; but with the spear we can do many things. 
 Give us yoiu? permission, Beg, and we will follow our 
 own mode of search, and, inshallah ! we shall soon be 
 able to find plenty of pots, among which there will cer- 
 tainly be one strong and good enough to carry away." 
 As there was no doubt of their being more adept with 
 their hands and spears than the ordinary implements of 
 ci\'ilized life, I acceded to their request, and despatched 
 a jDarty to hunt after their own method. They kept 
 their promise, and I soon had the satisfaction of seeing 
 several good coffins uncovered in different parts of the 
 ruins. But still there occurred the same difficulty of re- 
 moval ; several more being broken in the vain attempt. 
 
 At length it occurred to me that, with some strong 
 paper, an expedient might be adopted to strengthen themu 
 As a last resource, I determined to send and endeavour 
 to procure some at Semava, twenty miles distant. An 
 Arab was dismissed with a few shamies''" to make the 
 purchase, and on the third day again made his appear- 
 ance with all the stock of strong paper which the town, 
 as good luck would have it, could provide. A coffin 
 having been selected on the following afternoon, wood, 
 flour, and water were brought up to the mound, a fire 
 
 * The shdmi is an Arab coin, equal to about twentypence of our money.
 
 DIFFICULTIES OF REMOVING COFFINS. 209 
 
 lighted, and paste made on the spot. The surface of the 
 coffin was then carefully cleaned, inside and out, and 
 several thick layers of paper applied. It was left exposed 
 all night, so that, before morning, the paper had become 
 like hard pasteboard. The Arabs were delighted; they 
 danced, laughed, sang, and clapped their hands, tapped 
 the paper with their knuckles, and patronisingly patted 
 my back. They wanted at once to shoulder it and 
 be off, but I deferred the removal until late in the 
 afternoon, in order that the paper might be thoroughly 
 dried. In the interim, as much earth as was deemed 
 safe was removed from below, and two strong tent- 
 poles placed beneath. By means of these the coffin was 
 lifted upon a board, covered wdth workmen's abbas, and 
 carefully secured with ropes. Spears and spades were 
 then made into strono; fasces and attached to the under 
 side of the board, for handles by which to carry the bur- 
 den to the banks of the Euphrates. It was exceedingly 
 heavy, and required a strong party of Arabs to relieve 
 each other. The ground was, in many parts, exces- 
 sively rough and difficult to traverse in approaching the 
 river, on account of the numerous channels, so that I 
 was in constant trepidation lest a trip or false step 
 might destroy all the fruits of our labour. This anxiety 
 on my part was not without cause, for the wild feUows, 
 notwithstanding the weight of their burden, could not 
 be restrained from joining in the dance and song, with 
 which their comrades off duty enlivened the whole route. 
 Their excitement had been roused to the highest pitch, 
 and their gestures surpassed anything they had ever yet 
 exhibited before me. The coffin was frequently in dan- 
 ger when the whole party at times feigned a hostile 
 charge against the bearers, and the latter, unable to re- 
 strain their natural impetuosity, wielded their spears, 
 which they insisted on carrying, and yelled defiance in 
 

 
 210 REMOVING THE COFFIN, 
 
 return. Tlie more I entreated, tlie more riotous they 
 became, until I discovered that the best phm was to let 
 them have their own way, and wear themselves out. 
 
 In this manner we traversed tlie nine miles between 
 the ruins and the river, and arrived within sight of the 
 camp, when the excitement became greater than ever. The 
 women, in their eagerness to see the unwonted sight — 
 unwonted indeed, because probably uj)wards of two thou- 
 sand years had passed since such a coffin had been con- 
 veyed in similar manner — even forgot to hide their faces, 
 and came- out in a body to meet the procession, uttering 
 tlieii' wild tahlehl and plaintive wail, while they pretended 
 to throw dust upon their hair, in imitation of the ceremony 
 of mourning for the dead. The men, under the influence 
 of this additional impulse, redoubled their exertions, 
 until they resembled frantic demons rather than human 
 beings.*^'" I was not sorry when the primitive bier and 
 its precious burden were safely deposited at our tents. 
 Each bearer then received some little present for his 
 extra labour, and retired to the sheikh's tent to discuss 
 the great event of the day. In remembrance of it, and 
 of my stay among them, that encampment was hence- 
 forward to be known l)y the name of " Beit-el-Ghyawr," 
 "the Infidel's House," a somewliat doubtful honour, it 
 must be confessed, towards myself. 
 
 The papering process succeeded to the best of my expec- 
 tation, and, in the course of a few days, the three coffins 
 were safely secured, which are now in the British INIuseum. 
 
 Within the coffins the skeletons are frequently to be 
 obseiwed, having the arms bent across the body ; but 
 they usually fell to powder on exposure to the air. In 
 one instance, I noticed the remnants of a light-coloured 
 garment, of fine texture, adhering to the 1)ones. 
 
 Many small objects are associated with the coffins, 
 
 * See Frontispiece.
 
 GOLD ORNAMENTS. 
 
 211 
 
 either in the inside, or around them in the earth or 
 vault. The personal relics of the deceased consist of 
 gold and silver finger-rings ; armlets, bangles and toe- 
 rings of silver, brass, and copper ; bead-necklaces, and 
 small cyhnders. Gold ornaments are not uncommon, 
 such as ear-rings, and small plates or beads for fillets, of 
 
 Gold Ornaments. 
 
 tasteful and elegant design. Thin gold leaf sometimes 
 appears to have covered the face like a veil; and one or 
 two broad ribbons of thin gold not unfrequently occur 
 on each side of the head. Large pointed head-dresses, 
 Budda told me, had been found and sold to the peram- 
 bulating Jews, who visit the Madan periodically for the 
 purpose of purchasing the gold. It is seldom that these 
 ornaments are sold in their original state, because the 
 Arabs melt them down for the convenience of secreting 
 them. Hence it is that so few are offered for sale in the 
 bazaars of Baghdad — the great mart for antiques. 
 
 With the above are articles of a different description, 
 such as small earthen drinking vessels and lamps, glass 
 
 Lamps and Lachrymatories. 
 
 lachrymatories, copper bowls, hideous bone figures pro- 
 bably dolls, and a variety of others
 
 212 
 
 COINS AND TERRA-COTTA ARTICLES. 
 
 Terra-Cotta Lamp. 
 
 The top of the coffin is often a receptacle for small 
 relics — apparently the parting gifts of friends — as the 
 
 following list will shew: — Seven 
 different forms of fragile, coloured 
 glass bottles, two curiously formed 
 yellow glass dishes, a glazed terra- 
 cotta lamp (a constant accompani- 
 ment), four bone stilettos, two 
 iron implements, the bones of a small bird, fragments of 
 a bunch of flowers, and an ornamental reed basket (the 
 plaits of the reeds being quite distinct) containing two 
 pieces of kohl or black paint for the eyelids, and a tassel 
 bead. Judging from their character, these articles appear 
 to have been the property of a female. 
 
 Strewed in the earth around the coffins are numerous 
 copper coins, the only articles which afford any posi- 
 tive clue to their age. These 
 are moulded, flat on one 
 side, and slightly rounded 
 on the other, the edges 
 having two little projecting 
 processes opposite to each 
 other. The t}^es are ex- 
 tremely indistinct, but no doubt is entertained of their 
 
 Parthian Coins. 
 
 Jar and Jugs from the Coffin Mounds.
 
 CLAY PENATES. 
 
 213 
 
 Steel and Flint. 
 
 being Parthian. Close to the foot of each coffin are one 
 or more large glazed water-jugs and earthen drinldng 
 cups, of extremely artistic form. One of these, the tall 
 central jug of the engraving, was found in a recess built 
 for its reception in the side wall of a vault, within arm's 
 length of the coffin. The bones of a fowl, with ffint'"' and 
 steel, were also frequently deposited upon 
 the lid. The practice of placing food and 
 water near the body was certainly con- 
 nected with the superstitions of the period. 
 The same practice is, I believe, continued 
 among- the Arabs, who conceive that these 
 articles are necessary to give the spirit strength on its 
 long journey. 
 
 Some of the most interesting objects found in the 
 same position are small terra-cotta figures, which were 
 probably household divi- 
 nities. Many are un- 
 doubtedly Parthian ; such, 
 for instance, as the rechn- 
 ing warrior, with a cup 
 C?) in his left hand, wear- 
 ing a coat -of- mail or 
 padded tunic reaching to 
 
 the knees, and a helmet Kecli.iog Figure of PartManWarnor. 
 
 ornamented in front. The whole costume is well repre- 
 sented on many coins of the Parthian epoch. 
 
 Several are female figures in loose attire, exhibiting 
 strange head-dresses, which, doubtless, give us some notion 
 of the costume of the period. One of these is very re- 
 markable ; it rises into two tall conical peaks, from which 
 depends a veil, reminding one strongly of the English 
 
 * Slices of flint and obsidian, precisely like the sacrificial tnives of the 
 ancient Mexicans, are found upon the mounds. The former were designed 
 for striking a hght, but the object of the latter is not so evident.
 
 214 
 
 CLAY PENATES. 
 
 ladies' costume in the time of Henry IV. Nude female 
 figures, probably representing the Myhtta or Venus of 
 
 Terra-cotta Figures. Parthian ? 
 
 the Assyrians, were extremely common at the Parthian 
 period, having been handed down from antiquity. Simi- 
 lar figTires are universal throughout the East before the 
 Christian era. A few figures bear traces of colour. The 
 accompanying figures represent an old 
 bearded man and an old woman carry- 
 ing a square basket or box in her hand ; 
 red and black paint are distinctly recog- 
 nisable uj)on them. 
 
 Of all the clay figures, the heads in the 
 adjoining woodcut are most interesting. 
 They are infinitely superior to the rest in 
 point of design and execution, and mark 
 the rapidly spreading influence of Greek art. 
 They possess all the characteristic features 
 and boldness of the Greek face, and yet they can scarcely 
 be other than the works of Babylonian artists. The 
 hair is arranged in long ringlets, and the heads are 
 
 Clay Figures exhibit- 
 ing traces of paint.
 
 LIGHT-FINGERED ARABS. 
 
 215 
 
 Greek Heads. 
 
 surmounted by lofty head-dresses of different form. To 
 the same period may be referred a small broken tablet, 
 representing a sturdy winged figure, with a robe fastened 
 by a brooch at the right 
 slioulder, but flying loose- 
 ly, and leaving the body 
 naked. The head is want- 
 ing : the legs with ank- 
 lets stand on small round- 
 ed prominences ; one is 
 held in his left hand. This 
 figure is probably a repre- 
 sentation of Hercules. 
 
 It would be endless to give in detail all the small 
 articles which were discovered in connexion with the 
 slipper coffins. 
 
 It is not to be supposed that my Arab friends pati- 
 ently submitted to my appropriating the smafi articles 
 which were revealed durino- the researches amono; the 
 ruins. On the discovery of an urn or coffin, it was witli 
 the greatest difficulty they could be prevented from at 
 once breaking in and stealing the valuables, before tlie 
 earth was sufficiently removed from around it, to admit 
 of my making a careful examination. They would then 
 all cluster together, thrust themselves in my way, and 
 shew the greatest eagerness to seize a share of the spoil ; 
 it was sometimes almost impossible to move for them. 
 When I drew any object out of a coffin, a general 
 commotion took place, and a variety of exclamations 
 were uttered ; the words " gold," " a cylinder," " silver," 
 " sherbeh," " beads," rang through the assembly like wild- 
 fire, and it required every possible manoeuvre to kee]) 
 their hands out of the sarcophagus. Old Budda gene- 
 rally succeeded in obtaining the best place, his little 
 eyes sparkling with avarice, and his long arms stretched
 
 216 
 
 LIGHT-FINGERED ARABS. 
 
 out, while lie volunteered information to those who could 
 not see so well as himself, his finger-ends itching all the 
 while to take advantage of any opportunity when they 
 might intrude themselves into the proceedings. It was 
 useless to drive them away ; like flies or vultures, they 
 would return immediately to their prey. 
 
 It frequently happened that, no sooner was a coffin 
 
 discovered, than it 
 was rifled without 
 ceremony in my 
 absence, and, of 
 course, no person 
 was the oS"ender. 
 To dismiss a work- 
 man Ijy way of ex- 
 ample was super- 
 fluous, because his 
 next neighbour 
 would repeat the 
 oflfence on the first 
 opportunity. They 
 were perfectly in- 
 corrigible in this 
 respect. 
 
 Avault was once 
 discovered in a 
 trench, when a fear- 
 ful hurricane of 
 sand drove us all from the mound ; it was impossible 
 to work, and almost to breathe. Fearing some of the 
 Arabs might return and phmder the contents, I de- 
 puted old Budda and two others to remain and to keep 
 watch awhile behind the rest. On the following morn- 
 ing, notwithstanding this precaution, the vault was 
 found to be broken into, and the coffin rifled. Being 
 
 Coffin Trench.
 
 THE ORDEAL. 217 
 
 iimcli annoyed, I resolved, if possible, to ascertain who 
 were the aggressors. Open and secret questioning were 
 of no avail — all strenuously denied the theft — so another 
 plan was adopted to discover the guilty party. 
 
 It was proposed that each man should take an oath 
 upon the Koran that he was innocent of the offence. 
 Ovannes, therefore, seated himself as judge on a hen- 
 coop, and the Arabs, in their tribes, filed off before him, 
 kissing, as they passed, a French Dictionary, which an- 
 swered the part of a Koran, and declaring that they 
 knew nothing of the act committed. The whole of the 
 'Abbas and Kliithr tribes went through the ceremony 
 without flinching, but, when it came to the turn of the 
 Tuweyba, they begged for an hour's consideration, and, 
 at the expiration of that time, asked to be permitted to 
 visit El-Kliithr and consult the bones of the holy Imam 
 on the subject. Finding this subterfuge without effect, 
 at daybreak the following day, Azayiz appeared with a 
 handful of various beads which, it is to be charitably 
 presumed, were the whole of the stolen property. As 
 an act of great liberality on my part, they were returned 
 to him, with an injunction that he would strictly look 
 after the honesty of his peoj^le. I never overcame the 
 belief that Budda and his companions (unable to resist 
 the opportunity of being left alone on the mounds with 
 an unsearched coffin before them) were the delinquents, 
 and that his influence over the tribe prevented their 
 denouncing him. He was very humble next day, and 
 often repeated his regrets that the Tuweyba tribe had 
 so committed itself. 
 
 Considering the friable nature of the soil in the coffin 
 trenches, it is wonderful that no very serious accidents 
 took place during the continuance of the excavations. 
 One mishap, however, occurred, in consequence of the 
 proximity of an old Arab working, and aflbrded an in-
 
 218 ENDURANCE OF PAIN. 
 
 stance of Arab endurance of pain, and the rapidity with 
 which their Avounds heal. The trench side gave way 
 and Ijuried three men, one of whom was dug out with 
 his collar bone broken. The poor fellow walked back 
 to camp, where I managed to set the bone. While en- 
 gaged in this occupation in the presence of the whole 
 assembled tribe in the sheikh's tent, one of the perse- 
 cuting dust squaUs arose, and in a few seconds we w^ere 
 enveloped in a flood of dense sand, the light of the 
 setting sun was completely shut out, and a yellow, 
 sickly colour pervaded the atmosphere. The force with 
 which the particles of sand were driven produced a 
 sharp tingling of the flesh, and obliged the half-naked 
 Arabs for once to cover themselves with their abbas, in 
 which they sat crouching until the tent was blown 
 down about our ears, and there was a chance of our 
 being either strangled or suff*ocated. They then all 
 sprang to their feet, and re-erected the tent under the 
 excitement of the war-cry of the men and the tahlelil of 
 the women. The patient, during the scramble which 
 ensued, had the bone put out of position, and suffered 
 great agony from the roughness of his comrades. As 
 soon as the hurricane was over, it was set a second 
 time and bandaged up, but in the night it got once 
 mere disconnected. He, however, insisted on retmiiing 
 to his family across the Euphrates, notwithstanding 
 all my persuasion. On receipt of a week's wages, he 
 set out on foot upon a two days' journey ! The endur- 
 ance of an Arab is astonishing. Within a month after 
 the occurrence of the accident, the man presented him- 
 self again and demanded to be employed once more, 
 swinoino; his arm round to shew that it was healed. 
 His request was granted for light work, and he after- 
 wards obtained me several valuable relics. 
 
 In this place I may enumerate the few objects which
 
 EARLIEST RELICS. 
 
 219 
 
 undoubtedly belong to the earliest type of funereal re- 
 mains : — 
 
 1. The edifice of terra-cotta cones, of which I have 
 already given an account (p. 187); and the horns of the 
 same substance, with the dedication of Belus, as ascer- 
 tained by Sir Henry Rawlinson. 
 
 2. Several dark brown tal)lets or syUabaria of unbaked 
 clay, measuring nine inches by seven, and inscribed vnth. 
 columns of minute cuneiform characters ; — one of which 
 contains the names of various trees. 
 
 3. Terra-cotta fio-ures of Venus ; an old man with 
 flowing beard, wearing a skull-cap and long robe, encircled 
 
 round the waist by a belt, his 
 hands clasped in front in the 
 Oriental attitude of respect ; 
 and a younger personage, hold- 
 ing some unknown object, pro- 
 bably a mace, in the hands. 
 These figures ate infinitely su- 
 perior to those of the later 
 periods. Although stiff" in out- 
 line, they are very correctly 
 
 modelled, and may be known at once by the dark green 
 
 clay of which they are composed. 
 
 4. Near two well-built brick vaults, cemented with 
 plaster, at the base of a small mound '''' south-east of the 
 Buwariyya, was dug up a rude jar, containing a thin silver 
 plate, which was folded in linen. It measures two inches 
 long by one inch ^dde, and is embossed with a beautiful 
 female figure. The hands are raised in an attitude of 
 adoration, and the hair hangs loosely behind. The attitude 
 and costume recall to mind the extraordinary figures on 
 the rock scidptures of Mai Amir plain, in the Bakhtiyan 
 Mountains in Persia. 
 
 Babylonian Figures. 
 
 * At G on the Plan.
 
 220 EAELIEST RELICS. 
 
 All tlie above objects occur at the outskirts of tlie great 
 coffin mounds, wliere, if accumulated in the way I have 
 been led to suppose, it is natural we should find the pri- 
 mitive relics. If it were possible to penetrate through 
 the vast piles of more recent deposits, we should doubt- 
 less obtain some very valuable information regarding the 
 veiy earliest modes of burial.
 
 CHAPTEK XIX. 
 
 Bank-notes of Babylon — Relics Injured by Fire — A FruitM Mound — 
 Chamber containing Architectural Ornaments — Origin of the Sara- 
 cenic Style — Clay Tablets with Seal Impressions and Greek Names — 
 Continuance of Cuneiform until B.C. 200 — Himyaric Tomb-stone — 
 Conical Mounds — Style for Writing Cuneiform — The Shat-el-Nil — 
 General Results of the Excavations at Warka — Probable EeHcs still 
 Buried there. 
 
 While rambling over the mounds one clay, I acciden- 
 tally observed two bricks projecting tlirongb tlie soU of 
 the wall or terrace which constitutes the edge of the great 
 platform on the east of the Buwariyya.*"' Thinking, from 
 their vitrified aspect, that they were likely to bear cunei- 
 form legends, I extracted them from the earth, anci, in doing 
 so, exposed two small tablets of unbaked cla) , covered on 
 both sides with minute characters. On searching further, 
 others were discovered, and eventually there were obtained 
 forty, more or less perfect, varying from two to four-and- 
 a-half inches in length, by one to three inches in breadth. 
 Many others were either irrevocably damaged by weather, 
 or unavoidably broken in extraction from the tenacious 
 clay in which they were disposed in rows and imbedded 
 upon a brick pavement. They are now in the British 
 Museum, but it is feared that the nitrous earth of which 
 they are composed wdU cause them to decay rapidly on 
 exposure to the atmosphere. 
 
 Sir Henry Eawlinson reported concerning them : — 
 
 * At on the Plan.
 
 222 BANK-NOTES OF BABYLON. 
 
 " that they are certainly official documents issued by order 
 of the king, attested or indorsed by the principal officers 
 of state, and referring to specific amounts in weight of 
 gold or silver. He could not help suspecting that the 
 Babylonian kings, in an age when coined money was 
 unknown, used these pieces of baked clay for the mere 
 purpose of a circulating medium. The smaller cakes, he 
 thought, corresponded to the notes of hand of the present 
 day, the tenor of the legend being apparently an acknow- 
 ledgment of liability by private parties for certain amounts 
 of gold and silver. The more formal documents, however, 
 seemed to be notes issued by the Government, ^for the 
 convenience of circulation, representing a certain value, 
 which was always expressed in measures of weight, of 
 gold or silver, and redeemable on presentation at the 
 Eoyal Treasury. He had chiefly examined them with the 
 view to historical discovery, and had succeeded in finding 
 the names of NabojDollassar, Nabokodrossor, Nabonidus, 
 Cyrus, and Cambyses (ranging from 626 to 522 B.C.) ; the 
 precise day of issue in such a month of such a year of 
 the king's reign being in each instance attached to the 
 document.""^'' 
 
 These tablets were, in point of fact, the equivalents of 
 our own bank-notes, and prove that a system of artificial 
 currency prevailed in Babylonia, and also in Persia, at 
 an unprecedented early age — centuries before the intro- 
 duction of paper or printing ! They were, undoubtedly, 
 deposited in the position where they were discovered, 
 about the commencement of the Achoemenian period. 
 
 On removing the rubbish from the brick pavement, it 
 aj)peared that it formed a terrace thirty-two feet long 
 and four feet wide. Only one brick was inscribed, and 
 that had evidently been taken from some edifice built by 
 Urukh, most probably from the Buwdriyya. Behind was 
 * See "The Athenceum" for March 15, 1851.
 
 ARTICLES DAMAGED BY FIRE. 223 
 
 the base of a wall of unbaked bricks ten or twelve feet 
 thick ; the whole being covered with two feet of rubbish 
 and charcoal. Upon the terrace were several highly 
 interesting articles damaged by fire, among them may 
 be mentioned : — 
 
 1. Fragment of an alabaster cone, apparently portion 
 of a grotesque head for a mace or staff. It is engraved 
 with scrolls, and has upon it a few Assyrian characters. 
 
 2. Part of the hinge and valve of a bivalve shell (Tri- 
 dacna squamosa). On the exterior are delicately traced 
 the heads, necks, and fore legs of two horses drawing a 
 chariot, and covered with trappings and armour (?). The 
 reins are fastened to semicircular processes behind the 
 ears, like those on the sculptures of Sennacherib from 
 Nineveh. Full-blown and budding flowers of the lotus 
 are introduced on every available space, extending over 
 the hinge to the opposite side of the shell, which is carved 
 with an ornamental basket filled with the same flowers.''^ 
 
 3. A carved ivory panel, four inches long, in a state 
 of rapid decomposition. 
 
 4. Two large mushroom-shaped pieces of baked clay, 
 covered on their flat tops and stems with cuneiform 
 records. 
 
 5. A brick with stamp in relief of a circular-topped 
 altar on a pedestal, surmounted by a seven- „,,,^,,— ,. 
 rayed sun. 
 
 Beyond the spot where the tablets and the 
 above articles occurred, I discovered indica- 
 tions of another method of burial. My atten- 
 tion was directed to two bricks resting angle 
 
 w^se against two others placed horizontally, stamp on Bricks. 
 Below the shelter so formed were three more tablets, 
 
 * A woodcut of this shell is given at p. 563 of Mr Layard's "Nineveh 
 and Babylon," where also the author alludes to a similar engraved shell 
 from an Etruscan tomb in the British Museum.
 
 224 INSCRIPTIONS OF CAMBYSES. 
 
 lying on a huge brick, seventeen inches square, with, a 
 hole through its centre. It covered a well-built vault, 
 measming thirteen inches by ten inches square, and 
 twenty-one inches in depth, which was filled Avith earth 
 and the fragments of two large sejjulchral vases, with- 
 out any traces of their original contents. At the left 
 corner of the vault, towards the edge of the pavement, 
 was a small square hole in which lay a broken dish or 
 jar. Behind the four bricks on the surface of the vault, 
 was a broken vase, containing reed ashes and burned 
 bones reduced to small lumps, and crumbling to powder. 
 
 At a short distanc9 from this first vault was a second, 
 in every important respect resembling the other. Within 
 the small hole at the angle were broken pottery, bjirned 
 reeds, date-stones, and part of a lamb's jaw. 
 
 From subsequent discoveries at Sinkara, I conclude 
 that the bones of the dead were, in the above cases, de- 
 posited in vases and placed in the vaults, after which 
 the private records and property of the deceased were 
 arranged over them, and the whole submitted to the 
 flames. 
 
 In a neighbouring terrace, two similar vaults to those 
 described were discovered. This terrace measured forty 
 feet long by four feet wide, and was paved with bricks 
 inscribed in slightly relieved cuneiform characters of 
 Cambyses the brother of Cyrus, a personage of whom 
 we possess no historical notice whatever.'"" A few unim- 
 portant articles lay on the surface of the pavement. 
 
 * In a short notice of my discoveries, at p. 377 of '■ Nineveh and its 
 Palaces," I observe the following passage : "At one place, Seukereh, he had 
 come on a pavement, extending from half-an-acre to an acre, entirely 
 covered with writing, which was engraved upon baked tiles," &c. As the 
 unimportant pavement described in the text is the only one I Avas so fortu- 
 nate to discover, either at Sinkara or Warka, it is difficult to conceive how 
 such an error should have crept into the passage quoted. It is to be re- 
 gretted that, in a work intended to be a resti7ne of Assyrian and Babylonian
 
 ARCHITECTUEAL ORNAMENTS. 225 
 
 The locality at Warka, wliicli furnislied the most 
 valuable and interesting fruits of my researches, was 
 a small detached mound,'" forty feet high, situated about 
 half-a-mile south-east of the Buwariyya. One of my 
 overseers picked up from its summit a few fragments of 
 ornamental plaster, which induced me to make exca- 
 vations. I was soon rewarded by the discovery of a 
 chamber, measuring forty feet long and twenty-eight 
 feet wide, the mud walls of which stood only four feet 
 high, and had been covered with coloured plaster. It 
 was a perfect museum of architectural scraps, of a highly 
 instructive and curious character. The unbaked brick 
 floor was literally piled with broken columns, capitals, 
 cornices, and innumerable relics of rich internal decora- 
 tion, which exhibited undoubted symjDtoms of Greek 
 and Eoman influence on Oriental taste. The smaller 
 objects were wholly plaster; but the larger consisted of 
 moulded bricks, thinly coated with white plaster ; many 
 of them were fantastically coloured. One large frag- 
 ment of cornice bore, among other devices, a spirited 
 crouching grifiin, which, at first sight, reminded me of 
 the similar figures sculptured on a frieze in an inner 
 chamber at the remarkable ruins of Al Hadhr, near 
 Mosul.t This emblem was accompanied by the well- 
 discovery, greater care had not been taken to prevent the insertion of this 
 and many more grievous errors. 
 
 Cuneiform inscriptions in relief are not of very frequent occurrence in 
 Babylonia. Besides the instance above mentioned, Mr Taylor discovered 
 this variety of legend on small bricks of very early date from the coffin 
 mounds of Miigeyer. I afterwards exhumed bricks with a PehlevI inscrip- 
 tion in relief from the mounds- of Khdn-1-Kydya near Baghdad, and at 
 Jidr in central Chaldcea. It is not improbable that the style was re-intro- 
 duced into Mesopotamia by Cambyses on returning from his conquest of 
 Egypt, where relief inscriptions commonly occur. 
 
 * At G on the plan. This mound yielded two of the three coffins in the 
 British Museum. 
 
 t See a sketch of this frieze, accompanying Mr Ainsworth's Memoir in 
 the " Journal of the Royal Geographical Society," vol. xi. 
 
 P
 
 226 GREEK AND ROMAN INFLUENCE. 
 
 kno\vn Greek echinus moulding ; but the cornice was pur- 
 posely destroyed by some strange Arabs, who visited the 
 mounds between the intervals of excavation. 
 
 Three of the capitals are Ionic; but the proportions 
 of the volutes and other members are peculiar. A 
 fourth description of small capital has peculiarities of its 
 own, suggestive of the later Byzantine style. A large 
 and elegant leaf rises from the necking, and bends under 
 each corner of the abacus. Springing from behind a 
 smaller curled leaf in the centre is the bust of a human 
 figure, wearing the same preposterous head-dress which 
 is characteristic of the slipper coffins and Parthian coins. 
 
 No columns were discovered to correspond with the 
 larger capitals ; but the walls were liberally adorned 
 with small Ionic half-columns, with half-smooth, half- 
 fluted shafts, which were highly coloured. The lower and 
 smooth surfaces were diagonally striped with red, green, 
 yellow, and black ; the flutes being painted black, red, 
 and yellow alternately, while the level ridges between 
 them are left white. In some cases the flutes were 
 quartered with the same colours. 
 
 Among the debris of smaller articles were bases of 
 columns, — friezes, with bunches of grapes alternating 
 with leaves, — gradines, resembling those on the castles of 
 the Nineveh bas-reliefs, but ornamented at the base with 
 a conspicuous six-rayed star in a circle, — fragments of 
 open screen-work, with complicated geometric designs of 
 diflerent patterns on the opposite sides (these are very 
 peculiar, and differ materially from the arabesque), — and 
 flakes of painted plaster from the walls, with fragments 
 of smaU statuettes, coloured, and sometimes gilded. 
 Scratched upon the edge of one object were the cha- 
 racters ^ I ^^ LLI which approach nearer to the Him- 
 yaric character than any with which I am acquainted. 
 
 "With regard to the age of this building, so elaborately
 
 ORIGIN OF SARACENIC ARCHITECTURE. 227 
 
 ornamented, I was for some time in doubt. The enor- 
 mous head-dress of the capital, being eq^ually characteristic 
 of both the Parthian and Sassanian periods, affords no 
 evidence on the subject; but, as the ruins abound with 
 coins of the former dynasty, while none of the latter 
 have been found, it is but reasonable to conclude that 
 the edifice is rather Parthian than Sassanian; and, 
 therefore, on mature consideration, I assume that it dates 
 about the Christian era. While the Poman griffin, and 
 the incongruities with pure Greek architecture observ- 
 able in the capitals, are evidences of a past age and style, 
 — -the complicated design of the screen-work, with its 
 geometric curves and tracery, seems to shadow forth the 
 beauty and richness of a style which afterwards followed 
 the tide of Mohammedan conquest to the remotest corners 
 of the known world. 
 
 It has long been a disputed question whence originated 
 the germs of Saracenic architecture; but the prevalent 
 opinion is that the Moslems, having no style of their 
 own, adopted those which they found practised in the 
 countries whither they carried their conquests, more 
 especially the Byzantine. It is, nevertheless, remarkable, 
 that the same uniformity in richly- wrought tracery and 
 geometric ornamentation prevails from India to Spain in 
 Saracenic structures, which could only have arisen from 
 a central point. We know that in the days of Harunu- 
 'r-Peshid the city of Baghdad, far removed from the 
 influence of Byzantine art, had attained a high pitch of 
 civilization and splendour, and that her public edifices, 
 within little more than a century after the rise of Islamism, 
 were adorned with a richness and an attention to minute 
 Saracenic details, which could scarcely have arrived at 
 perfection in so short a period. We know, too, that 
 Kiifa, at the commencement of Mohammedan dominion, 
 was equally celebrated for its architectural beauties.
 
 228 THE PARTHIANS ORIGINATE THE SARACENIC STYLE. 
 
 May we not suppose that the peculiarities of Sara- 
 cenic architecture are due to a much earlier period, and 
 that they originated with the Parthians, who succeeded 
 the Greeks in the possession of Mesopotamia 1 Of this 
 race we have, unfortunately, scarcely any memorials left/"" 
 They are described, in their wars with the Romans, as 
 barbarians, celebrated for their skill in horsemanship 
 and shooting with the arrow, and for the richness of 
 their armour. Of their arts we know nothing ; but 
 surely they could not have been without some apprecia- 
 tion of the beautiful, inhabiting, as they did, the cities 
 and fortresses adorned by the Greeks and Romans, with 
 which great nations they passed five hundred years in 
 conflict. It may be that the Parthians were the* in- 
 ventors of the Saracenic style, but that the Sassanians — 
 their rivals and successors in power — suppressed the 
 influence which they had exercised, and which again 
 shewed itself, after the Mahommedan conquest of those 
 countries, in the application of Parthian ornament to 
 Moslem buildings. This may possibly be esteemed a 
 far-fetched hypothesis; but I can see no other mode of 
 accounting for the advanced state of the arts under the 
 KJialif Harimu-'r-Reshid, so entirely different from that 
 practised under the Sassanians. At any rate, we have at 
 Warka an edifice, with an ajiproximation to Byzantine 
 and Saracenic forms, due to a period long anterior to 
 their introduction elsewhere, which edifice was, I firmly 
 believe, erected during the Parthian ascendency. 
 
 That it was Parthian, I, moreover, infer from the dis- 
 covery of a slipper-coffin, and the usual embossed figures 
 with the preposterous head-gear, at the depth of six feet 
 below the floor, within the chamber. On digging deeply 
 
 • It is true that the legends on Parthian coins are written in Greek, 
 but we know little further concerning them, or of their own written 
 language.
 
 SEALED TABLETS OF THE GREEK PERIOD. 229 
 
 into the mound, for the purpose of ascertaining if it, like 
 the great platform, were composed of coffins, it proved 
 to be constructed of solid earth, around and upon which 
 were coffins ; those on the summit not extending below 
 the depth of a few feet.''^ The chamber was probably a 
 tomb erected over the coffin. There were apparently 
 other chambers in the same vicinity which contained 
 similar relics, but I had no opportunity of excavating 
 among them. 
 
 Within twenty paces of the above chamber, and three 
 feet below its level, was made one of the most curious, if 
 not the most valuable, discoveries at Warka. In several 
 cases, it. was noticed that clay tablets, with cuneiform re- 
 cords, were associated with the ashes of burnt wood ; I 
 therefore paid particular attention to the nature of the 
 soil composing the mounds. While riding up to the 
 workmen engaged at the Parthian edifice, my horse's 
 feet turned up a quantity of black earth, which induced 
 me to dismount, and examine it more closely. My 
 trouble was repaid by the discovery of a fragment of 
 baked clay tablet. A small party of Arabs were directed 
 to the spot, and, in the course of a few hours, their la- 
 bours were rewarded by finding, close under the surface, 
 eight tablets of light-coloured clay. They were lying on 
 decayed straw matting, which was imbedded in bitumen, 
 and surrounded on all sides with charred date-wood and 
 ashes. They differ from any hitherto discovered, in being 
 fully an inch in thickness, and in having round their 
 broad edges the impressions of seals, above each of which 
 are the characters, t]j ,^ "the seal of;" and below, the 
 name of the party to the deed. Many are extremely 
 beautiful, and shew the perfection attained in the art of 
 gem engraving, in Babylonia, at that early period. It 
 
 * Two of the coffins in the British Museum were dug up from this 
 mound, where they proved to be in better condition than elsewhera
 
 230 SEALED TABLETS. 
 
 is true tliat we possess numberless cylinders with figures 
 of a much more ancient date, but they are of ruder work- 
 manship, and of a totally different character — by no 
 means to be compared with the impressions upon the 
 tablets, which evince a great advance in art, assigning 
 them to a later period. The inscriptions, which cover 
 both sides of the tablets, are so minute and delicate, as to 
 require the aid of a microscope to decipher them with 
 precision. 
 
 These tablets and seal impressions are so curious and 
 interesting, that a detailed account of them may prove 
 acceptable '/'' — ' , 
 
 Tablet No. 1. — Twelve oval seals, some elongated and 
 pointed. The central ones at top and bottom are the 
 largest and most important. One ,of these is an indis- 
 tinct representation of the winged deity — ^the Hormuzd of 
 the Persian sculptures, — in front of whom is a well- 
 defined isosceles triangle, precisely resembling the stamp 
 upon the bricks at Wuswas, and at the other larger but 
 unexplored ruin at AVarka.t On the same edge is an im- 
 pression of a fine Socrates-like head. The large central 
 seal on the opposite edge is a very beautiful face, with 
 Greek expression, beardless, and resembling the profile of 
 Alexander the Great. Next to this impression is one of 
 a male and female figure conversing at the base of a 
 graceful voluted capital. Another exhibits a Greek head, 
 with helmet and plume. Tlie other impressions are yevy 
 indistinct. Size, four and a-lialf inches by four inches. 
 
 Tablet No. 2 has one corner broken oft'. It originally 
 had twenty or twenty-one impressions, among which are 
 several sphynxes. One is exceedingly spirited, with a 
 
 * I am sorry to observe that, since their arrival in England, the exuda- 
 tion of saline efflorescences has much damaged these remarkable objects, 
 and there seems every prospect of their being completely obhterated, un- 
 less means are discovered to preserve them. 
 
 t At B and C of the General Plan.
 
 SEALED TABLETS. 231 
 
 four-turretted crown surmounting the head. Several others 
 are damaged. Size, four-and-a-half inches by three-and- 
 a-half inches. 
 
 Tablet No. 3 bears eighteen impressions, some of which 
 are remarkably beautiful, in excellent preservation, and 
 highly spirited. They comprise : — 1. A roaring lion — moon 
 and star. 2. A wild ass trotting — crescent above. 3. 
 Winged Sagittarius — crescent in front. 4. Winged griffin 
 with a single horn, the profile resembling that on the rock 
 tombs at Persepolis. 5. A horse. 6. A winged griffin 
 and crescent. 7. Nude figure. 8. Goat — crescent above, 
 star in front. 9. Winged bull and crescent — triangle 
 below. 10. Human-headed bull. 11. Dressed fio-ure. 
 12. Winged human-headed animal. 13. Lion holding 
 crescent — star above. 1 4. Fish-ood. 1 5. Human fio'ure. 
 16. Dog — triangle above. The other impressions are 
 less distinct. Size, four-and-a-half inches by four 
 inches. 
 
 Tablet No. 4 has only a few impressions remaining dis- 
 tinct : — 1. is the most beautiful and perfect of the whole 
 series. It represents the fish-god Ovannes C?) with goat's 
 head and fore-legs, and fish-body and tail, in front is a 
 star — behind hovers an eagle with outstretched wings, 
 probably intended for Hormuzd.'"" 2. Two figures, repre- 
 senting the Dioscuri or twins. 3. Human-headed winged 
 bull. 4. Human figure. 5. Dog. (1) 6. Winged uni- 
 corn. 
 
 Tablet No. 5. The only impression very distinct is that 
 of a Babylonian figure in profile, in a long robe, with a 
 staff" in one hand. 
 
 The impressions on the three remaining tablets are 
 more or less damaged by the efflorescence of nitrous and 
 other salts, which is contained in the clay composing 
 
 * The cuneiform signature beneath this impression reads Savastana 
 equivalent to the Greek 2e,3a(TTos and Latin Augustus.
 
 232 CUNEIFORM TABLETS OF THE GREEK PERIOD. 
 
 these, and in fact all articles of similar description from 
 Warka. 
 
 In examining these tablets there is one point which 
 cannot fciil to be remarked — the frequent repetition of the 
 heavenly bodies and zodiacal signs. They seem to imply 
 some connexion with Chaldaean worship, and this impres- 
 sion is to a certain extent confirmed by Sir Henry 
 Rawlinson's inspection of the inscriptions upon the tablets. 
 He observes that the matter relates entirely to the domes- 
 tic economy of the temples. The most extraordinary 
 circumstance, however, connected with them is the 
 recognition of Greek names, in Babylonian chai^cters, 
 beneath many of the seals, and the dates in various years 
 of the reigns of Seleucus and Antiochus the Great upon 
 the subject matter of the records. They are therefore the 
 latest documents of the cuneiform period extant, and 
 afford undoubted proof that cuneiform writing was still 
 in current use as late as about B.C. 200. Previous to 
 this discovery the most recent records of the style with 
 which we were acquainted were the Persian inscriptions 
 of Artaxerxes Ochus on the northern face of the plat- 
 form and on the western staircase at Persepolis, and that 
 upon the porphyry vase,'"" preserved in the treasury of 
 St Mark's at Venice, and ascribed to the same monarch, 
 about 350 B.C. 
 
 This discovery is the more important because it raises 
 a hope that some cuneiform records of the intervening one 
 hundred and fifty years between Artaxerxes Ochus and 
 
 * It has been inferred from the orthographical corruption of the king's 
 name in this instance, that the language had lost its purity towards the 
 close of the Acha^meniau period, and therefore that the inscription upon 
 the vase must be that of Artaxerxes Ochus. It is not, however, improbable 
 that the Artaxerxes in question is Artaxerxes Mnemon, as, during my 
 excavations at Susa, inscriptions of this king were discovered, exhibiting 
 Kimilar errors in grammatical construction, and implying an eai'lier decline 
 in the Persic tongue.
 
 HIMYARIC TOMB-STONE. 
 
 233 
 
 Antiochus the Great may yet cast up, and tliat an era 
 so prolific in great events may prove to have possessed 
 its Babylonian as well as its Greek historians. What 
 valuable information might we not derive from a cunei- 
 form memorial of Alexander's campaigns, or from a 
 cuneiform record accompanied with its equivalent in 
 Greek, which might set at rest the prevailing doubts 
 concerning the true interpretation of the arrow-headed 
 character ! Warka has already yielded many interesting 
 and valuable treasures from its mounds, and may yet 
 furnish the above desideratum. With the exception of 
 Susa, I know of no ruins more likely to do so. 
 
 At the foot of the mound where the plaster ornaments 
 and Seleucide tablets occurred, my servant was one day 
 giving some instructions to the workmen, when the ground 
 under his horse's feet suddenly gave way, and precipitated 
 them into a vaulted tomb without coffin or other relics. 
 It measured seven-and-a-half feet long, and four feet wide, 
 and had been already plundered 
 by the Arabs. At one extremity 
 was an entrance two feet wide, 
 partially closed by a rough lime- 
 stone slab, measuring two feet 
 by one foot and-a-half and four 
 inches thick. The slab was 
 found standing on end, with the 
 accompanying imperfect Him- 
 yaric inscription, facing inwards, 
 and recording the death of Hanat- 
 asar, son of Esau, son of Hanat- 
 asar. Who this person was, or 
 the date at which this grave- 
 stone was erected to his memory, it is quite impossible 
 to say. 
 
 The record is, however, of considerable value and in- 
 
 DHiXHYD 
 <Di^?olHni 
 
 Himyaric tomb-stone.
 
 234 CONICAL MOUNDS AT WARKA. 
 
 terest, inasmucli as it is the first inscrijDtion of tlie kind 
 which has yet occurred in Mesopotamia, and tends to 
 shew a connexion with southern Arabia, where the Him- 
 yaric language prevailed at an unknown early date, before 
 the introduction of Kiific and modern Arabic. The 
 Himyaric language is supposed to be of Ethio]Dic deriva- 
 tion, and a relic of its existence in this region is interesting 
 as connected wdth the Hamitic mio-ration and orio-in of 
 the ancient Chaldees, to which allusion has been pre- 
 viously made in these pages. '"- 
 
 In addition to the mounds and ruins thus far described, 
 there is yet another class of remains which is deserving 
 of notice, but concerning whose age we have little but 
 analogy to guide us — I mean the conical mounds occur- 
 ring both within and without the walls. 
 
 Of the former there are two. One, marked F on the plan, 
 stands about two hundred and fifty feet from the north 
 wall. Its height is forty-five feet, including fifteen feet 
 of platform. The other is about eight hundred yards 
 south-west from the former, and of much less importance. 
 I dug trenches, from summit to base, completely through 
 each, but without being rewarded by any discovery. They 
 both were composed of unbaked brick. 
 
 At the distance of a mile beyond the most northerly 
 point of the walls is a conspicuous and important mound 
 of this description, which bears the name of Nuffayjl 
 (J of the plan). Standing solitary in the desert, apart 
 from the great mass of the main ruins, Nuffayji is one 
 of the most remarkable objects at Warka. In height it 
 rivals the Euwariyya — being ninety feet above the plain, 
 with a circumference at its base of nine hundred and 
 fifty feet. The steepness of ~ its sides renders the ascent 
 to the summit both difficult and dangerous. Its aspect 
 is that of a huge bell, and appears to be composed of 
 
 * See page OC, et seq.
 
 STYLE FOR WEITING CUNEIFORM. 235 
 
 solid loam and sand ; but, having failed to make any dis- 
 coveries in the smaller mounds of the same form, I de- 
 clined to attack it. 
 
 The purpose for which such a pile outside the city 
 was constructed it is difficult to understand, except it 
 were for a watch-tower or a tomb. The Arabs have an 
 idea that it was raised by a besieging army, but that, 
 finding it too far distant from the walls for their designs, 
 they raised a second mound about eight hundred yards 
 from the north-east Avail, indicated at M upon the plan, 
 but inferior in size to Nuffayji. 
 
 Between Nuffayji and the walls are several small 
 conical mounds, about twenty-five feet high, apparently, 
 in some way or other, connected with the large mounds. 
 
 The only article obtained in any of these mounds is a 
 smaU flat oval pebble, of dark green serpentine, cut and 
 sharpened exactly after the fashion of the ancient Celtic 
 hatchets found in the barrows of Europe. Similar ob- 
 jects are exhumed from other Babylonian ruins, but I 
 scarcely think they were designed for the same use as 
 that to which they were applied in far distant regions. 
 My own impression is that it was not a celt, but rather a 
 species of style for writing cuneiform inscriptions. When 
 impressed upon soft clay or dough, it produces characters 
 precisely similar to those on small clay tablets and cylin- 
 ders, for which purpose it is admirably adapted. In the 
 hand of a ready writer, it might be used with great rapid- 
 ity and exactitude. 
 
 Conical mounds of similar description occur at widely 
 different points from Persia to the Mediterranean, and 
 are probably tumuli. Whether, however, they are to be 
 ascribed to the ancient Scyths or to the Parthians of 
 a later period, is yet a sul)ject for the investigation of 
 the curiOus. To whatever race they may be due, their 
 presence at Warka is, however, quite in keeping with
 
 236 
 
 BRICK CAPITALS AND SPIRAL COLUMNS. 
 
 Brick capital. 
 
 the sepulchral character of the place ; and the bones of 
 the warrior kings, in whose memory they were erected, 
 may eventually be discovered, deeply buried in the 
 centre, below the level of the desert. 
 
 Besides the conical mounds, there is a small square 
 mound,'"' just outside the south-west wall, which deserves 
 mention. It measures seventy-six paces by one hundred 
 and ten, but its height does not exceed fourteen feet. 
 Upon its surface is nearly every variety of inscribed 
 brick, which occurs within the walls, and which, it is 
 reasonable to conclude, were removed at 
 a late period in the history of Warka to 
 their present position. Among them are 
 likewise several bricks of fine quality, 
 cast in moulds for spiral columns and 
 ornamental capitals of peculiar character. 
 One brick bore in relief a star of twelve 
 rays. None were in situ, but they all lay 
 scattered about indiscriminately. Similar 
 bricks were sparingly found within the 
 ruins, and I observed others at the mound 
 of El- Assam on the Shat-el-Kahr beyond 
 Sinkara, and at Tel Usmer adjoining 
 Akker Kiif near Baghdad. These are also 
 probably of Parthian origin. 
 Among the smaller relics obtained at Warka, a small 
 tablet of serpentine is deserving 
 of notice. Upon one side are four 
 lines of Babylonian cuneiform, and 
 upon the other a figure which ap- 
 pears to shew the origin of cunei- 
 form characters from pictorial re- 
 presentation. The latter is, as 
 every one knows, the most ancient method of expressing 
 
 * N on Plan. 
 
 Spiral column of 
 moulded bricks. 
 
 Borpentine Tablet.
 
 HIEROGLYPHIC TABLET. 237 
 
 natural objects, and it has been supposed by many tbat 
 the cuneiform character, like the Egyptian hieroglyph, 
 originated in simple ideography. By reference to the 
 accompanying diagram it will be perceived that two lines 
 crossed suppose the outhne of the human figure, and that 
 below one hand is a monogram, as if its cuneiform equi- 
 valent, the digits being expressed by five parallel strokes. 
 What the other symbols are it is not easy to determine. 
 I am not aware that this tablet has attracted the atten- 
 tion of cuneiform scholars, but the present opportunity is 
 taken of laying it before them. 
 
 In describing the walls at the north-east of the ruins, I 
 mentioned that they are between forty and fifty feet high, 
 while on the opposite side they do not rise above the 
 desert level. It was difficult to understand why there 
 should be this difference in their elevation, until I ascer- 
 tained the existence of the bed of an ancient river,'"" which, 
 flowing from the north-north-west, was turned eastward 
 by the height and thickness of the wall, and thus pre- 
 vented from entering the city. I traced the channel for 
 a considerable distance beyond the great pile of Nufiayji, 
 which mound it passes three hundred and fifty paces to the 
 westward. It afterwards approaches within thirty paces 
 of the small conical mound K. After touchinor on the 
 north-east point of the walls, it passes round under 
 them towards the east, where it divides into two 
 branches, one of which holds its w^ay in the direction of 
 Sinkara, and the other continues its course southwards. 
 Both branches are lost after proceeding a short distance 
 further. 
 
 Near to Nufiayji, the channel measured one hundred 
 and twenty feet wide, and was elevated a few feet above 
 the level of the desert, its banks on either side being about 
 five feet high. That it was a trunk stream is evident 
 
 * Its course is represented on the Plan, by dotted Hues.
 
 238 SHAT-EL-NfL. 
 
 from the fact tliat it gave off numerous secondary canals 
 towards the west, one of which was eighty feet broad. 
 
 At the 23oint where it meets the walls, a sluice pro- 
 bably admitted a small supply through them into the 
 city ; but, if so, the channel is now drifted up with sand. 
 
 My great authority on the oral traditions of Warka — 
 old Budda — remembered that this old channel was known 
 to the fathers of the present generation of his tribe as an 
 " ancient river," which they called the " Nil." He knew 
 nothing of its origin or course, and the " Shat-el-Nil," 
 farther north, was wholly unknown to him. 
 
 It has been eleswhere stated that, at the Arab conquest, 
 there was an ancient branch of the Euphrates which 
 flowed from Babylon in a south-east direction towaixis the 
 city of Nlliyya, and joined the Tigris near the modern site 
 of Kiit-el-'Amara. This was called the " Nil," and gave off 
 a large stream to Zibliyya and NifFar which is, I believe, 
 traceable further south, in the bed called the " Es-Sahain," 
 or " Shkain," and also in the Nil of Warka. At any rate, 
 it is not a little remarkable that the same name for an 
 " ancient river," not " a canal," should occur at two such 
 distant points as Babylon and Warka. 
 
 The term " 6'Aai-el-Nll " indicates its importance. It 
 is, I believe, the only ancient artificial canal (Nahr) which 
 has received the appellation of " Shat," or large river. As 
 etymology offers no ready sohition for the name Nil, it is 
 probably derived either from its being thought worthy of 
 comparison with the Nile of Egypt, or e]se in commemo- 
 ration of some important event in the intercourse between 
 the Egyptian and Chaldsean nations. 
 
 If the mounds of Warka have failed in yielding bas- 
 reliefs and ol)jects of a higher class of interest, like those 
 dug from the palaces of Assyria, they have at least af- 
 forded abundance of important information on two sub- 
 jects of which we were previously in comparative igno-
 
 GENERAL RESULTS FROM EXCAVATIONS. 239 
 
 ranee ; namely : — Babylonian arcliitecture, and the mode 
 of burial during twenty centuries preceding the Christian 
 era. From these researches, we learn the existence of a 
 new and original style of architecture, entirely uninflu- 
 enced by the exalted taste which subsequently prevailed ; 
 and the situation of a necropolis of enormous extent 
 and extraordinary sanctity, probably derived from the 
 most remote antiquity. 
 
 If there be a scarcity of early annals, and of more po- 
 sitive information than could have been desired, the fault 
 must be assigned to the great difficulties attending exca- 
 vations at so inaccessible a spot, and to the superimposed 
 quantity of funeral remains covering up the older relics. 
 
 It is to be remembered that these results were obtained 
 during the short period of three months, and that the 
 excavations were continually interrupted by overwhelm- 
 ing sand-storms. Warka may still be considered as un- 
 explored ; the depths of its mounds are yet untouched. 
 If those of Nineveh were not thoroughly examined in 
 thirteen years, those of Warka w411 require a much longer 
 period, before we can arrive at anything like a full appre- 
 ciation of their contents, and of the valuable information 
 to be derived from them. 
 
 For the sake of science, it is to be hoped that, at some 
 period not far distant, excavations may be resumed 
 among the mounds of Chaldaea ; and I do not hesitate to 
 state my conviction that each site will yield its own pe- 
 culiar records of a past and almost forgotten age, and 
 that Warka — the most extraordinary and important of 
 them all — will afford memorials and relics yielding to 
 none in value and interest. From them we may hope 
 for much additional light, not only concerning the early 
 Chaldsean and Achsemenian periods, but also with relation 
 to its Greek and Parthian occupiers, down to about the 
 Christian era.
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Sinkara — Decamping — Ride in a Sand-drift — ^Tlie Negro Lion-slayer — 
 A Nocturnal Visiter — Dull uniformity of Sinkjira — The Temple of 
 Pharra — The Dream and its Fulfilment — Nebuchadnezzar and Ne- 
 bonit rebuilders of Temples — ^Another great Necropolis — Tablets 
 and their Envelopes of Clay — Babylonian Arithmetic — Pictorial 
 Records — Boxers in the Land of Shinar — The Dog-devourer. 
 
 Having made such excavations as appeared to nie de- 
 sirable at Warka, I determined on visiting the neighbour- 
 ing ruins of Sinkara, which had previously been reached 
 by Dr Eoss of Baghdad, and Mr Baillie Fraser, during 
 a hasty journey they made through the Jezireh, in the 
 year 1834. In order to effect this purpose, I stated my 
 wish to the Bedouin Sheikh Tellag, one day while he was 
 honouring my tent with a visit. He was no sooner made 
 aware of my object than, seizing my hand, he exclaimed : — 
 " Beg, are we not brothers 1 Is not your wish my wish ? 
 Are not my sheep and cattle, my mare and my camels, 
 yours also ? God is great ! I came here to say that I 
 was about to go to Sinkara, where there is at least some- 
 thing for my beasts to eat — which there is not here — and 
 you gladden my heart by saying that you are going to 
 Sinkara also. What can I do for you 1 Beg ! my camels 
 and all I have are at your service ; take as many as you 
 please, and accompany me. On the word of a Shammar, 
 no one shall injure you while under my shadow, neither 
 shall any of my people harm your workmen. Have I 
 not already said iti The word of a Shammar is
 
 DEPARTURE FOR SINKARA. 241 
 
 trutli." I took him at his word, and in a few minutes 
 all preliminaries were arranged. 
 
 At daybreak on the third day after this conversation, 
 all the camp was astir with the usual sounds of prepara- 
 tion. Amidst the unmusical gurglings of Tellag's camels 
 (which were forthcoming at the time agreed upon), and 
 the corresponding gutturals of their Arab masters, the 
 din of camp followers, and the war-songs of the Madan, 
 my tents were struck and the loads packed. In true 
 Arab fashion, the brushwood (which had afforded shelter 
 to the workmen) and the refuse of the camp were set 
 fire to as we quitted the ground, and the spot, which, 
 duiing the past three months, had been a scene of con- 
 stant bustle and confusion, once more resumed its wonted 
 solitude and repose. Tellag's tribe was already in mo- 
 tion, and his long strings of camels stalked majestically 
 along the barren desert, towards a more verdant pastu- 
 rage ; but, before we could join our forces, a furious squall 
 arose from the south-east, and completely enveloped us in 
 a tornado of sand, rendering it impossible to see within a 
 few paces ; Tellag and his camels were as invisible as 
 though they were miles distant. A continued stream of 
 the finest sand drove directly into our faces, filling the 
 eyes, ears, nose, and mouth with its penetrating particles, 
 drying up the moisture of the tongue, and choking the 
 action of the lungs. The Arabs tied their garments 
 closely round their faces, leaving only their sharp black 
 eyes visible from under the protection afforded them, and 
 each man rode or trudged along in silence, evidently 
 unwilling to open his mouth lest it should be instantly 
 filled with the noxious sand. We shaped our course in 
 the direction of Sinkara, and, after proceeding some dis- 
 tance, were surprised to see Tellag riding on his mare, 
 unaccompanied, through the storm. He was anxious 
 after my safety, and had left his own party to guide my 
 
 Q
 
 242 THE NEGRO LION-SLAYEE. 
 
 little caravan. But for his aid, we should in all proba- 
 bility have wandered into the marshes of the Shat-el-Hie. 
 As it was, even Tellag and the Arabs could not be entirely 
 depended on, because the density of the sand stream shut 
 every mark from view by which they were accustomed 
 to guide themselves. After riding for about five hours, 
 Tellag began to look anxiously around, and to hold fre- 
 quent consultations with the Arabs ; it was evident we 
 had missed the point aimed at. During a lull in the 
 storm, however, I fortunately caught a glimpse of a dis- 
 tant object, looming far on our left. Tellag would 
 scarcely believe me, but, after a while, it appeared*again, 
 and he was obliged to confess that even he had held too 
 southerly a course. Being now satisfied concerning the 
 whereabouts of our goal, Tellag left us to search for his 
 own camels, which, he feared, must also have lost their 
 way. 
 
 In approaching Sinkara, some of the advanced party 
 fancied they observed living creatures moving upon the 
 summit of a mound. My cook Murad, an active and 
 daring negro, originally a slave from Mozambique, dis- 
 mounted to reconnoitre, because we were in ignorance of 
 any Arab arrivals in the neighbourhood, and these might 
 be either friends or foes. Murad was a good shot ; so, gun 
 in hand, he silently advanced upon the dubious tenants 
 of the ruins. They proved to be two lion cubs, one of 
 which lay fast asleep, while the other gambolled round 
 its fellow like a kitten at play. Miirad fired a charge of 
 large shot, and, on hastening up, found one animal dead, 
 and the other mortally wounded, attempting in its 
 pain to bite the body of its companion. The fortunate 
 sportsman was immediately hailed as " Abu Seba in," 
 "the father of the two lions," at which Murad exposed 
 his rows of Avhite teeth with every symptom of pride and 
 satisfaction. From that day he was ever afterwards
 
 A NOCTURNAL VISITOR, 243 
 
 known by the above honourable soubriquet, and regarded 
 with reverential awe by the Arabs, as an invincible war- 
 rior, who killed two lions at once. 
 
 The bodies were carried to the ruins, where the tents 
 were pitched, upon a flat and convenient situation for the 
 encampment. The camels were unloaded, and again dis- 
 missed with a strong party to fill the water-skins at the 
 Shat-el-Kahr two miles beyond the ruins, and to procure 
 brushwood to protect the Arabs against the cold wind 
 and driving sand. 
 
 Before darkness set in, the chief part of the camp 
 was fast asleep, completely worn out with the fatigue of 
 the day's march ; the watchmen alone sat silently keep- 
 ing guard around their little fires, which bm^ned for a 
 few seconds furiously under the impulse of fresh fuel and 
 the high wind, and then sank half extinguished under a 
 deluge of sand. Towards midnight the hurricane abated, 
 and silence reigned profound, when a sudden, deep, 
 sepulchral roar, several times repeated, roused the whole 
 camp once more to life and activity. " The lion ! the 
 lion ! " shouted the Arabs, as they drew closer together, 
 piled brushwood on the watch-fires, grasped their spears, 
 sang their war-cry, and exhibited other signs of violent 
 trepidation and alarm. No more sleep for them that 
 night: they huddled round the fires in parties, told 
 stories of adventures with wild beasts till they frightened 
 themselves into the belief that the lion was close upon 
 them, when their shouts and songs would be redoubled, 
 in the hope of driving the king of beasts away. The 
 horses snorted, tugged at their ropes, and evinced every 
 disposition to free themselves from the trammels which 
 bound them. There was no moon, so that the deep in- 
 tensity of the surrounding gloom added to the fears of 
 the little community. Several times that night I was 
 aroused by their sudden outcries and wild shouts.
 
 244 LIONS AND ARABS. 
 
 At daybreak, it was discovered that the wary animal 
 had made off with a little dog belonging to the Arabs, 
 which had barked pertinaciously on the first notification of 
 our unwelcome visitor's presence. The huge footprints 
 of the hungry and irate brute were distinctly visible on 
 the surface of the newly drifted sand, pacing round and 
 round, at a respectful distance from the camp. With 
 daylight she withdrew to her lair among the reeds and 
 underwood along the course of the Shat-el-Kahr. 
 
 Lions frequent the marshes of this region at certain 
 seasons, and do much damaoje amono- the flocks and herds 
 of the Arabs, who, as I have said, shift their camps to 
 the banks of the Kahr for the culture of grain during 
 the early spring. It is seldom that the king of l^easts 
 dares to attack man, unless driven by stress of hunger. 
 When the Arabs muster strongly near Sinkara, there is 
 generally abundance of sheep and buff'aloes to assuage 
 his hunger; but the Arabs are terrified to approach the 
 Kahr alone, and I frequently saw them, when obliged to 
 do so, return into camp trembling with fear. 
 
 The ruins of Sinkara, situated fifteen miles south-east 
 of Warka, stand on the extreme verge of the broad desert 
 ridge, which, as before mentioned, intervenes between 
 the inundations of the Euphrates on the west, and the 
 marshes of the Shat-el-Kahr on the east. In ordinary sea- 
 sons, the waters of the Kahr extend close up to the eastern 
 base of the ruins. These consist of a low circular plat- 
 form, about four and a-half miles in circumference, rising 
 gradually from the level of the plain to a central mound, 
 the highest point of which is seventy feet, and is dis- 
 tinctly visible from AVarka and the Euphrates. Adjoin- 
 ing this principal pile on the north-west, is a low ex- 
 tensive ruin, apparently consisting of a series of brick 
 walls and pavements. At four hundred paces, on the 
 north-east of the great ruin, is a high mound of large,
 
 THE RUINS OF SINKARA. 245 
 
 half-baked red bricks, at the base of wliicli is traceable, 
 by tlie colour of the soil, the outline of an ancient square 
 enclosure, and small chambers between thick walls. The 
 south-east edge of the whole platform is occupied by an 
 undulating ruin of considerable extent, composed of mud 
 bricks, and known to the Arabs by the name of " Jemel," 
 or the camel, from the peculiar hump which rises from its 
 centre. 
 
 The surface of the rest of the ruins is covered with 
 pavements, varying from thirty to forty feet square, 
 elevated a few feet above the general debris, and con- 
 structed of small rough bricks ; on the north-east these 
 pavements are of very frequent occurrence. 
 
 It is evident, from the first inspection of these ruins, 
 that they all belong to one period, and that no later races 
 of different origin have built upon the edifices erected 
 by the ancient people. There are no coins, no glass, no 
 glazed pottery, as at Warka: but a uniform dull brown 
 hue pervades everything about the place : the fine dust, 
 the bricks, the pottery, are of the same sombre colour ; 
 the only relief being presented in the north-east mound, 
 whose deep red bricks afibrd a pleasing contrast to the 
 general dingy aspect of the place. The soil on the sur- 
 face of the mounds at Warka was soft and yielding, but 
 that of Sinkara was infinitely more impalpable. 
 
 My first efforts'"' were directed to the principal ruin, 
 which is of oval form, its longest diameter being *from 
 north-west to south-east. Owing to the quantity of rub- 
 bish with which it is encumbered, the expenditure of a ver}^ 
 large amount of money and labour would be required 
 before its complete plan can be understood. I was able 
 to ascertain, however, that the edifice crowning its sum- 
 mit was included within an oval space, whose diameters 
 
 * The excavations and results here described are wholly due to the 
 A&syrian Excavation Fund.
 
 246 THE TEMPLE OF PHARRA. 
 
 measured tliree hundred and twenty feet by two hundred 
 and twenty feet. The area was circumscribed by a wall 
 four feet two inches thick, which is traceable, with a few 
 breaks, from the centre of the north-east side towards the 
 south, and so to the west point of the mound where it is 
 lost, having fallen or been carried away piecemeal. It is 
 built of square bricks, firmly set with bitumen, and having 
 a thirteen-line inscription of Nebuchadnezzar upon the 
 under side of each. 
 
 At the distance of thirty-six feet from the extreme 
 south-east curve of this wall, and at the height of about six 
 feet above its level, a trench dug into the mound exposed 
 the wall of a terrace extending from south-west to north- 
 east. A second terrace, six feet above the first, and 
 seventy-four feet behind it, stood in front of what has 
 undoubtedly been the principal fa9ade of the edifice 
 which crowned the summit, and formed the main feature 
 of the ruins.''' Although not more than four feet in height, 
 the character of this building might still be determined. 
 The front extended sixty-five feet in length, then receded 
 twelve feet, and ultimately resumed its former line forty 
 feet towards the south-east and six feet in the opposite 
 direction, beyond which it was not traced. An entrance, 
 nine feet wide, was discovered in the centre of the sixty-five 
 feet front, which was ornamented with ten stepped recesses, 
 each one foot nine inches wide, /^^p^^^^ similar to those 
 on the walls of the Wuswas edifice of Warka, and the 
 small oratory at the foot of the Mdgeyer. The brickwork 
 measured five feet thick, and was backed with a mass of 
 sun-dried brick, from which it is evident that the upper 
 erection was a sun-dried tower, faced, like the Mugeyer, 
 with burnt bricks. On the left entrance-pier, close under 
 
 * The position of this structure, with its angles facing the cardinal points, 
 corresponds with that of M6gcyer, Wuswas, and other edifices of Chaldsean 
 origin, as previously remarked.
 
 ITS CYLINDER RECORDS. 247 
 
 the surface, lay a miicli-damaged barrel-sliaped cylinder, 
 which appeared to have rolled from among the sun- 
 dried bricks, and to have remained a length of time 
 exposed to the weather. 
 
 A trench was carried through the entrance up a sloping 
 pavement, covered with a thick coating of bitumen, and 
 bounded by brick walls. The pavement, however, ceased 
 at fourteen feet, and introduced us into a most unpro- 
 mising mass of mud brickwork. Continuing the excava- 
 tion a few feet, however, the workmen came upon a 
 second pavement, the position of the bricks directed 
 towards the centre or highest point of the rum. Turning 
 the trench, therefore, at an angle of forty-five degrees from 
 its former course, the excavation was continued, and at 
 length rewarded our endeavours by the exhumation of 
 a second, smaller, but quite perfect, cylinder, about three 
 feet under the surface, and five feet above the pavement. 
 It stood upright among the mud-bricks, without any pre- 
 vious indication of its presence. Both at the Mugeyer and 
 at the Blrs Nimrud, the similar records, as I have stated, 
 were discovered in receptacles prepared for them, but in 
 this instance the cylinder lay completely surrounded and 
 in contact with the brickwork. It is five and three- 
 quarter inches long, and is unequally divided by a line 
 round the thick part of the barrel. On one side are 
 twenty-five, and on the other twenty-six, lines of cunei- 
 form inscription. 
 
 This discovery was accompanied with an amusing inci- 
 dent. My servant Ovannes, who was a great believer in 
 the truth of dreams, came into my tent one morning 
 before daybreak, to say that he was unable to sleep all 
 night from being perpetually tormented by a big cylinder, 
 which he attempted to lay hold of, but which always 
 eluded his grasp. He was certain that this dream was 
 a revelation of some wonderful discovery in the course of
 
 248 A DREAM AND THE CYLINDER. 
 
 the day, and therefore begged he might be allowed to 
 mark out one or two new trenches. He was so energetic 
 on the subject, that, to satisfy him, I granted his request. 
 Soon after the men commenced work, I was induced, by 
 a great shouting, to go to the door of my tent. Ovannes 
 was running at full speed down the slope of the great 
 mound, as if the lion were after him. In his haste, he 
 tripped and turned a somersault to the infinite amuse- 
 ment of the Arabs and myself, who, unable to conceive the 
 meaning of this caper, imagined he had gone mad. At 
 last he approached sufficiently near to explain the cause 
 of all the excitement. " A cylinder ! a cylinder !" he 
 cried ; " I told you, Beg, that my dream would prove 
 true !" A cylinder he certainly brought, obtained, how- 
 ever, not from his new trenches, but from the great trench 
 in the principal mound. 
 
 Continuing the trench through the unbaked brickwork 
 to the highest point of the mound, the workmen came 
 upon a mass of masonry, which, for some time, puzzled 
 me exceedingly. It proved to be a tomb of peculiar 
 construction and undoubted antiquity, nearly every brick 
 bearing a stamped dedication of a temple to the Sun by 
 Urukh, the common founder of Warka and Niffar. That 
 it was an original work, was also evident from the fact 
 that it was surrounded and covered by the mud bricks, 
 which contained the inscribed cylinder ; it was likewise 
 evident that it was purposely concealed, because the 
 exterior was rough and daubed with bitumen, and would 
 indicate that the tomb was erected with the mound. On 
 digging downwards, a second and similar tomb was dis- 
 covered below the first, but, at the depth of twelve feet, 
 I failed to reach the base. Both tombs were built into 
 and against the inside of a solid wall, five feet in thickness, 
 but they had been plundered, most probably, centuries ago. 
 The walls were three feet three inches thick ; and the
 
 NEBUCHADNEZZAR'S EDIFICE. 249 
 
 interiors measured six feet deep, and one foot ten inches 
 wide ; the length being six and a-half feet, of which one 
 foot ten inches, at one extremity, were covered by a 
 vaulted arch, formed by the overlapping of each course 
 of bricks beyond the layer immediately below. 
 
 Another trench, at right angles to that in which the 
 cylinder occurred, revealed the corner of a foundation- 
 wall set in bitumen, six and a-half feet high, and the 
 same in thickness. Many of the bricks bore the same 
 legend of Nebuchadnezzar as that upon the oval wall at 
 the base of the mound. From the lowest layers at this 
 corner were obtained two bricks, one edge of each of 
 which was minutely inscribed with precisely the same 
 record as that upon the barrel cylinders, thus, beyond 
 doubt, fixing the date of the upper part of the mound 
 above the tombs as early as the time of Nebuchadnezzar, 
 about 600 B.C. This is confirmed by Sir Henry Eaw- 
 linson's decipherment of the inscriptions.'^'' He states 
 that they commemorate the rebuilding of the temple of 
 Pharra, by that monarch, in the city of Larrak. A 
 description of the same w^ork occurs on Bellino's cylinder 
 from Babylon, published by Grotefend. Nebuchadnezzar 
 is represented as digging into the foundations of the old 
 temple of the Sun, which had fallen to ruins, for the pur- 
 pose of obtaining the ancient idol, with the intention of 
 placing it in his new edifice. Having excavated for a 
 considerable time, he was obliged to give up a fruitless 
 search, and to finish his building without it. 
 
 The same authority elsewhere states, that " through- 
 out the Babylonian monuments — that is, on the bricks 
 found at Niffar, at Sinkara, and at Warka, as well as on 
 
 * A third and perfect cylinder was also discovered at a distant part of 
 the ruins. These numerous copies of the same legend are the more 
 valuable, because of the many variations which occur in the cuneiform 
 characters upon them.
 
 250 nebonit's building. 
 
 the tablets of Nebucliadnezzar — the city in question is 
 named Siklcara or Sinkareli" He further conjectures 
 that the Lanckara of Berosus, which was the capital of 
 the original Chaldsean dynasty, is a mistake of some 
 ancient copyist for Sanchara/'' 
 
 In this name we probably have preserved that oiShmar, 
 the land from whence the Biblical migration took place. 
 
 A king named Purna-Puriyast was also a builder 
 here. I picked up a brick with a legend of sixteen lines 
 bearing this name, which was at that time, I believe, new 
 to Sir Henry Eawlinson's list. 
 
 An excavation was made into the centre and*base of 
 "El Heimar," or the " red " mound. It proved to be wholly 
 composed of half-baked red bricks, measuring fourteen 
 inches square, and four and-a-half inches in thickness. 
 As in other buildings of similar character, previously de- 
 scribed in these pages, layers of reeds occur at intervals 
 between the bricks, and the entire mass is pierced hori- 
 zontally with numerous square apertures. Its interior 
 yielded no information, but a patch of building at the 
 base of its eastern corner afforded a legend of Nebonit, 
 the last king of Babylon, under whose reign, as before 
 mentioned, the empire was overthrown by the united 
 forces of the Medes and Persians, about 538 B.C. This 
 monarch, like his predecessor, Nebuchadnezzar, appears 
 to have repaired a more ancient structure, for, at the 
 northern corner of the same ruin, there was uncovered a 
 fragment of brick masonry, with a legend of the Chal- 
 daean king Khammurabi, who is suj^posed to have flour- 
 ished about 1500 B.C. 
 
 With the subsequent rise of the Persian empire after the 
 
 •See Twetity-niiith Annual Report of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1852, 
 p. 15. Sinkara is likewise supposed to be the Sarsa of other inscrii^tions, 
 as stated in the Proceedings of the Royal Geog. Society, p. 47. I cannot 
 attempt to reconcile these difi'crcnt identifications. 
 
 t This monarch seems to have reigned about 1G50 B.O.
 
 THE RIVAL CITIES. 251 
 
 fall of Babylon, Sinkara declined in importance ; the latest 
 record obtained from its mounds being a small clay 
 tablet inscribed with the name of Cambyses. From 
 that period, Warka, the great rival of Sinkara, as- 
 sumed a higher rank, at least as a place of sepulture, 
 and engrossed the whole consideration which it had 
 previously shared in conjunction with Sinkara. It 
 appears to have been the only city throughout that 
 region which sm^vived the great convulsion attending 
 the taking of Babylon. With the extinction of the 
 native rulers, Miigeyer, Sinkara, Abii Shehreyn, Tel Sifr, 
 Medina, and numerous other sites in Chaldsea, were de- 
 serted, and have remained so to this day. Warka alone 
 maintained its position five hundred years longer as the 
 capital of the district, — saw the enfeebled dominion of 
 the Persian pass into the hands of the Grecian con- 
 queror, and from him in turn to the barbarous Parthian, 
 when he, too, succumbed under the changeable character 
 of the times. 
 
 The aspect of the mounds of Sinkara fully bears out 
 the opinion as to their early abandonment, arrived at 
 from an investigation of the inscriptions obtained from 
 them. It is not among the loftiest mounds that we are 
 to expect the oldest relics. All the more ancient ruins 
 of Chaldsea are but slightly raised above the desert level, 
 and the accumulations of ages are invariably sepul- 
 chral ; this is the characteristic feature of Chaldsean 
 mounds. It would appear that the early inhabitants, 
 like those of modern days, made a practice of burying 
 their dead at certain places held sacred, from time im- 
 memorial, by the erection of a temple dedicated to some 
 deity. Sinkara is one of these, and its sepulchral re- 
 mains are among the most interesting discoveries made 
 during my excavations. 
 
 If evidence were required that the early Chaldeans
 
 252 CHALD.^AN BURIAL. 
 
 practised the rite of burial, Sinkara fui-nishes it beyond 
 the shadow of a doubt. The Avhole area of the ruins is 
 a cemetery ; wherever an excavation was made, vaults 
 and graves invariably occurred, and the innumerable 
 cuneiform records contained in them substantiate their 
 undoubted antiquity. So numerous were the clay 
 tablets, I almost arrived at the conclusion that the fine 
 brown dust of the mounds resulted from their decom- 
 position ! 
 
 Many of the platforms mentioned on the north-east 
 side of the ruins were examined, and proved to be ftimily 
 vaults. In digging down, the workmen frequently found 
 a series of small connected chambers, containing quanti- 
 ties of wood-ashes and partially-burned clay tablets. 
 These were with difficulty extracted entire and after- 
 wards preserved, in consequence of the damage received 
 from fire and their state of natural disintegration from 
 the nitrous earth composing them. Below the chambers 
 were frequently large vaulted tombs, containing one oi 
 more bodies, which were constructed in a peculiar man- 
 ner. Layers of bricks were placed at an angle of forty- 
 five degrees, so as to rest upon the layer previously 
 laid in the same position. They were supported by an 
 outer wall inclining towards the tomb, the other ex- 
 tremity of which was closed with a corresponding wall 
 leaning in the oj)posite direction. The bricks used were 
 generally small, of coarse texture, and of light yellow 
 baked clay ; but they were frequently merely composed 
 of sun-dried mud. The cement was, in all cases, mud. 
 The roofs were circular, and exhibited traces of red 
 paint. 
 
 The skeleton was always extremely fragile, and 
 crumbled to dust at the slightest touch. As at 
 Miigcyer, it usually lay on the left side, with the finger 
 bones before the face. A common baked clay plate was
 
 VAULTS AND THEIR CONTENTS. 253 
 
 placed on either side, with jars and vases of various 
 forms. Some of the latter are exceedingly elegant, par- 
 ticularly one of convolvulus shape, which is commonly 
 met with at Sinkara, and appears to be the type of the 
 modern drinking kuja used at Baghdad. A few of the 
 forms of pottery peculiar to these ruins are engraved in 
 the accompanying woodcut. In one vault, the bones of 
 
 Pottery from Sinkara. 
 
 several other skeletons were heaped up in the corners, 
 evidently for the purpose of giving place to the last 
 deposited body, Avhich occupied the centre of the tomb. 
 An armlet lay in the right uj)per corner, and a large jar 
 near the right foot contained a small tooth-comb, made 
 of bone. Among the dust was a rude wdiite cylinder, 
 and an onyx bead, with a rudely engraved figure 
 upon it. 
 
 In another vault was the skeleton of a tall large-boned 
 man. With the bones of the feet lay two copper rings, 
 and near the chest a small laj)is-lazuli frog, and a couple 
 of agate beads. On the left of the body were five knuckle- 
 bones of sheep, and a copper dish ; on the right were two 
 beautiful heart-shaped red vases. In a corner near the 
 feet were two large water-jars, and, close to the head, a 
 smaller one containing several beads and wood orna- 
 ments, perhaps the tassel of a sash ; also, a small head of 
 white stone or plaster, much defaced, through the fore-
 
 254 
 
 ENVELOPED TABLETS. 
 
 armlets 
 
 head of which is a pin for fastening it to a stick or mace. 
 In the chamber above were numbers of inscribed clay 
 tablets. 
 
 The contents of the vaults varied considerably. In 
 one, an urn contained a piece of dark-brown unbaked 
 clay, moulded into the form of a human hand and arm, 
 ten inches in length, which fell to pieces with its own 
 weight. A second jar contained nothing but two copper 
 a third, some fish's bones, and a small terra-cotta 
 figure representing a body in a coffin with 
 a mace (?) in each hand. A small and beau- 
 tifully moulded human head, in imbaked 
 clay, also occurred in another tomb. 
 
 In many instances, the bones .of the 
 skeletons were found in the upper cham- 
 bers, but these were always crushed by the 
 superincumbent w^eight of earth. It was 
 from these chambers that the clay records 
 were obtained. There were several distinct 
 varieties. The most common were minutely- 
 inscribed small tablets, contained within a thin clay 
 envelope, similarly inscribed, and likewise covered with 
 the impressions of those cylinder seals, of which so 
 many are to be seen in our museums. These tablets 
 were doubtless family records, but they are highly inte- 
 resting, because they shew us the particular use to 
 which the cylinder-seals were applied. The Chaldgeans 
 were not contented with a simple impression, but rolled 
 the cylinder over the entire written document, thus 
 preventing all chance or possibility of forgery. The 
 clay of the tablet must have been perfectly dry before it 
 was enclosed, because the inner side of the envelope bears 
 a cast, in relief, of the inscription beneath. These 
 records vary from an inch to four or five inches in length ; 
 but the thinness of the envelope causes it to be seldom 
 
 Teira-cotta fi^ire 
 of a body in a coffin.
 
 ARITHMETICAL CALCULATIONS. 255 
 
 found entire.'"' One of the smallest of these enclosed 
 tablets, with its envelope tolerably perfect, bore upon it 
 the name of Cambyses. 
 
 Clay cakes, three inches in diameter, are also of fre- 
 quent occurrence with rude cuneiform inscriptions on 
 one or both sides.t 
 
 There is evidence, too, that the early inhabitants of 
 Babylonia used other materials for their written docu- 
 ments. Among the tablets were found many triangular 
 lumps of clay covered, like them, with the impressions of 
 rolled cylinders. At two of the corners are the holes 
 through which cords passed and attached them to parch- 
 ment, papyrus, or leather. 
 
 From the fact that many of these objects were damaged 
 by fire, there is every reason to believe that it was a 
 prevalent custom of the Babylonians to biu-n the private 
 records of the dead over their graves. I know of no 
 other cause to account for their blackened appearance, 
 and the quantity of wood-ashes with which they are 
 always associated. 
 
 Among other clay documents, I must not omit to 
 mention a small tablet, which confirms the statement of 
 Berosus, that the Babylonians made use of a sexagesimal 
 notation — the unit of which was termed a " Sossius " — 
 as well as a decimal notation. The record in question is 
 a table of squares. It has been already published by Sir 
 Henry Eawlinson ; J but I am tempted to extract from it 
 the following, as a specimen of the advance made at that 
 early date in arithmetical calculations : — 
 
 * The same system of enveloping tablets in clay cases likewise prevailed 
 at Nineveh. In examining the numerous collections in the British Museum, 
 I observed one or two with envelopes attached, and the form of many 
 others indicates that they had once been enclosed. This fact had hitherto 
 escaped observation. 
 
 t Mr Layard figures a cake of somewhat similar kind at p. 154 of his 
 •♦Nineveh and Babylon." 
 
 X Journal of Royal Geogr, Society, vol. xv., p. 218, note.
 
 256 TABLE OF SQUARE ROOTS IN CUNEIFORM. 
 
 Soss, Units. Soss. Units.* The Square of 
 
 ?/ «w 
 
 or 50 
 
 25 = 
 
 4f^^\\' 
 
 or 55= = 
 
 3025 
 
 ?^n <fti 
 
 or 52 
 
 16 = 
 
 ?f t"^ 
 
 or 56= r= 
 
 3136 
 
 ^^ij ffl 
 
 or 54 
 
 9 ^ 
 
 ?if? 
 
 or 57- = 
 
 3249 
 
 f i V 
 
 or 56 
 
 4 = 
 
 4T f^ 
 
 or 58^ = 
 
 3364 
 
 f ^ I 
 
 or 58 
 
 1 = 
 
 ^Tt/^ 
 
 or 59'' = 
 
 3481 
 
 T 
 
 or 60 
 
 00 = 
 
 ?n 
 
 or 60^ =. 
 
 .3600 
 
 " As we liere find tlie Unit and the Soss to be both 
 represented by ] , while the decades of each series are 
 indicated by <■, it is evident that the Babylonian nota- 
 tion consisted of a double recurring series, in which 
 the elements <r and ] were used respectively for the 
 decades and units of the integers of 60." 
 
 The upper chambers of the Sinkara tombs also yielded 
 a few curious tablets of baked clay, which are not only 
 interesting as exhibiting the state of the arts, but as 
 illustrating the costume, occupation, and worship of the 
 Chaldseans. The sculptures in the palaces of Nineveh 
 were historical monuments, erected by the kings of 
 Assyria to perpetuate their own exploits and greatness ; 
 but the people are only shewn as subservient to the will 
 of their monarch. In the little tablets from Sinkara is 
 depicted the everyday life of the people, modelled by 
 themselves, without any royal influence to produce the 
 best works of the best artists. Kude as they are, these 
 designs prove that the Chaldseans — if they had pos- 
 
 * The calculation is made thus :— 50 Soss. x 60 + 25 = 3025, or 55? 
 It should be mentioned that 60 units = 1 Sossua. 
 
 60 Sossi = 1 Sarus.
 
 PICTORIAL TABLETS — THE BOXERS. 
 
 25^ 
 
 sessed stone for the purpose — could have executed 
 sculptures equal, if not superior, to those of the Assyrians ; 
 and that the palaces and temples of the Chaldsean kings 
 were, undoubtedly, as highly ornamented as either those 
 of Egypt or Assyria — not, perhaps, with bas-reliefs, but 
 with "figures portrayed upon the walls" in coloured 
 plaster. 
 
 The following tablets""" may be mentioned as having 
 been found over the same vaidt : — 
 
 /i 'iJ/v' ^'t'!/f/i- 
 
 Clay Tablet from a Tomb at Sinkara. 
 
 1. Two figures, apparently boys, boxing, in the most 
 approved fashion of the " ring " — a proof that the 
 pugilistic art was practised and understood in the 
 marshes of Chaldsea centuries before England was known 
 to the world ! The positions taken by the figures are 
 admirable. They are either stripped for the purpose, or 
 they wear a costume similar to the Madan tribes of the 
 present day — an abba, or cloak, tied round the waist, 
 the rest of the body being bare. On their heads are 
 skull-caps. A third figure, standing with his back to the 
 
 * The tablet representing a man and Indian dog, obtained in I5abyionia 
 by Sir Henry Rawlinson, and figured at page 527 of Layard's " Nineveh 
 and Babylon," much resembles these Sinkara tablets, and was probably 
 procured by the Arabs from an ancient grav« or tomb. 
 
 ii.
 
 258 
 
 THE LION S FEAST. 
 
 combatants, seems to appeal over a huge vase, much 
 resembling those used in interring the dead, to a female (1) 
 wearing a long garment and a turban. She is seated on 
 a stool beating cymbals. 
 
 2. A lion disturbed in his feast off a bullock, by a man 
 armed with club and hatchet. The costume of the human 
 figure somewhat resembles that of the modern Arab : 
 it consists of an abba thrown over the shoulders, a short 
 
 Clay Tablet from Sinkara. 
 
 tunic, and a band of camel's hair round the head. The 
 action of the lion roaring and lashing his tail with mane 
 erect (although one paw is very rudely represented) is 
 extremely spirited, and shcAvs considerable knowledge of 
 the lion on the part of the artist. A fragment has been 
 broken out, and again mended with bitumen. 
 
 3. This tablet is not flat like the others, but is made 
 with a projecting stand, and rounded at the back. Upon 
 it is represented the figure with the conical head-dress, 
 and long robes, usually seen upon small cylinders, and 
 of which impressions occur upon the inscribed tablets. 
 One foot is placed on a kind of stool, and the left hand 
 holds a mace or some indescribable implement. Above
 
 PICTORIAL TABLETS. 
 
 259 
 
 are tlie Clialdgean emblems — ^the crescent, and an eight 
 rayed star enclosed within a 
 circle. Tlie tablet is pierced 
 with three holes. 
 
 From the tombs w^ere ob- 
 tained tablets, w^th figures of 
 a lion devouring a prostrate 
 human being ; a man carrying 
 a fish ; and an Indian dog. 
 
 The lion appears, from these 
 tablets, to have been indigen- 
 ous to the Chaldsean marshes 
 in very early times. I much 
 doubt, however, if the mo- 
 dern Arab would dare, single- 
 handed, to attack the infu- 
 riated beast while satiating 
 his hunger on his prey. Fre- 
 quently, during my stay at 
 Sinkara, the deep grunt of 
 the lioness was audible upon 
 the mounds or close to the 
 precincts of the camp. I had 
 many times before heard what 
 is called the roar of the lion on the banks of the Tigris, but 
 it considerably disappointed my expectations. The pre- 
 conceived idea of a lion's roar is of somethino- noble and 
 
 o 
 
 terrible in the extreme ; this, however, is not the case 
 with the lion of Mesopotamia; the sound which he utters 
 is like the squall of a child in pain, or the first cry of the 
 jackal at sunset, but infinitely louder, clearer, and more 
 prolonged. 
 
 The nocturnal wail of the lioness at Sinkara in search 
 of her cubs was truly imposing, and struck terror into 
 the hearts of my nearly naked Arabs. I could scarcely 
 
 Clay Tablet from Sinkara.
 
 260 
 
 THE DEATH OF TOGA. 
 
 be persuaded that it was not the lion himself, until they, 
 one and all, declared positively it was the lioness. Dur- 
 ing the day-time she lay quiet 
 in the jungle by the side of the 
 Kahr, and was only seen once or 
 twice by a solitary shepherd. 
 At night her approach was al- 
 ways made known to us by the 
 vehement barking of some half- 
 dozen dogs belonging to the 
 Arabs, which gave furious tongue 
 at some distance from the camp. 
 The lioness was too cunning for 
 our canine guardians ; gradually 
 their number decreased, until 
 our greatest favourite. Toga, 
 alone remained. One pitch dark 
 night Toga was more energetic 
 than usual in warning us of our enemy's position ; at last, 
 apparently tired of his exertions, he returned sullenly into 
 camp, and lay down close to my tent-ropes, growling 
 audibly. Soon afterwards a sudden rush, followed by two 
 or three bounds, making the very ground tremble like 
 the galloping of horsemen, informed the whole encamp- 
 ment that the dog-devourer was among us. Poor Toga 
 was heard to give one stifled yelp, and all was over with 
 our last guardian ; he was carried off and demolished at 
 a meal. The insatiable monster had crouched behind the 
 rubbish of an adjoining excavation, waiting her opportu- 
 nity for the fatal spring. Her traces were next morning 
 visible in the sand, passing within a few yards of a watch- 
 fire, which was surrounded by a party of Arabs in full 
 conclave. It may be imagined that, on the first notice of 
 the dreaded beast's approach, they were scattered like a 
 flock of sheep. The camp never recovered its composure 
 
 Clay Tablet from Sinkara.
 
 A HUNT IN THE DAEK. 261 
 
 again that night, and the following day's work was but a 
 sorry one. 
 
 Fearing for the safety of the horses and camels, as soon 
 as the animal made known her presence next evening, I 
 hastily proposed an expedition against her, and set out 
 armed, with "Abii Seba'in," and Mahommed Agha, my 
 cawas carrying loaded guns. The Arabs were told to 
 follow if they pleased. We crept silently to the summit 
 of the red mound, and halted to ascertain where the enemy 
 lay. Here Ovannes, Tellag (who had come to spend the 
 evening with me), and Budda, as a matter of course, with 
 a few of the Tuweyba, soon joined us, all armed with 
 spears. Tellag, undertaking the office of monitor, with 
 ominous voice reminded me that it was very dark, and 
 that the wild beast was mad from the loss of her young, 
 and from her continued taste of blood. Seizing me by 
 the arm, and pointing to the spear which I carried, he 
 exclaimed : — " Beg ! if the tufenk (gun) misses, what, in 
 the name of Allah, is the use of that reedV' I was per- 
 fectly sensible of the correctness of his remark, but was 
 determined to proceed further, if it were only to ascertain 
 whether the hearts of my men were in their right places. 
 We descended from the red mound, and advanced towards 
 the foot of the great ruin ; but alas ! it became more and 
 more evident, each step we proceeded, that, although 
 Tellag and the Arabs would have willingly bared their 
 arms, tied up the sleeves of their zibbuns, and followed 
 me against a human enemy by daylight, they were not 
 disposed to attack an enraged lioness in the dread dark- 
 ness of nioht. If the beast could have been seen in the 
 distance, all would have made off at full speed to the 
 camp. Mahommed Agha could scarcely hold his gun from 
 fear. At the base of the great ruin a second halt was 
 called, and we listened attentively. Something was 
 heard to stir among the bricks on the summit, and the
 
 262 A FALSE ALARM. 
 
 next instant the queen of beasts uttered a loud roar; my 
 companions, with one accord, looked behind them to ascer- 
 tain if the coast were clear. An instant afterwards her 
 roar was again heard as she made ofif in the distance, to 
 the unspeakable relief of my companions-in-arms. 
 
 In returning to camp, the Arabs determined to eke out 
 their excitement by a piece of fun. At a convenient 
 distance a general shriek was raised, and all rushed 
 towards the watchfires at full speed, as if the lioness 
 were at our heels. The Arabs who remained in camp, 
 thinking such was really the case, ran out to give us 
 succour, grasping their spears and singing their w^r-cry 
 as usual. When the deception was discovered, a merry 
 laughing ensued, and each man sang and danced, with 
 the excitement. In this scene the Arab character ap- 
 peared without disguise. Unwilling to make an attack in 
 cold blood and darkness upon a wild beast, those in camp 
 were prepared to resist an attack, and to advance to the 
 aid of their fellows, whom they supposed in danger. 
 Tellag, however, did not so soon forget the rashness of 
 the enterprise : he followed me into my tent, and ex- 
 postulated with me on the subject. " She is gone now," 
 said he, " but will most assuredly attack and kill the 
 first Arab she meets, out of revenge for our attempt 
 against her !"
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 Treasures found at Tel Sifr — Juvenile Footpads — Medina — ^Yusuf and 
 his Excavations at Tel Sifr — Large Collection of Curiosities in 
 Copper — Private Eecords, B.C. 1500 — Female Excavators — The 
 Works in Chaldaea abruptly interrupted — Leave-taking — Grateful 
 Labourers — Embarkation on the Euphrates — Eiver-craft and Am- 
 phibious Arabs — " The Mother of Mosquitoes." 
 
 From Sinkara several large mounds are visible across 
 the Shat-el-Kahr, among which Ablah, El-Ass4m, and 
 Tel Sifr, are the most important. Having heard from 
 the Tuweyba promising accounts of the last-named 
 ruin, and of one more distant, called Medina, I paid 
 them a visit, and was induced to send a couple of work- 
 ing parties, under the direction of overseers, to open 
 trenches at positions I had marked out. At daybreak 
 on the fourth day after their departure, a messenger 
 arrived from Tel Sifr, with the information that a quan- 
 tity of copper articles were discovered on the previous 
 evening, as the men were leaving off work. I was pre- 
 paring to set out at once, but was informed that the 
 Kahr had risen so considerably as to render it impossible 
 for me to cross without a boat. While reflecting on the 
 best plan to be adopted, a second messenger arrived with 
 a basketful of the new-found treasures. He informed 
 me that there were as many as a mule's load waiting to 
 be conveyed across the Shat-el-Kahr. He had crossed 
 with the copper on his head and the water reaching tc 
 his chin.
 
 2()4 A MESSENGER FPtOM MEDINA. 
 
 While an Arab was despatched to Tellag to borrow 
 sheep-skins for a raft, Ovannes proposed to ride off with- 
 out delay and swim the stream on horseback. This was 
 the only method of getting over the difficulty; so away 
 he went, accompanied by an Arab on a mule, carrying 
 the baskets which the cook used for the conveyance of 
 his pots and kettles. He took with him a small box, a 
 packet of paper, and a bag of cotton for wrapping up 
 any fragile articles which might require especial care. 
 
 He had scarcely disappeared when a third messenger 
 arrived — this time from Medina — with a small tablet of 
 unbaked clay from the surface of a tomb. The poor 
 fellow was shivering with ague, induced by fright, from 
 encountering a lion by the way. He thought his last 
 hour arrived ; for the animal espied him, lashed his tail, 
 and roared as he made towards the terrified Arab, who 
 sank to the earth with a prayer for the protection of 
 Allah. On waking from the stupor into which he had 
 fallen, he discovered, to his great relief, that his prayer 
 was granted, and that the lion had disappeared ; he, 
 therefore, lost no time in putting the river between him- 
 self and the animal. The poor fellow arrived completely 
 stricken with fear. 
 
 Shortly afterwards I was met hj a fourth messenger 
 from Tel Sifr, who brought with him a very beautiful 
 and quite perfect tablet of unbaked clay, as a specimen 
 of "kethir ! ketliir !" — "many ! many !" which had been 
 just discovered. Ovannes had not met this messenger, 
 and, therefore, received a welcome surprise on reaching 
 the Tel. The overseer, Yusuf, was in the act of wrapping 
 up the last of a large collection of beautiful tablets. 
 Having exhausted all the stock of paper taken for the 
 purpose, he was driven to the sad alternative of tearing 
 up his blue calico trousers, and the skirts of his shirt, to 
 supply the deficiency. Ovannes found him directing ope-
 
 CROSSING THE SHAT-EL-KAHR. 265 
 
 rations in his drawers. All the spoils were soon packed, 
 and conveyed to the Shat-el-Kahr upon the back of the 
 mule, which staggered under the weight of the burden. 
 They were there unloaded and carried in baskets across 
 the river on a man's head — the same who broke his collar 
 bone a month previously ! He was a tall strong man, and 
 walked with the water just reaching to his mouth, while 
 two Arabs swam on either side supporting him. 
 
 Tellao- collected from the women of the Shammar 
 camp half-a-dozen water-skins, and, next morning at 
 daybreak, they were sent down to the Shat-el-Kahr, 
 where they were tied to a few pieces of wood and 
 tamarisk twigs, cut from the brushwood which grew at 
 hand, and, in a few minutes, converted into a primitive 
 kelek. The horses were soon stripped, a saddle-cloth 
 was spread for my seat, and, with a " bismillah," — " in 
 the name of God" — I was pushed off into the stream. At 
 the point chosen for crossing, a large island divided the 
 Shat-el-Kahr into two parts. In the first branch the 
 water reached to the shoulders of the two Arabs who 
 guided the kelek before them. 
 
 The horses were led over by their groom, and the 
 kelek made a second voyage for Ovannes and the saddles. 
 It was then carried across the island to the larger branch 
 of the stream, over which we were transported in a similar 
 manner, except that, the channel being two hundred feet 
 wide, deep, and with a rajDid current, the kelekjis were 
 obliged to swim, and we drifted a considerable distance 
 together down the Shat. The horses were saddled, 
 and we once more set off at a round pace in the direction 
 pointed out as that of Tel Sifr, for it was impossible to 
 see through a driving sand-storm. After riding about an 
 hoiu', we approached a large mound, which proved to be 
 that of El Assam — much to the left of our proper course. 
 Being then nearer to Medina than to Tel Sifr, I deter-
 
 266 THE YOUNG HERO OF THE TUWEYBA. 
 
 mined to visit the former place first, in order to see wliat 
 had been done there. In galloping along, I was hailed 
 by two shepherd boys, belonging to the main divisions of 
 the Tuweyba tribe, whose tents were in the neighbour- 
 hood. The older might be twelve, the younger ten years 
 of age ; they were armed with clubs and spears. " Stop, 
 stop ! don't be afraid ; we will not hurt you !" said they, 
 running up, with their long hair streaming over their 
 swarthy shoulders. " It is 2/021 who should be afraid ; we 
 are horsemen — ^you are on foot," said I. " Oh ! but we 
 don't fear tivo horsemen only, if there be no more behind," 
 replied the younger little fellow, as he looked* in the 
 direction we had come. He was a fine intelligent boy, 
 with sparkling black eyes, that betokened a 'future 
 Shv) jtan, or dare-devil. " But horsemen sometimes carry 
 fire," I replied, pointing to my holsters. " Yes ! I know 
 fire kills, but that saddle cannot hurt," he retorted, as he 
 touched the leather case. " No ! that cannot harm you, 
 but this might," said I, exposing the butt-end of a pistol. 
 " God is great !" exclaimed the young hero, as he coloured 
 up, and drew himself a step back from the dreaded 
 weapon. Being eventually assured that we were friends, 
 they directed us towards Medina, which we reached after 
 a quarter of an hour's further ride, by which time the 
 wind and dust had abated. 
 
 The overseer, whom I had despatched to this ruin, 
 was a very shrewd, active, and honest young fellow, 
 named Hannah, a Chaldsean from Mosul, who had worked 
 in the trenches at Nineveh. He was one of my best 
 men, and usually proved lucky; he was delighted to 
 see me, but his look at once announced that, on this 
 occasion, his customary good fortune had failed him. His 
 numerous trenches had only yielded a single clay tablet, 
 a few insignificant copper articles, and pottery of the 
 forms common at Sinkara, among which were some pretty
 
 TUWEYBA ENCAMPMENT. 267 
 
 specimens of tlie bell-shaped drinking vase."^'' The fault 
 was not Hannah's : he had dug deeply and earnestly. 
 
 The mounds were of considerable extent, running in a 
 line from south-west to north-east. There was nothing 
 to shew that Medina had been more than a small 
 cemetery. It abounded in brick vaults, similar to those 
 at Sinkara, one of which contained no less than four 
 skeletons, lying one upon the other. The workmen were 
 afraid of the solitude ; there were no Arabs in the neigh- 
 bourhood, so that they were obliged to sleep at night in 
 the tombs which they had discovered during the day. A 
 dismal place it certainly was, with an unbounded view of 
 marsh towards the south-east, and a desert bearing an 
 abundant crop of ancient remains, in every other direction. 
 The water reached to the base o± the mound — a pe^ feet 
 dead sea — without reeds, or other evidence of vegetation 
 appearing on its salt-incrusted shore. The Arabs pointed 
 out Shatrat in the distance, but it was far beyond my 
 vision. They begged hard to be allowed to return, and, 
 there being no great prospect of a successful issue in 
 further excavations, their request was granted. A minute 
 or two sufficed to pack up their property, and to turn 
 their faces campwards. 
 
 From Medina I galloped to Tel Sifr, at the foot of 
 which was encamped a numerous body of the Tuweyba 
 tribe. Their black tents were low and small, but arranged 
 in long lines, at regular distances, after a more systematic 
 manner than any Arab camp I ever saw. The denizens 
 were a wild race, but among them I noticed many 
 remarkably fine men and women — the latter with huge 
 nose-rings, and other ornaments of gold and silver. 
 Unlike my workmen, who were evidently of the lowest 
 
 * One of wbicli is engraved at page 253. 
 
 t Shatra is a reed village among the marshes of the Shat-el-Hie — a species 
 of market-town for the inhabitants of the surrounding region.
 
 268 DISCOVERY OF COPPER ARTICLES. 
 
 class, tliey appeared well-fed, and otherwise in good con- 
 dition ; the men were lolling about at their ease, basking 
 in the sun, or sitting by the side of the women, who were 
 generally engaged in spinning. Their countenances bore 
 a strong resemblance to our English gipsies. There was 
 an air of quiet repose about the scene, quite charming 
 to me after the noisy squabbles Avhich ensued after each 
 day's excavations on the ruins. The arrival of a Firenghi 
 might have been an everyday occurrence, for they scarcely 
 stirred from their occupations; while in other more civilised 
 tribes men, women, and children would have collected 
 round, in gaping astonishment. 
 
 Yiisuf and his gang were hard at work, covered with 
 perspiration and dust ; they had cut some enormous 
 gashes into the little conical mound, which crowns a low 
 platform nowhere exceeding forty feet above the desert. 
 With the exception of the cone, the whole surface of the 
 platform, which was of much less extent than Sinkara, 
 was completely burrowed by old Budda and his grave- 
 hunting fraternity. The dead were buried here also in 
 oblong brick graves, for the most part vaulted, and 
 painted red inside. The name of Tel " Sifr " is derived 
 from the numerous " copper " articles found by the Ai'abs 
 in the vaults, and was still more appropriate after 
 Yiisuf's excavations. 
 
 A trench was dug into the south-east side of the prin- 
 cipal mound, according to instructions, and soon came 
 against a brick wall, which, from its position, supported 
 by a three-feet buttress, and its elevation in two-inch 
 gradines, was evidently the exterior of a building. Its 
 thickness was not ascertained, but it encased an internal 
 mass of mud brickwork, as explained by some other 
 trenches. Following this wall for a distance of about 
 six feet, the workmen discovered a number of copper 
 articles arranged along it, which form a very curious
 
 IMPLEMENTS OF COPPEE. 269 
 
 and quite unique collection, consisting of large chal- 
 drons, vases, small dislies, and dice-boxes ("?) ; ham- 
 mers, chisels, adzes, and hatchets ; a large assortment of 
 knives and daggers of various sizes and shapes — all un- 
 finished ; massive and smaller rings ; a pair of prisoner's 
 fetters ; three links of a strong chain ; a ring weight ; 
 several plates resembling horses' shoes, divided at the heel 
 for the insertion of a handle, and having; two holes in 
 each for pins ; other plates of a different shape, which 
 were probably primitive hatchets ; an ingot of copper, 
 and a great weight of dross from the same smelted 
 metal.''" There was likewise a small fraojment of a 
 bitumen bowl overlaid with thin copper; and a piece 
 of lead. 
 
 The conclusion arrived at from an inspection of these 
 implements and articles is, that they Avere the stock-in- 
 trade of a coppersmith, whose forge was close at hand, 
 but the explanation of their connexion with the public 
 edifice, near which they were discovered, is by no means 
 clear. They are well and skilfully wrought. One of the 
 hatchets particularly attracted my notice, being of the 
 same form as that represented on the tablet of the man 
 attacking the lion ;t the articles which I conceive to be 
 dice-boxes, precisely resemble those of modern form ; 
 the knives were all adherins; tosfether en masse, their 
 rough broad edges proving that they were never finished 
 by the cutler. The total absence of iron in the older 
 ruins implies that the inhabitants were unacquainted 
 with that metal, or at any rate that it was seldom worked. 
 Many of the copper implements above enumerated appear 
 to be but little adapted to the object for which they were 
 fashioned. Copper was particularly used in the Taber- 
 
 * The whole of the articles obtained from Tel Sifr are deposited in the 
 British Museum, 
 t See woodcut, page 258.
 
 270 TABLETS IN ENVELOPES. 
 
 nacle'"' and Temple of the Jews, and, it may be, that this 
 metal was specially chosen for sacrificial purposes, which 
 might account for its abundant discovery in connexion 
 with the edifice — a temple — against the wall of which 
 the implements were found. At any rate, the entire 
 absence of iron, and the curious shapes of many articles, 
 point to a primitive age for their origin. 
 
 The actual date of these copper objects is, however, to 
 be inferred from that of the " enveloped" clay tablets 
 which were found close to them. 
 
 These records were arranged with much care. Three 
 mud bricks were laid down in the form of the capital 
 letter U. The largest tablet, measuring six-and-a-quarter 
 inches long and three inches wide, was placed upon 
 this foundation, and the two next in size at right angles 
 to it. The rest were piled upon them and also upon 
 the bricks — the whole being surrounded by a reed 
 matting, traces of which were still visibly adhering to 
 many of the tablets. They were covered by three un- 
 baked bricks, which accounts for the perfect preserva- 
 tion of so many. Several were found broken, but the 
 fragments were carefully collected. There must have 
 been, in all, about one hundred, of which seventy are 
 either quite perfect or but sbghtly damaged. 
 
 Each tablet was inscribed in minute, >complicated 
 characters of Babylonian cuneiform, and afterwards 
 placed in an envelope of the same material. That this 
 thin layer of unbaked clay should have remained entire 
 during so many centuries under a slight covering of earth, 
 appears almost incredible ! It is also strange that the 
 
 * " And he made all the vessels of the altar, the pots and the shovels, and 
 the basins, and the flesh-hooks, and the fire-pans : all the vessels thereof 
 made he of brass." Exodus xxxviii. gives a full account of the altar of 
 burnt-offering and its vessels — brass being the principal metal employed. 
 By brass we must understand copper, because the factitious metal was 
 unknown at that early ao^e
 
 TABLETS IN ENVELOPES. 
 
 271 
 
 envelope had infinitely more pains bestowed upon it than 
 the internal record, which, it is natural to suppose, was 
 
 (JnbaKed Clay Tablet and its Envelope. 
 
 the important document. Upon each side are inscribed 
 about twenty lines of inscription, commencing from a 
 broad margin on the left. Along the margin and upon 
 all the four edges of the envelope are distinct impressions 
 of cylindrical seals, w^hich likewise cover the whole surface 
 of the writing. The woodcut shews one of the tablets, 
 with a portion of the envelope removed.'"' 
 
 These remarkable tablets have not been critically 
 examined, so that I am unable to guess at the reason of 
 bhe envelope having so much more elaborate pains 
 bestowed upon it than upon the tablet itself. Sir Henry 
 Rawlinson pronounced them, after a cursory examination, 
 to be the documents of private persons in the time of the 
 Chaldsean Kings Khammurabi and Shamsu-Iluna (whose 
 name he then met with for the first time), about 1500 B.C., 
 which nearly corresponds with the date of the departure 
 of the Israelites from Egypt, upwards of three thousand 
 three hundred years ago. 
 
 • The broad margin and surface seals are not exhibited in the woodcut.
 
 272 FEMALE EXCAVATORS. 
 
 Yilsuf 's excavations were much more lively and amus- 
 ing than such works generally are. Their proximity to 
 the iVrab camp induced a number of the Tuweyba 
 women and children to gather round their friends and 
 relations. The females in their deep blue and red gowns 
 sat spinning and chattering at the edge of the trench, and 
 the younger part of the community, in dress of nature's 
 own providing, gamboled round them, or stood watching 
 when any object was being minutely examined. 
 
 In addition to the enveloped tablets and copper arti- 
 cles, Tel Sifr produced a third novelty — two^ girls were 
 carrying baskets of earth from the trench. One,* a very 
 pretty lass of sixteen or thereabouts, had begged so hard 
 for work to support her old, infirm mother and three 
 young brothers and sisters, that Yusuf could not resist 
 the appeal. The second girl was jealous of the first one 
 earning money, and therefore offered her services, which 
 Yusuf accepted in order to countenance the other. They 
 were ereat favourites amonn; the men who, with more 
 kind feeling than the Arabs usually exhibit towards their 
 women, picked out for them the smallest baskets, which 
 they never wholly filled. I observed to Ytisuf that they 
 carried their loads with infinitely greater ease and speed 
 than the men, and that they discharged three baskets of 
 earth while the men lazily emptied but two. Ytisuf 
 grinned and declared he wished all his labourers were 
 women, because they were not only quicker in their 
 movements, but more manageable. Much merriment was 
 created by my ordering all the men out of the trench 
 and announcing my intention to employ only women for 
 the future, while 1 paid a deserving compliment to the 
 ladies. 
 
 A few days after this little excursion, a termination 
 was put to my researches amid the antiquities of Clial- 
 daea by events over which I had no control. The great
 
 TERMINATION OF CHALD.^AN RESEARCHES. 273 
 
 mound at Sinkara liad yielded a series of tiglily inter- 
 esting historical annals in its bricks and cylinders, and, 
 there being reason to anticipate the discovery of much 
 more ancient records at a greater depth, I was anxious 
 to continue the excavations, but in this I was destined 
 to be sadly disappointed. The continued rise of the 
 marshes from the overflowing of the Shat-el-Kahr, an- 
 nounced that the whole of Chaldsea would be in a few 
 weeks covered with the inundations, and warned me to 
 effect an escape while it was possible to do so. The 
 Arabs foresaw, in the rise of the waters, a period put to 
 the acute miseries they had endured for several succes- 
 sive seasons, and could no longer be restrained from 
 quitting me to commence the cultivation of their grounds 
 before they were submerged. It would have been an 
 act of cruelty to detain them longer. Azayiz and Hen- 
 na}dn, Budda and a few inveterate grave-diggers alone- 
 remained with me, and it was evident that they toa 
 desired to depart. Tellag, in whom my hopes of con- 
 tinuing the excavations might have rested, came to in- 
 form me that he had entered into an agreement \\T.th the 
 Beni Hacheym tribes to quit the ground he then occupied 
 near Sinkara, and to retire across the Shat-el-Kahr 
 further into the Jezireh. His camels had akeady de- 
 parted for their new pasture grounds. Thus there ap- 
 peared every likelikood of my being left in solitary pos- 
 session of the ruins, because, without means to convey 
 away my spoils, I was unable to move. My provisions,, 
 moreover, were just exhausted, and there w^as no pros- 
 pect, under circumstances, of a fresh supply. I was>. 
 therefore, reluctantly obliged to sacrifice my wishes to 
 absolute necessity, and to suspend the works both at 
 Sinkara and Tel Sifr. 
 
 On stating my dilemma to Tellag, he promised to send 
 some of his camels back again for my accommodatioD> 
 
 s
 
 274 THE ADIEU. 
 
 and in two Jays lie not only redeemed his word, but 
 himself returned with the animals, and on the following; 
 mornin<T my little caravan was once more in motion 
 towards the %phrates. For the aid he had rendered 
 me, Tellag was content with the present of an embroidered 
 abba, and our parting embrace was one of mutual 
 esteem. The friendship, begun under very unpropitious 
 circumstances, had proved of infinite value in the ar- 
 rangement of my plans, and I therefore took leave of 
 my Bedouin protector with regret. Such of my work- 
 men as had remained faithful from the commencement, 
 were rewarded with the present of a spade, or a trifling 
 Arab coin. They had not anticipated such generosity, 
 and were overwhelmed with gratitude and .delight; 
 Gunza almost cried through excess of joy, and exclaimed 
 that, with the sum he had saved and wdiat I then gave 
 him, he would be able to pay a debt of fifteen shamies, 
 and have, moreover, three to spare ! As I mounted my 
 horse, they hung round me, kissed my hands and gar- 
 ments, and clung sorrowfully to my stirrups. Hastily 
 bidding them adieu, I cantered after the baggage. On 
 turning round at some distance to take a last look at the 
 mounds, I saw the party sitting on the ruins of the temple 
 of Pharra, — and there they continued to sit until their 
 diminishing forms were finally lost to my sight. 
 
 Azayiz and Hennayin being desirous of preferring 
 f.ome request to the Governor of Semava on behalf of the 
 Tuweyba tribe, accompanied me to the banks of the 
 Euphrates. A great change was taking place in the 
 aspect of the country ; many old channels and water- 
 courses, which I had been accustomed to see empty 
 and dry, were now rapidly filling with river water. In 
 many spots it reached up to my saddle-girths, proving 
 the propriety of the step I had taken in ending the 
 excavations. AVithin the space of a week, or less, passage
 
 CHANGE OP SCENE. 275 
 
 in that direction, or indeed in any other, would have 
 been impracticable. Hennayin, as he walked by my 
 side, l)roke out into frequent exclamations of delight at 
 the sight of little runners of the vivifying fluid as it 
 trickled along, gradually filling the canals. " Is not this 
 a beautiful country V he continually exclaimed, while 
 he looked up into my face with undoubted signs of 
 gratification. 
 
 In anticipation of my return, two native vessels were 
 engaged to convey my party and treasures to Busrah. 
 The horses, mules, and grooms occupied one, while the 
 antiquities were stowed away in the second, which carried 
 myself and immediate attendants. While the embarka- 
 tion was being efiected, I was in full enjoyment of the 
 scene before me. After the dust and barren dreariness 
 of the ruins, nothing could exceed the beauty and luxury 
 of that river side and its now verdant banks. The shouts 
 and squabbles of the Arabs about the daily division of 
 their pay were ceased, and in their stead bee-eaters, 
 king-fishers, herons, pigeons, hawks, and other birds, in 
 all their bright and varied plumage, were flying about, 
 uttering their several cries, and luxuriating in their 
 native element, scarcely deigning to notice the presence 
 of human beings. 
 
 When all were embarked, I bade the Tuweyba chief 
 and his brother-in-law adieu, — the cable was haided in, — 
 the sails set before a fair wind, — and, with a thousand 
 invocations to God and Mohammed, my little fleet was 
 wafted rapidly down the stream. The boats used by the 
 natives for the navigation of the Mesopotamian rivers 
 are huge clumsy craft, built of Indian teak, and of many 
 tons burden. They have high sterns, with cabin and 
 quarter-deck, from the top of which they are steered by 
 a primitive rudder, composed of a complicated system of 
 cross spars, roughly tied together. Here sits the captain,
 
 276 AN ARAB CAPTAIN AND HIS VESSEL. 
 
 giving Lis orders and smoking his chibilk, during the 
 livelong day, unless disturbed by unforeseen circum- 
 stances from his wonted calm; in which cases he rises, 
 pipe in hand, and claims implicit obedience from his 
 crew by the utterance of a torrent of abuse in richly- 
 flowing Arabic, which is so admirably adapted to that 
 purpose. Each vessel is supplied with a single tall mast, 
 and huge square sail. In floating down the stream, or 
 in sailing before a favourable breeze, the ungainly vessel 
 goes glibly along ; but when the wind is foul, or the 
 course against the stream, the crew strip, flounder to the 
 shore, and take the place of brute beasts at the tbw-rope. 
 The crew of an Arab vessel is an amphibious race — quite 
 as much in the water as out of it. Deep streams have 
 to be crossed, or shoals avoided in their tracking, and 
 many an hour has to be spent in shoving their craft oft 
 a shallow sand-bank. The life of a Tigris " tracker" is 
 as hard as can well be imagined. 
 
 Cleanliness is unknown in the cabin of an Arab 
 vessel. The flooring, sides, and ceiling are begrimed 
 with grease, and stained with smoke, — there is scarcely 
 room to stand upright, — the boards are pierced with rats' 
 holes, and small vermin issue from every crevice. Add 
 to these annoyances, the incessant creaking of the un- 
 wieldy rudder and its appliances, — the intolerable noise 
 made in tacking, — the frequent prayers to IMohammecl for 
 propitious Avinds and weather, mingled witli wild songs 
 without the slightest pretension to be called musical, — 
 and it may be conceived that a stranger to the navigation 
 of the Mesopotamian rivers passes a sleepless and dis- 
 turbed first ni<2;ht on board an Arab vessel. 
 
 Fortunately the wind was favourable, so that we 
 anchored at Siik-esh-sheioukh soon after midnight, by 
 which arrangement there was a welcome cessation to, 
 at least, the noisy portion of the annoyances. It was
 
 SAIL DOWN THE EUPHRATES. 277 
 
 my intention to have paid my respects to the Sheikh of 
 the Mimtefik, and to have thanked him for the pro- 
 tection he had afforded me ; but the captain desired 
 to take advantage of the fair wind while he might. 
 Quitting our anchorage at day dawn, we sailed at a 
 merry rate down the Euphrates, and in two hours passed 
 Umm-el-Buk — "the Mother of Mosquitoes" — the head 
 of the vast inundation which from this point spreads out 
 in every direction like a continuous sea. The channel 
 of the Euphrates was only to be distinguished from the 
 surrounding water by a narrow strip of bank, or by a 
 line of date-trees along its margin. Here and there the 
 flood might be seen rushing in a roaring cascade from 
 the river into the marshes beyond it ; at such points all 
 the skill of the captain and crew was required to prevent 
 our being carried through the break. Tcrradas were 
 busily employed in conveying the little property of the 
 Arabs from their previous settlements, which were being 
 speedily covered by the increasing waters. Throughout 
 the day the same monotonous deluge presented itself; 
 but we continued on our course without intermission, 
 at midnight passing Korna, w^here the stream of the 
 Tigris joins that of the Euphrates, and from whence their 
 combined waters flow onwards to the Persian Gulf, under 
 the name of the Shat-el-Arab. A thick forest of luxuriant 
 date-trees fringes the bank on either side of the noble 
 river, which supplies innumerable canals for their nourish- 
 ment, and for the cultivation of cereals, which flourish 
 in large quantities even beneath the shade of the 
 palms. The ebb and flow of the tide is perceptible 
 twenty miles above Korna — quite eighty miles from the 
 Persian Gulf. 
 
 At noon the following day, two of my horses were dis- 
 embarked at the little village of Girdelan, opposite to 
 the creek which flows to Busrah, and, with a single ser-
 
 278 SAIL DOWN THE EOPHEATES. 
 
 vant, I rode across the desert to Moliammerali. The 
 vessels meanwhile proceeded on their course to meet me 
 in the Hafar canal, or branch of the Persian river Kariln, 
 which flows past that city towards the Shat-el-Arab.'"" 
 
 * The collection of antiquities, made during my second visit to Warka, 
 was despatched from hence to England at the end of April 1850 ; and my 
 report on the subject, accompanied by ]\Ir Churchill's beautiful drawings 
 and plans, was then likewise forwarded to the British Museum.
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Mohammei'ali — Intense Heat — Sickness — Legion of Blood-suckers — 
 Colony of Alexander the Great — Charax — The Delta of the Tigris 
 and Euphrates — Disputes between the Turks and Persians — The 
 Cha'b Arabs and their Te^'ritories. 
 
 The camps of the Commissioners for the demarcation 
 of the Turco-Persian frontier were pitched in the open 
 desert, at the distance of a mile from the date-groves, 
 where it was supposed they would be free from the 
 miasma arising from the decomposition of noxious matter 
 during the period of low tides. From the account given 
 of Mohammerah by Captain Selby''' in his Memoir on the 
 Ascent of the Karun in 1842, it was generally supposed 
 to be an extremely healthy locality. The lengthened 
 stay which the Commissions made on the spot 23roved, 
 however, the contrary to be the case : continued sick- 
 ness pervaded the whole four camps ; food could not be 
 retained upon the stomach long after a meal ; and a 
 general state of debility naturally ensued. This could 
 not be attributed to the style of living ; because each 
 party followed its own customs : — the Russians took 
 their little doses of cognac, and ate their national 
 caviare, — the English abjured fruit, and the Orientals 
 lived upon it. Captain Jones and the officers of the 
 Nitocris, on their arrival each month from Baghdad, 
 were seized with the same complaint ; every meal saw 
 
 * Journal of Eoyal Geogr. Sec, vol. xiv,, p. 223.
 
 280 MOHAMMERAH. 
 
 some of our party obliged to make a preci]3itate retreat 
 from the table ; and yet no one was seriously ill. 
 
 Besides tliis carious endemic, tbere were other causes 
 which rendered the region around Mohammerah by no 
 means a desirable place of residence. The heat was 
 intense, day and night, — in June rising to 124° Fahr, 
 in the shade. It was of that peculiarly moist nature 
 which prevails on the sea-coast of India, and more 
 especially on the shores of the Persian Gulf, bathing 
 the clothes in a continual state of perspiration. At 
 Baghdad the heat is great ; but, being uninfluenced 
 by the moisture of the distant sea, the atmosphere is 
 extremely dry, and the thermometer, consequently, much 
 less aff'ected than at Mohammerah. Another source of 
 disquietude w^as the myriad of gigantic mosquitoes 
 which about sunset issued from the date-n'oves, and made 
 a violent onslaught upon the camps. We could hear them, 
 in the distance, approaching with an intolerable buzz, and, 
 in a few seconds afterwards, it was no uncommon sight 
 to behold a party at dinner rush for protection to the 
 confined atmosphere of the tents. No one could endure 
 the virulence of their bites, — our light clothing was 
 pierced instantaneously by their formidable probosces, 
 and no earthly endurance could bear the torment inflicted 
 at the same moment on the sensitive parts of the body. 
 Gloves and boots were of no avail, — they bored through 
 the former at once, and found their way over the tops of 
 the latter. Besting at night was a sheer impossibility ; 
 under a net was the heat of an oven, — outside of it a 
 legion of blood-suckers. 
 
 No wonder that all desired a speedy release from the 
 miseries endured at this Ultima Thule of the frontier; but 
 we were destined long to hope in vain. 
 
 Mohammerah owes its foundation, it is said, to Alexander 
 the Great. In order to avoid the necessity of sailing
 
 MOHAMMERAH. 281 
 
 down the Eulseiis (the modern Kanin) to the Persian 
 Gulf, and afterwards coasting up to the mouth of the 
 Tigris, he caused an artificial cutting to be made between 
 the two rivers, which is still to be recognised in the Hafar'"' 
 now flowing past Mohammerah. Previously to this, the 
 Kariin appears to have discharged its waters by one or 
 both of the channels called Khor Kobban and Klior 
 Bahmeh-shir,t through a low promontory into the Persian 
 Gulf, The site of Mohammerah was fixed at the junction 
 of the Eulseus and Tigris upon the sea-shore. At this point 
 Alexander built an artificial mound, and transferred to it 
 a colony from the ruined Persian city of Durine, leaving 
 a garrison of those soldiers who were unfit for service. 
 He named the place Alexandria after liimself, and the sur- 
 rounding country was called Pellseum after the city where 
 he was born. The town was afterwards destroyed by the 
 invasion of the rivers, but was rebuilt by Antiochus, 
 and heuce called Antiochia. It was again ruined, as be- 
 fore, and a third time restored by an Arab king Spasines, 
 son of Sogdonacus, who erected great dams, wharves, and 
 causeways, calling it after himself, Charax of Spasines. 
 
 It was the birthplace of Dionysius the geographer, 
 whom the Eoman emperor Augustus sent to obtain in- 
 formation on the country for the instruction of his eldest 
 son, who was about making an expedition to Armenia 
 against the Parthians. 
 
 The province of Characine, whose capital was Charax, 
 appears to have especially flourished under the dominion 
 of the sub-Parthian kings. The British Museum pos- 
 sesses several remarkable copper coins referred to the 
 kings of that province ; they bear rude Greek legends, in 
 
 * " Hafdr," in Arabic, means '' digger." 
 
 t For further information on this point, I would refer the reader to the 
 Journal of the Koyal Geogr. Society, voL xvi. p. 55, and Macdonald Ean- 
 near, p. 293.
 
 282 MOHAMMERAH — CHARAX. 
 
 connexion with busts of peculiar character, diadems, long 
 peaked curled beards, and the enormous coiffures, so 
 characteristic of remains from Warka. 
 
 Charax was named Kerkhi Misan, and Asterabdd by 
 the Sassanians, and Maherzi by the early Arabs. 
 
 The site is highly interesting in a geological as well as 
 an historical point of view. It is an instance of an 
 oceanic delta gaining, with almost unprecedented rapidity, 
 upon the sea. According to the statement of Pliny,"'" the 
 original site of Charax was two thousand paces from the 
 shore, but, in consequence of the rapid accumulation of 
 mud annually produced by the rivers, in the time of Juba 
 II., king of Mauritania (25 B.C.), it stood fifty miles in- 
 land. There is, of course, much exaggeration in 'Pliny's 
 information ; but, if we take the trouble of comparing the 
 historical accounts of the early Greek, Latin, and Moham- 
 medan authors, the increase of land at the delta of the 
 Tigris and Euphrates may be distinctly traced. Since 
 the commencement of our era there has been an incre- 
 ment at the extraordinary rate of a mile in about seventy 
 years, which far exceeds the growth of any existing delta. 
 This rapid increase is accounted for by the deposit of the 
 river mud in the confined basin of the gulf, where, instead 
 of being washed away by currents, as in an open ocean, 
 it is driven back by the returning tide, and formed 
 into a gently shelving bank, perceptible at a consider- 
 able distance from the embouchure of the rivers. The 
 comparatively recent formation of the country around 
 Mohammerah is evident from the remains of fluvia- 
 tile and marine shells, which occur abundantly upon a 
 soil highly impregnated with saline efflorescences. These 
 semi-fossils are identical with species now living in the 
 adjacent rivers and in the Persian Gulf. 
 
 About the middle of the last century, when the Per- 
 * Liber vi. 27.
 
 MOHAMMEPAH AND THE CHaB. 283 
 
 sian empire was thrown into confusion by the assassina- 
 tion of the great Nadir Shah, the Cha b Arabs, from the 
 marshes at the junction of the Tigris and Eujihrates, 
 attacked the Persian tribe of Afshar, and eventually ex- 
 pelled them from their possessions on the estuary of the 
 Shat-el-Ar4b and Karun. KerlmKhan, the successor of 
 Nadir Shah, after a fruitless attempt to regain the valuable 
 territory, was compelled to abandon it to its new occu- 
 piers. Sheikh Salman, the head of the Cha'b Arabs, 
 aware of the importance of the position thus acquired, 
 quickly raised a fleet, and long held his ground against 
 both Turks and Persians, making piratical attacks on 
 vessels in the Persian Gulf, among which he succeeded in 
 capturing some British vessels. Tribute, or rather pisli- 
 kash (present), is, however, now exacted from the Cha'b, 
 whenever the Shah or his provincial governors possess 
 suflicient force for the purpose, and the amount varies in 
 ratio to the power exercised. 
 
 The value of Mohammerah as a commercial position 
 was established by Sheikh Tliamir, the great-grandson of 
 Salman, who opened it as a free port, thereby inflicting 
 serious damage on the revenues of the Turkish customs at 
 Busrah: hence arose the dispute concerning the place 
 between the Tiu'ks and Persians. 'Ali Pasha finding; his 
 income considerably diminished, determined on attacking 
 the enterprising sheikh ; an expedition was consequently 
 fitted out, and the town, with all its valuable contents, 
 destroyed. The Persians being naturally under obliga- 
 tion to support the sheikh, and defend what they re- 
 garded as Persian soil, the dispute waxed warm between 
 the two powers, and the chief of the Cha'b, meanwhile, 
 assumed a very independent position, althougli nominally 
 imder the Turks. His place of residence was at Fellahiyya, 
 but the custody of Mohammerah was consigned to Sheikh 
 Ja'ber, who acted as his agent, and gradually acquired
 
 284 MOHAMMERAH AND THE CHa'b. 
 
 au enormous fortune. On the death of Sheikh Thamir, he 
 was succeeded by his son Faris, the present head of the 
 Cha b, and Sheikh Ja'ber has raised himself to be almost 
 independent of his natural chief. 
 
 By the treaty of Erzeriim, however, it was agreed that 
 Mohammerah should be finally made over to the Per- 
 sians ; but, on its being proposed, when the Commis- 
 sioners met upon the spot, to carry out the spirit of the 
 treaty, an unexpected difficulty presented itself. The 
 Turkish Commissioner, in most lawyer-like manner, 
 argued, like Portia in the Merchant of Venice, ' 
 
 " This bond doth give thee here no jot of blood ; 
 The words expressly are, a pound of flesh. 
 Then take thy bond — take thou the pound of flesh." • 
 
 According to the letter of the deed, he was content to 
 deliver up the town, but not an inch of the surrounding 
 territory. Here, however, the similitude ended. Con- 
 ference followed conference on this momentous question. 
 Dervish Pasha stood his ground, and would consent to 
 no other terms ; whereupon Mirza Jafer Khan instigated 
 Sheikh Ja'ber to raise the Persian flag upon the walls of 
 Mohammerah. Thus there was danger, at the very 
 outset of the Commissioners' assembling, that the whole 
 afiair would fall to the ground, and bring about a recom- 
 mencement of hostilities. Fortunately, European counsel 
 was listened to ; the obnoxious flag was removed, the 
 point at issue referred to the four governments for 
 decision, and it was ultimately resolved that a careful 
 survey should be taken of the whole frontier line, and 
 that all disputed questions should be left for future 
 discussion. 
 
 In its present state, Mohammerah consists of a wretched 
 assemblage of huts, containing about three hundred 
 famihes, and is tolerably furnished with bazaars. On the 
 settlement of the pending controversy, the place will.
 
 THE CHA'b ARABS. 28.3 
 
 from its naturally advantageous position, soon become 
 the great emporium of commerce between India, Turkey, 
 and the south-western provinces of Persia ; but, under 
 the present aspect of affairs, there is little immediate 
 prospect of its advancement. 
 
 Sheikh Ja'ber is a shrewd calculating Arab, far be- 
 yond his race in intelligence and civilization. Possessed 
 of several vessels, he carries on an extensive trade 
 with Muscat and Bombay, and can bring into the field a 
 considerable force of horsemen and musketeers. His 
 riches and influence are so great, that, in case of a mis- 
 understanding with his superior. Sheikh Ja'ber would 
 be a formidable rival for the chieftainship of the whole 
 tribe. 
 
 The Cha'b Arabs are a tall, warlike race, with swarthy 
 countenances, and an expression which denotes a strong- 
 infusion of Persian blood. In dress, they rather adopt 
 the Persian than the Arab costume. The national black 
 and white striped abba is thrown over the blue cotton 
 tunic and short drawers of the Persian, while an ample 
 black turban, tied in the pecidiar fashion of Shiister and 
 Dizfvil, shields the visage from the sun. Each man 
 carries an immense long musket slung over his shoulder, 
 a sword, and round target of tough bull's hide, studded 
 with large copper nails or bosses. They are a brave, but 
 cruel race, far inferior to the Bedouin in every manly 
 and nol)le quality. 
 
 The district occupied by the Cha'b Arabs constitutes 
 the largest part of the Persian pro\dnce of Khiizistan, 
 " the land of sugar " — the name being derived from the 
 cultivation of that plant, which was extensively carried 
 on here in former times. It is, however, usually deno- 
 minated Arabistan, from its inhabitants. 
 
 The Cha'b""' extend from the Persian Gulf, on the 
 
 • For a detailed accdunt of this large tribe, consult Mr Layard's
 
 286 SULEYMAN KHAN. 
 
 south, to an imaginary northern line, drawn from the 
 Shat-el-Arab above Busrah, to the Kariin, midway 
 between Ahwaz and Ismaili, forming a junction with the 
 tribes of the Beni Mm and Wall of Hawiza, — thence the 
 line follows the left bank of the Kariin, to a point above 
 the village of Wais. From this, the eastern boundary 
 extends along the Zeytiln Hills to the river Hindiyyan, and 
 down its course to the sea. On the west, they possess a 
 small strip of land upon the farther bank of the Shat-el- 
 Ardb, from its mouth to near the town of Busrah. 
 
 During the early part of our mission, Khjizistan was 
 governed by a Georgian Christian, named Sitleyman 
 Khan, whose justice and moderation rendered him a 
 general favourite with all classes of his subjects. Not- 
 withstanding their fanatical dispositions, and his despised 
 religion, they were eloquent in his praise ; and it spoke 
 well for the feelings of all classes — from the Shah to the 
 Arab cultivator — that a Christian governor should be 
 tolerated in the most fanatical of all Mohammedan 
 countries. In my own intercourse, however, with the 
 Persians, I did not always meet ^vith the same toleration ; 
 and I can only account for their endurance of Suleyman 
 Khan in consequence of his sterling qualities, and, above 
 all, of the Shah's supreme will. 
 
 admirable memoir " On the Province of Khiizistdn," in the Journal of the 
 Royal Geographical Society, vol. xvi., p. 36, et seq. ; and likewise Baron de 
 Bode's "Travels in L6rist4n and Ardbistdn," vol. ii., p. 110.
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Setting out for Susa — The Sulky Ferryman — Coffee-cups and Infidels — 
 Ahwaz — ^A False Alarm — Shtister — Dilapidation and Dirt — Shaptir 
 and the Captive Emperor Valerian — Their Grand Hydraulic Works 
 — Festivities at Shuster — Tea — ^The Forbidden Beverage — Climate 
 of Shuster — Failure in Diplomacy. 
 
 As soon as my collection of antiquities obtained at 
 Warka was despatched to England, Colonel Williams 
 desired me to visit Susa, and endeavour to make excava- 
 tions at the mounds which are well known to exist at 
 that locality. I was particularly instructed to be careful 
 in my dealings with the natives, and to desist from any 
 attempt at carrying out the project, if it were productive 
 of opposition from any quarter. As the ruins had never 
 been surveyed, it was desirable that a plan should be at 
 once made, which might be turned to account in the 
 event of researches being made on the spot. Mr Churchill, 
 my companion on the previous journey through Meso- 
 potamia, gladly, availed himself of the permission 
 accorded to him of joining me in the expedition, and I 
 was only too delighted to take advantage of his knowledge 
 of the language, and his agreeable society. 
 
 Letters were furnished me by the British and the 
 Persian Commissioners to Suleyman Khan and the 
 authorities at Shuster and Dizful — the two great Persian 
 cities in the plains of Arabistan. Mirza Jafer Khan 
 likewise sent one of liis own gholams to guide, and
 
 288 UNCIVIL KECEPTION AT ISMAlLf. 
 
 to ensure us a certain degree of respect from his country- 
 men. Thus provided we once more bid adieu to our 
 friends, and set out on our travels, dehghted beyond 
 measure to escape from the feverish heat and debihtating 
 atmosphere of Mohammerah. 
 
 In order to avoid the intensity of the sun, it was 
 necessary to start early, so as to rest for a few hours at 
 noon, and again resume the journey when the heat had 
 somewhat abated. Our general course was north-easterly, 
 along the banks of the Karun, but, during our first day's 
 ride, we only touched upon it at a single point, and again 
 took the direct route, sleeping at night upon the arid 
 floor of the desert. On the following morning we once 
 more reached the river at a ruined tomb called* Imam 
 Seba', enshrouded in a deep grove of date-trees ; the 
 banks of the Karun beino; also frino;ed with a thick forest 
 of fine tamarisks, which gradually sloped to the river brink. 
 
 At mid-day we arrived opposite to the Arab village of 
 Ismaili, where a ferry-boat is established for passengers. 
 Whetlier the Arabs were taking their siesta, or whether 
 they were indisposed to move instantaneously at the beck 
 of every traveller who might present himself at the 
 water's edge, it is difiicult to say, but, notwithstanding aU 
 our shouting, threats, entreaties, and firing of pistols, the 
 Cliaron of Ismaili refused to appear. Having no other 
 alternative but to w^it the pleasure of that worthy, an 
 awning was hastily raised, under which we fell asleep to 
 Mdiile away the time. Patience always has its reward ; 
 so in this case, after waiting four hours, a man paddled 
 over the stream in a small boat to ascertain what we 
 wanted, although he might have heard every word spoken 
 by us on the opposite side. A messenger Avas then sent 
 across to the sheikh to say that we carried letters from 
 the Elchi (ambassador) at Mohammerah to the governor 
 of the province, and that the ferry-boat nmst be sent over
 
 BIGOTRY. 289 
 
 without farther delay. After levelling some abuse at 
 Christians, Charon at length appeared with a large hulk, 
 into which the baggage was tumbled, ourselves taking up 
 a position on the top of the pile. The horses and mules 
 swam the river, and the whole party was soon landed in 
 safety on the left bank below the village. 
 
 The sheikh probably thought he had carried his dis- 
 respect too far, and now came out on a beautiful mare to 
 receive his guests; but we took no notice of him. Not 
 until we had made all the necessary arrangements about 
 the j)itching of our tents and disposal of the baggage, did 
 we deign to tell him, in the hearing of his people, that 
 the elchi should be informed of our un courteous reception. 
 His excuse was that he was not aware we were waiting 
 for the boat, and that the ferryman could not be found. 
 After several refusals, we at length condescended to^ 
 accompany him to his hut. We were then conducted to* 
 a dirty yard, where, under the scanty shade of a few 
 boughs, sat a party of filthy Cha'b, unwilling to shew the- 
 shghtest respect to the Christian strangers until the sheikh 
 requested them to rise. Then, and then only, they made 
 a feint of getting up from their greasy mats. Coffee was- 
 made and handed in a cracked cup, with a large piece out 
 of the edge, from which we both drank. It had beeni 
 purposely chosen, for no sooner was it carried to the door- 
 than it was broken to pieces, being pronounced " nedjis,"" 
 " unclean" from having touched our infidel lips ! It was; 
 impossible to resist the temptation of saying that washing; 
 would have had equal effect, and that then the expense 
 of a new cup would have been spared to the sheikh's 
 pocket ! Such was our reception by oui' first Persia-a 
 hosts. 
 
 Our third day's journey extended to Ahwaz ; during 
 it we caught the first glimpse of the distant mountains, 
 Math their continuous undulating Hne, void of speak or
 
 290 VEGETATION OP THE GRAVEL PLAINS. 
 
 of any prominent features ; but the breeze which blew 
 from them was cool and invigorating. As we now 
 quitted the saliferous alluvium of the lower plains, and 
 entered upon the gravel and sandstone beds of the ter- 
 tiary rocks, a considerable change was perceptible in the 
 character of the vegetation ; the tamarisk was becoming 
 less plentiful, and its place was occupied by large bushes 
 of the sidr, or kon^r, with its pretty red berries. The 
 soil, too, was covered with widely scattered blades of 
 scorched yellow grass ; and on the bank of the Karun, about 
 two miles from Ahw^z, were four large tree^, resembling 
 the oak in form, and fifty feet high. They bore small 
 oval, tough, leaves, and were in full bloom, with large 
 yeUow flowers resembling a foxglove, but much larger, 
 and referable to Tetrandria Monogynia. I gathered 
 several specimens for my herbarium, but, before I could 
 overtake the caravan, the heat destroyed them. The 
 same species of tree never again occurred to me, nor was 
 I ever able to ascertain its native name. 
 
 Sheikh Ibbara, of Ahwaz, shewed himself to be more 
 civilized and hospitable than the cup-breakers at Ismaill 
 
 Ahwaz is situated on the left bank of the Kdrun at the 
 base of a range of reddish sandstone and gravel-con- 
 glomerate hiUs, which bear in a south-east direction 
 towards Zeytun. This range is the principal outlier of 
 the great mountains, and may likewise be traced in the 
 opposite direction across the Karun towards Hawiza, and 
 from thence to the east of Mendeli. It finally rises into 
 a considerable range called the Hamrin, and crosses the 
 Tigris below the junction of the Little Zab with the 
 larger river. 
 
 Ahwaz is celebrated for the massive bund, or dam, which, 
 below the town, obstructs the free navigation of the 
 river. This bund is a natural barrier formed by the 
 continuation of the sandstone beds of the range above
 
 AHWAZ — AGINI8. 291 
 
 mentioned, furtlier strengthened and enlarged by an 
 artificial wall, portions of which are still remaining 
 entire, while the remainder has been washed away by 
 the force of the stream. One of the three openings was 
 navigated by Captain Selby in the H.E.I.C steam-vessel 
 Assyria, but the others are shallow. The artificial masonry 
 was doubtless erected for the purpose of diverting a 
 portion of the stream into canals on either side above 
 the bund, which acted as the bank of a reservoir, and 
 raised the water to the required level. Above the town 
 is the dry bed of a wide, ancient canal, called Nahr-el- 
 Bahara, which flowed past Fell^hiyya and joined the 
 river Jerr^hi at Bender. Its bed is now a corn-field. 
 When the artificial dam existed, and there was a super- 
 abundance of water in the reservoir, it was got rid of by 
 means of tunnels cut through the rocks on the left bank, 
 which again conveyed it to the main stream below the 
 bund. Here, on the right bank, is another dry channel, 
 supposed by some travellers to be the mouth of the 
 river Euleeus, by which Alexander the Great sailed from 
 Susa to the sea. 
 
 The ancient city of Aginis is said to have occupied 
 the site of Ahw^^z. Extensive ruins occur along the 
 base of the sandstone range, and are reported to extend 
 a distance of two days' journey. In the ascent from the 
 modern town are to be seen a number of fallen columns, 
 quarried from the stone of the neighbourhood, and a 
 quantity of debris from various decayed edifices. The 
 solid rock, at some period or another, has been cut in 
 many places, and the remains of excavated chambers are 
 abundant. Wherever an abrupt surface of rock is ex- 
 posed, it has been rudely scarped and ornamented. In 
 aU directions are rock tombs, accessible by means ot 
 steps, and due to a period anterior to the Arab conquest 
 of Persia; but at the base of the rocks are sepulchres
 
 292 THE kArOn. 
 
 of later date — ^large stone slabs lie horizontally on the 
 ground, ornamented with a Saracenic arch, and having 
 at the lower extremity a small channel to allow the 
 rain to escape from the surface. Around the arch are 
 much- weathered Kufic inscriptions. From the highest 
 point of the range, the view of these burial places has a 
 remarkably curious effect, and is well worthy of the tra- 
 veller's attention. 
 
 From Ahwaz our next stage was to Bender-ghil, pass- 
 ing by the way the small Arab village of Wais, where 
 the whole population was busily engaged with the har- 
 vest ; men and boys, cows and donkeys were ass*duously 
 treading out the corn, of which there was an abundant 
 supply. Above Wais the Karun flows through a light 
 alluvial soil, admirably suited for the cultivation of 
 grain, although it is to be doubted if the farmers of 
 Wais were aware of the fact. 
 
 The river Karun is divided at Shiister into two 
 branches, which again meet at Bender-ghil after a course 
 of about thirty miles. The eastern branch is called the 
 A'b-i-Gargar, and flows in a milk-white stream through 
 an artificial channel. The western branch is the origi- 
 nal bed of the river, and takes the appellation of Shuteyt ; 
 the colour of its stream is reddish, and its velocity 
 greater than the A'b-1-Gargar. At Bender-ghil, likewise, 
 is the mouth of the Dizful river, which pours its red, 
 turbid waters into the Shuteyt, leaving a deposit of red 
 mud below the village, upon the island formed by the 
 two streams of the Karun. For a considerable distance 
 below the junction of the rivers, the milky water of the 
 A'b-i-Gargar refuses to mingle cordially with its fellows ; 
 but, before arriving at Wais, the Karun has partaken of 
 the turbid character of the Diz, which it retains through- 
 out the remainder of its course to the sea. 
 
 Bender-gliil is a wretched place, containing forty
 
 THE ANAPIYYA — FALSE ALARM. 293 
 
 houses, entirely supported by the traffic produced by its 
 ferry — little enough in all conscience. From hence our 
 route lay over a pretty undulating country. A ripe 
 grass of rich golden hue clothed the surface, which was 
 plentifully studded with green konar trees, affording not 
 only a deep contrast for the eye, but a welcome shade 
 for the whole person of the traveller. Espying a large 
 mound on our right hand, we made a detour to ^dsit it, 
 under the impression that it was portion of the ruins 
 said to stand on the bank of the A'b-l-Gargar. We 
 were, however, mistaken in our surmise, and had the 
 trouble of wading through roughly-ploughed ground, 
 which yielded an abundant crop of prickly thistles, 
 making ourselves and horses wince with pain. While 
 carefully picking our way through the army of lances 
 opposing our progress, a black flag was suddenly hoisted 
 on our right, and, shortly afterwards, a strong party of 
 horsemen with large tufted spears advanced to meet us 
 from one direction, while, from another, a little army of 
 half-naked Anafiyya Arabs, who occupy the island, cut 
 off" our retreat ; the latter were armed with swords and 
 guns slung over their tawny shoulders, and came on 
 rapidly, preceded by a man carr5dng a piece of black 
 tenting on a pole. Yells and war-dances were rendered 
 exquisite by the additional excitement imparted by the 
 thistles. It afterwards appeared that they v/ere in daily 
 expectation of an attack from their mountain neighbours, 
 the Bakhtiyari, and, seeing us upon the mound far away 
 from the beaten track, they made certain their enemies 
 were upon them. How surprised they must have been 
 to meet two peaceful Englishmen with umbrellas instead 
 of muskets in their hands! The horsemen were, of 
 course, first to reach us ; they were all well armed with 
 spear and leathern shield, and presented an imposing 
 and picturesque front as they rode up, on valuable
 
 294 THE ANAFfYYA. 
 
 mares, headed by their sheikh Husseyn and his big- 
 tufted spear. Notwithstanding the unnecessary alarm 
 we had occasioned them, he gave us a kindly welcome, 
 and rode back with us to his camp. One of the Arab 
 party was questioned as to the force his tribe could 
 muster, when he readily answered, " nine hundred foot- 
 men and three hundred horse." Then riding up to the 
 sheikh's side, he asked if he had replied satisfactorily. 
 "Yes, pretty well!" said Husseyn; "you might have 
 said more, but never mind, it will do tolerably well." 
 The fact was, that a third of the number .would have 
 been ample ! We encamped during the heat of the day 
 within a few yards of his tent, and received Irom the 
 sheikh the present of a lamb, in proof of his friendship 
 and goodwill. 
 
 A further ride of three short hours brought the party 
 to Imam Kaf-'Ali, a whitened sepulchre on a little ele- 
 vation, which overlooks the town of Shiister with its 
 mosque and numerous tombs of holy men — all painted 
 white, and contrasting in the most marked degree with 
 the piles oi rubbish and filth around them. The most 
 distant object is the old castle overlooking the Shuteyt, 
 and the nearest is a series of gardens, partially con- 
 cealing low mounds and ruins, the remains of a more 
 ancient city. The first sight of Shiister is by no means 
 an interesting or beautiful scene, for, even in the dis- 
 tance, ruin and decay are the principal features, afford- 
 ing too correct a picture of its wretched condition. 
 
 The precincts of the place are entered from the south 
 by the PuK Lascar, whose low arches span a dry canal ; 
 near it we were introduced to the tomb of Imam-zada 
 Abdulla, one of the most extraordinary specimens of 
 ugly, mis-shapen architecture which any Mohammedan 
 city can produce. Its squat building was surmounted 
 by an enormously elongated cone, resembling a huge ex-
 
 SHUSTER. 295 
 
 tinguislier. On either side was a tall minaret, with 
 gallery to the summit, giving it the appearance of a 
 large candlestick with the candle just burned to the 
 socket. To render them more conspicuous, the promi- 
 nent features were glaring white. 
 
 The town appeared as though an earthquake had 
 recently occurred, the bazaars, once so famous, were de- 
 serted, and the houses were apparently in the act of fall- 
 ing on the inhabitants, many being merely heaps of 
 bricks. Euin ! ruin ! ruin ! was the prevailing character 
 of" the Persian seat of government in Arabistan, which 
 presented a worse picture of depopulation than either 
 Baghdad or Busrah. But there had been no earthquake, 
 no recent attack from the foe; what we saw was the 
 result of continued misgovernment, over-taxation, and 
 internal feuds. Shuster is the abode of many noble 
 families, constantly drawing the sword upon each other. 
 Every quarter has its own chief, who is surrounded by 
 his followers, ready at any moment to attack their neigh- 
 bours. The influence of the Persian government is 
 only maintained by keeping up a feeling of hostility 
 among the various clans — for so the different parties 
 may be called. Frequently, however, the antagonism, 
 which it seeks to promote, is turned against its own 
 lieutenant, and the governor of Arabistan is at times 
 obliged to defend himself vi et armis, or by an ignomini- 
 ous flight. No great outbreak had occurred for the 
 previous three years, so that we saw the city on its best 
 behaviour, with a disposition to be tranquil, until some 
 unexpected and unforeseen circumstance should arise to 
 fan the latent fire. Persian cities generally are not 
 remarkable for cleanliness ; but of all that the traveller 
 ever visits, Shuster — and, I may add, Dizful — are the lie 
 plus ultra in this respect. Dogs are, of course, the 
 scavengers in all Oriental towns ; but they decline to
 
 296 THE NATIVES OF SHtJSTER AND DTZFtJL. 
 
 cleanse the streets of the twin capitals of Arabistan ! 
 Spouts, projecting half-way across the narrow lanes, dis- 
 charge the night soil from the house tops. There the 
 foul mass lies unnoticed, contaminating the air, and dif- 
 fusing fevers, cholera, and disease, being only removed 
 by the heavy rains of spring, or thrown to one side and 
 covered with fresh earth on the arrival of some great 
 visitor whom it delights the governor thus to honour ! 
 It is impossible to walk through the streets ; and, in 
 riding, good navigation is required to escape the down- 
 pourings from the spouts ! 
 
 Indigo is much cultivated at Shuster and DizfuF; hence 
 it is that the prevailing colour worn by the natives is blue. 
 Blue cotton tunics girded round the waist with a shawl ; 
 shalwas, or trousers, of the same colour and material ; 
 and tawny complexions, well stained with the dye, meet 
 one at every corner. The usual cullah, or tall lamb-skin 
 cap of the Persian, is seldom worn here ; but the ordinary 
 head-dress of the people consists oi a long piece of black 
 stuff wound round the brow, one end being puckered up 
 in front, like the feather of a Highlander's bonnet, while 
 the other hangs down the back, in imitation of the 
 streamers which were used by the Parthians and Sass- 
 anians. Excepting a thick felt skull-cap, and short 
 drawers which cover the hips and thighs, boys run about 
 entirely naked. The countenances of the inhabitants are 
 not prepossessing; — low cunning, deceit, and mistrust 
 being universal among the lower classes. These towns 
 are the gathering-places of priests and Seyids, or de- 
 scendants of the Prophet, the fanatical expression of whose 
 features — overshadowed by white and green turbans 
 in ample folds — proclaims intense bigotry and hatred 
 of all races, sects, and religions but their own. The 
 aristocracy, however, boasts of some well-informed and 
 liberal men, whom it would be unfair to include among
 
 VALERIAN AND SHAPtJR. 297 
 
 the vulgar herd. The hospitahty and attention displayed 
 by them during our three days' stay left a favourable 
 impression on our minds, which was not effaced during 
 subsequent visits. 
 
 Of the primitive history of Shuster we know nothing, 
 researches not havino; been made in the surroundino; 
 ruins. By some authors it is regarded as the site of 
 " Shushan the Palace," where the stirring scenes con- 
 nected with the life of Esther are stated to have taken place. 
 These, however, as will be hereafter seen, certainly occurred 
 at Shilsh. The town of Shuster appears to have risen 
 into importance at a period coincident with the decline 
 of the great capital of the Persian kings ; and the mo- 
 dern name " Shuster," or " Little Shush," indicates its 
 phoenix-like birth irom the ruins of the greater city, 
 Shushan. However this may be, it was undoubtedly at 
 the height of its power in the time of Shapur, the 
 second monarch of the Sassanian line, a.d. 242-273. 
 History tells us, that when Shapur advanced from Persia 
 to wrest the Western Provinces of Asia from the hands 
 of the Eomans, the Emperor Valerian, in attempting to 
 relieve Edessa, was taken prisoner. Shapur, with the 
 cruelty of the Eastern character, during seven years 
 insulted and degraded his fallen foe, using him as a foot- 
 stool to mount on horseback. At length, after a con- 
 tinuance of unheard-of cruelties, the captive's eyes were 
 plucked out, and his skin — flayed from his body — was 
 dressed, died red, and stuffed, in which condition it was 
 carried about with the conqueror, and exhibited as a 
 trophy of his greatness ! To Valerian's captivity and 
 genius Shuster is in an eminent degree indebted. The 
 existing remains of magnificent specimens of engineering 
 skill, far surpassing anything of the kind in Persia at the 
 present day, are attributed to him. It forms no part of 
 my intention to describe these remarkable hydraulic
 
 298 THE bund-i-mizAn. 
 
 works in detail, because this lias been carefully done 
 elsewbere ;'"' but it may not be uninteresting to give a 
 short description of them for the information of the 
 general reader. 
 
 The Karun, just before reaching the town of Shiister, 
 after striking against a high cliff of sandstone and gravel 
 conglomerate, makes an abrupt turn to the west, passing 
 close under the foot of the castle rock. Beyond this is 
 the Bund-1-Mizan — a massive dam of hewn stone blocks, 
 fastened with iron cramps, and thrown completely across 
 the wide, deep, and rapid stream of the Kartin. The 
 admirable nature of this dam is evident from its 4iaving 
 borne the rush of the torrent duiing so many centuries. 
 This bund not only acts as the wall of a reservoir, but 
 serves as a foundation for a bridge of enormous length. 
 Probably no portion of Valerian's original structure now 
 exists at this bund, with the exception of some massive 
 pier-bases. The bridge itself has repeatedly given way 
 in various places, and now presents a complete patch- 
 work of Persian ingenuity in architecture. Three of the 
 centre arches had fallen the winter before our visit, and 
 lay obstructing the passage of the water over the bund — 
 to all appearance likely to lie there until the force of the 
 current should wash them away! Of the arches remain- 
 ing, thirty-six were large and twenty small — built in 
 every style, from the high to the low pointed arch. On 
 the north side, below the bridge, are the remains of 
 several water-mills, to which the water is diverted by 
 excavations in the solid rock. The gravel cliffs here are 
 hollowed out in every direction for serdabs, or cellars, 
 many of which are of sufficient size to accommodate a 
 large caravan. Pillars of the rock are left to support the 
 
 • I must refer to Sir Henry Rawlinson's and Mr Layard's valuable papei's, 
 in the Royal Geographical Society, for a full and historical account of these 
 extraordinary works. Vol. ix., p. 73 ; vol. xvi., p. 27.
 
 THE BUND-f-KAYSAE. 299 
 
 roof ; but huge blocks, lying in the bed of the river, 
 attest that they have fallen from their places by being 
 too much undermined. 
 
 The object of the Bund-i-Mizan was twofold: — ^to form 
 a foundation for the bridge, and to accumulate a sheet of 
 water before the castle for the delectation of its possessor, 
 who, like all Persians, was, doubtless, partial to the sight 
 — if not to the touch — of water. 
 
 But Valerian's or Shapur's great work was the cutting 
 of the great channel, through which the A^b-i-Gargar, or 
 eastern branch of the Kartin, flows, which was effected 
 at the point where the main stream of the Karun is, as I 
 have said, deflected from its previous course above the 
 town. Here a cutting was made to the depth of seventy 
 feet through the natural rock, and carried to a distance, 
 which I am unable to state, from the bed of the original 
 channel. Into this cutting the stream was admitted ; 
 but, as it must otherwise have abstracted the greater part 
 of the river, a sohd and well-built wall, supported by 
 strong buttresses of hewn stone, was built across the 
 mouth of the canal. To withstand the force of the 
 stream, when flooded, the dam was supphed with external 
 round buttresses, admirably adapted to the purpose. 
 The water, admitted through several sluices in the stone- 
 work, may be regulated at pleasure. The name applied 
 to this massive dam is a self-evident proof of its being 
 originally designed and constructed by the captive 
 emperor : it is called Bund-i-Kaysar, or Caesar's'"" dam. 
 It is likewise frequently named Bund-i-Shah-zada,t from 
 having been repaired or streng-thened by a late prince- 
 governor of Kirmanshah. 
 
 ♦ Ccesar, as every person knows, was the title assumed by all the Roman 
 amperors after Julius Caesar, in the same manner as Pharaoh was applied 
 to the Egyptian monarch. 
 
 t Shah-zada means Prince ; literally " Son of a king."
 
 300 THE BUND-f-KAYSAR. 
 
 At the distance of about half-a-mile below tbis ancient 
 work is another bund, of probably more recent construc- 
 tion, even more solid and substantial than the one just 
 described. It communicates with the suburb of Boleitl, 
 and is hence called Puli Boleitl, being seventy paces long, 
 twelve paces wide, and nearly as high as the cliffs on 
 either side. The water, conveyed through the rock at the 
 sides, falls about twenty feet into the artificial channel 
 below, working, in its course, numerous wheels, which 
 daily grind immense quantities of barley. There does 
 not, probably, exist throughout the East a single city 
 at which so much labour has been expended in distri- 
 buting a proper supply of water to its dependencies as 
 at Shdster. The interior of the town is provided for by 
 two canals, pierced through the castle rock. 
 
 Between the Bund-i-Kaysar and the Bund-i-Mizan, the 
 bed of the Karun is said to be paved with stone, and 
 called the Shadarawan. 
 
 With the exception of the bunds and foundations of 
 the great bridge, there do not appear to be at Shuster 
 any buildings existing of earlier date than the Moham- 
 medan era, although M. Court''' mentions a relic of 
 Sassanian origin at the castle gateway, but which no 
 other modern traveller has yet seen. 
 
 Suleyman Khan, the governor of the province, to 
 whom our letters were addressed, was absent at Earn 
 Hormuzd collecting tribute, and preparing to send an 
 expedition against the great Bakhtiyari chief, J^fer Kuli 
 Khan, who had taken refuge in his inaccessible mountain 
 fortress — the Diz — and defied all the forces of Persia. 
 AVe were, however, received by his secretary Hadji 
 Mohammed 'All, and Mirza Sultan 'Ali Khan, the gover- 
 nor of the towm for the time being, who, as weU as the 
 other great men of the place, treated us to a series of 
 
 • Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay, No. xxxv., p. 560.
 
 THE GOVERNOR S RECEPTION. 301 
 
 festivities, which, if not quite in accordance witli 
 European taste, at least shewed a disposition to honour 
 their visitors after their own fashion. The followino; was 
 the style of entertainment dispensed to us by the gover- 
 nor, whose residence was one of the most pleasantly 
 situated, and one of the largest in the town. It stood on 
 the edge of the cliff overlooking the A'bi-Gargar — a huge 
 block of lofty walling, with here and there a small grated 
 window, more useful for the discharge of bullets during 
 an emeute than for the admission of light or air. It had 
 two entrances, the principal of which was a deep oval 
 recess, decorated at the top with Arabesque ornaments 
 usual in such positions, and supplied with stone seats, 
 where the owner of the mansion " sat in the gate," after 
 the mode of Orientals in all ages, hearing the news and 
 discussing the various questions of the day amid a 
 respectful circle of visitors and attendants. Rising at 
 our approach, he conducted us through a spacious court, 
 containing in the centre a large tank full of water, up a 
 narrow staircase in one corner, to an upper story, where 
 was a second but smaller court, surrounded on three sides 
 by plain walls — the fourth, next the river, containing an 
 iwan, or arched chamber, open at one extremity — a never- 
 failing adjunct to Persian houses. 
 
 In the centre of the court was a small garden with a 
 few stunted specimens of vegetation, and in front of the 
 iwan was a small reservoir — also an indispensable neces- 
 sary to Persian keyf — in which two very curious jets were 
 made to play in an extremely comical manner by the pres- 
 sure of water, raised from the river to the top of the house. 
 This was effected by means of a creaking piece of machinery 
 and leathern buckets, driven by an obstinate mule, which, 
 to the no small amusement of my companion and myself, 
 every now and then turning restive, caused the cessation 
 of the fountains through lack of the needful supply.
 
 302 THE governor's banquet. 
 
 We were soon duly seated upon one of those mag- 
 nificent carpets which excite the admiration of all 
 travellers in that country. Mirza Sultan 'Ali Khan was 
 very gi-acious as we explained to him the object of oui- 
 proposed visit to Shush, and the nature of the information 
 likely to be derived from excavating in its mounds. He 
 quite comprehended us, and became warm on the con- 
 quests of Key Kawtis, and the magnificence of Khussrev ; 
 but when, as a matter of course, he struck into the 
 everlasting theme of Persian recitation — the Shah-ndma 
 of Ferdusi — there seemed a probability that his excite- 
 ment would outdo his hospitality. The name of* Shush 
 acted like magic on a knot of green-turbaned gentry who 
 sat with us, and the whispering that succeeded proved 
 them to be jealous and doubtful of our real intentions ; 
 but of this we took no heed. Kaliydnes, or water pipes, 
 were first duly served by ganymedes with sombre head- 
 dress, and hand upon heart ; then ensued a general 
 hubble-bubbling, as if it were part of every man's avoca- 
 tion in life to inhale the smoke of tobacco and charcoal 
 into his lungs with the greatest possible noise. After 
 this came tea — not the stuff sold in English grocers' 
 shops, which produces astringency enough to convert the 
 surface of the tongue into a rasp — but pure and undefiled 
 chai, brought overland through Russia, and whose flavour 
 gives one some idea of the delicious infusion which, alas ! 
 we in England know not of. Russian overland tea, in 
 Persia, takes the place which Arab coffee assumes in Turkey, 
 and no old lady in the land of the west can sip her dish 
 of fragrant tea with more relish than does the Persian 
 gentleman. There, the greater the pile of sugar put into 
 the cup, the greater is the honour paid to the guest. 
 Succeeding to a sm-feit of tea-syrup came a second edition 
 of kaliyun, after which we underwent the categorical 
 examination of the green turbans for so long a time that
 
 THE governor's BANQUET. 303 
 
 I confess to having entirely lost tlie use of my nether 
 extremities from cramp. We had gone to breakfast with 
 the governor at an hour he had himself named, but, time 
 shpping rapidly away, it became questionable whether 
 our host had not forgotten the invitation, or whether we 
 had misunderstood him. Three huge trays at length 
 entered the court on men's heads, which prepared us for 
 a sumptuous repast ; my readers may judge our disap- 
 pointment and horror when, at mid-day, without pre- 
 viously eating anything, we found that the trays placed 
 before us contained literally nothing but green cucumbers 
 and sour apricots — the sjonbols of cholera, as we had 
 been accustomed to regard them ! However, there was 
 no retreat, so, putting a good face on the matter, we duly 
 washed our hands and set to with the best possible grace. 
 We both fortunately survived that day ! After the 
 banquet came a washing of hands in the water tank with 
 the comical jets, another course of kaliyuns, and finally 
 a cup of coffee, which completed this great entertainment 
 and permitted our departure with decorum. The gover- 
 nor accompanied us to the door of his house, and we rode 
 to our tents by the river side to get "something to eat!" 
 This was a specimen of the ordinary fetes, but we 
 sometimes had enough, and much more than enough, of 
 chilaw, and pilaw, and lamb stuffed with rice, almonds, 
 and raisins ; vegetables swimming in oil, and an infinity 
 of compounds, which it is impossible to enumerate, and 
 which only a hungry traveller can truly appreciate. 
 Tea and sherbet were our only drink during these visits, 
 but, for all that, it must not be supposed that Persians 
 do not tipple. I well remember a subsequent stay at 
 Shtister, when, in addition to one of sherry, a bottle of 
 brandy was placed on the table of the Commission, after a 
 long day's journey in a pouring rain. The governor's 
 brother entered, in his usual sedate manner, and took a
 
 304 A PERSIAN TIPPLER. 
 
 seat. He desired to know the contents of the bottles ; 
 a glass of sherry was poured out, which he drank, and 
 pronounced " khtib !" " good !" A second was " khile khub ! 
 bislar khiib 1" " extremely good 1" — but he asked to taste 
 of the other bottle. That was "beh! beh! beh!" Tlien 
 he tried a glass of sherry, then a glass of brandy. 
 Finally, he seized both bottles, and mixed the liquors in the 
 same glass ; nor did he desist until the whole contents 
 had disappeared. Not content with this, he asked for more, 
 but this was, of course, refused him. He was ultimately 
 supported from the room by an old domestic, who 
 exhibited great concern that ghyawrs should see hi^ master 
 in his cups. We afterwards learned that, previously to 
 joining our party, he had imbibed eleven glasses of raw 
 'arak ! An oriental has no idea of temperance in his 
 potations ; he thinks that there is little pleasure in a 
 single glass : accordingly, when he drinks, he does so to 
 excess. 
 
 During the summer, the intensity of the heat compels 
 the people of Shtister to retire into their serdabs, or 
 under-ground apartments, during the day, and to emerge 
 at sunset to sleep upon their terraces. These serdabs 
 are cut out of the solid rock, and supplied with flues or 
 shafts, which, rising above the houses like ornamental 
 chimneys, produce a free current of air. Without ser- 
 dabs, it would be almost impossible to exist in the hot, 
 drying wind, which more resembles the blast from a 
 furnace, than the air of the habitable earth. 
 
 In the absence of Suleyman Khan, we were more 
 especially the guests of Hadji Mahommed 'Ali, who would 
 not permit anything to be cooked by our own people, 
 insisting that whatever we required should be sent from 
 his kitchen. In fact, during our stay, all parties vied 
 with each other in their attentions towards us. 
 
 With letters to the Governor of Dizfiil, to aid and
 
 DIPLOMATIC FAILURE. 305 
 
 assist oiir plans at Shush, we took leave of our new 
 friends. Two small keleks supplied the place of the 
 broken bridge, by means of which our baggage was 
 conveyed to the western bank of the Shuteyt, where it was 
 necessary to pass the night, so as to make a good start 
 at daybreak. On quitting Shuster a liberal present was 
 left for the servants of Hadji Mahommed 'Ali, in return 
 for his hospitality. It was, however, sent back, with a 
 message " that the Hadji would not permit it ; were we 
 not the Hadji's guests, and should his servants receive 
 presents on that account, although it was a Persian 
 custom ? It was a bad example ; — they would expect 
 the same from the next Englishman who chanced to pass 
 that way." Soon afterwards, the major-domo of the 
 Hadji presented himself with a low bow, and a pretended 
 message from his master to the intent that, " if it were 
 the custom of our country to give bakhshish on depar- 
 ture, he would for once permit us to do so !" Another 
 low bow from the messenger, who bore all the aj)pearance 
 of a convicted thief! He tried a clever trick, but, 
 finding the Firenghis too deep for him, was obliged to 
 slink off without the much-coveted kerans, evidently dis- 
 gusted at the unsuccessful termination of his diplomacy. 
 
 u
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 Departure from SMster — Change of Scenery and Animal Life — Huge 
 Lizards — Botany — Geology of tlie Persian Steppes — Shah-abad — 
 Dizful — Subterranean Conduits — Costume of the Peopl* — The 'All 
 Kethir Guide — The Bridge of the Diz — Encampment at Shush — A 
 Conflagration. 
 
 On first leaving the bank of tlie Kariin, tlie road to Dizful 
 traverses some small ridges of gravel conglomerate, the 
 alteration in the geological features of the country being 
 accompanied by a corresponding change in animal and 
 vegetable life. Clinging to the rocks, basking in the hot 
 sun, or fleetly pursuing smaller reptiles, were numerous 
 huge lizards {Psammosaurus scincus) lashing their long 
 tails, and opening their capacious black jaws. Our 
 gholam exhibited his skill as a rider and sportsman, in 
 shooting one of these creatures for examination. They 
 live chiefly on snakes, which they pounce on suddenly, 
 shake as a terrier does a rat, and cranch from tail to 
 head : then they suck the mangled body down their 
 throats, somewhat after the manner of a Neapolitan 
 swallowing his national maccaroni ! I once saw a lizard 
 of this species attack, kill, and attempt to swallow a 
 serpent six feet long. After gulping for a length of time 
 to get down the tip end of its victim's tail, which huni; 
 out of its mouth, it disgorged its meal, repeated the pro- 
 cess of mastication, and, ultimately, after some hard 
 gasping, succeeded in overcoming its difficulty.
 
 BOTANY. 307 
 
 Then, for the first time, we encountered the delicately- 
 plumed rock partridge (Perdix petrosa, Lath.), fraterniz- 
 ing with its velvet-breasted relative of the lower plains, the 
 common francolin — the favourite of the sportsman. In 
 botany, the tamarisk and the camel's thorn were replaced 
 along the margin of the streams by the poisonous ole- 
 ander, with its elegant pink flowers. I here also first 
 observed a large shrub, 7 feet high, called "kalableb," 
 which bore a large white flower ; the stem was full of a 
 milky juice, bitter to the taste, and said to burn like 
 caustic. There was likewise a large plant, bearing a leaf 
 much resembling rhubarb, and a bunch of deep -red 
 flowers, which produces an oval green, fleshy, spiked 
 syncarpous fruit, longitudinally divided into four parts, 
 each containing three rows of white juicy berries, of 
 agreeable flavour, resembling the walnut. They are 
 largely collected by the Arabs for food. At Dizful, I 
 heard the plant called by an Arab, " Dendrorhti ;" it is 
 named by the Turks, '* Arab khozi," or Arab nut.'"' 
 
 With the above exceptions, vegetation was already 
 dead throughout the undulating gravel ridges. It was 
 now only the 1 9 th of May, and yet the grass was scorched 
 to a bright yellow, which, with the deep red of the gravel 
 itself, gave to the imagination a vivid idea of the intense 
 heat reigning in that region three months later in the 
 season. The temperature was high, but it was perfectly 
 delightful compared with the furnace we had recently 
 quitted at Mohammerah. A fresh invigorating breeze 
 every now and then blew from the adjoining mountains, 
 along the base of which oiu- route lay, giving some con- 
 ception of the delights in store for us as soon as we might 
 
 * Since the above was written, I have ascertained, through Mr Bennett 
 of the British Museum, that this plant is the Glosnostemon Bruguieri of 
 Desfontaines, described and figured in Mem. du Mus. Hist. Nat, torn, iii., 
 p. 238, pi. 11. It does not appear to have been met with since the time 
 of Bruguicr, in 1797.
 
 308 GEOLOGY. 
 
 qxiit the burning plains. Having passed so many months 
 upon the unpicturesque level of the Arab deserts, the ap- 
 proach to the mountains of Luristan was hailed by my 
 companion and myself with unspeakable delight. The 
 anticipation of ere long reaching some of those snow- 
 crowned crests far surpassed the positive reality when 
 we had attained the summit of our wishes. 
 
 The great range, distant thirty miles from our road, 
 attains an elevation of eight or ten thousand feet above the 
 sea, and bears in a general direction towards the north- 
 west. Its rocky masses belong entirely to the cretaceous 
 and lower tertiary series, rising in huge, elongated saddles 
 of compact, altered limestone parallel to each other. At 
 intervals, where the elevating force, which produced the 
 present configuration of this region, has acted with 
 extreme intensity, the continuity of the beds became 
 broken, and masses of rock were left standing isolated with 
 precipitous escarpments, presenting retreats accessible 
 only to the savage inhabitants. " Diz" is the name applied 
 to natural fortresses of this kind, which frequently bear on 
 their summits acres of rich grass, and springs of dehcious 
 water, whither a native chief with his adherents can retire 
 in safety in times of need, and defend their difficult passes 
 with a handfid of men against the whole power of the 
 Persian government itself. Superimposed on the harder 
 limestone rocks are beds of a softer nature — marls, 
 rivalling the coloured sands of our own Isle of Wight in 
 their brilliant and variegated aspect, — vast piles of amor- 
 phous gjrpsum dazzling the eye with its excessive white- 
 ness, — and successive layers of red sands alternating with 
 gravel. These formations follow the contortions of the 
 harder crystalline limestones, lie at extraordinary angles 
 on the slopes of the saddles, and fill up the hot, feverish 
 valleys between them. 
 
 Wherever the highlands of Persia are approached from
 
 GEOLOGY. 309 
 
 the plains of Mesopotamia tlie same formidable barrier 
 of mountains presents itself. To attain the high level of 
 that garden of roses, whicli the Persian poet loves to des- 
 cant on, it is necessary to climb the successive ridges by 
 roads scarcely better than goat tracks, which regular gra- 
 dation of ascents is appropriately described by the Greek 
 historians as KXcfiaKe^, or ladders. All the great rivers, 
 which flow from the east into the Tigris have their 
 sources in these mountains, crossing diagonally through 
 the intricacies of the chain. Instead of flowing in a 
 south-east direction along the trough which separates 
 two parallel limestone saddles, and by this means work- 
 ing out its channel in the soft rocks of the gypsiferous 
 and marly series, and rounding the extremity of the saddle 
 where it dips under the overlying deposits, each of these 
 rivers takes a direction at right angles to its former 
 course, and passes directly through the limestone range 
 by means of a "tang," or gorge, apparently formed for 
 this express purpose. On reaching the next succeeding 
 gypsum trough, it follows its original south-east course 
 for a short distance, and again crosses th6 next chain in 
 the same manner, until it attains the verdant plains 
 of Assyria or Susiana. Many of these tangs expose 
 a perpendicular section of one thousand feet and 
 upwards, and were formed, not by the scooping process 
 which attends river action, but by natural rents produced 
 by the tension of the crystalline mass at the period of its 
 elevation. Of these fissures the rivers have taken ad- 
 vantage and shortened their otherwise circuitous channels. 
 I must not, however, fatigue my readers with a geolo- 
 gical account of regions which we are not about to 
 enter.'" 
 
 * For a detailed geological description of these highly interesting moun- 
 tains I must refer the reader to my lengthy memoir, " On the Geology 
 of Portions of the Turko-Persian Frontier and the Districts adjoining," in 
 vol. :ii. p. 247 of the " Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society."
 
 310 konAts. 
 
 Between Sinister and Dizfiil we spent one night upon 
 the journey at the little village of Sliah-abad (King's 
 abode). There is nothing to remark concerning this 
 place, except that it is built upon the ruins of Jundl- 
 Shapdr, a city which attained some celebrity during the 
 late Sassanian and early Mohammedan eras, but which 
 ultimately succumbed to the better positions of its neigh- 
 bouring rivals, Shilster and Dizfill. Low mounds and 
 ramparts, scarcely distinguishable from the surrounding 
 plain, are all that now remain ; these are ploughed over 
 the surface, and yield to the inhabitants rich crops of 
 grain. 
 
 From hence, a ten miles' ride brings the traveller to 
 the gates of Dizful, over a rough road strewed with 
 large rounded blocks of limestone, mingled with coarse 
 gravel. The surrounding husbandry is brought to per- 
 fection by means of periodical rains, which fall in tropical 
 abundance from December to the end of March; but 
 villages near to the base of the mountains are supplied 
 with water through kon^ts, or under-ground channels, 
 conveyed from the river of Dizful, In nothing is the 
 industry of the Persian more obvious than in the forma- 
 tion of these subterranean conduits. Upon the high 
 plains of the interior, where frequently no visible moisture 
 exists on the surface, an under-ground gallery is run 
 diagonally towards some neighbouring range, and con- 
 tinued until the filtration of numerous Httle driblets, 
 or runners, accumulates into a sufficiently copious stream. 
 Many of these konats extend for miles, and are traceable 
 by little piles of earth and gravel, thrown out of razunas, 
 or skylights, at regular intervals. In some parts, the 
 cultivation of the crops entirely depends on the water 
 flowino; from konats. Isfahan itself is, to a certain 
 extent, supplied with the valued fluid through konats, 
 which convey streams from near Khonsar, and swell the
 
 DIZFUL. 311 
 
 little river ZenderM, as it flows to the former capital of 
 Persia. 
 
 There is nothing enticing in the first view of Dizful, 
 from any direction — bare mud walls and white mosques 
 being the prevailing features. It is situated on the left 
 bank of the river of Diz, which rushes in a deep channel 
 through cliffs of gravel conglomerate. If the external 
 aspect of the place is not inviting, much less so is the 
 interior. The houses, like those of Shuster, are built 
 chiefly of sandstone, with serdabs below cut out of the 
 solid rock. The streets are, if possible, in a worse state 
 of filth than the neighbouring city, and the stench arising 
 from them is perfectly sickening; but, as a counter- 
 balance, there is an air of greater prosperity about the 
 place ; the bazaars, miserable in themselves, are better 
 supplied, and the houses are in a tolerable state of repair. 
 
 Dizfiil is the Manchester of these regions. The banks of 
 the river afford employment to hundreds of persons at 
 the dyeing stoves. Indigo was introduced from Isfahan, 
 a few years ago, by the Mu temedu-'d-dowlet — the uncle 
 of Sideyman Khan, and it is now largely cultivated in 
 the neighbourhood, as the staple article of commerce. 
 The population of the place is between 15,000 and 18,000 
 Mohammedans, and about thirty families of Sabaeans, but 
 there are no Christians. 
 
 Every Oriental traveller knows the ghost-like and 
 unseemly costume of the Persian lady out of doors, 
 muffled up in her blue or white wrapper, and peering 
 through a perforated mask, which might have been 
 borrowed from the helmet of a knight of the middle ages. 
 At Dizful, however, many ladies adopt a local head-dress, 
 by no means inelegant ; it is a peculiar wide-meshed 
 net of silk or cotton, which hangs over the head and 
 shoulders, leaving only the face exposed; but as it would 
 be indecorous on the part of a Mohammedan lady to aUow
 
 312 INHABITANTS OF DIZFtJL. 
 
 a passer-by to see her features, the lady of Dizfill holds 
 a corner of the net in her hand, and endeavours — some- 
 what vainly, it must be admitted — to conceal them with it. 
 
 The dress of the men resembles that of Shuster, but 
 the crowds of green and white turbans which meet him 
 in the street cannot fail to strike a stranger. Every 
 third man appears to be either a descendant of the 
 j)rophet, or a priestly dignitary — than whom, more 
 ungodly, depraved, and intriguing characters are not to be 
 found in the realms of the Shahinshah. They are at 
 the bottom of all mischief, and especially collect at 
 Dizful — perhaps that they may hatch their plots, and 
 carry on their rascalities, as far removed as possible from 
 the seat of government. Aware of this fact, we tjiought 
 it desirable not to state openly the object of our visit, 
 but to give out that we proposed a pilgrimage to the 
 tomb of the prophet Daniel, and that we should stay 
 there a few days ; — the whole truth would doubtless soon 
 make itself known. To Mirza Zekkl, the governor, 
 however, we explained ourselves fully. He promised 
 that a guide should be ready at sunrise, to conduct us 
 to Shush, and strongly urged us not to delay our return 
 longer than was absolutely necessary for our purjDose, 
 because the Beni Lam Arabs were plundering in the 
 vicinity, and we should not be safe from their forays. 
 
 At daybreak, according to promise, our cicerone made 
 his appearance, with letters to Sheikh Musa d, a chief 
 of the 'All Kethir Arabs, whose encampment was near 
 the ruins. Our guide rode a well-bred gray mare, of 
 which he appeared excessively proud. She was hung all 
 round with red tassels, which dangled as low as her knees, 
 materially impeding her progress ; her bridle was like- 
 wise ornamented in the same manner. Upon a bright 
 red saddle of felt sat the Arab, in his striped zibbtin, con- 
 fined to his waist by a wide belt, studded with silver, and
 
 THE BRIDGE OF DIZFCL. 313 
 
 containing a brace of old-fashioned silver-mounted pistols. 
 Suspended from various parts of his person were 
 numerous gourds and cases, belts and contrivances for 
 carrying ammunition. A long spear, tufted with a large 
 ostrich feather, and a shield, completed his pictiu:esque 
 attire. His manner was quite in keeping with his 
 costume, for he was a most unsociable sort of being, 
 uttering only monosyllables, and apparently half-witted. 
 The *' pill," or bridge, which here crosses the " Diz" of 
 course gives the name to the town of Dizful. It was 
 once a fine structure, but, like its fellow at Sinister, 
 is rapidly falling to decay. It, too, has experienced 
 numerous repairs, which have not added to its beauty if 
 they have to its- usefulness. Of its twenty-one arches, 
 one had lately disappeared into the torrent beneath, and 
 its place was supplied by a roadway constructed of trees 
 and earth — several feet, however, below the proper level, 
 so that it required some little ingenuity and activity for 
 the passenger to scramble down one extremity and up 
 the other. The arches are all pointed, and built of brick 
 of comparatively modern date. The piers are undoubt- 
 edly ancient, probably due, as tradition assigns them, 
 to the age of Shapdr. Their construction is somewhat 
 unusual; the interior portion is cut from the rock, but this 
 being of a yielding nature, each is faced with large hewn 
 blocks of stone, formerly held together by iron clamps: 
 but the greater part of these have disappeared, and the 
 masonry is fast following their example. To cross this 
 bridge in its then condition was no easy matter. It is at 
 all times crowded, but the couple of break-neck stair- 
 cases, which it behoved every passenger to get over in the 
 best way he could, caused a complete obstruction of the 
 traffic. There was a continuous string of donkeys coming 
 into the town laden with melons, cucumbers, grapes, and 
 apricots, firewood and barley, every one struggling and
 
 314 RICHNESS OF THE SOIL. 
 
 jostling his neiglibour for tlie precedency in crossing the 
 abyss, — the ends of the firewood playing havoc among 
 the easily damaged fruit, — the felt-coated owner of which 
 was naturally wroth with " the father of the firewood." 
 In the midst of the ensuing abuse, a stubborn donkey 
 would delight in lying down and putting a stop to all 
 further progress until his load were taken off and his back 
 belaboured with a stout cudgel. At the same time, a 
 Ions caravan, laden with no one knows what — dead bodies 
 in wood coffins perchance, bound to Kerbella — would 
 arrive to increase the confusion. 
 
 But, however, we got safely out of this meU with only 
 a few scratches upon our loaded mules, and proceeded 
 onward to our destination. The mounds of Shiish are 
 situated about fourteen miles south-south-west of Dizful, 
 but it is necessary to make a considerable curve in order 
 to avoid an angle of the river which at this point is 
 rapidly wearing away high clifis of alluvium. The rich 
 land on the west bank of the Diz is well cultivated and 
 watered by an infinite number of canals, derived from the 
 river ; lemon and orange trees difiuse the most dehcious 
 odours from several waUed enclosures ; rice, indigo, barley, 
 vegetables, all arrive at perfection in this favoured soil. 
 In the winter and spring, numbers of sturdy Lurs descend 
 from the mountains, and aid in the cultivation of the fields. 
 Labour is cheap and food abundant, but a grinding taxa- 
 tion ruins everything, and there is no security for capital 
 
 At twelve miles from Dizful are the lofty banks of an 
 ancient canal far above the level of the Diz ; from this I 
 obtained my first view of the great mound at Shiish — the 
 fiat platform at the top of which reared its head boldly 
 above a series of intervening canal banks, and excited 
 my utmost expectation. A farther ride of two miles 
 brought us to its base. "With much difficulty our mules 
 clambered its almost inaccessible sides, and deposited
 
 THE BUROTNG OF SUSA. 315 
 
 their burdens on the ancient citadel. The tents were 
 just pitched, and every person preparing to ensconce 
 himself snugly from the rays of the sun, which began to 
 make themselves exceedingly disagreeable, when we were 
 all thrown into confusion by the cook, a poc^, simple 
 fellow, who managed to make a bonfire of the great 
 mound of Shush — as probably Alexander the son of 
 Philip had done before him ! He had dug a hole, and 
 arranged the wood preparatory to making ready our 
 breakfast, when a spark from his flint and steel, igniting 
 the dry grass, aroused us all to extinguish the flame, which, 
 fanned by the wind, made rapidly towards the tents. 
 For some time all our efforts were useless ; there was no 
 water at hand, and the few implements we possessed were 
 not instantly attainable. There was no alternative but to 
 knock down the tents, and get them away with all possible 
 speed, but we did not succeed before several of the tent- 
 ropes were consumed. At length a trench, dug round 
 the devouring element, arrested its further progress, and 
 we took stock of our property. Excepting the loss of a 
 few ropes, and the gain of a few small holes, the tents 
 escaped well ; but our heavy luggage — such as boxes — had 
 suffered severely on their exteriors. Into one the fire 
 had actually penetrated, and was making a terrible on- 
 slaught upon a pair of boots, their next neighbour being a 
 canister of English gunpowder, which was good enough 
 not to explode while a dozen people were standing round, 
 endeavouring to put out the fire ! But the articles, dearly 
 valued by my companion and myself — our umbrellas — 
 which, beneath the sultry noon, hr.d so often lent us their 
 friendly shelter, lay grim skeletons at our feet ! We often 
 afterwards regretted those good friends ! We had all pre- 
 viously complained of the sun's heat, but it was moonshine 
 compared with that of the burning grass, which gave us 
 some slight idea of the horrors attendant on an approaching
 
 316 SPIES. 
 
 fire on the American prairies, Avliile it taught us a lesson — 
 never to permit the cook to get to the windward of our- 
 selves and the tents, nor to suffer his fire being lighted 
 before the dry grass was cleared away from the immediate 
 vicinity of the kitchen. Fortunately this happened as it 
 did, otherwise we might have been burnt up during the 
 night by the fall of a spark from our watchmen's pipes. 
 
 Before we had been twenty-four hours upon the 
 mounds, dt was evident that our proceedings were 
 jealously watched, and that there was no prospect of 
 making immediate excavations. Our attention was, 
 therefore, directed towards completing a plan of the 
 ruins ; but soon after breakfast on the folio wino- morninor 
 the heat of the tents drove us to take shelter within the 
 precincts of the Holy Shrine. 
 
 As it will be more in place to give a general descrip- 
 tion of Shiish in connexion with the discoveries which 
 were afterwards made in the ruins, I propose to d?fer 
 that account for the present ; but as the Tomb of Daniel 
 is so intimately linked with all our difficulties, some slight 
 notice of it will best occur liere.
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 The Tomb of the Prophet Daniel — Arabic Traditions regarding him — 
 Benjamin of Tudela's Account — Present State of the Sepulchre — 
 Spies and Persian Fanaticism — Charge of Sacrilege — Ferment in 
 Dizful and the Neighbourhood — The 'All Kethir Arabs — An acci- 
 dent befals the Author — Compelled to abandon the Mounds of 
 Shush — Battle between the 'Ali Kethir and Bern Lam — Svdeyman 
 Klian the Christian Governor of a Mohammedan Province — Arrival 
 of Colonel Williams. 
 
 By general consent of Jews, Sabseans, and Mohamme- 
 dans, the burial-place of the Prophet Daniel is acknow- 
 ledged to be at Shush, and a building at the west foot 
 of the great mound is consecrated to him, and held in 
 the utmost reverence by these different races. Pilgrims 
 from all parts flock to " Danyel" to offer up prayers and 
 bury their dead. 
 
 In the book which bearg his name in our edition of 
 the Scriptures, frequent allusion is made to Shushan 
 the palace. As history, tradition, and, to some extent, 
 the names, agree, we are justified in assuming that the 
 ruins of Shush represent the Shushan of the Bible, and 
 that Daniel was really buried on the spot. We have, 
 however, the authority of an Arab historian for conclud- 
 ing that the present tomb of Daniel is but a comparatively 
 modern edifice, and that the bones of the Prophet are not 
 enshrined within its walls. 
 
 As the subject may be interesting to many of my 
 readers, I extract the following from Su- William Ouseley's
 
 318 DANIEL THE PROPHET. 
 
 translation of a Persian version''' of Ibn-Aasim el-K\jff s 
 Tarikh, or "Book of Victories." After telling us that 
 Abti Musa Alaslia'ri invaded Persia under tlie Khalif 
 Omar in tlie eighteentli year of the hejira (a.d. 640), 
 pillaged the territory of Ahwaz, and proceeded to Sus, 
 where he slew the governor, a Persian prince, named 
 Shapur, the son of Azerm^han, the historian continues : — 
 " Then he entered the castle and palace of that Prince, 
 and seized all the treasures deposited there in different 
 places, until he came to a certain chamber, of which 
 the door was strongly fastened-— a leaden seal being 
 affixed to the lock. Abu Musa- inquired from the 
 people of Sus what precious article was guarded with 
 such care in this chamber : they assured him 'that he 
 would not regard it as a desirable object of plunder ; but 
 his curiosity was excited, and he caused the lock to be 
 broken and the door opened. In the chamber he beheld 
 a stone of considerable dimensions hollowed out into the 
 form of a coffin ; and in this the body of a dead man, 
 wrapped in a shroud or winding-sheet of gold brocade. 
 The head was uncovered. Abu Musa and his attendants 
 were astonished ; for, having measured the nose, they 
 found that proportionably this dead personage must have 
 far exceeded in stature the common race of men. The 
 people now informed Abii Musa that this was the body 
 of an eminent sage, who formerly resided in Ir^k (Chaldsea 
 or Babylonia), and that whenever the want of rain occa- 
 sioned a famine or scarcity, the inhabitants applied to 
 this holy man, and through the efficacy of his prayers, 
 obtained copious showers from heaven. It happened 
 once that Sus likewise suffered from excessive drought; 
 and the people in distress requested that their neighbours 
 would allow this venerable personage to reside a few 
 
 * This Persian translation was made from the original Arabic, about 
 A.D. 120.
 
 DANIEL THE PROPHET. 319 
 
 days among them, expecting to derive the blessing of 
 rain from his intercession with the Almighty ; but the 
 Irakians would not grant this favour. Fifty men were 
 then deputed by the people of Sus, who again petitioned 
 the ruler of Irak, saying, ' Let the holy personage visit 
 our country, and do thou detain the fifty men until his 
 return V These terms were accepted, and the holy per- 
 sonage came to Sils, where, through the influence of his 
 prayers, rain fell abundantly, and saved the land from 
 famine ; but the inhabitants would not permit him to 
 return, and the fifty men were detained as hostages in 
 Irak : at length he died. Such, said those who accom- 
 panied Abu Miisa, is the history of this dead man. The 
 Arabian general then inquired by what name so extraor- 
 dinary a person had been known amongst them ? They 
 replied — ' The people of Irak called him Danyel Hakim, 
 or Daniel the Sage.' 
 
 " After this, Abu Milsa remained some time at Siis, and 
 despatched to Omar, the Commander of the Faithful, an 
 account of all his conquests in Khiizistan, and of the 
 various treasures which had fallen into his possession ; 
 lie related also the discovery of Daniel's body. When 
 Omar received this account, he demanded from his chief 
 officers some information respecting Daniel, but all were 
 silent except 'All, on whom be the blessing of God 1* He 
 declared that Daniel had been a prophet, though not of 
 the highest order ; that in ages long past he dwelt with 
 Bakhtnasser (Nebuchadnezzar), and the kings who suc- 
 ceeded him ; and 'Ali related the whole history of Daniel, 
 from the beginning to the end, with all the circumstances 
 of his death. Omar then, by the advice of 'All, caused a 
 letter to be written, directing that Abii Miisa should 
 remove, with due respect and rehgious reverence, the 
 body of Daniel to some place where the people of Sus 
 could no longer enjoy the possession of it. Abil Musa,
 
 320 BENJAMIN OF TUDELA's ACCOUNT. 
 
 immediately on receipt of this order, obliged the people of 
 Siis to turn the stream, which supplied their city with 
 water, from its natural course ; then he brought forth the 
 body of Daniel, and having wrapped another shroud over 
 the gold brocade above described, he commanded that a 
 grave should be made in the dry channel of the river, 
 and therein he deposited the prophet's venerable remains ; 
 the grave was then firmly secured, and covered with 
 stones of considerable size ; the river was restored to its 
 former channel, and the waters of Sus now flow over the 
 body of Daniel."* 
 
 The old Jewish writer, Benjamin of Tudela (a.d. 1160- 
 1173), gives a similar account, but refers the burial of 
 Daniel's body to Sanjar Shah-ben-Shah who conquered 
 Samarkand in 1140, and died in 1157. He states that 
 Shushan contained in his time " very large and hand- 
 some buildings of ancient date. It had seven thousand 
 Jewish inhabitants, with fourteen synagogues ; in front 
 of one of which is the sepulchre of Daniel, who rests in 
 peace. The river Ulai divides the city into two parts, 
 which are connected by a bridge ; that portion of it which 
 is inhabited by the Jews contains markets, to which all 
 trade is confined, and there all the rich dwell ; on the 
 other side of the river they are poor, because they are 
 deprived of the above-mentioned advantages, and have 
 even no gardens or orchards. These circumstances gave 
 rise to jealousy, which was fostered by the belief that all 
 honour and riches originated in the possession of the re- 
 mains of the prophet Daniel, who rests in peace, and who 
 was buried on the favoured side of the river. A request 
 was made by the poor for permission to remove the se- 
 pulcln-e to the other side, but it was rejected ; upon which 
 a war arose, and was carried on between the two parties 
 
 * See Walpole's " Travels in Various Countries." At vol. ii. p. 428 is given 
 the above translation of the history of Daniel's body by Sir William Ouseley.
 
 BENJAMIN OF TUDELA S ACCOUNT. 321 
 
 for a length of time. This strife lasted until ' their souls 
 became loath/ and they came to a mutual agreement, by 
 which it was arranged that the coffin which contained 
 Daniel's bones should be deposited alternately every year 
 on either side. Both parties faithfully adhered to this 
 arrangement, until it was interrupted by the interference 
 of Sanjar Shah-ben-Shah, who governs Persia and holds 
 supreme power over forty-five of its kings." . . . 
 " When this great emperor Sanjar, king of Persia, came to 
 Shushan and saw that the coffin of Daniel was removed 
 from one side to the other, he crossed the bridge with a 
 very numerous retinue, accompanied by Jews and Moham- 
 medans, and inquired into the reason of these proceedings. 
 Upon being told what we have now related, he declared it 
 to be derogatory to the honour of Daniel, and commanded 
 that the distance between the two banks should be 
 exactly measured, that Daniel's coffin should be deposited 
 in another coffin made of glass, and that it should be sus- 
 pended from the centre of the bridge by chains of iron. 
 A place of worship was erected on the spot, open to every 
 one who desired to say his prayers, whether he be Jew or 
 Gentile : and the coffin of Daniel is suspended from the 
 bridge unto this very day. The king commanded that, 
 in honour of Daniel, nobody should be allowed to fish in^ 
 the river one mile on each side of the coffin."^'' 
 
 The modern building has been frequently described by 
 travellers, but as their accounts may not have fallen under 
 the notice of many of my readers, I venture on giving, 
 the following sketch. 
 
 The reputed tomb of the prophet Daniel t is an oblong- 
 edifice, forming one side of a large walled court, through 
 which the pilgrim enters to reach the sacred threshold.. 
 
 * See the article " Benjamin of Tudela," j). 105 of Early Travels in Pales- 
 tine, published in Bohn's Antiquarian Library, 
 t A ground plan of the tomb is shewn on the plan of the Moxuids.
 
 322 THE MODERN TOMB. 
 
 Seen from across the little river Sliaour, wliicli flows at its 
 foot, enshrouded in a dense mass of date-trees, konars, 
 and jungle, its conical white spire rising above all, is a 
 picturesque object, and is the more interesting from the* 
 associations so intimately connected with its origin. En- 
 tering beneath a low doorway, the visitor is ushered into 
 the great court, the opposite side of which is supplied 
 with mangers and rings for the reception of horses and 
 beasts of burden, for it is unsafe to leave them outside, on 
 account of lions and other wild animals, whicli abound in 
 the neighbourhood. On this account, too, the tomb is 
 the frequent resort, for the night, of Arab parties on a 
 journey from the deserts to the seat of government, and 
 of plundering parties preparatory to their morning forays. 
 Two other sides of the court are occupied by a low arched 
 portico which conducts to the door of the sanctuary. This 
 consists of two chambers, and a passage between them 
 leading to a third apartment, in which the paraphernalia 
 of the tomb are stored. The inner room is extremely 
 dark and dismal, in accordance with the universal feeling 
 that darkness is inseparably connected with the presence- 
 chamber of death ; here stands the supposed shrine, 
 which, in the dim light of the place, appears to be a slab 
 of white marble, but which is in reality only polished 
 cement. It is enclosed within an open framework of 
 wood, erected at a sufficient distance, however, to admit 
 of passage round the sepulchre, the floor being covered with 
 extremely dirty prayer-mats, swarming with fleas. These, 
 and a few old lamps of rude forms, black from smoke 
 and grease, constitute the whole of the ordinary furniture. 
 Religion in the East, at the present day, certainly does 
 not boast of much outward display in this respect, nor 
 is cleanliness in the temple esteemed essential to purity 
 of worship. The externally "whited sepulchre" is no 
 criterion by which to judge of its internal condition;
 
 SPIES AND THEIR PROCEEDINGS. 323 
 
 neitlier is the repeated washing of the sanctified seyid 
 any proof of his religious sincerity. A small veranda runs 
 outside the wall of the sanctuary, overlooking the deep 
 sluggish stream of the Shaour, and its green waters mean- 
 dering through the dense mass of vegetation on its banks. 
 
 The terrace upon the roof of the building is used as a 
 sleeping apartment by the pilgrims during the hot weather, 
 and it is not unusual to see it completely covered with 
 prostrate sleeping forms. From its centre rises the tall 
 white spire which denotes the character of the edifice, and 
 partakes of the usual ornamental features, in resemblance 
 to the fir-cone, before alluded to in this volume as peculiar 
 to most other Oriental tombs."^' Beneath the sacred cham- 
 ber, but without communication with it, is a vaidted 
 room, entered from a doorway on the side of the Shaour, 
 having apertures at the opposite extremity, through which 
 flows a cool current of air. This was cleared of the filth 
 which encumbered its floor, and here we took up our 
 quarters during the heat of the day. 
 
 We had, however, scarcely established ourselves in our 
 agreeable retreat, on the morning after our arrival, than 
 we were disturbed by the arrival of a party of Lutis,t or 
 strolling players, and a huge ugly baboon, which was 
 incited to play its antics in all parts of the building 
 without any respect for its extreme sanctity. Seeing 
 the little deference observed, my companion imagined 
 that he could not be doing harm or ofiending the pre- 
 judices of the few natives around us by skinning and 
 preserving, at the door of our cell, a porcupine he had 
 just shot. While engaged in this occupation, we were 
 surprised by three strangers, whose green turbans indi- 
 cated their descent, and whose countenances exhibited 
 intensity of bigotry and its attendant qualities of 
 
 * See page 35. 
 
 t Ltitl literally means " a thief," and is applied to any low character.
 
 324 SPIES AND THEIR PROCEEDINGS. 
 
 hatred and persecution. They walked in without cere- 
 mony, and as unceremoniously requested us to walk out, 
 which we quietly and politely, but positively declined to 
 do. The chief and most ill-favoured of the three there- 
 upon broke forth into a torrent of ejaculations and ex- 
 clamations at the audacity of the Franks who dared to 
 enter and defile the sanctuary of the holy Imam. This, 
 however, had no effect upon us ; we retained our seats 
 unmoved, telling them that, since Daniel was esteemed 
 a prophet by Christians as well as by Mussulmans, 
 we had the same right to occupy the precincts of 
 the tomb as themselves, or the baboon which sat upon 
 the terrace above, — and that, moreover, we did not in- 
 tend to budge one inch to please their bigotry [ This 
 unexpected answer had the proper effect, — it considerably 
 cooled their tone, which now sobered down to the wish 
 that, if we would not go out ourselves, my companion's 
 unclean beast might be removed. To this, of course, we 
 willingly complied, when it was explained that the porcu- 
 pine is considered "nedjis." 
 
 They then seated themselves, and intimated that they 
 were sent by the governor of Dizful to look after our' 
 safety and oblige the Arabs to supply our wants. They, 
 however, brought no letters from Mirza Zekki, nor did 
 their manner afford any guarantee that their words were 
 to be believed. It subsequently proved that they uttered a 
 tissue of falsehoods, and that they were spies of the priest- 
 hood (who had got wind of our movements), sent to keep 
 watch over our proceedings and conduct. Their mission 
 vre speedily divined by their contradictory replies to our 
 questions, and the cunning attempts to extract informa- 
 tion from us: a Persian usually overacts the part he 
 desires to perform. The bigotry of our visitors may be 
 judged from the fact, that they would neither smoke, 
 drink tea, nor eat in our presence, — and their manner
 
 THE COUNCIL OF PRIESTS. 325 
 
 soon instilled into ourselves the most thorougli contempt 
 for tliem. While we sat they sat ; when we proposed at 
 sunset to take a ride they must needs accompany us; if 
 we visited sheikh Musad, they likewise volunteered 
 their unwelcome presence ; if we engaged in our survey, 
 they purposely got in the way of our work. Finding, 
 however, that they could not by fair means convict us 
 of any heinous crime, whereby the indignation of the 
 priesthood could be poured forth upon us, they tried 
 another plan to effect their purpose. 
 
 On the following day, while sitting in our tents, we 
 were surprised to see a dense smoke arise from the 
 thicket adjoining the tomb.. Our enemies had suddenly 
 disappeared, but, before departing, had fired the brushwood 
 in order to give some shadow of truth to the report which 
 they took every pains to spread on their return to Dizfu], 
 — representing that we had taken pigs into the sepulchre 
 and defiled it in sundry and various ways, — that we had 
 knocked down the tomb, — placed gunpowder in the walls, 
 — and fired the grass that the revered and sacred edifice 
 might no longer exist ! All Dizful, as may well be 
 imagined, was in a furious state of ferment, and ven- 
 geance was declared against the sacrilegious infidels who 
 had dared to perpetrate such crimes ! A full conclave 
 of priests was held, and a long debate ensued as to the 
 best method of ridding the world of the audacious 
 strangers who, taking advantage of their friendly in- 
 troductions, had violated every feehng of friendship. 
 Many applicants presented themselves before the holy 
 council, stating their readiness, their anxiety to bo our 
 executioners ! But a difliculty presented itself which 
 induced the sacred assembly to hesitate before leaping 
 the barrier. We were in the service of the Silltan 
 Englizi, the friend of the Shah, and if any ill happened 
 to us, it would be doubtless called to account for its
 
 326 THREATS OF THE ARABS. 
 
 share in tlie transaction. The fear of the Shah, or rather 
 of the troops of Hissam-ed-dowlet/"' was beginning to 
 gain ground, when, as good luck woukl have it, one of 
 our servants was caught making purchases in the bazaars, 
 and hui-ried off, nolens volens, to the court. He boldly 
 stated what he knew to be true, namely : that some per- 
 sons had set fire to the jungle round the tomb, but that 
 our people, himself among the number, had been instru- 
 mental in quenching it, and that the tomb stood as un- 
 scathed as before our arrival, — that we had no pigs, 
 neither had we defiled nor attempted to burU or blow it 
 up. The mujtehid, or chief priest, on whom the re- 
 sponsibility would have fallen, thinking it best to be 
 wise, dismissed the council with the remark that* he be- 
 lieved us " not guilty." 
 
 The feeling of violent animosity excited against the 
 Firenghi, however, did not readily subside : a report 
 now spread that we had come to dig up and carry off 
 the bones of the prophet, and the ignorance of the 
 people fully believed it. On the third day several Arab 
 sheikhs paid us visits to satisfy their curiosity, and also 
 to intimate to our people that, if it were not for Suley- 
 man Khan, our throats should feel the sharpness of their 
 swords. In order to do away with the suspicion with 
 which we were regarded, we decided on stating openly 
 the true object of our visit and on asking the sheikhs 
 for workmen. This frankness produced a good impres- 
 sion, and several promises were given to aid us, never 
 however, to be fulfilled, because they were jealous of our 
 having other plans, and afraid of our searching i\ the 
 relics of the prophet, which, it is well known, are not 
 deposited in the tomb. 
 
 A few words concerning the Arabs of this region may 
 
 ■* The honorary title appUed to Suleyman Khdu, meaning, " the sword 
 of the government."
 
 THE \lA KETHlR ARABS. 327 
 
 not be unacceptable. During the greater part of the year, 
 the plains around Shiish are perfectly desolate, and not a 
 human being is to be seen, except now and then solitary 
 parties wending their way to and from the shrine. In 
 early spring, however, the Arabs flock to the banks be- 
 tween the Kerkhah and the Diz for the rich pasturage 
 which everywhere prevails around the ancient ruins. From 
 the top of the great mound, the black tents and flocks of the 
 'All Kethlr Arabs may then be seen studding the land- 
 scape, at times half-buried in the luxuriant abundance 
 of the grass. According to their own account, the tribes of 
 the 'All Kethir originally came from Nedjid, in the centre 
 of Arabia, about two hundred and fifty years ago. At first 
 they were encouraged by the Persian government, which, 
 up to the time of Feth 'Ali Shah, gave them presents, as an 
 inducement to their settling and cultivating the land. 
 Gradually this gratuity became smaller and smaller, until 
 it was wholly cancelled, and the scale turned on the op- 
 posite side by Mohammed Shah, under whom tribute 
 was exacted. This was gradually increased in amount, 
 and 2500 tomans (about £1250) were being then paid. 
 The number of families, in 1850, probably amounted to 
 about 15,000, and were placed under a sheikh of their own 
 tribe, who was taxed according to the amount of tribute 
 he could command. It is to be doubted, however, whether, 
 instead of two hundred and fifty years, this tribe has not 
 been settled in these regions ever since the Arab conquest 
 of Persia. Being of the Sheah sect, their intermarriage with 
 the inhabitants of Dizful has materially altered their caste 
 of countenance, which now partakes more of the Persian 
 than the Arab character. This change could scarcely, I 
 imagine, have taken place within so short a period. Not 
 only, too, have they lost their national features, but, 
 through continual intercourse with the bigoted Persians, 
 they have imbibed the worse passions and qualities of that
 
 328 AN ACCIDENT. 
 
 race in addition to their own. I have invariably found, 
 that the Ai-ab tribes, under Persian domination, have lost 
 the noble virtues of their Bedouin ancestors, and that they 
 are cunning, and deceitful, without truth or shame ; — but, 
 of all others, the 'All Ketliir boast of the most detestable 
 character, and are least to be trusted by strangers. 
 
 Notwithstanding their promises, workmen were not 
 forthcoming for the excavations. Whether this system 
 of hanoino; out false colours orioinated with themselves, 
 or whether they were bribed by the priests, I could never 
 ascertain; but one thing is certain — we left Shush with- 
 out opening a trench. 
 
 Our time was spent in much the same manner every 
 day while we remained upon the ruins. In the Cool of 
 the morning we were occupied in laying down our plan ; 
 the mid-day sun drove us into the chamber under the 
 tomb, where we passed the hours as best we could ; and, 
 when the heat had abated, we emerged from our den like 
 jackals and wild beasts, and exercised ourselves by riding 
 about the neiohbourhood. In one of our rides we acci- 
 dentally encountered a herd of about forty wild pigs, 
 varying from the size of a monster boar, as big as a full- 
 grown donkey, to that of a sucking pig a few weeks old. 
 It was becoming dusk, but ardour for sport induced us 
 to pursue them, in doing which my clumsy horse tripping 
 over a ridge of earth, turned a complete somersault, and 
 fell heavily on my ribs, giving me a serious hurt. 
 
 On being assisted into camp, a message was delivered 
 from Sheikh Musa d to say that several parties of Beni 
 Lam Arabs had been seen prowling about ; that he would 
 not be answerable for the consequences if we persisted in 
 remaining upon the mounds ; and that after that night 
 he could not undertake to send watchmen to guard our 
 little camp, seeing that they might be required to defend 
 his own. We at first thought this a rii'SC to get rid of
 
 OBLIGED TO llETREAT. 329 
 
 US, but, on the following day, his son Ha'waychum came 
 with a more urgent message, to which we deemed it ad- 
 visable to attend. I gave the order for our tents to be 
 struck and removed to the sheikh's camp, situated about 
 two miles distant. 
 
 When we were riding along together, Ha'waychum 
 iu formed us that, as the harvest was now concluded, the 
 stream of water, conveyed by a canal from the river 
 Kerkhah to the vicinity of the ruins (which is sweet and 
 pure, while that of the Shaour is so notorious for its 
 unwholesome qualities that the Arabs never drink of it 
 when other water is procurable) would be cut off in a 
 few days, and that afterwards we might obtain it from 
 whence we pleased. He had been tolerably civil on our 
 first arrival, but now, either incited by the priesthood, 
 or believing the cmTent reports concerning our stay 
 upon the ruins, he became extremely saucy, telling me, 
 in a loud tone, that " Sheikh Miisa'd had no instructions 
 concerning us — he was not answerable for our safety — 
 the land was theirs and not Hissam-ed-dowet's ; — who 
 was he, and who was the Shah 1 AVere the 'All Kethir 
 to be accounted slaves or Arabs'?" It is well known 
 among travellers that firmness and a show of superiority 
 are a sure method of gaining the resjDect of an Oriental, 
 and that an appeal to his hospitality is seldom lost upon 
 the sensitive feelings of an Arab. Although suffering 
 great pain, I could not refrain from giving utterance to a 
 somewhat severe rebuke, and therefore demanded " if this 
 were a specimen of the far-famed Arab hospitality 1 We 
 had travelled among the great Shammar, the Muntefik, 
 ay, and among even the wild Madan, and everywhere 
 been received with unbounded cordiality. Were strangers 
 esteemed beasts or dog-s among the small tribe of the 
 'All Kethir, that we piould be treated in such an illi- 
 beral manner 1 As guests of the Shah we should lay
 
 330 FORAY OF THE BENl LAM. 
 
 our complaint of the treatment received before Hissam- 
 ed-dowlat, and leave liim to deal witli Arabs who were 
 become worse than either Turks or Persians !" Saying 
 wliich, I directed my horse's head towards Dizful, adding 
 that, "on our next return, we should come to excavate 
 in the mounds in spite of either 'All Kethir or Seyid, 
 armed with a firman from the Shah and an order from 
 the governor, if the latter were supposed to have more 
 effect upon them!" This high tone produced a sensible 
 change in the manner of our host, who now entreated 
 forgiveness, and prayed me to accompany hij^ to his 
 father's camp " where we should find that the 'All Kethir 
 were still Arabs, and glad to offer the shelter of their 
 tents to a stranger." At length I consented, and gave 
 him my hand in token of reconciliation. 
 
 The change of quarters from the summit of the mound 
 to the level of the plain was naturally accompanied by 
 an augmentation of heat. Finding the teniperatiu'e and 
 closeness of my little tent on the following day unen- 
 durable, I determined on setting out for Dizful as soon 
 as the moon rose early the next morning. Our plan, 
 moreover, being completed, there was no further object 
 to be attained by a longer exposure. About midnight 
 we were aroused by a tremendous commotion in the 
 Arab camp. The report that the Beni Lam were in the 
 neighbourhood proved true, for they came quietly and 
 stole all the corn our hosts had buried on the side of the 
 encampment opposite to that at which our tents were 
 pitched, making off with their booty before they were 
 detected. Superstitious as our hosts were, they, no 
 doubt, attributed their ill luck to our presence, and were 
 extremely gratified at seeing our departure. 
 
 After some difficulty the governor of Dizful succeeded 
 in hiring for me a small house near the tomb of Imam 
 Shah Pidbend, a short distance above the town, over-
 
 DEFEAT OF THE 'ALf KETHIK, 331 
 
 lookiDg a bend of the river. A cool serdab was ex- 
 cavated in the gravel cliff, and the terrace on the house- 
 top enjoyed every welcome breath of air which blew 
 down the stream at night. Here, under ground during 
 the entire day, and upon the terrace from sunset to sun- 
 rise, I spent a miserable month ; — the injiuy sustained 
 by the fall of my horse was so painfid that I was obliged 
 to lie quiet and abstain from excitement of any kind. 
 Dizfiil did not furnish either a doctor, a leech, or a 
 blister ; but, thanks to a good constitution, a small medi- 
 cine chest, and careful diet, I succeeded in keeping do^vn 
 fever and in gradually overcoming the effects of the 
 accident. 
 
 The influence exerted by the governor and the muj- 
 tehid over the people and priesthood served to allay the 
 popular irritation, while our return from Shush was 
 esteemed a great triumph and a proof of the power 
 exercised by the Prophet. The seven lions, supposed to 
 guard his tomb, had, it was reported, threatened to devour 
 the infidels unless they made off with all speed. 
 
 A few days after oui return to Dizful, news ar- 
 rived from Shush that a skirmish had taken place be- 
 tween the Beni Lam and 'All Kethir. A party of the 
 former were seen on the western bank of the Kerkhah 
 by our late hosts, one hundred of whom crossed the river 
 and were defeated, one man being killed, several wounded, 
 and a dozen prisoners, with the loss of all their highly- 
 valued mares. Ha'waychum left a beautiful white mare 
 in the hands of the conquerors, and only saved his life 
 by swinmiing the Kerkhah. 
 
 At length Colonel Williams and the rest of his party, 
 after an extended delay at Mohammerah in an atmosphere 
 impregnated with malaria and sickness, joined us at 
 Dizful, and in a few days we were luxuriating in a com- 
 paratively cool climate, amid the oak groves of Mun-
 
 332 SULEYMAN KHAN. 
 
 gerrah,"^^ in the Luristan mountains, at an elevation of 
 five thousand feet above the sea. But even at that 
 altitude the thermometer frequently rose to 107° Fahr, 
 in the shade. 
 
 It would far exceed the limits of this work were I to 
 enter into an account of the highly interesting journey 
 performed by the Commission to Kermanshah, the rock- 
 sculptures of Bistitun and Hamadan, Isfahan, the ruins 
 of Pasargadse and Persepolis, Shiraz, and the Mammasenl 
 Lurs. Let it suffice that, at the end of the year, we 
 once more descended to the plains of Dizful^ where the 
 Hissam-ed-dowlet, Suleyman Khan, was encamped with a 
 strong Persian force — a necessary instrument for main- 
 taining the Shah's influence among the turbulent gentry 
 of Khiizistan. This Clu?istian governor of a Mohamme- 
 dan province was an extraordinary man, and it is, as I 
 have said, difficidt to understand how he sustained his 
 position among the bigoted community. He was a jolly, 
 stout old gentleman, and, perhaps, if his red nose did not 
 belie him, addicted to veritable shiraz, or something 
 stronoer. He was full of fun and courafire; but the 
 sun of his greatness had well nigh set; the days of his 
 dignity were numbered. In an evil hour he was ordered 
 to quell an insurrection at Behbehdn, in the adjoining 
 district of Fii'uz Mirza, the Shah's uncle, which the prince 
 had failed to do. Suleyman Khan was successful, and 
 the prince, indignant that a ghyawr had outdone himself, 
 
 * At this place we had the rtiisfortune to lose one of our little party — 
 Mr Algernon Wood, first attache to the British Embassy at Constantinople, 
 and Secretary of the Commission. An impnident bath in a cold mountain 
 stream, when heated, brought on a violent attack of bronchitis, which, 
 together with extreme lassitude from previous illness at !Mohammerah, 
 resulted in the untoward event. I cannot here omit a tribute to the 
 memory of one whose affectionate and honourable qualities were so de- 
 servedly esteemed by all his acquaintance. His abilities as a linguist, and 
 knowledge of Oriental character, rendered his death a great loss to the 
 Commit ion.
 
 * RETURN TO SUSA. 333 
 
 intrigued to effect the discliarge of his successful com- 
 petitor from the office he filled Avith such abihty. Tlie 
 old gentleman complained severely, and with justice, of 
 this conduct, and was soon about to deliver up the reins 
 of government. 
 
 At the time of our visit, he was just recovering from a 
 severe accident which had occurred to him in returning 
 from his late conquest ; being exceedingly stout, he travelled 
 in a European carriage, but, being upset during a dark 
 night, the wheels passed over his hips, and, in the con- 
 fusion, his own guard managed to gallop over and other- 
 wise seriously injure him. 
 
 Aware of the difficulty attending the commencement 
 of excavations at Shush, and desirous, for the sake of 
 science, that the opportunity of the stay made by the 
 Commission in those regions should not be lost. Colonel 
 WiUiams wrote to Colonel Shell, H.B.M.'s ambassador at 
 Teheran, requesting his influence in obtaining a firman 
 from the Shah. The application was successful, and the 
 document, giving the requisite permission, was duly re- 
 ceived. Lieutenant Glascott and myself formed the van- 
 guard of the party in taking possession of our old ground 
 on the summit of the great mound, accompanied by two of 
 Suleyman KJian's officers, with an order for Sheikh 
 Musa d to attend our orders. His tents were pitched 
 upon the eastern portion of the ruins, and he soon obeyed 
 the simimons, with four watchmen, and a lamb as a 
 present, besides a host of apologies for the smallness of 
 his gift 1 It occurred to me that this was a different 
 reception to that which Churchill and myself experienced 
 only eight months previously, when this same sheikh 
 threatened us with all kinds of torments and deaths. I 
 reminded him of my promise to revisit Shush with a 
 firman from the Shah ; strangely enough, the words, then 
 spoken at random, now proved true. Musa'd replied
 
 334 ARRIVAL OF THE ELCHI. 
 
 that, in one respect, a Firenghi is unlike a Persian — ^he 
 invariably keeps his word ! This was a decided improve- 
 ment in feelino;. He was anxious to know what he 
 should bring as a present to the elchi, and whether he 
 would be contented with a mare ? I told him that " the 
 elchi would accept of no presents — all he required was 
 good conduct from the 'All Kethir, and he might rest 
 assured that, if such were shewn, the elchi would not fail 
 to represent it to the proper quarters." 
 
 A few days later, Colonel Williams and the whole 
 English party were encamped upon the ruins. The great 
 mound was, I thought, more imposing than on* my pre- 
 vious visit, but the old tomb looked the picture of 
 desolation and misery, the trees around had lost their 
 green leaves, and the white spire stood out prominent and 
 cold against the dark rain-bearing clouds. Elsewhere, 
 however, there was an air of freshness, a tint of green 
 spread over the surface of the surrounding plain indica- 
 tive of the near appr \i;'h of spring; altogether it was a 
 different scene to that universal and a;larino; sheet of 
 yellow which greeted our former arrival.
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 Early History of Susa — From the days of Cyrus, Susa the Winter- 
 residence of the Persian Kings — ^Ahasuerus identical with Xerxes — 
 Immense wealth found by Alexander — Power of Susa declines — Its 
 Ruins at the present day — ^Abundance of Wild Beasts — Imposing 
 aspect of Susa in early times. 
 
 Whethee we regard it in a geograpliical, historical, or 
 scriptural point of view, there are few places throughout 
 the East more replete with interest than that which is 
 known to us by the various denominations of Shushan, 
 Susa, Sus, or Shush. Of its primitive history we, of 
 course, know little ; but the records of antiquity point to 
 its origin amid the dim obscurity of oral tradition. 
 
 It would appear that Elam, the son of Shem, like the 
 rest of the early descendants of Noah, founded a kingdom 
 in the region we are accustomed to regard as the cradle 
 of mankind, — this, at least, is the inference from the men- 
 tion made, in Genesis xiv., of Chedorlaomer, King of Elam, 
 who, in alliance with four neighbouring monarch s, ex- 
 tended his conquests to the west of the Euphrates during 
 the time of the patriarch Abraham. We read, moreover, 
 in Ezra iv. 9, that the Elamites were included among the 
 dependencies of the Persian Empire ; and, in Daniel viii. 
 2, that Shushan, the palace, was situated in the province 
 of Elam, which name is undoubtedly likewise preserved 
 in " Elymais," the title by which the Greek and Eoman 
 authors designated a portion of ancient Susiana. We are.
 
 336 EARLY HISTORY OF SUSA. 
 
 therefore, fairly justified in regarding tlie site of Susa as 
 the original capital of the Elamites. At one time, it is 
 suggested that the seat of Chedorlaomer was the great 
 city of Kar Duniyas, mentioned in the Assyrian inscrip- 
 tions as the metropolis of the lower country, and that it 
 occupied the after-position of Susa;''' at another time, phi- 
 lolog-ists considered the name of Susa as a sliolit modifi- 
 cation of Cush, and referred the early colonization of the 
 surroundino; reoion at the head of the Persian Gulf to 
 the Hamite descendants of Noah, in accordance with the 
 theory already mentioned in this work.t Then again, 
 Herodotus^ assigns the foundation of Susa to th(? Ethio- 
 pian Memnon, who went to the assistance of Priam, at 
 the siege of Troy; and the same authority states that 
 after him, the city was called ]\Iemnonia. Lastly, the 
 Persian annals give the honour of its foundation to Hou- 
 shenk, the grandson of Keyumerss, the second king of the 
 early Pishdadian dynasty. All these discrepancies, how- 
 ever, serve to prove the early antiquity and greatness 
 of the ancient Susa.§ 
 
 It is not until the time of Ashur-bani-pal, who reigned 
 in Assyria about 650 B.C., that we find any positive his- 
 torical mention of the place under its subsequent name 
 of Shushan. Upon the bas-reliefs of that monarch, at 
 Nineveh, are detailed the conquest of Susiana under 
 the name of "Madaktu," and the taking of the city 
 
 * " Outlines of Assyrian History," by Sir H. Rawlinson. See Twenty- 
 ninth Annual Report of the Royal Asiatic Society. 1852. 
 
 f Page 96. One of the royal names occurring at Susa, and on monuments 
 along the eastern shores of the Persian Gulf, is Tirhak — the same title as 
 that of the Ethiopian prince Tirhakah, who warred with Sennacherib (2 
 Kings xix. 9 ; Isa. xxxvii. 9). Susa appears to have been the head-quarters 
 of the true Cushites. 
 
 X V. 53, 54 ; viii. 151. 
 
 § Tiie magnificence and importance of ancient Susa are to be likewise in- 
 ferred from its representation upon the embroidered pallium, or shawl, of 
 Alcistheues of Sybaris, described in Aristotle's Memoiabilia.
 
 EAELY HISTORY OF SUSA. 337 
 
 "Shuslian," a ground plan of which appears upon the 
 sculptures."^' 
 
 The prominence given to this subject shews that a for- 
 midable rival of " Nineveh, that great city," existed in the 
 south-east, when, at the summit of her greatness and 
 renown, she held Babylon under her sway. Great con- 
 fusion exists in our histories of events subsequently to 
 this period, but it seems probable that, when Nabopolasser, 
 in 625 B.C., revolted against Assyrian dominion, and made 
 himself master of Babylon, he likemse seized Susiana as 
 a tributary province. It was apparently in this condition 
 when, after the defeat and death of Neriglissor, king of 
 Babylon, 554 B.C., Abradates, king of Susa, overcome by 
 gratitude to Cyrus for the protection offered to his wife,, 
 passed over with his forces to the Persians, and became 
 the firm ally of the conqueror. Cyrus, on the death of 
 Abradates, at the battle of Thymbra, a few years later, 
 according to Xenophon,t succeeded to the govern- 
 ment of the province of Susiana, and from that time 
 Susa is repeatedly mentioned in history. But here a 
 difficulty occurs in reconciling the Scriptural and profane 
 accounts of the period. From the book of Daniel| we 
 are led to conclude that Susa was once more restored to 
 the King of Babylon, which might have taken place by 
 truce about the time of the marriage of Cyrus, and of the 
 accession of Belshazzar to the throne of Babylon. How- 
 
 * See page 366. Mr Layard, at p. 445 et seq. of Nineveh and Babylon, gives 
 an interesting description of this monarch's bas-rehefs (upon which the 
 above names occur), discovered in the palace of his grandfather Sennacherib. 
 A palace, wholly erected by Ashur-bani-pal, was afterwards discovered and 
 partially explored by Mr Hormuzd Rassam, in one chamber of which was 
 a series of sculptures, in excellent preservation, recording the conquest of 
 Susiana. The most artistic productions of this king — the chef-(Voeuvres of 
 Assyrian sculpture — were obtained by myself from the lower story of the 
 same palace, and are now in the British Museum. 
 
 t Cyrop., V. 4, &c. 
 
 X Daniel viii. 1, 2.
 
 338 EARLY HISTORY OF SUSA. 
 
 ever this might be, we learn that a royal palace existed 
 there " in the third year of the reign of King Belshazzar," 
 for Daniel saw in a vision that he " was at Shuslian in the 
 palace, which is in the province of Elam."'^* It has been 
 attempted to prove that there were two cities of this name 
 in the pro^dnce of Siisiana : — one, the Shnshan of Scripture 
 in the Bakhtiyari mountains ; the other, the Susa of the 
 Greeks. It was supposed that the Scriptural expression, 
 " Shushan the palace," was indicative of a distinction from 
 some other city of the same name,t but the reasoning 
 was based on fallacious grounds, which it is not here 
 necessary to dilate upon. That Shushan and Susa are one 
 and the same, we learn from the agreement of Josephus 
 with Scripture. He mentions a famous edifice built by 
 Daniel at Susa in the manner of a castle, which, the Jewish 
 historian adds, was remaining in his time, and had been 
 finished with such wonderful art that even then it seemed 
 as fresh and beautiful as if only newly built. " AVithin 
 the edifice," he continues, " was the place where the Per- 
 sian and Parthian kings used to be buried ; and, for the 
 sake of the founder, the keeping of it was committed to 
 one of the Jewish nation even to that day.'' It is true 
 that the copies of Josephus, now extant, place this build- 
 ing at Ecbatana in Media ; but St Jerome, who also gives 
 an account of it, and professes to do so, word for word, 
 out of Josephus, places it in Susa in Persia. Josephus 
 calls this building Baris — the same name by which 
 Daniel himself distinguishes the castle or palace of Shu- 
 shan : for what we translate, at Shushan in the palace, is 
 in the original, Besh Shushan ha Birah.\ There is reason 
 to believe that Daniel might have erected an edifice at 
 Susa, because, in the reign of Belshazzar, he was evidently 
 
 • Daniel viii. 1, 2. 
 
 t J ournal of the Geogr. Society, vol. ix. p. 85. 
 
 X Ker Porter's Travels, ii. 411-414, Josephus Antiq. x. 12, which author 
 (iv. 114) also calls the fortress at Jcrusalinu " The Castle of Earis."
 
 EAELY HISTORY OF SUSA. 339 
 
 in office, — probably governor of the city, — since lie tells 
 us that lie "did the kino's luisiness/"''" 
 
 From the time of Cyrus, Susa became the chosen 
 Avinter-seat of the Persian kings, and was richly embel- 
 lished by succeeding monarchs. Under the sway of the 
 Achsemenian dynasty, it usurped the greatness of its 
 former rivals, Nineveh and Babylon. Strabot informs 
 us that "the building of Susa, its palaces, walls, and 
 temples, was similar to that of Babylon, of bricks and 
 cement," referring doul^tless to the period before the reign 
 of Darius, the son of Hystaspes, because we have, as will 
 be presently shewn, positive proof that marble structures 
 were erected by that king. It is certainly to these edifices 
 that Pliny alludes, j; when he attributes the foundation 
 of Susa to Darius. The estimation in which it was held 
 by neighbouring states may be gathered from the remark- 
 able speech of Aristagoras to Cleomenes King of Sparta, 
 when the former wished to engage him as an ally of the 
 lonians against Darius : — " Susa, where the Persian 
 monarch occasionally resides, and where his treasures are 
 deposited, — make yourself master of this city, and you 
 may vie in influence with Jupiter himself! "§ 
 
 Shushan is repeatedly mentioned in the books of Scrip- 
 ture at this period, in connexion with the return of the 
 Jews from captivity, and the rebuilding of the temple at 
 Jerusalem. One of the most interesting episodes in the 
 history of the great Persian capital is that recorded in the 
 Book of Esther, where the Jewish maiden is elevated 
 to the queenly dignity, and, by her influence over the 
 inind of the king Ahasuerus,|| enables her captive coun- 
 
 * Daniel viii. 27. t L. 15. X Lib. vi., ch. 27. 
 
 § Herodotus, Terps. 49. 
 
 II Almost every Medo-Persian king from Oyaxares I. down to Artaxerxes 
 HI. (Ochus) has in turn been advanced as the Ahasuenis of Esther. An 
 article in " Kitto's Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature" so admirably sums up 
 the question in favour of the Xerxes of Greek authors, that I cannot re-
 
 340 AHASUERUS OR XERXES. 
 
 trymou to defend themselves throuohout the kiiio-dom 
 against the irrevocable decree of that cruel monarch. 
 " Thus the Jews smote all their enemies with the stroke 
 of the sword, and slaughter and destruction, and did what 
 they would unto those that hated them. And in Shushan 
 the palace the Je\^'s slew and destroyed five hundred 
 men : "^ and in the king's }n\nduces were no fewer than 
 seventy-five thousand of their enemies slain. 
 
 It was from Shushan or Susa that the same monarch, 
 under the Greek name of Xerxes, set out on his ill-fiited 
 
 frain from quoting the following rather lengthy extract :— " On the gromid 
 of moral roseniblance to that tymnt (Aha^iuerus), every trait leads us to 
 Xerxes. The king who scoui-ged and fettered the sea ; who beheaded his 
 engineers because tlie oloiuent* destroyed their bridge over the H;plIespont ; 
 who so ruthlessly slew the eldest son of Pythins because his father besought 
 him to leave him one sole support of his declining years ; who dishonoured 
 the i-emains of the >'aliaut Leouidas ; and who beguiled the shame of his 
 defeat by such a course of sensuality, that he publicly oflei-ed a re^vard to 
 the inventor of a new pleasui-e— is just the despot to divorce !iis queen, 
 because she would not expose hei-self to the gaze of drunken revellers ; is 
 just the despot to devote a whole people, his subjects, to an indiscriminate 
 massacre ; and. by way of preventing that evil, to restore them the right of 
 self-defence, and thus to sanction their slaughtering thousjmds. 
 
 There are also remarkable coincidences of date Mween the 
 hist 017 of Xerxes and that of Ahasuerus. In the thii-d year of his reii^n the 
 latter gjive a grand feast to his nobles, which lasted one hundred and eightv 
 days (Esth. i. 3) ; the former, iu Aw third year, also assembled his chief 
 officers to deliberate ou the invasion of Gi-eece (HeixxL.vii. S). Kor would 
 we wonder to find no nearer agreement in the two accoimts than is 
 expressed in the mere fact of the nobles boing assembled. The two rela- 
 tions are quit* compatible ; each writer ouly mentioning that asjvct of the 
 
 event which had interest for him A<^in Ahasuerus 
 
 married IZsther, at Shushan. in the seventh year of his reign : in the same 
 year of /t is reign Xerxes returueil to Susa with the mortification of his defeat, 
 and sought to foi-get himself in pleasure ;— not an unlikely occasion for 
 that quest for fair vii-gius for the harem (Esth. ii. 5). Liv^tly, the tribute 
 imposed on the land and isles of the sea also acconis with the state of his 
 revenue, exhausted by his insane attempt agjiinst Gre^ece. In tine, these 
 arguments, ueg;\tive and affirmative, render it so highly prol\ibIe that 
 Xerxes is the Ahasuems of the Book of Esther, that to demand more con- 
 clusive evidence would be to mistake the very nature of the question."— 
 See Article ou Ahasueru*. 
 • Esther ix. 5, 6, &c
 
 7 
 
 I'sl I'eiuarkable 
 (hncient susa) 
 
 iisuaxe the axcavauans made there irv 
 ^missiDn for xht- deKrrritati'pr. of ^he 
 Tvirkc-PsraaT, 
 
 SCALE OP FEET 

 
 RICHES FOUND BY ALEXANDER. 341 
 
 expedition for the subjugation of Greece, and it was here 
 that on his return he deposited the immense treasures 
 (il)tained from the plunder of the temple at Delphi, and 
 the city of Athens. 
 
 StiU later, when Alexander broke the might of Persian 
 I ower at the battle of Arbela, we have Susa represented 
 as the depository of the wealth, produced by the exactions 
 imposed for several centuries upon the impoverished 
 districts of that great empire, which the " kings of kings" 
 vainly imagined they had amassed for their posterity. 
 We read that the governor of the province went out from 
 the city to meet the conqueror with presents worthy of 
 a king, and that on entering Susa, Alexander found in the 
 treasury immense sums of money, with fifty thousand 
 talents of silver"' in ore and ingots, five thousand quintals 
 of Hermione purple, t and among other articles a portion 
 of the property which Xerxes had carried off" from Greece: 
 There was, therefore, some foundation for the importance 
 attributed by Cleomenes to the possession of this treasure- 
 city! 
 
 Susa is repeatedly aUuded to by the historians of 
 Alexander's campaigns, and during the wars of his suc- 
 cessors, when it repeatedly changed hands. At length, 
 in the year 250 B.C., the Parthian Arsaces, raising the 
 standard of revolt against Antiochus Theos, made himself 
 master of all the eastern provinces of the Macedonian 
 empire beyond the Tigris, and founded the Parthian 
 empire, which endured until 226 a.d. Little is known 
 to us of this warhke people during the five centmies of 
 their dominion, but Susa continued one of the chief cities 
 of that race, and of the early Sassanian kings who suc- 
 ceeded them. In the second or third century of our era, 
 
 * About £7,500,000 sterling. 
 
 t A quintal is about a hundredweight ; the immense value of this cele- 
 brated purple is to be calculated at the rate of £25per lb.
 
 342 IMPORTANCE OF SUSA DECLINES. 
 
 a Christian see was estaLlished there ; but Susa gradually 
 declined before Ctesiphon, Jundi Shapur, and Shuster, 
 and was at length taken by the Mohammedans in the 
 eighteenth year of the Kalif Omar, a.d. 640. Coins were 
 struck there in a.d. 709, soon after which, date the place 
 seems to have been deserted in favour of adjoining towns 
 which were rising into importance ; and the history of its 
 former greatness alone remained in the recitations of 
 Persian poets, the exaggerated traditions of the people, 
 and the vastness of its mounds. 
 
 Such are the principal antecedents of Shush — as far 
 at least as it is possible to give them in moderate com- 
 pass. It is now proposed to describe the state of the 
 place previous to the excavations undertaken there in 
 1851-2. 
 
 If reference be made to a map of this region, it will be 
 seen that, soon after debouching into the plains from the 
 adjacent mountains, the two great rivers, the Kerkhah and 
 the river of Dizful, approach each other at right angles. 
 When within two and a quarter miles of forming a junc- 
 tion, they again recede from each other, the former to 
 pursue its course to the Shat-el-Arab, near Korna, and the 
 latter to join the Karun at Bender-ghil. At the point 
 where these rivers most nearly approximate, stand the 
 mounds of Shush, distant about three quarters of a mile 
 from the Kerkhah, and a mile and a half from the river 
 of Dizful. When the atmosphere is favourable, they are 
 clearly visible from Dizful city, and, with a telescope, I have 
 discerned them from the summit of the Mungerrah moun- 
 tains, thirty miles distant. At the eastern base of the 
 ruins stands the tomb of Daniel, on the verge of the 
 Shaour, a deep but narrow stream, rising from the plain 
 a few miles on the north, and flowing, at a sluggish pace, 
 towards its junction with the river of Dizful. The area 
 occupied by the ruins covers an extent of ground three
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE RUINS OF SUSA. 343 
 
 and a half miles in circumference, and, if the numerous 
 small mounds around the great mass be included, sjireads 
 over the whole visible plain east of the Shaour. To the 
 west of that stream are no ruins whatever. 
 
 The principal existing remains consist of four spacious 
 artificial platforms, distinctly separated from each other. 
 Of these the western mound is the smallest in super- 
 ficial extent, but considerably the most lofty and impor- 
 tant."^'" According to the trigonometrical measurement of 
 my friend Lieutenant Glascott, E.N., t the northern and 
 highest point is 119 feet above the level of the Sh4our at 
 the ford. In form it is an irregular, obtuse-angled, 
 triangle, with its corners rounded off", and its base facing 
 nearly due east. It is apparently constructed of earth, 
 gravel, and sun-dried brick, sections being exposed in 
 numerous ravines produced by the rains of winter. The 
 sides are so perpendicular as to be inaccessible to a horse- 
 man except at three places. J The measurement round the 
 summit is about 2850 feet. In the centre is a deep cir- 
 cular depression, probably a large court, surrounded by 
 elevated piles of building, the fall of which hns g-iven the 
 present configuration to the surface. Here and there are 
 exposed, in the ravines, traces of brick walls, which shew 
 that the present elevation of the mound has been attained 
 by much subsequent superposition. 
 
 About half-way down the slope of the south-west side§ 
 lies a large fragment of cherty-fracturing blue limestone, 
 
 * Numbered 1 on the Plan. 
 
 t From a series of observations of the same gentleman, the south pouit 
 of the mound (B on the plan) is in latitude 32° 11' 25" N., and its longitude 
 is roughly estimated at about 48° 27' 0" E. I may take this opportuiuty 
 to remark that the plan is chiefly due to the survey made with a prismatic 
 compass by Mr Churchill, the main points being afterwards correctly fixed 
 with the theodolite by Lieutenant Glascott. 
 
 X Two of these are represented on the plan of the mounds, the other la 
 at the south-west angle. 
 
 § At the end of trench A on plan.
 
 344 THE CITADEL OF SUSA. 
 
 wiiicli appears to have been part of an obelisk. The 
 upper srde bears thirty-three lines of complicated charac- 
 ters in a Sc}i:hic dialect of the cuneiform, not at present 
 deciphered, although iSir Henry Eawlinson has succeeded 
 in reading upon it the name of an early king called Susra."^^ 
 Other blocks of similar stone, and another of sandstone, 
 lie upon the plain below. 
 
 From the remarkably commanding position of the 
 great mound, which is called by the people of the 
 country, " the kal'a " or castle, I have no hesitation in 
 recocmisinsj in it the citadel of Susa, to which AiTiant 
 pointedly alludes in the following passage : — " When we 
 had sacrificed according to national custom, and held 
 torch races and athletic games, Alexander appointed 
 Abulites, a Persian, satrap of Susiana, gave the command 
 of the garrison (1000 disal^led Macedonian soldiers) in 
 the citadel of Susa, to Mazarus one of his own staff, and 
 made Archelaus, son of Theodorus, governor of the city 
 (with 3000 men) ; after which he set out to go into 
 Persia." The administration of civil affairs was entrusted 
 to the Persian, but with his usual admirable policy, the 
 military command of the place was su]:)mitted to the 
 Greek generals. The importance of the citadel, command- 
 ing the rest of the city, may be gathered from the fact 
 that he placed in it the well-tried soldiers who had followed 
 him from his own native kingdom of Macedonia. 
 
 It was here, too, that the advancing Moslem host en- 
 countered the obstinate defence of Hormuzan, satrap of 
 the Persian province, who, true to the cause of his fugi- 
 tive sovereign Yezdijird, for six months held the place 
 against all attacks. But courage and devotion were not 
 proof against treachery. One of the garrison revealed to 
 the besieo;ers a secret entrance throuo;h a conduit which 
 
 • Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. xii., p. 482, 
 t " Arriani Expeditio Alexandri," iii. 16.
 
 THE LOWER PLATFORMS. 345 
 
 supplied the castle with water ; the Arabs, enterino- hy 
 night, threw open the outer gates, and let their army'into 
 the court yards. Hormiizan, from the battlement's of a 
 strong tower or keep, held a parley with the Arab leader, 
 and, on promise of safe-conduct, finally yielded to the 
 Khalif, whose ad\Tser he subsequently became in the pro- 
 secution of the war with Persia. 
 
 Separated from the citadel on the west by a channel or 
 ravine, the bottom of which is on a level with the ex- 
 ternal desert, is the central great platform, covering upr 
 wards of sixty acres."''' The highest point is on the south 
 side, where it presents generally a perpendicular escarp- 
 ment to the plain, and rises to an elevation of about 
 seventy feet ; on the east and north it does not exceed 
 forty or fifty feet. The eastern fiice measures tlu-ee thou- 
 sand feet in length. Enormous ravines penetrate to the 
 very heart of the mound. 
 
 The north mound,t a considerable square mass, seems to 
 have been added at the north-west, and a smaller mass 
 at the south-east corner of this mound. A shght hollow 
 occurs between the north block and the main portion of 
 this great platform, and was perhaps an ancient road- 
 way. 
 
 The eastern platform, called upon the plan the ruins of 
 the city, I is very extensive, but its limits are less easily- 
 defined, because its edges sink gradually into the plain. 
 
 There are no traces of walls for the protection of the 
 city, and although Strabo alludes to them, it is probable 
 that Susa depended much more upon its natural defences, 
 the rivers of its pro\^nce, than upon earthen ramparts. 
 
 Upon the extensive series of low mounds, § extending 
 to the Dizful river, are two tombs. Imams 'Abbds and 
 
 • Numbered 3 on the Plan. t Numbered 2 on Plan. 
 
 X Numbtnod 4 on PIiui. 
 
 § Not shewn upon the Flan, from want of space.
 
 o46 ABUNDANCE OF WILD BEASTS. 
 
 Ibraliim-el-Khalil, which, like that of Daniel, are built of 
 bricks and small capitals of white marble from the ruins, 
 
 A canal, derived from the Kerkhah, about two miles 
 from the point where it enters the plain, passing round 
 the head source of the Shaour, flows to the north and 
 east of the great mass of mounds, and forms a small 
 marsh at the south-west base of the central platform. The 
 river Kerkhah has flowed considerably further east than 
 at present, and its old bed may be traced within a third 
 of a mile from the Shaour ; in ancient times it probably 
 defended the southern side of the city. Th& old bed to 
 which I allude is now a thick forest of tamarisk, poplar, 
 and acacia, and is said to be a celebrated cover for lions ; 
 in fact, I several times observed their traces here, and 
 the people of the country shun the neighbourhood. 
 
 Susa abounds in wild beasts and game, — ^hons, wolves, 
 lynxes, foxes, jackals, boars, porcupines, francolin, and a 
 small species of red-legged partridge, find shelter in the 
 density of the surrounding cover. During nine months in 
 the year the whole country is burned up by the sun's heat, 
 with an intensity which gives seme credence to Strabo's 
 report, that lizards and serpents could not crawl across 
 the streets at mid-day without being burnt.'^ At the 
 beginning of January, however, the young gTass, brought 
 into existence by the heavy rains, makes its ajDpearance, 
 and increases with a truly tropical rapidity and luxuri- 
 ance ; nowhere have I ever seen such rich vegetation as 
 that which clothes the verdant plains of Shush, inter- 
 spersed with numerous plants of a sweet-scented and 
 delicate iris.t 
 
 Far in the south is seen the continuation of the Ahwdz 
 
 * Strabo, xv. 3. 
 
 t Morcea Sisyrynchium, Kei*. {Iris Sisyrynchium, L.) By some persons it 
 is supposed that the abundance of this beautiful flower gave the name of 
 "Shlishan"— the Mly— to this locality.
 
 IMPOSING ASPECT OF ANCIENT SUSA. 347 
 
 low range, intervening between Susa and the plains of 
 Hawlza, while, on the north and north-east, are the 
 snow-topped chains of Ltirist^n and the Bakhtiyarf, skirted 
 by external and gradually lowering ridges of sandstone 
 and gravel conglomerate. 
 
 It is difficult to conceive a more imposing site than 
 Susa, as it stood in the days of its Kayanian splendour, — its 
 great citadel and columnar edifices raising their stately 
 heads above groves of date, konar, and lemon trees, — 
 surrounded by rich pastures and golden seas of corn, — 
 and backed by the distant snow-clad mountains. Neither 
 Babylon nor PersepoHs could compare with Susa in posi- 
 tion — watered by her noble rivers, producing crops 
 without irrigation, clothed with grass in spring, and 
 within a moderate journey of a delightful summer cHme. 
 Susa vied with Babylon in the riches which the Eu- 
 phrates conveyed to her stores, while Persepohs must have 
 been inferior, both in point of commercial position and 
 picturesque appearance. Under the lee of a great moun- 
 tain range, the columns of Persepolis rise like the masts of 
 chips taking shelter from a ctorm, and their otherwise 
 majestic appearance is lost in the^ magnitude of the huge, 
 bare, rocky mass towering above them. Susa, on the 
 contrary, stood on the open plain, with nothing in imme- 
 diate proximity to detract from her imposing and attrac- 
 tive tableau. How are the mighty fallen ! Where are 
 now those great cities of ancient Persia, whence issued 
 forth the formidable armaments destined to make even 
 heroic Greece tremble in her greatest and most palmy 
 days ^ How faithfully does their fate shadow forth that 
 of Persia itself, and act as a warning to the proud and 
 arrogant ? The vast hosts of Darius and Xerxes served 
 only to expose the riches and pride, as well as the weak- 
 ness and cowardice of the Oriental character, and a few 
 years brought with them the strong arm of Alexander,
 
 348 THE FATE OF SUSA TYPICAL OF PERSIA'S DOWNFALL. 
 
 the chastener and avenger. The line of Persia's ancient 
 monarchs was broken, and a son of insulted Greece 
 snatched the sceptre from the fallen dynasty. From that 
 time Persia sank lower and lower in the scale of nations ; 
 and, although the house of Sassan in some degree re- 
 gained the power and splendour of. the past, yet it was 
 only temporary; each succeeding century has seen the 
 vast empire of the king of kings getting deeper into the 
 mire, until, at, the present day, it has attained that pitch 
 of decay and degradation from which it is difficult to 
 foresee any speedy hope of regeneration or rescue.
 
 CHAPTEE XXVII. 
 
 Excavations commenced by Colonel Williams — A Burglar— Conviction 
 and Punishment — Gigantic Bell-sliaped Bases of Columns discovered 
 — A Year's Interruption — Proposed Resumption in 1852 — Journey 
 under the Protection of the Beni Lslm — The Scgwend Lurs — Hiring 
 of Native " Navvies" — Opposition of the Priesthood— The Cholera 
 ascribed to the late researches — The New Viceroy, Khanler Mfrza. 
 
 No time was lost, after Colonel Williams' arrival at the 
 ruins, in commencing excavations. As there might be 
 some difficulty in obtaining Arab workmen, notwith- 
 standing the specious pro^nises of Sheikh Musa'd, the 
 under-servants of the Commission were at once em- 
 ployed in digging a trench from the prostrate and in- 
 scribed slab on the south side of the citadel, into the very 
 heart of the mound.'"" By sunset they had opened a 
 trench, forty feet long and nine feet deep, much to the 
 astonishment of the few Arabs who watched the proceed- 
 ing, and wondered at the audacity of the Firenghi elchi. 
 The only discovery made this day was a cylindrical 
 sepulchral vase, of baked clay, three feet long, and eleven 
 inches in diameter at the mouth, rounded at the opposite 
 extremity; the interior being hned with bitumen, and 
 containing the bones of a child, and a few beads. It was 
 one of those vases which I attribute to the Sassanians. 
 
 On the second day, an order arrived from Suleyman 
 Khan with permission for the Arabs to aid Colonel 
 Williams, — but only a small party could be induced to 
 accept the keran a day offered for their services, the 
 
 • At A on Plan.
 
 350 A NOCTURNAL THIEF. 
 
 chiefs keeping out of the way. At lengtli, on the third 
 day, Sheikh Musad, and his son Ha'waychum, called to 
 pay their dutiful respects to the elchi, but more particu- 
 larly to ask the loan of ten tomans, which they promised to 
 repay in as many days — a rather cool request on a first visit! 
 Not succeeding in their wishes, they returned to their tents 
 evidently dissatisfied with the result of their errand. 
 
 Sheikh Mtisa'd was required to provide a guard of 
 his people to watch over the safety of our property, and 
 nightly at sunset a dozen of his ill-looking rascals, 
 with bristly beards and bitumen clubs, marched, or rather 
 straggled into camp, to be stationed at various* eligible 
 points for the prevention of surprise. Five nights sub- 
 sequent to the demand for tomans, an event occurred which 
 speedily deprived us of the near neighbourhood of Sheikh 
 Miis^'d's camp. It was the duty of one of the bekjis to 
 keep guard upon mj^ tent and that of Lieutenant Glascott, 
 situated on the south edge of the great mound. I was 
 suddenly awakened in the dead of the night by a rustling 
 noise against the canvass; but, as jackals and foxes had 
 taken an especial liking to the camp, and prowled about, 
 committing all sorts of strange antics and depredations, 
 such as biting tent ropes and stealing corn bags from off 
 the very noses of the horses, I supposed that some of 
 these animals were taking their usual diversions, but be- 
 came at last convinced that a human being was effecting 
 an entrance into my tent. I imagined that, by getting 
 quietly out of bed, the unwelcome intruder might be 
 cauoht; but, unfortunately, the noise I made in rising 
 betrayed my intentions, — a signal was given, and a des- 
 perate tug at the canvass announced that the intruder 
 had fled. I quickly followed in the direction he took 
 towards the adjoining tent, where the bekji sat crouch- 
 infif in such an attitude as at once convicted him of being 
 an accomplice. He Avas seized, and placed in custody until
 
 C01«IV1CTI0N AND PUNISHMENT. 351 
 
 daybreak, notwithstanding his protestations of innocence. 
 On examination it was discovered that two of my 
 tent-pegs were drawn, and the onter curtain propped 
 up by a short chib, two pegs of the inner wall were 
 likewise removed, several articles of apparel strewed 
 about, and one or two actually gone. Next day. 
 Colonel Williams sent for the sheikh, but the prisoner, (jf 
 course, declared he had nothing to do with the matter, 
 although the stick propping up the tent was proved 
 to be his. Musad drew his sword and threatened to 
 cut the fellow down unless he confessed, but he still 
 persisted in his innocence. Musa'd then proposed to 
 take and punish him at his own camp ; but the elchi, not to 
 be imposed upon by an Arab, insisted that the fellow should 
 either be punished on the spot, or sent into Dizfiil. The 
 latter arrangement did not exactly suit the sheikh's book, 
 for, although the thief would have been punished by the 
 amputation of a hand or arm, Musa'd himself would 
 have lost that which he valued much more — namely, a 
 good round sum of kerans by way of fine. Ha' way chum 
 was therefore called upon by his worthy father to perform 
 the part of Ferash bashi (executioner) with the thick stick 
 he usually carried. The wretched culprit was tied hand 
 and foot, crying for mercy — but that, alas! was in vain 
 — down went the blows as fast as hail upon any part 
 of his body which was uppermost — no matter whether, 
 loUing over in agony, he presented his back, stomach, 
 leg, foot, elbow, head, or nose, — Ha'waychum shewed no 
 compassion tiU the stick was reduced to sphnters, and 
 himself exhausted ! "When the punishment was con- 
 cluded, the released sufferer in an instant disappeared 
 like a shot over the edge of the mound, as though the 
 punishment had diffused extra life and activity into his 
 bones and muscles ! 
 
 It was to be naturally expected that this example
 
 352 EVIDENCES OF MAGNIFICENT STRUCTURES. 
 
 would have deterred further theft ; but no i on the fol- 
 lowing mornino; our best mule was missino;, and two 
 others were caught running loose with their ropes cut. 
 The consequence of these contretenivps was, that the Arabs 
 were afraid to work lest any of them should be suspected 
 and punished like the bekji on the previous day. Two 
 mornings later, smoke rising from the adjoining mound 
 announced that Miisa'd and his tribe had departed, and, 
 as usual, fired the refuse of their camp. 
 
 Up to this time, three trenches, dug into the citadel 
 mound to the depth of nineteen feet, failed to discover 
 anything except portions of a brick pavement, — fra<gments 
 of moulded composition-bricks stamped with cuneiform, 
 and covered with green glaze, — and"'^ a large piece of 
 copper like the lining of a water-tank, which, being left 
 upon the mound, was soon cut up and carried away 
 piecemeal by the Arabs. 
 
 When reduced once more to our own resources, Colonel 
 AVilliams directed his attention to the numerous blocks 
 and pieces of limestone lying upon the surface of the 
 mounds, especially upon the north and central platforms, 
 in the hoj^e that some discovery might be made, which 
 would justify the opening of trenches at some particular 
 spot. It was evident that some magnificent structures 
 once existed at Susa, for the surface of the mounds was 
 strewed with fragments of fluted columns, which had 
 frequently attracted the notice of travellers. 
 
 Near E on the plan was a large block of blue limestone, 
 about ten feet square and three feet thick, projecting 
 through the soil, and resting on a gravel foundation. It 
 was doubtless the basement stone of a broken fluted 
 column lying near at hand. Further westward was a 
 considerable growth of mimosa plant, whose prickles ren- 
 dered a passage through them a mt.tter of difliculty to 
 
 • At C, on General Plan of Mounds.
 
 DISCOVERY OF BELL-SHAPED BASES OF COLUMNS. 353 
 
 ourselves and damage to our clotliing. This underwood 
 extended along the edges of a rectangular projection, near 
 the middle of the north mound, which I conceive to have 
 l)e8n added at a late period to the north-western extremity 
 of the gi^eat central platform. 
 
 Near the north-w^est angle of this projection among 
 the brushwood, Colonel Williams observed a small piece 
 of limestone projecting through the soil, and on excavat- 
 ing around it, discovered the gigantic monolith base of a 
 column in situ:''' Further excavations revealed two 
 similar bases t at equal distances apart, twenty-seven and 
 a half feet from centre to centre, and four feet below the 
 surface. They were buried below vegetable soil, a pavement 
 of coarse bricks, a layer of lime cement, and gravel. They 
 rested on rough limestone slabs, nine feet square by one 
 foot ten inches thick, and were all unfortunately broken 
 off at three feet four inches from the basement ; but sub- 
 sequently there w^as discovered near them a fragment of 
 the upper part of the base with the torus attached, from 
 which Mr Churchill w^as able to make a carefully-restored 
 drawing of a perfect base. There could be no hesitation in 
 concluding that Colonel Williams had discovered a palace 
 of the ancient Persian monarchs at Susa, rivalling, if not 
 surpassing, that at Persepolis in grandem*. The bases 
 were bell-shaped, and richl}^ carved, in representation of 
 the inverted flower of a plant which we usually term the 
 Egyptian lotus. The following are measurements care- 
 fully taken : — 
 
 Diameter at the swell of the hell, 8 ft. 4 in. 
 
 „ „ torus, 5 „ 4 „ 
 
 Height of plinth, . . 2 in. 
 
 „ from plinth to torus, 4 ft. 1 in. 
 
 Total height of bases, 4 ft. 3 in. 
 
 The general form, the dimensions, and the peculiar style 
 
 * Number 7 of Plan, page 366. t Numbers 6 and 5.
 
 354 CONDUCT OF THE ARABS. 
 
 of ornamentation employed, cannot fail to remind the 
 observer of the column leases in the Great Hall, attributed 
 to Xerxes, at Persepolis, but those of Susa are infinitely 
 more OTaceful in desio;n and detail, exhibitins; round the 
 swell of the bell an elegant and elaborate wreath, formed 
 by alternate buds and perfect flowers of the lotus."^^ 
 
 At the western foot of the mound were the breast of 
 a fractured bull, enormous fragments of fluted columns, 
 and portion of a fourth base similar lO the other three, 
 amidst a quarry of debris. 
 
 Trenches were then carried from two ol the pedestals, 
 fifty-five feet into the mound; and, from l^he .centre of 
 the third monolith, holes were dug twenty-seven feet 
 apart, in the expectation of others being found. Exca- 
 vations were likewise made at E (on the General Plan), 
 but nothing further could then be discovered of the 
 elegant building to which the fragments undoubtedly 
 belonoed. 
 
 During a month's residence at Shush, Colonel Wil- 
 liams' researches were much interrupted by the miscon- 
 duct of the Arabs, as well as by the heavy spring rains, 
 which at times threatened to wash our encampment 
 bodily into the swollen Shaour below. Suleyman Khan 
 was much annoyed at the behaviour of our neighbours, 
 and there can be little doubt that, except for his pre- 
 sence at Dizfiil, the Arabs would have declined to 
 lend the little aid they did. None of the great sheikhs 
 
 • See woodcut, page 360. The beautiful design, which so frequently oc- 
 curs upon the sculptures at Nineveh and on the column bases at Susa and 
 Persepolis, is usually supposed to represent the flower of the Egyptian 
 lotus {Npnphcea Lotus), but it may ecjually well be intended for the 
 Egyptian bean {Nelumbium speciosum), the Kvajios of Pythagoras, now no 
 longer an inhabitant of the Nile, but indigenous to the East Indian rivers. 
 In some cases, however, as in a slab recently exhumed from Nineveh, 
 the flower is evidently that of the common white Uly of our gardens 
 {Lilium candidum).
 
 KHtJZlSTAN IN 1851. 355 
 
 paid tlie respects which were customary towards a per- 
 son in the official position of Colonel Williams. Their 
 utter detestation of the Firenghi was evinced in every 
 possible mode. They refused to sell corn or sheep to 
 our party ; they abused our servants whenever they 
 met ; and they kept themselves as far as possible from 
 the contaminating and dreaded influence of the hateful 
 strangers. 
 
 At leno;th the season arrived for the Commissioners 
 to resume their labours and conferences at the " de- 
 bateable land " of Mohammerah ; and once more the 
 green plains and healthy mounds of Susa were deserted 
 for the less agreeable deserts on the borders of the Hafar. 
 We all regretted the sad alternative, but duty required 
 our presence upon the frontier. 
 
 Before any attempt was made to resume excavations 
 at Susa, another year elapsed, during which interval 
 great changes had taken place in Khuzistan. The 
 threatened discharge of Suleyman Khan from the ad- 
 ministration of the province actually took jDlace : bribery 
 and court intrio;ue had done their work. The Christian 
 had played the same game, and ventiu-ed a high stake ; a 
 purse of tomans to the Shah, and 20,000 more to the 
 Amir, were spent in vain, — Khaider Mirza, the favourite 
 uncle of the Shah, took possession of the province. He 
 had previously governed the Gidpaigin district, near 
 Isfahan, where his stern and unflinching distribution of 
 justice gained him the greatest respect. To this were 
 now added Luristan, Khuzistan, and the Bakhtiyari moun- 
 tains, so that Khanler Mlrza ruled over the largest, 
 richest, and most important region throughout Persia. 
 As a natural consequence of the change of governors, the 
 whole of the above districts were in an excited state, and 
 with difficulty prevented from breaking out into open 
 rebellion. A few judicious examples were made by the
 
 356 PROPOSED RESUMPTION OF EXCAVATIONS. 
 
 Prince, whose iron rule soon made itself felt, alike among 
 Liirs and Arabs. At the end of 1851, the only disaflfec- 
 tion still existing throughout the Prince's dominion was 
 at its north-western extremity, among a division of the 
 Feyli Liirs. 
 
 In the interim, the delimitation of the Turko-Persian 
 frontier proceeded but slowly, and December 1851 
 saw the four Commissions assembled at Zohab, in the 
 Persian province of Kermanshah, without any material 
 results of their labours. Letters were there received 
 from Colonel Eawlinson, at Baghdad, stating that, during 
 the previous session, a sum of £500 had been "voted by 
 Parliament, and placed at his disposal, for the purpose of 
 making further researches at Susa. Lord Palmerston's con- 
 sent had likewise been obtained, authorising my being em- 
 ployed in excavations, when not otherwise more profitably 
 engaged. As the movement of the Commissioners was 
 directed from Zohab towards the south, keeping along the 
 plains, my services as geologist could, for the present, 
 be dispensed with by Colonel Williams, who therefore 
 directed me to proceed to Baghdad, and receive Colonel 
 Eawlinson's instructions concerning the prosecution of 
 excavations at Susa. 
 
 In the middle of January I once more rejoined the 
 Commission at Mendeli, whence, provided with letters to 
 the Prince, and armed with the Shah's firman, I prepared 
 for an adventurous journey of two hundred miles across 
 the desert to Dizfiil. I travelled under circumstances of 
 more than ordinary difficulty, none of the authorities 
 being willing to ensure my safety. The region, through 
 which portion of my route lay, belongs to the Beni Lam 
 Arabs, who are nominally subject to the Pasha of Bagh- 
 dad, although that dignitary has really little influence 
 over them. During the winter and spring months, the 
 numerous Persian tribes of the Feyll Liirs desccn^ from
 
 JOURNEY TO SUSA — INSECURITY OF THE ROUTE. :357 
 
 their mountain fastnesses, and pasture tlieir flocks upon 
 the same plains. As these occupants of the country be- 
 long to distinct races, and speak different languages, 
 distrust and warfare are of constant occurrence between 
 them. Two feelings, however, they have in common : — 
 intense hatred to their respective and nominal sovereigns, 
 and bigoted intolerance towards all but tlieir own sect 
 of Sheah Mohammedans. Methkur, the Beni Lam Slui]<li. 
 being considerably in arrear Avith his annual tribute to 
 the Baghdad treasury, was endeavouring to elude the 
 Pasha's messengers. 'AH Kli4n, the chief of the Segwend 
 Lurs, was, as I have just said, in open rebellion against 
 the new governor of Khiizistan ; he was a relative of that 
 Kelb 'All Khan, who murdered our countrymen, Grant 
 and Fotheringham, and was equally notorious for his 
 cruelty and want of faith. Carrying with me letters to 
 the Prince, and a large sum of ready money for the 
 commencement of the excavations, but being without 
 protection from any party, it must be admitted that my 
 prospects were not very encouraging."^'' However, in ad- 
 dition to my own little staff of domestics, the Persian 
 Commissioner, Mlrza Jafer Khan, with his usual prompti- 
 tude, placed at my disposal two of his mehmendars, and 
 I was joined by two Bakhtiyari servants of Seyid 
 Mustapha — an influential religious chief of Dizful, enjoy- 
 ing British protection, — one of the most daring and 
 unscrupulous of intriguers. Thus we mustered a tolerably 
 strong party. 
 
 Mirza Jafer Kh^n had supplied me with letters to the 
 
 ♦ I had before me Mr Layard's \varning of the insecurity of the route 
 (Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xvi, p. 89). but there was 
 no alternative, unless I chose to take the long journey by Busrah and up the 
 Kdrdn. Any laudation from me is, I am aware, superfluous, but I cannot 
 omit to express my sense of the value of that gentleman's geographical 
 communication upon the region in question. It is full of the most accurate 
 and detailed information-
 
 358 OBTAIN PROTECTION OF THE BENf LAM. 
 
 chief of all the Feyli Liirs, but, at the conclusion of my 
 third day's journey, the people of Baghcha-Seray, a small 
 village on the Persian side of the frontier, refused either 
 to admit me within their walls, or to furnish me with a 
 guide to their chief or elsewhere. Under these circum- 
 stances, I deemed it ad^dsable to seek the protection of 
 the Beni Lam Sheikh, and, for this purpose, diverged 
 towards the bank of the Tigris. Falling in with a few 
 tents of his tribe, I obtained a guide, who undertook to 
 conduct me to his camp, distant two days' journey, amid 
 the sand-hills of the Tib. It was fortunate that I took 
 this course. Methkur was flattered by my j)laci*ig myself 
 under his protection and guidance ; while the present of 
 a bag of coffee, and a rich piece of green silk for a dress, 
 made him my friend and " brother," and subsequently 
 secured me from the depredations of his whole tribe during 
 my third residence on the mounds at Shush. The Beni 
 Lam are notorious thieves, and their name is said to be 
 derived from the followins; tale : — 
 
 " An ancient king, passing through the tribe, ordered 
 each man to bring a kid's-skin full of milk to a cer- 
 tain place for the supply of his troops. The skins 
 were duly brought, weU filled out ; but, on the milk being 
 measured, there proved to be only half the quantity or- 
 dered. It appeared that each milkman had unwittingly 
 stumbled upon the same expedient to cheat the troops 
 and save his own dairy, their skins were half-fiUed with 
 wind. Hence the tribe was called 'Lam,' the Persian 
 for knave or black-leg ! " Such, at least, is the Persian 
 explanation. 
 
 Methkur's protection was valid among the insurgent 
 Segwendis, whose camp lay on my next day's journey. 
 *Ali Khan at first seemed disposed to be inhospitable, and, 
 perhaps, thought what a diversion it would be to his re- 
 spected followers if he gave the order for an onslaught
 
 'ALI KHAN and the SEGWENDfS. 359 
 
 on the party. His fears, or better feelings, however, pre- 
 vailed, and he feasted me that night on good wheaten 
 bread and national lamb. If any truth is to be placed 
 in physiognomy, that of 'All Khan fully justified the 
 character he received ; his tribe, too, was the most extra- 
 ordinary assemblage of animals bearing the human form 
 that I ever set eyes upon. They had high shoulders, 
 long legs, pucker-faces, and (if the Lamarckian theory of 
 transmutation of species be true) perhaps also long 
 tails, although I will not vouch for this fact, not having 
 had an opportunity of making a minute zoological ex- 
 amination. They could not, however, have been so far 
 advanced in the scale of progression as those men with 
 tails, whom it is said the French naturalist, M. Castel- 
 man, heard of in Abyssinia, because the latter possessed 
 benches with holes in them, through which they passed 
 their tails ; the Segwendis w^ere not so civilized as even 
 to construct a bench ! Had we encountered this strange 
 race in the deserts without Methkur's protection, our safety 
 would not have been valued at a straw. As it was, how- 
 ever, 'All Khan provided a guide, in addition to the Arab 
 sent by the sheikh, and by his assistance w^e crossed the 
 river Kerkhah at a dangerous ford, and ultimately arrived 
 in safety at Dizful. 
 
 His Highness the Prince, since his accession of terri- 
 tory, had done away with the steps and stairs by which 
 the bridge was previously crossed. He had only just de- 
 parted for the Nahr Hashem, where a bund was in course 
 of erection, for the purpose of restoring the river Kerk- 
 hah to the ancient channel past the town of Hawiza, 
 which was abandoned by the stream in 1832. A mes- 
 senger was despatched to him with my letters, and m a 
 few days I received a reply, stating that " aU my wishes 
 should be gratified," and that he would return to Dizful 
 in a few days.
 
 360 HIRING OF WORKMEN. 
 
 In the interim I made no secret of my intentions, but 
 j;ave notice to all my visitors that the excavations were 
 about to be resumed. At the same time I took care to 
 exhibit the Shah's firman, so that the news spread like 
 wildfire through the bazaars that the Firenghis were 
 come again to dig for gold at Shush ! The regular pay 
 and circulation of money during Colonel AVilliams' ex- 
 cavations had produced an improved feeling among the 
 lower classes towards Europeans. The Arabs, it is true, 
 did not shew much disposition to aid me, but the agri- 
 cultural Liirs from the adjoining villages flocked in from 
 all directions anxious for employment. Th^ previous 
 conduct of the Arabs on two occasions, and their present 
 shyness, were not such inducements that I should rely 
 upon them alone ; whereas the Lilrs were strong,* hardy 
 mountaineers, accustomed and able to handle the spade. 
 I engaged seventy at the rate of half a keran per day, 
 equivalent to fivepence of our money, and ascertained that, 
 with a day's notice, two or three hundred more could be 
 secured on the same reasonable terms. Two-thirds of 
 the Ltirs agreed to take their own implements. Addi- 
 tional spades, axes, pulleys, ropes, and other necessaries 
 were daily accumulated, and nothing was now wanting but 
 an interview with the Prince, and his full permission to 
 enable me to break ground without delay. 
 
 It must not be supposed that the priests and holy men 
 of Dizffil observed my open proceedings with favour. 
 They used every endeavour to thwart my plans, but this 
 was done secretly, because they knew Khanler Mirza 
 to be no friend to their order. Since the last visit of 
 the British Commission, cholera had committed ex- 
 tensive ravages throughout the province, — this was, of 
 course, attributed by them to Colonel "Williams' excava- 
 tions " at Danyel 1 " When it became known to the 
 mujtehid that the Lfirs were offering themselves, several
 
 PRIESTLY OPPOSITION. 361 
 
 of the poor fellows were called into his presence, and told 
 that, if they escaped being killed by the falling of the 
 trenches, they would assuredly die of cholera before the 
 expiration of the year ! The act of digging into those 
 mounds was a sacrilege, and there was no hope for of- 
 fenders who ventured to transgress after the priestly warn- 
 ing! Love of gain, however, proved infinitely more po- 
 tent than the threats of the priesthood or the fear of 
 death. When kerans became plentiful in the hands of the 
 workmen, and were spent in the bazaars, even the green- 
 turbaned descendants of the Prophet, seized with the 
 general fever after wealth, forsook their usual avocations, 
 and hastened to the trenches ! 
 
 xA.s soon as the Prince arrived at his camp on the cliff 
 opposite to the town of Dizfiil, I received an invitation to 
 his tent. Having had the advantage of his previous ac- 
 quaintance, I was received by him in the most affable and 
 courteous manner. The letters, of which I was the bearer, 
 had evidently given him much pleasure. His Highness, 
 Khanler Mirza, might then be about thirty-five years of 
 age, and was a remarkably handsome man, although 
 somewhat pale, the result, it was whispered, of dissipa- 
 tion. His intelligent features, high forehead, full black 
 eyes, and aquiline nose, would have anywhere rendered 
 him an object of attraction. He did not generally bear 
 a o;ood name, but, from circumstances which afterwards 
 presented themselves to my notice, I arrived at the con- 
 clusion that he was an admirable governor of a Persian 
 province, stern and unrelenting to the criminal, but 
 usually mild and lenient towards others. If he called on 
 his subjects for a large increase of their taxes, (the chief 
 charge against him), it was, I would fain believe, with the 
 intention of applying the proceeds to the pul)lic good. He 
 was building and repairing bridges, erecting dams for the 
 better distribution of water, and engaged in other sub-
 
 362 KHANLER MfEZA, THE NEW VICEROY, 
 
 stantial works, which, if fully carried out, would be of the 
 utmost consequence to the prosperity of Khuzistan, He 
 was reported to be cruel in his punishments, but that is 
 as much the fault of the people as of their rulers : they 
 never have a due respect for the authority of a governor 
 unless a few executions take place on his assumption of 
 office. Such examples are therefore absolutely necessary 
 to awe a province into good behaviour for at least a 
 reasonable time. 
 
 He soon introduced the name of Shush, and shewed that 
 he took great interest in the excavations at the palace of 
 " Darab " (as he correctly called the column bases S,beady 
 exposed), which he had carefully examined one day while 
 hunting in the neighbourhood. On my stating .that I 
 had engaged some Lurs, subject to his approval, he inter- 
 rupted me, " But," said he, " you are going to pay them 
 too much ! I hear you have engaged them at a keran 
 a-head, because, when I wanted labourers for the bund 
 at Nahr Hashem, they refused to come for the usual 
 rate of pay, alleging that you were offering twice as 
 much/' I told him, with a kno^ving look, that he knew 
 the people of the country better than myself, but that 
 half-a-keran was the sum I had agreed to give them. He 
 fuUy comprehended me, and returned my look with com- 
 pound interest, exclaiming, with a smile, "A keran, indeed! 
 The dogs' fathers never saw so much money ! " 
 
 His recent visit to the bund at Nahr Hashem had evi- 
 dently much annoyed him. His engineers, if such a term 
 could be applied to the parties employed, had made a 
 complete failure of their work, and consequently a large 
 portion of it was carried away by a sudden rise of the river. 
 " But," said the Prince, " before I leave Dizful for the moun- 
 tains, inshaUah ! I shall have it finished ! " As I rose to 
 depart he gave me strict injunctions that, if any one mis- 
 behaved in the slightest degree, or failed to shew me the
 
 KHANLER MI'RZA, THE NEW VICEROY. 3G3 
 
 same deference he should himself expect if there, I should 
 inform him without delay ; if I did not, the fault woukl 
 be my own. The same instructions were given to Feth 
 UUah Khan, one of his trusty men, whom he ordered to 
 watch over my safety, and obey my orders. 
 
 Heavy rain prevented my leaving Dizfid for a couple 
 of days, after which my tents were pitched upon the north- 
 west platform, within a few hundred feet of the column 
 bases. My seventy workmen duly made their appear- 
 ance, spade on shoulder, ready to commence operations as 
 soon as the order should be issued. Having no tents, the 
 sanctity of Daniel's tomb was soon violated, and its old 
 roof rung with the chorus of wild Lurish songs, which 
 seventy lusty throats screeched forth untiringly.
 
 CHAPTEK XXVIII. 
 
 The Great Palace of Darius at Susa — Columns with Double-bull 
 Capitals — Trilingual Inscrii^tions of Artaxerxes Mnemon — " Court 
 of the Garden" of Esther — Columnar and Curtain Architecture — 
 Origin of the Susian and Persepolitan Style — Worship of Tangjtis or 
 Venus. 
 
 On looking around the vast area of mounds, and tjon- 
 sidering the small sum at my disposal for the investigation 
 of their contents, I was almost tempted to regard my 
 enterprize as a hopeless one. There was an exceedingly 
 bare prospect of making any important discovery near 
 the site of the columns ak-eady exhumed, because of the 
 slight depth of the earth. However, with them before 
 me, and the certainty that some other portion of the 
 building must exist near at hand, I resolved to proceed 
 and endeavour to ascertain the plan of the edifice to 
 which they belonged : possibly something of interest might 
 turn up among the fragments. There was a probability, 
 too, that a stylobate existed, as in the palaces at Perse- 
 polis, adorned with sculptures and inscriptions. I there- 
 fore decided on driving several trenches into the mound 
 from the edges, commencing, in the first place, near the 
 columns. My efforts in their immediate neighbourhood* 
 were wholly unsuccessful, but, on the first day, a trench 
 one hundred and twenty-five feet distant, close on the 
 north side of the platform, struck upon a large basement 
 
 • At F on the General Plan of the ruins, page 343.
 
 THE GEEAT HALL OF COLUMNS AT SUSA. 365 
 
 slab of blue limestone (at No. 9 on the Plan, see next page). 
 Upon its sm-face could be distinctly traced a circle, eight 
 feet four inches in diameter, a proof that it formcrh- my- 
 ported a column of precisely similar dimensions to' those 
 already laid bare (Nos. 5, 6, 7). 
 
 From the centre of this slab, twenty-seven feet three 
 inches were measured off on either side along the scarp 
 of the mound, and a similar slab discovered in each posi- 
 tion. I was not, however, equally fortunate with holes 
 dug at the same distances from the centres of these slabs 
 towards the centre of the mound. Colonel Williams had 
 in like manner tailed to find any indications of a second 
 row of columns. I tried a series of holes at equal dis- 
 tances beyond those last made, but with no better success. 
 Not satisfied with this, I opened a long trench from my 
 first-discovered basement slab, passed the two holes, and, 
 at the distance of sixty-eight feet four inches from its 
 centre, reached a gigantic monolith pedestal. It mea- 
 sured eight feet square, and two feet five inches high, at 
 which point there was a flat ledge, nine inches deep ; 
 beyond this again the monolith rose a foot higher, and 
 was then broken off'. Farther on, in the same line, with 
 a like inter-columniation of twenty-seven feet three inches, 
 occurred four similar square pedestals, more dilapidated 
 than the first, and a vacant space for another, thus 
 marking, in all, the positions of six columns. 
 
 A trench at right angles to the other, was now dug 
 from the square base first discovered, and disclosed, at 
 similar distances apart, four additional square pedestals 
 on the east, and one on the west (in row 1, 3, of the 
 Plan). 
 
 I was now satisfied that the structure was one of 
 similar description to the so-called Great Hall of Xerxes 
 at Persepolis. Further researches not only confirmed this 
 impression, but proved Hkewise that, although the two
 
 366 
 
 THE GREAT HALL OF COLUMNS AT SUSA. 
 
 colonnades differed in details, tliey were erected on the 
 same plan, and with nearly the same measurements. It 
 is therefore natural to conclude that they were the designs 
 of the same architect. 
 
 The accompan}^g ground plan of the palace at Susa 
 iorves to explain its arrangement. It may, however, be 
 
 ^»wMm 
 
 ■/■'Hi 
 
 ^~ Coh:mj\ >)ases or basement 
 ^* slabs actually discovered. 
 
 ^_ Positions of columns not 
 ^ sought for. 
 
 a 
 
 Column bases with trilingual 
 inscriptions. 
 
 Position of a column, no por- 
 tion of which was found.
 
 THE GEEAT HALL OF COLUMNS AT SUSA. 367 
 
 necessary briefly to remark, for the information of those 
 with whom the Persepolitan structure^'' is not famihar, 
 that the Great Hall at Siisa consisted of several mao-ni- 
 ficent groups of columns, together having a frontage 
 of three hundred and forty-three feet nine inches, and 
 a depth of two hundred and forty-four feet. These 
 groups were arranged into a central phalanx of thirty-six 
 columns (six rows of six each), flanked on the west, 
 north, and east, by an equal number, disposed in double 
 rows of six each, and distant from them sixty-four feet 
 two inches. 
 
 Of the inner phalanx the positions of twenty-one 
 columns were determined, and many others doubtless 
 might be discovered by excavation ; but, as it was 
 necessary to make the utmost use of my funds, I was 
 obliged to rest satisfied with ascertaining the actual 
 plan of the edifice. 
 
 Of the external groups, there remained on the west, 
 three t of the inner row — the original discovery of Colonel 
 Williams, — and a large fragment of another among the 
 debris upon the slope of the mound. It doubtless be- 
 longed to the outer row of the same group. 
 
 Three large basement slabs of the inner row alone 
 remained of the northern series; — but, of the eastern 
 group, the positions of two in each row were ascertained ; 
 the rest are either still buried, or had long since fallen 
 down the slope of the mound. 
 
 It was in consequence of the outer rows being destroyed 
 in the western and northern groups, that neither Colonel 
 Williams nor myself at first succeeded in finding the rest 
 of the columns. We might have dug holes all over the 
 
 * For details regarding Persepolis and its palaces, I may refer the reader 
 to the admirable works of Chardin, Le Brun, Niebuhr, Texier, Ker Porter, 
 Flaudin and Coste, and Fergusson. 
 
 + Numbered 5, 6, 7, on the Plan.
 
 368 THE GREAT HALL OF COLUMNS AT SUSA. 
 
 mounds at twenty-seven feet three inclies apart, com- 
 mencing from our separate starting points, and neither of 
 us would by this means have discovered another column ! 
 As another instance of the luck attending excavations, I 
 may mention that Colonel Williams actually dug two 
 trenches* between the rows of columns ; whereas a few 
 feet deviation from the straight line must have inevitably 
 revealed one of them ! 
 
 In the Great Hall at Persepolis there are clearly two 
 orders of columns ; the same coincidence obtained at 
 Susa, but as none of the shafts remain erect at the latter 
 locality, it is impossible to speak unhesitatingly concern- 
 ing the entire details. We know for a certainty, however, 
 that the inner phalanx possessed square bases, while those 
 of the outer groups were bell-shaped. All the shafts were 
 undoubtedly fluted like those at Persepolis, but beyond 
 this point there must remain much conjecture. Strewed 
 in inextricable confusion among the monoliths were huge 
 portions of the fallen columns ; these were so abundant 
 that I was able to take correct measurements, and, with 
 Mr Churchill's assistance, to restore the various details of 
 one variety of compound capital, identical (except in a 
 few unimportant particulars) with those in the external 
 groups at Persepolis. This capital evidently consisted of 
 four distinct parts, as shewn in the accompanying wood- 
 cut, which is reduced from Mr Churchill's drawings of the 
 originals. t They are probably intended to represent the 
 pendent leaves of the date-palm, the opening bud of 
 the lotus flower, a series of double volutes, and certainly 
 at the summit, two demi-bulls, between whose necks 
 passed the beams for the support of the roof. 
 
 * Shewn at E on the General Plan. 
 
 t These (h-awinga were extremely careful restorations of the sculptures, 
 nothing being admitted for which there is not sufficient proof. They are 
 now in the British Museum.
 
 THE GREAT HALL OF COLUMNS AT SUSA. 
 
 36.') 
 
 Whetlier any other 
 variety of capital existed 
 at Susa it is difficult to 
 decide, but from the fre- 
 quent repetition of the 
 same subject among the 
 debris of the palace, I 
 am inclined to think that 
 the same surmounted 
 the top of every column. 
 Mr Fergusson,'"" in his 
 admirable attempt to re- 
 store the Persepolitan 
 structures, rejects the 
 drawings of Texier, Flan- 
 din and Coste, as re- 
 gards the presence of the 
 double -bull capital in 
 the interior of the build- 
 ing, and remarks : — " In 
 this, the beams running 
 equally in four direc- 
 tions, a capital facing 
 
 * " Nineveh and Persepolis 
 Restored," p. 162. 
 
 t The total height of this 
 compound capital was 28 feet. 
 The horns and ears of the two 
 bulls were not found ; these were 
 let in with lead, but had disap- 
 peared. The beams represented 
 in the woodcut are, of course, 
 imaginary. There was no means 
 of ascertaining the height of 
 the fluted column, because no 
 portion remained in situ. The 
 total height of the tallest column 
 at Persepolis is, from the floor 
 to the architrave, 67 feet 4 
 inches. 
 
 Compound capitixl and base of colunjn at 3>iaa.
 
 370 THE GREAT HALL OF COLUMNS AT SUSA. 
 
 only in two is a singularly awkward expedient, as clumsy 
 for an interior as it is appropriate for an external porch." 
 But, nothwitlistanding this opinion, the abundant frag- 
 ments of broken bulls, which occur in the very centre of the 
 great phalanx at Susa, are, I think, satisfactory proof that 
 all the columns were surmounted by them, and I therefore 
 quite concur with the three authors just mentioned, that 
 the same was the case in the corresponding structure at 
 Persepolis. It is certain, at any rate, that the northern 
 row of the central Susian group was supplied with 
 double b,i.ds, because one jDcdestal (No. 1)* has a piece 
 cleanly cut out of its eastern side by the perpenclicular 
 fall of the bull-capital, which could not have fallen 
 into ^^lat position except from the column immediately 
 above, or from the one adjoining it. The head of 
 another bull was observed to rest against a monolith, 
 while a body had fallen on the opposite side. 
 
 The most interesting discovery, however, connected 
 with this columnar edifice is the fact that, in each of 
 the two most northerly rows of the great phalanx, the 
 two central square pedestals (Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4) were 
 or had been inscribed with trilingual cuneiform records. 
 These were cut around tlie ledge, but the fall of the 
 columns had so materially injured them that only one 
 copy remained entire — written unfortunately in the lan- 
 guage which is least known of the three. As if in an- 
 ticipation of the fate which awaited the edifice, and of 
 the j)rospect that one copy at least might escape the gene- 
 ral destruction, each set of inscriptions was repeated 
 four times. The Scythic version occupied the western 
 side, the Persian faced towards the south, and the Baby- 
 lonian pointed eastward. The fourth side was plain. 
 Each version was deeply cut in five lines, and extended 
 six feet four inches in length, anc} seven inches in breadth. 
 
 * See Ground Plan of Palace at page 366.
 
 INSCRIPTIONS OF ARTAXERXES MNEMON. 371 
 
 Upon pedestal No 1, the Scytliic version was per- 
 fect, the Persian had lost the last two lines, and the 
 whole of the central portion in the Babylonian copy was 
 destroyed by the fall of the bull-capital. 
 
 Of pedestal No. 3, a few characters of the Persian 
 alone remain. The monolith No. 2, is likewise much 
 damaged, having only fragments of the Persian and 
 Babylonian copies still existing. It had been injured on 
 some previous occasion, either by flaws or otherwise, be- 
 cause pieces of the same stone had been fitt'^d in and 
 secured with iron or lead, over which the iuijcriptions 
 had been cut. 
 
 Of the pedestal No. 4, nothing is left but the base- 
 ment slab to determine its former position. Thei . can, 
 hoAvever, be little doubt that it was inscribed like the 
 others, because these four columns mark the position of 
 the principal fajade. 
 
 These records are, in many respects, highly interesting. 
 They are the sole memorials extant of Artaxerxes Mne- 
 mon, the conqueror of the Greeks at the battle of Cun- 
 axa, and they record the completion of the edifice, which 
 had been commenced by Darius, the son of Hystaspes, 
 as stated by Pliny.'"" This fact is important, because it 
 enables us, with a tolerable degree of certainty, to con- 
 jecture the age of the great colonnade at Persepolis, as to 
 which much doubt exists. It is generally supposed to 
 have been the work of Xerxes, because it bears a com- 
 memorative tablet of that monarch; but Sir Henry 
 Rawlinsont has suggested the probability of its original 
 foundation by his father Darius. That such was really 
 the case is corroborated by the general agreement in 
 plan and measurement, as well as in the details of the 
 
 * Infra est Susiane, in qua vetus regia Persarum Susa, ^ Djrio Ilystaspis 
 filio condita. Liber vi., c. 27. 
 
 t Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. x., p. 271.
 
 372 ORTHOGRAPHICAL INACCURACIES. 
 
 Siisian and Persepolitan structures. It is, I think, highly 
 probable that they were designed by the same architect, 
 although finished at different and distant periods. 
 
 From the perfect Scythic version of the inscriptions, 
 aided by the Persian text, Mr Norris'"' suggests the 
 following translation as not being very far from the 
 truth : — 
 
 " Says Artaxerxes, the great king, the king of kings, 
 the king of the country, the king of this earth, the son 
 of king Darius : — Darius was the son of king Artaxerxes, 
 Artaxerxes was the son of kins; Xerxes, Xerxes was the 
 son of king Darius, Darius was the son of Hystaspes, the 
 Achsemenian. Darius, my ancestor, anciently built this 
 temple (or edifice), and afterwards it was repaired '('?) by 
 Artaxerxes, my grandfather. By the aid of Ormazd, I 
 placed the effigies of Tanaitis and Mithra in the temple. 
 May Ormazd, Tanaitis, and Mithra protect me, with the 
 (other) gods C?), and all that I have done. ..." 
 
 Mr Norris remarks that " the loose way in which this 
 inscrijDtion was engraved, the abnormal Sjoelling, and the 
 unusual forms of the letters, all combine, with gram- 
 matical inaccuracies, to throw difficulties in the way of 
 a satisfactory explanation of that part of the inscription 
 which follows the usual introductory phrases. The 
 Persian text would have been of great assistance; but 
 it unfortunately fails us where the difficulties begin, 
 the last two lines being almost completely broken away, 
 without leaving a single entire word." 
 
 It is probable that the orthographical inaccuracies 
 above mentioned are the result of the language having 
 become materially corrupted during the Achoemenian 
 period, or between the time of Darius, surnamed Hystas- 
 
 * For further information on this subject, I must refer the rer,der to 
 Mr Norris's elaborate and learned memoir '■' on the Scythic Inscriptions " 
 in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, voL xv., p. 157-162.
 
 COURT OF THE GARDEN IN ESTHER'S PALACE. 373 
 
 pes, and Artaxerxes Mnemon, — or it may be, as Mr 
 Norris seems to think, that these irregularities arise 
 from a desire on the part of the writer to make the 
 translation as literal as possible, even to the errors of 
 the original. 
 
 There is another point which gives extreme interest 
 to this inscription. I have elsewhere ""' quoted valuable 
 authority as to the identity of Ahasuerus, the husband 
 of Esther, with the Xerxes of Greek authors. If this be 
 admitted, we cannot but regard the edifice in question 
 as the actual buUding referred to in the following verses 
 of Scripture : — 
 
 " The king made a feast unto all the people that were 
 present in Slmslian the palace, both unto great and 
 small, seven days in the court of the garden of the king's 
 palace; where were white, green, and blue hangings 
 fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver 
 rings and pillai^s of marble: the beds were of gold and 
 silver, upon a pavement of red, and blue, and white, and 
 black marble." t 
 
 It was here, among the pillars of marble in the court 
 of the garden in Shushan the palace, " when the heart 
 of the king was merry with wine," that the order was 
 given for queen Vashti to overstep the bounds of Orien- 
 tal female modesty, and "shew the people and the 
 princes her beauty," | 
 
 By referring to the plan of the ruins, it will be ob- 
 served that the position of the great colonnade corre- 
 sponds with the account above given. It stands on 
 an elevation in the centre of the mound, the remainder 
 of which we may well imagine to have been occupied 
 after the Persian fashion, with a garden and fountains 
 Thus the colonnade would represent the " court of tht 
 garden of the king's palace," with its "pillars of mar 
 
 * See note, page 339. t Esther i. 5, 6. X Esther i. 10, 11.
 
 374 COLUMN AND CURTAIN ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 ble." I am even inclined to believe that the expression 
 "Shnshan the palace" applies especially to this portion 
 of the existino- ruins in contradistinction to the citadel and 
 the city of Shushan.'"" 
 
 But to return once more to the excavations. In the 
 hope of solvii^g the difficulty as to the connexion which 
 existed between the central and outer groups of columns, 
 trenches were, in several instances, dug between them to 
 ascertain if there had been any intermediate wall for the 
 support of a roof. At that time I had not seen Mr 
 Fergusson's valuable work, recently referred to, nor had 
 I any indications of his theory on the subject, i had, 
 it is true, noticed the foundations of two doorways, mid- 
 way between the central group and the front portico at 
 Persepolis ; but, as these were the only indications of an 
 existing wall at that place, I was not satisfied on the 
 point, and determined to investigate the subject at 
 Susa. My trenches all proved fruitless : there was not 
 the slightest vestige of such a wall as Mr Fergusson 
 has suggested in his restored plan t of the Persepolitan 
 Great Hall. Although strongly inclined to adopt a 
 similar idea, in order to make the entire structure com- 
 pact, I was obhged to abandon it. If there had been 
 any such wall at Susa, some portions of it must have 
 been discovered, even if constructed of bricks. Mr Fer- 
 gusson's argiiment is partly founded on the fact, that 
 in two of the smaller palaces at Persepolis, such walls 
 do actually remain. But this, I think, rather invali- 
 dates his theory, because, if they were not destroyed in 
 the smaller edifices, there was less likelihood of their 
 being carried away from the more massive buildings. 
 
 As regards Susa, however, there is, in my opinion, a 
 fitrong proof that such walls did not exist. It cannot 
 
 * To this point I shall have occasion again to allude, see page 429. 
 t " Nineveh and Persepolis Restored," p. 144.
 
 COLUMN AND CURTAIN ARCHITECTURE. 375 
 
 otherwise be well explained why there should be no 
 inscription on the north side of the four columns'-— that 
 side which was undoubtedly the principal front of the 
 edifice, — except that the record might be protected from 
 the influence of the weather. At Persepolis and Nineveh 
 it was customary to place the commemorative records in 
 the most conspicuous position at the entrances, and, 
 unless for the reason above assigned, it is difficult of 
 explanation why the same principle was not carried out 
 at Susa. I feel therefore persuaded, notwithstanding the 
 strong arguments which have been adduced to the con- 
 trary, that the outer groups or porticoes stood distinct 
 from the central square of columns, or connected simply 
 by means of curtains. It seems to be to this that reference 
 is made in the " hanoino-s fastened with cords to silver 
 rings and pillars of marble" t at the feast of the royal 
 Ahasuerus. Nothing could be more appropriate than this 
 method at Susa and Persepolis, the s|)ring residences of 
 the Persian monarchs. It must be considered that these 
 columnar halls were the equivalents of the modern throne- 
 rooms, that here all public business was despatched, and 
 that here the king might sit and enjoy the beauties of 
 the landscape. With the rich plains of Susa and Persepolis 
 before him, he could well, after his winter's residence at 
 Babylon, dispense with massive walls, which would only 
 check the warm fraorant breeze from those verdant 
 prairies adorned with the choicest flowers. A massive roof, 
 covering the whole expanse of columns, would be too 
 cold and dismal, whereas curtains around the central 
 group woidd serve to admit both light and warmth. 
 Nothing can be conceived better adapted to the climate 
 or the season. 
 
 The elevated position of the Great Colonnade, with the 
 
 * Numbered 1, 2, 3, 4 on the Ground Plan at page 366. 
 t Esther i. 6.
 
 376 ABSENCE OF BAS-RELIEFS. 
 
 somewhat abrupt edges of tlie mound upon whicli it 
 stood, suggested the probability of a sculptured stylobate 
 resembling that at Persepolis. Without a massive sup- 
 port of some description, the immense superincumbent 
 weight of the columns must have necessarily caused the 
 platform to give way at the edges. Several trenches 
 were therefore dug on all sides, but without the discovery 
 of the smallest fragment of sculpture. At the north-west 
 corner, however, on the edge of the platform,* and at the 
 depth of about fifteen feet, there occurred a block of large 
 bricks, set in bitumen, evidently the foundation of a strong 
 wall. I therefore conclude that the platform was sustained 
 by a brick wall, and that neglect in repairing it, or wanton 
 removal of the bricks, produced the destruction pf the 
 whole edifice. The absence of bas-reliefs at Susa need, 
 however, be no cause of surprise. Mneveh and Persepolis 
 are situated in localities producing the stone of which the 
 edifices are constructed. Susa, on the contrary, stands 
 on a gravel plain, thirty miles removed from the nearest 
 point whence building stone is procurable, t 
 
 The habitable portion of the Susian palace, erected by 
 Darius and his successors, undoubtedly stood on the south 
 of, and immediately behind the columnar hall. Traces 
 of brick walls were there uncovered, but, the depth of 
 earth being so shallow above them, it was useless to exca- 
 vate further in that quarter. 
 
 The similarity between the buildings of Persepolis and 
 Susa is so great that any peculiarity observable in the 
 one will equally illustrate the architecture of the other. 
 
 At F on the General Plan, 
 t The (lark blue limestone of the Susa monoliths is extremely hard and 
 difficult to work In parts, however, its texture is slaty, and to this cause 
 may be attributed, in some degree, the destruction of the columns. 
 It was most likely obtained from the valley of the river Kcrkhah, near 
 Pdl-i-Tang, or from the adjoining range of theKebii' Klih, whence it must 
 have been conveyed on rafts to Susa.
 
 ORIGIN OF SUSIAN AND PERSEPOLITAN ARCHITECTURE. 377 
 
 Even if not erected by the same architect, they were the 
 works of the same dynasty, and they proceeded from one 
 source. They form a distinct style of architecture, and 
 it now becomes necessary to offer a few remarks upon it. 
 The large hollow member with leafy ornaments — form- 
 ing, as it were, the cornice of certain Persepolitan 
 structures — is nowhere else observable except in the 
 ruined edifices which line the banks of the Nile, or deck 
 the Egyptian plains; but the palaces of the Ach^emenian 
 kings lack the massiveness which is the grand charac- 
 teristic of Egyptian buildings. The bulls of Persepolis 
 and Susa remind us at once of their prototypes in the 
 Assyrian palaces : the flutings of the columns are almost 
 counterparts of the delicate chasings of the Greek pillars, 
 whilst the palm-ornaments of the capitals point to the 
 fallen empires whose sj^lendour once mirrored itself, even 
 as their ruins are now reflected, in the waters of the 
 lower Tigris and Euphrates. It is worthy of notice, 
 however, that the palaces of Susa and Persepolis are much 
 inferior to those which they resemble in the several 
 empires whose remains are still preserved to us, and that, 
 far from being (as M. Flandin remarks, in the Remie 
 des Deux Mondes) " worthy to be classed with Greek 
 art," they were rather the works of a powerful monarch, 
 who wanted the skill and taste to direct the labour which 
 his power commanded. Such a one was Darius, the 
 son of Hystaspes, who, having subdued a peoj^le which 
 had suffered the luxury of art to rust its sword, was 
 ambitious, " by the grace of Ormazd, who had brought 
 help to him," to make his palaces outshine, by prodigality 
 of ornament, those of the nations he had conquered, and 
 to " engrave with an iron pen in the rock for ever," in 
 commendable simplicity, the record of his deeds. The 
 purity and artistic feelings of the vanquished he could 
 not transplant, nor perhaps even appreciate. It may
 
 378 ORIGIN OF SUSIAN AND PERSEPOLITAN AROHITECTUEE. 
 
 have contented liim to borrow forms indiscriminately 
 from all, so that each of the hundred columns'" surround- 
 ing his throne might bear upon its fluted shaft the lotus, 
 the palm, and the bull, and symbolize the glories which 
 the vigorous arms of the Persian had gathered upon the 
 battle-fields of Egypt, Assyria, Greece, and Babylonia. 
 
 The earliest specimen of the Achsemenian structures is 
 at Miirghab — the ancient Passargadse — which likewise 
 bears the earliest cuneatic record of that dynasty by 
 C}Tus the Great. As it is pretty generally admitted that 
 this alphabet was adopted from subjected nations, and as 
 it is invariably connected with their architecture,* both at 
 Persepolis and Susa., it rather adds confirmation to the 
 view here taken as to the origin of these unique specimens 
 of the building art. 
 
 In the inscription, upon the monolithic bases of Ar- 
 taxerxes Mnemon, we read that he raised a statue in 
 honour of the goddess Tanaitis,t or Venus ; it is 
 interesting to corroborate this worship, by means of 
 excavations in a difierent part of the ruins. In a trench,| 
 twenty-two feet deep, at the south-west corner of the 
 great platform, was discovered a collection of about two 
 
 * The Great Palace at Persepolis, it is well known, is, more Persarum, 
 called " Chehil Miudr," " The Hundred Columns," although it only possessed 
 seventy-two. 
 
 t Tanaitis is certainly the Assyrian Anaitis, the Pei'siau Anahid, the 
 Phoenician Tanith, and the Greek Tavats of some MSS. at least. The Persian 
 version of the record still shews a part of the name " — naliata;" the Baby- 
 lonian has Anakhitti. The Scythic word may be read Tanata. The 
 inscriptions confirm the statement of Plutarch, that Tanata was worshipped 
 in the time of Artaxerxes Mnemon. It has been usual, in printed Greek 
 works, to alter the name of Tanata, or Tai/aiV, to 'AwiiVis ; but the Phoeni- 
 cian Tanith, the present inscription, and the authority of good MSS. of 
 Strabo, shew that Tavats was equally admissible ; and, if the very probable 
 conjecture of Gesenius as to the identity of Tanata and the Egyptian god- 
 dess Neith be correct, the reason of the variation is i)]ain, ta being merely 
 the Egyptian feminine article. See Vlx Norris' Memoir on Scythic Inscrip- 
 tions, Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, voL xv., p. 160. 
 
 + K on Plan. 
 
 {
 
 WORSHIP OF TANAITIS OR VENUS. 
 
 379 
 
 hundred terra-cotta figures, the greater number of whicli 
 were nude representations of the goddess. Venus was es- 
 pecially worshipped at Babylon, and her clay models are 
 
 Claj' figures of Venus from Susa. 
 
 among the most common of those found throughout Baby- 
 lonia. Those discovered at Susa are altogether of a different 
 type, and exhibit some remarkable peculiarities, shewn in 
 the woodcut. 
 
 The hands, as usual, hold the breasts, as emblems of 
 fruitfulness ; the features are very carefully moulded, and 
 present a decidedly Assyrian profile ; the hair is clipped 
 close to the forehead, like the modern fashion of the 
 Persian women ; and the head-dress is high and pro- 
 jecting, like the cap frequently worn by Jewish ladies in 
 the East. The ears, neck, wrists, and ankles are adorned 
 with their appropriate ornaments. The features and head- 
 dress are perfectly different from any found elsewhere. 
 There was evidently a great demand for these statuettes, 
 which were cast from several moulds, and it appeared 
 as though the trench had descended into tlie image- 
 maker's store. In an adjoining trench,'"' was recovered 
 
 * J on Plan.
 
 380 WORSHIP OF TANAITIS OR VENUS. 
 
 one of tlie clay moulds in which the figures were 
 cast."^'' 
 
 There occurred also, in the same trench, other male 
 and female figures, playing on instruments resembling 
 the native zantur, together with several primitive re- 
 presentations of domestic animals — the Indian bull, the 
 sheep, and horse. 
 
 ♦ In a small cliamber, in the south-east palace at Nimrlid, I discovered a 
 large collection of very beautiful ivories, among which were a great variety 
 of nude figures, frequently in the same posture as those above described. 
 In several instances, they composed groups as column shafts. From the 
 frequency of their occurrence, I concluded that they had formed part of an 
 ornamental shrine dedicated to Venus. Short accounts of these ivories, 
 with figures of the most remarkable, are contained in the Literary Gazette 
 of April 5, 1856, and in the Illustrated London News of April 12, 1856. 
 The originals are in the British Museum.
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Hostility and Eeconciliation — ^An Arrival — ^The Lur Woikmen — Insur- 
 rection of Seyids — Administration of Justice — Novel ^Method of 
 Smoking — Colonel Williams' Horses Stolen — An Arab attack Re- 
 pelled — The Haughty Humbled — Besieged by a Harem. 
 
 It must not be supposed that the progress of tlie ex- 
 cavations was unattended with difficulty and annoy- 
 ance. On quitting Dizful for the ruins, the services 
 of only seventy Liirs were secured, under the impression 
 that, as soon as the work began, many Arabs would be 
 induced to offer themselves. In this, however, I was dis- 
 appointed, and the letters furnished me by Khanler Mirza 
 failed to produce the desirable result ; the 'Ali Kethir 
 were not to be moved from their obstinate determination. 
 Sheikh Ghafil, the chief of the whole tribe, whose tents 
 were situated about three miles from the mounds, 
 was especially directed to see to my safety, and to sup- 
 ply me with workmen ; but his remark, on reading the 
 Prince's letter, was to the effect that he woidd not send 
 nien — "the Shah-zdda (Prince) might cut him and his 
 tribe to pieces ; his sons and wives were the Prince's, but 
 he would not send a man to dig at Shilsh for a Firenghi!'' 
 With his rival, Sheikh Mahommed,* encamped with his 
 
 * The 'All Kethir Arabs are divided into thirty-one tribes, of which the 
 Cherim, Anafija, Ch^'b, and Md'la are the only large ones. At the time of 
 my visits to Susa, Ghdfil was sheikh of the first, and Mahommed-em-Meshdl 
 of the last.
 
 382 AN INSULT. 
 
 people a short distance from the mounds on the opposite 
 side of the Shaour, there was no better success. His 
 reply to my demand for workmen was the question, "how 
 the Prince permitted a Ghyawr to excavate at Shush !" 
 From another camp it was stated that my groom was 
 driven with sticks and stones while endeavouring to pur- 
 chase corn for my horses. A general feeling prevailed that 
 the recent visit of cholera to the province, was the conse- 
 quence of Colonel AVilliams' excavations, and that it would 
 return agjain with tenfold violence, at this second act of 
 impiety! It soon became evident that, unless means 
 were taken to prevent it, I should be exposed fo gross 
 insult. The opportunity was not long in occurring, and 
 eventually turned to my advantage. 
 
 On the third day after my tents were pitched at Shush 
 and the works in full operation, Sheikh Mahommed's 
 brother, with about a dozen of his people, presented them- 
 selves at a trench where I was watching the workmen 
 extracting pieces of fluted columns. Salutations were 
 expressly made to the Ltirs, under the designation of 
 "Dizfuli," for the undoubted purpose of excluding me. 
 At first I took no notice of this conduct, regarding the 
 visitors as ignorant Arabs ; but when they followed me 
 about from trench to trench, behaving in the same man- 
 ner at each, and holding conversations amons; themselves 
 concerning " the beast, the pig,'' &c., it was evident that 
 a direct insult was intended towards myself. To have 
 submitted tamely would have been productive of con- 
 tinued annoyance ; I therefore insisted on their leaving 
 the trenches until they had learned to treat me with com- 
 mon respect. They were not prepared for this high tone 
 from a Christian, and therefore took their departure with 
 strong signs of surprise and disgust. Determined to 
 strike the iron while liot, I despatched the Prince's man 
 to Sheikh Mahommed, demanding an apology for this
 
 RECONCILIATION. 383 
 
 gratuitous insult on the part of his brother. On the fol- 
 lowing day, Mahommed himself sought an interview, and 
 begged that the offender might be forgiven. " He is an 
 Arab," said he, "and knows no better." His brother also 
 confessed that he had acted with great impropriety, but was 
 sorry for his behaviour. Thus an excellent opportunity 
 arose for concihating my nearest neighbours, and at the 
 same time of explaining that I had no desire they should 
 act contrary to their prejudices in working at the ex- 
 cavations. To prove that I possessed due and proper 
 authority for my proceedings, the Shah's firman was ex- 
 hibited. Sheikh Mahommed received this precious docu- 
 ment standing ; he carefully examined the seal, kissed 
 it, muttered a prayer, and then placed it reverently on 
 his head. It was then handed to his brother, who did 
 likewise. 
 
 The old man's quiet demeanour and pleasant counten- 
 ance were a strong contrast to the roughness and ill-looks 
 of his tribe, and the interview between us evidently told 
 like^^se in my favour. He became particularly commu- 
 nicative, and, from that day, he and his brother were my 
 stanch friends. With the exception of excavating in the 
 mounds, they willingly aided me in anything I might re- 
 quire, and, during my stay, I was obliged to them both 
 for many acts of assistance and friendly feeling. 
 
 A few days after this interview I was enabled to test 
 this newly formed friendship. A scrap of paper was one 
 morning put into my hands, addressed in European hand- 
 writing to Colonel AVilliams, with the intimation that 
 the writer waited a reply on the opposite side of the 
 Kerkhah. It proved to be from Lieutenant Jackson, 
 I.N., who was on his way to join the English party. 
 He had recently arrived from Bombay, and went to Bagh- 
 dad in expectation of finding Colonel Williams at Men- 
 deli, but, bein^ too late to overtake liim there, he set out
 
 384 LIEUTENANT JACKSON. 
 
 once more on tlie Tigris, hoping to reach his chief at 
 Hawiza. The native boat, in which he took passage, 
 as bad hick would have it, ran aground. Eighteen days 
 elapsed, and, there being no chance of the vessel floating 
 until the annual rise of the river, the voyager decided 
 on making his way overland. He fortunately made the 
 acquaintance of a Beni Lam sheikh, Avho hospitably un- 
 dertook to see him safely to the banks of the Kerkhah. 
 In passing the Segwend Lurs, one of their tushmals, or 
 chiefs, swore that, but for his protector, his life would 
 have been the penalty for his temerity in venturing 
 amons: them ; in token of the truth of which assertion he 
 inhospitably turned the unlucky traveller out of his 
 tent into the rain, leaving him to find shelter elsewhere. 
 After various other adventures, he at length succeeded 
 in gaining the bank of the Kerkhah, where the Arabs re- 
 fused to provide him with sldns to form a raft. He 
 wisely wrote to the elchi, who, he understood, was dig- 
 ging up piles of gold and silver cups at Shush ! An ap- 
 plication from me to Sheikh Mahommed was instantly 
 attended to ; sheepskins were collected from the women, 
 and in a few hours my friend was safely and gladly 
 lodged in my tent. 
 
 Sheikh IMahommed's camp was my farmyard ; it 
 suppHed barley and straw for my animals, and every 
 species of Arab luxury for our own sustenance. And 
 yet, although my immediate neighbours now behaved 
 so well, others at a greater distance exhibited less friendly 
 disposition towards my party. Wlienever any Liirs were 
 caught straying far from the mounds, or were engaged in 
 cutting wood on the banks of the Shaour, they were at- 
 tacked, and not unfrequently some awkward wounds were 
 inflicted. On one occasion a workman was carried into 
 camp speared in a frightful manner by a party of Arabs. 
 In order to suppress such outrages, it became necessary
 
 THE LUR WORKMEN. 385 
 
 to organise well-armed foraging parties, who were accom- 
 panied by a chief answerable to me for the behaviour of 
 his men. This had a good effect, and the cowardly 
 attacks ceased. 
 
 Having satisfactorily ascertained that it was useless 
 expecting the Arabs to aid me, I determined on increasing 
 my force by engaging men in Dizfill. It soon became 
 known that workmen were required, and the mounds 
 were besieged by applicants ; no farther difficulty was 
 experienced in raising three hundred and fifty men. The 
 principal number were Liirs, but many were a mixed race 
 from the town,— half Lur, half Arab, hating the Frank, 
 but greedy for his kerans. This additional force was 
 distributed at various positions on the mounds, as indi- 
 cated by the coloured lines on the general plan of the 
 ruins. The men were divided into gangs; the strong 
 Lurs used the long-handled spades of the country, and, 
 like Irish "navvies," threw the earth high out of the 
 open trenches, while the town's-people, less accustomed to 
 such hard work, filled baskets, and hoisted the loose earth 
 from the tunnels by means of pullies. None could, how- 
 ever, forget the predictions of the priests, that some 
 accident would inevitably befall the sacrilegious wretches 
 who darerl to assist the operations of the Ghyawr. In 
 order to avert this supposed danger, the party at each 
 trench elected a mulla — one of themselves — who every 
 now and then extemporized a prayer, calling on 'All tO' 
 save and defend them from aU ills likely to arise from. 
 digging at Shush, and receiving the wages of an infidel, 
 " whom might 'AU curse!' Each invocation was loudly 
 responded to by three earnest cries of " Ya, 'All ! " (Oh, 
 'AH).'"" The echo was taken up by the adjoining trench, 
 
 • It will be remembered that 'AH is the patron saint of the Persians. 
 The names of Allah (God) or Mohammed are seldom invoked by them, ae 
 they are by the Turks and Arabs of the Sunni sect.
 
 386 THE LUR WORKMEN. 
 
 and the mounds, from end to end, constantly resounded 
 with this oft-repeated prayer. 
 
 The accession of Dizfulls to the excavations was, in one 
 respect, unwelcome : they brought bigotry along with 
 them. The Lurs were tolerant ; they chiefly belonged to 
 that extraordinary sect called 'All Ilahis,''''' who believe 
 that the Deity has vouchsafed to man a thousand and 
 one successive incarnations of the godhead, and that the 
 most perfect development of his presence took place in 
 Benjamin, David, and 'All. 
 
 The Seyids, or descendants of the Prophet, were, as I 
 liave said, induced at last to overcome their seniles, and 
 I was surprised one morning to see no less than seventeen 
 green-turbaned individuals, from Dizfiil, ranged before 
 my tent door. If they had not been armed with spades, 
 
 * Very little is really known of this singular sect. It is extremely diffi- 
 cult to ascertain what are the tenets of their religion, because they are very 
 jealous of inquiry concerning this subject, although tolerant of other 
 opinions. From their many Jewish names and general physiognomy, it is 
 supposed by some travellers that they are of Israelitish descent. Their 
 religion appears to be a mixture of Jewish, Sabaean, Christian, and Moham- 
 medan belief. Their great holy place is the tomb of Bdba-Yadgar, on the 
 mountain fort of Ban Zdrda, near Zohdb, which was at one time regarded 
 as the abode of Ehas. In 1851, 1 spent some months among the 'All Ilahls 
 of Kirrind, but can add httle to what we previously knew conceniing them. 
 They say to Christians : " Our religion differs but little from yours ! we 
 drink wine, eat pig, and are not obliged, like the Mohammedan, to pray." 
 The men of Kirrind are brave and handsome, and the women fair and good- 
 looking. The holiday-dress of the latter consists of a bright-coloured short 
 jacket of velvet, having a lappet in fi'out, and the breast laced like the Swiss 
 costumes of Berne and Lucerne. They mix freely with the men of their 
 tribes, and are less particular than IVIohammedan ladies in covering their 
 faces. In fact, at their weddings, only ladies who are " engaged " are re- 
 quired to conceal their features, which is done by throwing a kerchief over 
 the head. The Kirrindis follow the profession of their Deity Dawud (David), 
 who is said to have been a blacksmith ; their iron-work is deservedly cele- 
 brated throughout Persia. To escape persecution, the 'AH Ilahis profess 
 Isldmism when they descend into the plains, but in the mountains they 
 feel free to follow their own opinions. For fui-ther information concerning 
 this sect, consult the " Journal of the Royal Geographical Society," vol. ix., 
 p. 36.
 
 INSURRECTION OF SEYIDS. 387 
 
 I might have imagined them to be a deputation from the 
 mujtehid, mth orders to put a stop to my proceedings. 
 Several of these gentry were placed together in one 
 trench, but so many green turbans in close proximity 
 could not fail to produce mischief ! They were very ob- 
 stinate, and frequently refused to obey instructions. 
 
 One day my servant, carrying them a message, was at- 
 tacked with very abusive language by the muUa of the 
 party. On its iDeing repeated, Ovannes struck the holy 
 man a violent blow, whereon the latter raised his spade, 
 and endeavoured viciously to cut the other down, calling 
 on his fellow saints to resent the insult inflicted on one of 
 their number : — " A Seyid 1 a descendant of the Prophet, 
 to be struck by a Gllya^^T ! Will you suffer this 1 Seyids ! 
 aid me, in the name of 'AH ! " Watching the whole scene 
 from the summit of the great mound, and fearing worse 
 might ensue, I ran to the spot just in time to save 
 Ovannes a blow, which would inevitably have cleft his 
 skidl, and wrenched the implement from the fellow's 
 hand, as he stiU more vehemently raised his outcry 
 against myself. On refusing either to be pacified or to 
 quit the trench, I bestowed his own epithets upon him- 
 self, together with a succession of hearty kicks each time 
 he opened his mouth to call on his brother Seyids to 
 "exterminate the Ghyawrs !" As soon as he was fairly 
 driven off the mound, I returned to the trench and told 
 his fraternity that this summary punishment to one of the 
 order was inflicted out of no disrespect towards themselves ; 
 but, so long as they worked for me, I insisted on being 
 obeyed, and would submit to no insolence or bigotry. 
 This example had the desired efi'ect ; from that moment 
 my influence, like that of every stern governor, small or 
 great, in Persia, was established. It was soon discovered 
 that the Ghyawr could act impartially, and be just in his 
 dealings. My decision was frequently appealed to in
 
 388 ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 
 
 matters of dispute, and on some occasions tlie whole of 
 the workmen assembled to ask advice. 
 
 Tliey all huddled together at night into Daniel's tomb, 
 and their wild songs resounded through the solitude of 
 the ruins, sometimes interrupted by loud cries of " Ya ! 
 'All." On a few grand occasions the exterior of the 
 building was illuminated. Lamps were placed at inter- 
 vals around the edges of the veranda and terrace, as well 
 as upon the spire of the penetralia, the effect of which 
 was very striking, — the white spire of the edifice seemed 
 to be semi-transparent. 
 
 Every man took care to receive his own wage^, and to 
 secure them in his own private bank — his girdle — honesty 
 not being a distinguishing characteristic of the .Persian 
 race. A Lur was one night caught in the act of robbing 
 his next neighbour, and, the kerans being found upon his 
 person, he could not do otherwise than confess his guilt. 
 Next morning he was brought to me by the whole of the 
 workmen to be punished. I ofi'ered to send him into 
 Dizful to be submitted to the tender mercies of the 
 authorities. " No ! No !" was the general cry, " Punish 
 him here! Punish him here!" The culprit stepped for- 
 ward and repeated the request, kneeling down and kissing 
 my feet ! The reason of this was soon explained. If the 
 man were sent to Dizfid, he would not only have the 
 soles of his feet beaten to a jelly, but the kerans, the 
 cause of the dire offence, would, by some magical process 
 or other, disappear into the pockets of the jailers, and 
 probably an additional sum be filched from both parties 
 concerned. To avoid this, it was agreed, in full conclave, 
 to ask me to distribute justice ; therefore, to satisfy all 
 parties, I consented to the arrangement. The stolen 
 money was duly paid over to the proper owner, and 
 twenty blows were inflicted on the person of the criminal, 
 after which he was dismissed the service — not, however.
 
 A NOVEL PIPE. 389 
 
 liefore he liad kissed my feet ; after Avhich the whole party 
 proceeded to their trenches, exclaiming : — " This is some- 
 thing like justice ! where shall we get such justice in 
 Persia !'' 
 
 After these little episodes, order and regularity were 
 fully established in the trenches, the only variation ^o our 
 day's labour being when Sheikli Ghafil, Mohammed, or a 
 neighbouring chief came to look and wonder, and depart ; 
 or when a general distribution of tobacco took place in 
 return for a hard day's work, or an extraordinary piece of 
 good fortune. 
 
 An occasional present of tobacco produced an exhilar- 
 ating effect upon the excavators ; without making the 
 frantic demonstrations of the Madan Arabs on the banks 
 of the Euphrates, the Lurs dug to desperation, and yelled 
 forth their strange mountain cries, amidst incessant calls 
 on the ubiquitous 'All. Having but few pipes, they 
 adopted a primitive and ingenious method of inhaling the 
 magic cloud. With a little water, the earth at the edge of 
 the trench was converted into a tenacious paste ; two holes 
 were made in it havino; an undero-round communication 
 between them of three or four inches in length. The 
 tobacco was then placed in one hole, and, at the other, 
 they, one after the other, applied their lips and sucked till 
 all was dry. The mouth-piece of this novel pipe was 
 frequently made inside the trench, and much resembled 
 a fungus adhering to the wall. It was very amusing 
 when a fresh " kaliyun" was lighted, to see them standing 
 in a circle waiting their turn, while one of the number 
 knelt in the centre with his mouth to the earth sucking 
 until quite blue in the face with the exertion. 
 
 I had just succeeded in overcoming the scruples and 
 gaining the confidence of the workmen, when the British 
 Commissioner and a part of his suite, after completing 
 the survey of the southern portion of the frontier, spent
 
 390 THE COMMISSIONER S HORSES STOLEN. 
 
 a few days witli me on their way northward. An event 
 then took place which threatened to put a somewhat 
 premature stop to the excavations. 
 
 On the second night jof their arrival, two horses were 
 skilfully stolen from the encampment, and strong sus- 
 picions attached to a sheikh named Eizaz, belonging to 
 the Cha'b'"" division of the 'Ali Kethir Arabs, who had 
 only pitched their tents the day before on the bank of 
 the Kerkhah: the stolen horses were heard galloping 
 towards them, and shortly afterwards their dogs barked 
 vehemently. Information of the theft was immediately 
 communicated to the Prince, and very early the second 
 morning after the robbery, Colonel Williams set out 
 en route for Mendeli, leaving Mr Jackson with me to 
 await the arrival of Lieutenant Glascott from Shiister, 
 Breakfast was just finished when I was apprized that 
 four hundred armed Arabs, headed by Abdullah, the 
 sheikh of the suspected Chab, were approaching the 
 mounds. When the sheikh expressed a wish to see me, 
 not knowing the object, nor liking the advent of such 
 a host of light-fingered gentry, some of my people, 
 without my knowledge, desired him to leave his followers 
 outside the camp. With this request he abruptly declined 
 to comply, insisting that they should pass through the 
 camp, and remarking that his Arabs were as clean as 
 Firenghis. 
 
 The admission of the posse comitatus was stoutly 
 refused, and high words ensued between the parties. 
 Ovannes instantly hastening to the spot, invited the 
 sheikh and the elders of the tribe to my tent, but 
 asked him, as a favour, to call a halt of their attendants. 
 The sheikh passionately replied by denouncing him as a 
 
 * These Arabs are not to be confounded with the great tribe of the 
 Chd'b, although they may probably have originally emigrated from it to 
 the 'Ali Kethir.
 
 AN ARAB ATTACK REPELLED. 30] 
 
 Firenglii dog, which was the signal for a general attack on 
 my people with clubs and sticks, a gun being fired b}- 
 way of intimidation. The Liirs now took part in the 
 affray. Delighted at the opportunity of facing the tribe 
 wliich had but recently almost murdered one of their 
 party, they swarmed from the trenches, and rushed to the 
 attack, howling and yelling with right good will, every 
 man* armed with a spade, pickaxe, or other weapon; 
 their guns being fortunately left in the tomb. The battle 
 now became general. The Arabs — chiefly armed with 
 sticks, and perhaps not relishing the aspect of the sharp 
 glittering spades, or not aware of our numbers which 
 now amounted to three hundred and seventy — slowly 
 retreated under cover of an incessant shower of broken 
 bricks. 
 
 All this had taken place in a few minutes, before it 
 was possible to comprehend the affair ; but, having no 
 desire to be the cause of a blood-feud, or to risk the prose- 
 cution of the excavations, I ran to the scene of combat, 
 and used my best endeavours to maintain peace. The 
 Lurs, after much difficulty, were persuaded to a halt, and 
 obey discipline. Having so far succeeded, I advanced 
 alone towards the Arabs, calling on the sheikh who rode i;; 
 the rear to come forward and speak to me. A shower of 
 bricks and a volley of bullets — for they had about fifty 
 guns among them — was the return for my pains, l)ut these 
 were fortunately discharged without effect. The indig- 
 nant Lurs again rushed forward, and were again checked 
 by my interference. The same order of events occurred 
 thrice. Just as they were quieted on the- last occasion, 
 an outcry arose that the Arabs had seized and were mur- 
 dering a Lur. There was no time to lose ; — the Aral s 
 were again regaining courage, and preparing to advance 
 on seeing our halt, when I gave the word for a general 
 charge down the mound. The enemy declined close con-
 
 392 AN ARAB ATTACK REPELLED. 
 
 tact with the spades, and made a hasty retreat to the ford 
 over the Shaour, keeping up a running fight with bricks, 
 their stock of powder being by this time exhausted. As 
 soon as they reached the river, the Liirs were brought to 
 a halt once more, and I walked with Mr Jackson and 
 Ovannes to the bank. On beckoning the sheikh to 
 speak with me, he menacingly shook his stick, and, as 
 no exj^ostulation had any effect in producing an explana- 
 tion, I told him he must take the consequences of this 
 imjustifiable assault on his own shoulders; then turning 
 away, I retired unmolested by the Arabs, - many of 
 whom were performing a species of demoniacal dance 
 around me. A messenger was soon on his way with an 
 account of the whole proceedings to Colonel Williams. 
 The only explanation to be offered as to the sheikh's 
 conduct is, that not aware of the Commissioner's depar- 
 ture, he had come with the intention of insulting him for 
 charging the Cha b tribe with the theft of the horses. 
 If his visit were intended as a mark of respect, he would 
 have kept his people out of my camp. 
 
 The Prince was highly enraged on hearing from Colonel 
 Williams the account of the attack, and instantly com- 
 ijnanded Sheikh Ghafil to secure and send his subordi- 
 nate to Dizful — a task easier said than done — for, 
 within twenty hours after the occurrence, Abdullah and 
 the Chab were on their way to seek refuge among the 
 marshes of the Kerkhah beyond Hawiza. The plains, 
 which the day before were thickly dotted with black 
 tents and herds of buffaloes, were now deserted, — not an 
 Arab was visible, — nothing but an expanse of verdant 
 meadow of the richest green was apparent as far as the 
 eye could span. Ghafil was now in a dilemma ; in 
 accordance with Persian custom, he was answerable for 
 the conduct of the whole 'All Kethir, and bound to 
 produce Abdullah. He being, however, beyond reach,
 
 THE HAUGHTY MADE HUMBLE. 393 
 
 his relatives were instantly seized and lodged in 
 prison. 
 
 Gbafil and a party of sheikhs soon honoured me with a 
 visit, but their previously haughty and threatening mien 
 was lowered : the men, who had before drawn their 
 swords and insulted the Ghyawr, were now anxious to 
 shew their deference ; each, as he entered the tent, 
 bowed his head low, and insisted on kissing the hand of 
 the previously despised infidel. Many were the excuses 
 and entreaties offered on behalf of the culprit; but 
 nothing would move my compassion, because I con- 
 ceived it a duty to future travellers that the matter 
 should not be lightly passed over. Unless the Arabs 
 were now made to respect the European, it might fare ill 
 with the next visitor to the ruins. At my intercession, 
 however, the relations of Sheikh Abdullah were released 
 from prison, it being manifestly unfair that the innocent 
 should be punished for the guilty. 
 
 Not succeeding in his entreaties, Sheikh Ghdfil took a 
 sorrowful leave, declaring that he would shortly return 
 with his harem, under the impression that woman's 
 prayers would prevail over my stubborn resolution. 
 He kept his word. In a fcAv hours, I was sui^prised at 
 seeing a long line of females approaching in single file 
 towards my tent, headed by the sheikh himself and a 
 ])lack eunuch. The ladies were all richly dressed, theii' 
 faces scrupulously concealed under black horsehair masks. 
 But I at once declined to receive them, and threatened to 
 quit my tent if they persisted in approaching. Finding 
 me so determined, they halted, but Ghafil now declared 
 they should not depart until I yielded. This was 
 attempting to storm the fortress in a way not calcidated 
 upon ; but, being resolved to stand the siege, I ordered a 
 tent to be pitched for the accommodation of the Amazons, 
 and all supplies which they might need to be provided
 
 394 BESIEGED BY A HAREM. 
 
 for them. The black eunucli took up his appointed 
 station in a broiling sun, midway between the besiegers 
 and besieged, and acted as the advanced corps of ob- 
 servation. All communication between the two forces 
 was held through his instrumentality ; messages and 
 presents alike passed through him from camp to camp. 
 
 In the evening. Sheikh Ghafil, without a word, took 
 his departure, leaving his harem to continue a hopeless 
 task; but on the follomng day he returned with a pri- 
 soner — a poor labourer caught ploughing his fields — 
 and represented him as the man who conmienced the 
 attack. With his wretched victim he departed for Dizfiil, 
 impressed with the idea that this great show of acti\ity 
 and zeal would bring about the desired result * more 
 speedily than his besieging army, which was henceforth 
 withdrawn. 
 
 He was, however, still mistaken; Sheikh Abdullah, 
 and no other, would satisfy my demand. Such being 
 the case, another stratagem was attempted. A Persian, 
 representing himself as an officer of the Prince's, made 
 his appearance with the offending sheikh, pretending that 
 he was ordered to bring the fellow for me to punish as I 
 might please ; but the real fact most probably was, that 
 he had entered into a compact with his prisoner, hoping to 
 beo; him ofi" on condition of a liberal reward for his inter- 
 cession. Some such agreement evidently existed, because, 
 on my declining to listen to the advocate, they set out 
 on the road to Dizful ; it was subsequently stated that 
 Abdullah had made his escape, and that a large body of 
 Cha'b was in ambush by the way, prepared to rescue 
 their chief if I had actively moved in the matter. He 
 once more made off into the marshes, and did not again 
 trouble me during my further stay ; Sheikh Ghafil, how- 
 ever, in his own behalf, continued to importune me for 
 his friend's pardon whenever he paid me a visit.
 
 METHKtJH THE THIEF. 395 
 
 The stolen horses were ultimately traced to the camp 
 of my worthy friend Methkilr, the chief of the BenI Lim, 
 whose own brother proved to have been the accomplished 
 thief 1 True to the compact made with myself, my goods 
 and chattels were held sacred by his tribe ; but, having 
 made no stipulation on behalf of Colonel Williams, the 
 other property of the commission was regarded as a fair 
 object for plunder! The Prince wrote to Methkiir, re- 
 quiiing him to deliver up the horses into my charge ; 
 while the 'All Kethir, in whose territories they were lost, 
 were compelled to provide others of equal value in 
 exchange ! Thus was the matter of the theft arranged ; 
 but the more serious affair of the Cha'b attack still 
 remained to be dealt with.
 
 CHAPTEE XXX. 
 
 A Long Trench — Enamelled Bricks — Masons' Marks — ^A Hoard of 
 Coins — ^Was Susa destroyed by Alexander 1 — Greek Inscriptions — 
 Pythagoras and the Persian Daric — Unexpected Visit from the 
 Guardian of the Tomb — Inscriptions and other Eaiiy Relics qa the 
 Great ]\fonnd — Alabaster Vases of Xerxes — Egyptian Cartouch — 
 Mr Birch's Remarks thereon — Sculptured Trough. 
 
 Excavations were now vigorously carried on in the 
 three principal mounds. In a regularly formed portion of 
 the platform south-west of the colonnade of Artaxerxes, a 
 trench'"' was dug diagonally across the mound, from one 
 side to the other. At the depth of eleven feet, it struck 
 upon a brick pavement, evidently connected with the 
 palace, probably a court. On its surface were numerous 
 pieces of fallen walls built of moulded composition bricks, 
 many of which exhibited portions of glazed, coloured 
 figures and designs in high relief, but, being on a large 
 scale, it was impossible to understand their import 
 or to fit the fragments to each other. Among some 
 smaller designs was frequently repeated the symbol of 
 the Deity — a dotted ball with expanded wings, — the 
 colours being much varied and in a good state of pre- 
 servation. There was also the rosette ornament, which 
 occurs so abundantly and was so universal a favourite 
 throughout edifices of the same period at Nineveh, 
 Persepolis, and Susa.t From the position in which these 
 
 • At I on the Plan. 
 
 t Specimens of these enamelled bricks are in the British Museum.
 
 MASONS MARKS. 397 
 
 glazed l)ricks lay, it would appear that the wings of the 
 great palace at Susa were ornamented externally in this 
 style, and hence we may attach some credit to the state- 
 ments of the ancient historians '"' that the walls of 
 edifices in Babylon and Ecbatana in Media were adorned 
 with gorgeously-coloured representations of various sub- 
 jects. The shallowness of the trench, and the overturned 
 condition of the brickwork, induced me to cease minute 
 researches at the north side of the mound. 
 
 There is another point connected with these enamelled 
 bricks of some interest. Upon their upper sur- 
 face is generally one, and sometimes two or three 
 peculiar characters. They are of different kinds, as 
 shewn in the accompanying list. Those in the lines. 
 No. 1, were merely scratches made with a knife or sharp 
 instrument while the composition was soft. The second 
 series of marks is the most interesting. They are small, 
 but very carefully formed, near the front edge of each 
 brick, generally with dark-coloured enamel, and are 
 apparently intended to indicate the upper side of the 
 design in front. The marks in the columns, No. 3, wei e 
 rudely laid on in glaze with a brush or stick. As the}' 
 do not belong to any known language, the inference is 
 that these characters are merely builders' marks, t 
 
 * Diodorus Siculus,lib. ii., c. 20. Herodotus, lib. i., c. 98. The large num- 
 ber of enamelled bricks discovered in Mr Layard's excavations at the Ka-si- 
 mound, Babylon, led him to the same conclusion at that locality. In 
 Assyria, glazed bricks are an important feature in the front of the city 
 gateways still standing at Khorsabdd, but it is to be doubted if the ex- 
 ternal walls of Assyrian palaces were adorned in the same manner through- 
 out. They may have been painted but not enamelled. I laid bare three 
 sides of the north palace at Koyunjuk, but without observing any trace 
 of colour upon them. 
 
 t Marks of similar kind occur upon many ancient stone buildings in the 
 East— as at Takht i Suleyraan, near Persepolis ; at the base of the sculptured 
 rock of Bisutdn ; in blocks near the ZenderM and in the garden of the Che- 
 hil Sittin ; at Isfahdn ; and especially on the walls of Al Hddhr, near Mosul. 
 It is not improbable that those observed at the ChehU Sittin were de-
 
 398 
 
 MASONS MARKS. 
 
 With reo-ard to others of similar kind elsewhere, it has 
 been suggested that they are the marks of Chaldsean 
 
 12 3 12 3 
 
 r^ 
 
 vw 
 
 * 
 
 i? 
 
 ^ H 
 
 h^ 
 
 
 + £ 
 
 J C 
 
 u 
 
 L 
 
 V 
 
 -7 
 
 X 
 
 lUo 
 
 XV 
 
 '-«V\\Xt-C 
 
 yh 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 T 
 
 n^ 
 
 im^n 
 
 JL WJWT 
 
 t I 
 
 F^ 
 
 yc 
 
 ill 
 
 A 
 
 /- 
 
 H 
 
 V 
 
 no 
 
 Az. 
 
 tU 
 
 t- 
 
 ^ 
 
 ® 
 
 =L9< 
 
 ^ 
 
 qI 
 
 oo: 
 
 ofooo©*- 
 
 SK^n 
 
 ^P^<i 
 
 OOQO 
 
 Y 
 
 /p 
 
 t 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^VVk 
 
 -oocx^ 
 
 fe^ 
 
 Marks on composition bricks at Susa. 
 
 masons. HoAvever this may be, it is curious to find them 
 existing on edifices far apart, and erected at various 
 periods from 335 B.C. to the end of the sixteenth cen- 
 tiu:y of our era. With the above observations, I leave 
 them to the examination of philologists. 
 
 rived from more ancient structures erected by Ardeshir Babegdn about 
 
 2^0 A D.
 
 A HOAED OF COINS. 39.0 
 
 The frequency of these bricks, and the occurrence, from 
 time to time, of a piece of inscribed plaster, or small 
 cohimn base with trilingual characters, induced me to 
 continue this trench ''' five hundred feet to the opposite 
 side of the mound. Not far from its southern extremity, 
 on the edge of the pLatform, where the depth of earth 
 above the pavement did not exceed six feet, an interest- 
 ing discovery was made. I was at the time engaged in 
 examining some recent acquisitions from another part 
 of the ruins, when one of my master workmen rushed 
 into the tent, every muscle of his face distorted ^vith 
 mingled expressions of astonishment, delight, fear, and 
 anxiety, while he threw down at my feet as many silver 
 Kufic coins as his two hands could contain, rushing out 
 again with an intimation that there were more, in the 
 trench, which he could not carry. 
 
 The workmen had come upon a small glazed pot dur- 
 ing the temporary absence of their overseer. As it felt 
 extremely heavy, the cupidity of the Persians tempted 
 them to break it, when out rolled the coins and a gene- 
 ral scramble took place. The master-workman, however, 
 being responsible for the rest, secured as many as he 
 could, and honestly delivered them up to me. He was 
 delighted at the discovery, but afraid of the result, 
 doubting whether the Prince ought not to receive the 
 treasure, and at the same time aware that his men had 
 taken care of themselves. Ovannes was immediately 
 Bent to look after them, and presently returned with 
 fifty more coins, laughing at the credulity of the Liirs. 
 With ready wit, he hinted that I had found an account 
 of the number, and that several were missing. He there- 
 fore recommended the men to produce them, because, if 
 sold in Dizftil, the fact would reach the Prince's ears, 
 and the sellers be punished. They looked at each other. 
 * At I on the Plan.
 
 400 KtJFIC COINS. 
 
 At lengtli, one more timid than tlie rest pulled forth a 
 coin, and his example was followed by all. Some handed 
 out one, some two or three, and so on, until fifty were 
 collected. Still my factotum was not satisfied ; when the 
 day's work was over, he obliged each man to declare by 
 the head of 'All, by Baba Buziirg,- and all his favourite 
 saints, that he had no more coins in his possession. 
 Those who refused the oath were to receive none of the 
 tobacco about to be distributed in honour of the dis- 
 covery. In this manner eleven other coins were re- 
 covered that evening, and, by dint of perseverance, 
 about one hundred and seventy were in all collected. 
 Several were cohering together at the bottom of the jar 
 
 in a hard, sohd mass, but the o-reater number were 
 
 * 
 bright and unworn, as though but recently struck off 
 
 the die. They proved to belong to the Ommiad Khalifs, 
 
 who date from Abdal-Malek 79 a.h. to Hesham 106 a.h., 
 
 corresponding with the years a.d. 6 9 8-72 8. t 
 
 * Bdbd Btizlirg (great father) is a celebrated saint of the 'All Ildhi calendar. 
 The shrine of this deity is situated in the mountainous region between Diz- 
 ftil and Khorremdbad, in Ltiristdn. 
 
 t I am indebted to Mr Vaux, of the British Museum, for the determina- 
 tion of the mint-marks and dates of these coins contained in the following 
 list:— 
 
 Damascus, 
 
 A.H 
 
 . 79, 82, 83, 84, 86—100, 105-6. 
 
 Busrah, 
 
 » 
 
 80-82, 87. 
 
 Wdset, 
 
 jj 
 
 88, 94, 99, 105, 108. 
 
 Stis (Susa), 
 
 » 
 
 90. 
 
 Rey, 
 
 » 
 
 90. 
 
 Herdt, 
 
 » 
 
 90. 
 
 Teimdr, 
 
 ;; 
 
 91. 
 
 Shciptir 
 
 )) 
 
 91, 92, 94. 
 
 Istaklir (Pensepolis), 
 
 » 
 
 91. 
 
 Sedjestdi), 
 
 11 
 
 92. 
 
 Ddrdbjerd, 
 
 '> 
 
 92, 97. 
 
 Chey or Dschey, 
 
 )> 
 
 92, 94. 
 
 Merv, 
 
 » 
 
 93. 
 
 Kermdn, 
 
 )) 
 
 95. 
 
 Ktifa 
 
 j> 
 
 101. 
 
 Mdhi, 
 
 » 
 
 -?6. 
 
 These coins are now in the British Museum. It is interesting to oo-
 
 DID ALEXANDER DESTROY SUSA 'i 401 
 
 From the sharpness of the impression on these coins, I 
 conclude that the hoard was buried soon after the latest 
 date. But, besides the value attached to tliem from yield- 
 ing several new types, they are extremely interesting in 
 another point of view — they afford a criterion by which 
 to determine the date of the destruction of the Susiaii 
 palaces in an approximate manner. The accumulation of 
 soil between them and the pavement, leads to the conclu- 
 sion that they were hidden long after that event. This 
 fact, coupled with the discovery of several Arsacidan and 
 Sassanian urns around the bases of the fallen columns,, 
 leads to the probability that this barbarous act of demoli- 
 tion was due either to Alexander the Great himself, or- 
 to his successors in the Greek occupation of Susiana. 
 Although no such exploit at this place is recorded of the 
 great conqueror by his historians, they do not fail to tell 
 us of his wantonly setting fire to the palace at Persepolis ; 
 it would, therefore, be no great stretch of the imagination 
 to suppose that he acted similarly at Susa.'"' 
 
 In evidence of Greek influence at Susa, I may refer to 
 the discoveries made at the extreme south corner of the 
 great platform, which is, as previously mentioned, sepa- 
 rated from the palace mound by an apparent roadway, 
 and from the great citadel by a deep ditch or ravine. 
 At this point, t which projects considerably beyond the 
 rest of the mound, there once stood another columnar 
 edifice in a similar style of ornamentation to that already 
 described. It had, however, been entirely destroyed, and 
 
 serve, in lunning the eye down the line of names, that, with exception of 
 the last two, they correspond with the order of Mohammedan conquest. 
 
 * It is worthy of remark, that the cohimns of PersepoHs are free from all 
 traces of fire. The whitened aspect which many of them exhibit, is not the 
 effect of fire, but of the atmosphere. It is very probable that the proceed- 
 ings supposed to have occurred at Persepolis, really took place at Susa, and 
 that the destruction visible at the latter site is attributable to the " con- 
 queror of the world." 
 
 t At L on the Plan.
 
 .402 SMALL PALACE TO ARTAXERXES MNEMON. 
 
 its fragments were used for the pavement of other edifices 
 by the after-races who secured possession of the site. 
 Amono; these were fluted shafts, bases of small columns, 
 panels and cornices of marble adorned with the favourite 
 rosette. The later edifice was equally destroyed, only 
 eight feet of earth remaining above the rudely constructed 
 pavement. Here and there were dug up column bases, 
 miniature copies of the large bell-shaped monoliths in the 
 great palace, elegantly, but, of course, not so highly sculp- 
 tured. Immediately below the torus, around the swell of 
 the bell, upon one of these""" ran the trilingual inscrip- 
 tion : — 
 
 " I am Artaxerxes, the Great King, the King of Kings, of King 
 
 Darius the Son." 
 
 This, doubtless, refers to Artaxerxes Mnemon, who 
 would thus appear to have been a great builder and 
 renovator of palaces at Susa. 
 
 It is difficult to arrive at any definite conclusion con- 
 cerning the date at which this edifice was destroyed, 
 although one naturally associates its downfall with that 
 of the larger palace. The interesting record, to which 
 allusion will now be made, serves only to add to the 
 difficulty. 
 
 About 240 feet south-westward t of the above column, 
 a slight conical elevation, close to the edge of the mound, 
 induced me to open a trench into it. After passing 
 through some comparatively modern Arab graves, the 
 workmen, at the depth of ten feet, discovered the base 
 of another small column, perfectly difierent in character 
 from the others. Its measurements were as follow : — 
 Pedestal, seven inches high, and three feet nine inches 
 square ; plinth, of the same height, and two feet nine 
 
 * The following are the measurements of this monolith : — plinth, 2 inches ; 
 bell, 1 foot 3 inches ; torus, 4| inches ; cincture, 1^ inch ; total height, 1 
 foot lOJ inches ; circumference of plinth, 8 feet. 
 
 t At M on the riau.
 
 GREEK INSCRIPTIONS. 403 
 
 inches square; and torus, five inches high, by two feet 
 tive inches in circumference. On the north side was the 
 
 ■No J M-LVda.% N ooa c V 13 f43d jy 
 
 lidiliiiaiB&JailiiiiSiiii aiSi^ 
 
 03 
 
 Base of column with Greek inscription. 
 
 following Greek inscription, cut in letters two-thirds of 
 an inch in length upon the pedestal : — 
 
 N0VIU0IAY3 Nol^H N Yl^ A o^^ H J- 
 NoJHJ-VdX^NoXAoViaN3cidV 
 
 NHvmNaadYHiYYJLioXVWU ^ 
 AoXdYX^JJY^YdoJVeALf 
 
 which may be rendered : — 
 
 " Pythagoras, the son of Aristarchus, captain of the body-guard (in 
 honour of) his fi'iend Arreneides, son of Arreneides, Governor of Susiana." 
 
 The most curious feature connected mth this epitaph 
 is, that it stands upside down at the left corner, each line 
 extending to within two inches of a fracture which 
 divides the pedestal into two equal parts : hence, it 
 would appear that each line was framed to occupy the 
 space where it was inscribed. The column must have 
 stood in its present situation when the epitaph w^as cut, 
 because the position of the letters at the left corner of 
 the stone was such that they could only have been con- 
 veniently effected by the sculptor kneeling on his right 
 knee. Moreover, the aspect of the block, and the polished
 
 404 PYTHAGORAS AND THE DARIC. 
 
 state of its broken edges, bear evidence of great antiquity, 
 compared with tlie sharp and unworn appearance of the 
 Greek letters. Standing, as it doubtless did, protected 
 from the inclemency of the atmosphere on the inside of a 
 colonnade, its position was well chosen. That such was 
 its site, we have the evidence of another column base of 
 coarse yellow limestone, fifteen feet further north, which 
 had inscribed upon it, likewise inverted, and on the north 
 side, the following unfinished but rudely-cut Greek 
 inscription : — 
 
 mNENT°iznr 
 
 Southward of the first base were two others, both bell- 
 shaped, one being perfectly plain, the other ornamented 
 similarly to that bearing the Artaxerxes inscription. 
 
 It was at once evident, from the dissimilar styles of these 
 columns, that they were removed from other edifices. 
 They were, moreover, built upon fragments of another 
 palace which once stood upon the same site. 
 
 The first inference derived from these inscriptions, and 
 the knowledge of Susa having been in the possession of 
 the Greeks, is that they were, as I have just said, the 
 cause of all this havoc among the Persian palaces. We 
 have certainly no positive evidence to establish the fact, 
 but it is highly probable that both Arreneides, and his 
 faithful friend Pythagoras, were generals of Alexander 
 the Great. 
 
 Opposed to this -vdew, however, are several specimens 
 extant of a Persian coin known as the " Daric," which 
 exhibits on the obverse a peculiarly Persia.n representa- 
 tion of a crowned king, in flowing drapery, kneeling on 
 one knee, holding a bent bow in his left hand, and 
 a long spear in his right, and around him the name 
 IIT&ArOPH. The reverse of this coin is perfectly unin- 
 telligible, IVIr Vaux suggests that this name refers to the
 
 BODIES BAKED IN JARS. 405 
 
 Pythagoras of the Susa column, whom he supposes to 
 have lived during the sway of the Achjemenian kings. 
 " As a commander of Persian troops, he would naturally 
 make use of the usual Persian coin, the daric ; and as 
 leader of Greek troops under Persian rule, he would 
 probably be allow^ed to place his name upon the Persian 
 coins which were struck chiefly for his own troops." ^^" It 
 appears, however, extremely improbable to me that any 
 Persian monarch would permit " the captain of his body- 
 guard " to assume such a privilege. 
 
 The only other supposition which 1 can offer is, that 
 Arreneides was governor of Susiana under some of the 
 Seleucid successors of Alexander, and that Pythagoras, 
 succeeding him, had a die struck by a Persian artist in 
 which his rank, as local prince, w^as indicated by the 
 bended knee, and simple name without the usual affix, 
 "King" or "Great King." 
 
 But whoever the Pythagoras of the column base may 
 have been, the inscription with the name of Susiana upon 
 it is quite sufiicient to decide the question as to the iden- 
 tity of Shush with the Susa of the Greeks. 
 
 In the immediate neighbourhood of the above discoveries 
 were found t a few copper coins, of Sub-Parthian type, 
 and small fragments of alabaster statuettes, apparently 
 of Greek design. Other trenches in the great platform 
 yielded a small collection of glass articles, clay vases, and 
 rude coffins of Parthian or Sassanian origin. Among the 
 latter were several cylindrical jars, three or four feet in 
 leno-th, containinsj the bodies of children ; but as the 
 cranium was generally larger than the neck of the vase, 
 it is difficult to conceive how it coidd have been placed 
 inside. The most feasible explanation is, that the jar 
 was moulded round the skeleton, and then baked with 
 
 * " Nimiismatic Chronicle," vol. sviii., page 148, and figure 10. 
 t At N on rian.
 
 406 THE Ml^TAVELfS OFFER. 
 
 the body inside, — numerous small holes being apparently 
 made for the escape of the gases generated during the 
 process ! 
 
 About ten days after the commencement of the exca- 
 vations, I was surprised at receiving a visit from the 
 venerable mutaveli or guardian of Daniel's tomb, who 
 voluntarily came to pay his respects. This condescension 
 took me completely by surprise, because his sacred cha- 
 racter, and my own infidelity, aj)peared to be insuperable 
 bars to our good fellowship ; it was, moreover, the first 
 time I had been honoured with a friendly visit from a 
 native. He was a handsome old man, with sharp twink- 
 ling eyes and pleasing expression of countenance ; but 
 he wore the green turban, that badge of fanaticism and 
 my exj)ress aversion. Having certain plans in view, I 
 was, however, really pleased to see the old gentleman, 
 and therefore plied him with strong Arab coff'ee and pipes 
 without number. This treatment evidently warmed the 
 inmost recesses of his heart, for he suddenly exclaimed, in 
 the midst of our conversation : " You are spending a great 
 sum of money to no purpose, Sahib, digging in this mound, 
 where you will turn up nothing but stumps of columns 
 and broken bricks. Come with me and I will shew you 
 where to find maktub (inscriptions) V This was too 
 good an offer to be declined. Nearly all his life had been 
 spent upon the ruins, consequently he knew more about 
 them than any one living. Conceiving, therefore, that a 
 few coins, bestowed upon him in bakhshish, would be 
 infinitely better invested than in expending my funds at 
 random, I promised that if he could sliew me where to 
 find a series of sculptures and inscriptions, the palm of 
 his hand should be well anointed in return for his 
 information. 
 
 Taking me to the summit of the Great Mound, he 
 pointed out a spot at the north angle where he assured
 
 KING SUSRA'S RECORD. 407 
 
 me was a large stone or stones bearing written characters, 
 and but slightly covered with earth. As he spoke confi- 
 dently on the subject, and as the record of King Siisra^''' on 
 the southern slope of the mound positively attests the 
 existence of sculptured slabs, I saw no reason to doubt 
 my informant's honesty of purpose. A trench was there- 
 fore immediately opened at the point indicated.t 
 
 We then adjourned to the head of Colonel Williams' 
 trench J over King Susra's inscription. Here my guide 
 told me that, when he was quite a boy, this and another 
 slab stood at the edge of the mound, with their tops about 
 three feet above the level of the surface. Out of curiosity 
 he dug away the earth, and found them standing alone, 
 erect like door-posts. The block, now lying at the foot of 
 the mound, was then in the same broken condition. He 
 stated that the natives have a tradition, that a great 
 stone palace once existed at the south side of the mound, 
 and strongly recommended me to continue the excava- 
 tions then proceeding at that part. He also shewed me 
 a place, half-way up the north roadway, where he once 
 discovered a number of variously-sized copper figures, 
 which, not knowing their value, he sold for a few kerans, 
 to be melted down in the bazaar ! In this manner dis- 
 appear many valuable and interesting antiquities. 
 
 To a certain extent, the information of my newly- 
 acquired friend proved correct. Early on the following 
 morning, I was called to the trench § at the top of the 
 roadway. A wall of ancient bricks had been reached, 
 many of which bore,, on their edges, long and complicated 
 inscriptions of five or six lines. They resembled one 
 built into the doorway of Daniel's tomb, and fragments of 
 others which were now and then dug up in the trenches 
 at different parts of the ruins. These were, however, the 
 
 * Already meutioned at page 344. f At D on the Plan. 
 
 5: At A on the Plan. § At D on the Plan,
 
 408 RELICS FROM THE GREAT MOUND. 
 
 only perfect specimens hitherto discovered, and the only 
 undoubted relics of an age preceding that of the Achse- 
 menian kinos to whom were referable all the remains 
 hitherto exhumed. In digging away the earth towards 
 a point where I conceived there must have been a gate- 
 way or grand entrance, there was found a broken slab of 
 blue limestone, Avith a much-defaced and weathered 
 inscription, written in a language which M. Opperf^^ 
 terms "late Susaniau." It differed considerably in 
 character from that upon the earlier bricks. Lying near 
 it was a fragment of a stone gate-post ; a broken, rude 
 sculpture of a bird's neck ; and a piece of polished t)asalt, 
 which apparently belonged to a statue, and shewed traces 
 of cuneiform. 
 
 All these fragmentary relics lay as if thrown down 
 with violence from a greater elevation on the north. 
 Close at hand, too, was a broken mortar-shaped vessel, 
 perhaps a fire-altar, containing a quantity of burnt bitu- 
 men, with the impressions of a sheep's teeth and jaw. 
 
 From the point where the debris occurred, the founda- 
 tion wall, above mentioned, extended westward across 
 the mound, containing in its lowest layers several in- 
 scribed bricks ; but it was evident from their inscribed 
 surfaces being built inwards, and from the use of coarse 
 lime mortar, that they were derived from some more 
 ancient structure. At the distance of a few feet to the 
 north of this wall stood a well-built circular column or 
 pillar of bricks, measuring three feet in diameter upon a 
 broad base. On a level with the latter, parallel with 
 the uj)per wall, was an undoubtedly more ancient foun- 
 dation, to the base of which my trench was carried. 
 Upon its surface, seventeen feet removed from the pillar, 
 was a piece of red-sandstone slab, with a beautifully 
 
 • The learned savant engaged under the auspices of the French Govern- 
 ment in the interpretation of the cuneiform records.
 
 ALABASTER VASES OF XEEXES. 409 
 
 cut and complicated old Scytliic record. It lay flat 
 upon another of polished limestone, both of them ex- 
 hibiting undoubted marks of fire, as did likewise the 
 debris around them. 
 
 Lying upon or near the slabs were several small 
 articles; — a small ivory crux ansata two inches in 
 length ; a bundle of iron spear-heads adhering together 
 with rust ; two or three flat copper ornaments resem- 
 bling those seen in Assyrian sculptures upon horses' trap- 
 pings ; a rude cubic die ; and a mushroom -formed clay 
 object, the top perforated, and the shaft covered with 
 complex Babylonian characters. 
 
 But decidedly the most interesting objects obtained 
 at this locality were a collection of broken alabaster 
 vases, some of which must have been of large dimen- 
 sions. A pile of these, sufficient to have filled a wheel- 
 barrow, were gathered together, and I spent several 
 hours in examining them separately. From among 
 them, I selected four bearing trilingual inscrijDtions, 
 which are now in the British Museum. The largest of 
 these fragments, six and a half inches in height, is the 
 mouth and upper part of a vase. The alabaster has spHt 
 nearly in a straight line, following the grain from top to 
 bottom, and divided the inscriptions. The commence- 
 ment and most important portions of these, however, 
 remain — the whole of the royal name, " Xerxes," except- 
 ing only the terminal letter in each version. A second 
 fraoment exhibits the last letters of the same name, with 
 the commencement of the word "king ;" and on a third 
 is the word " great." There can be little doubt, therefore, 
 that the complete inscription ran as usual : — 
 
 " Xerxes, the great king." 
 
 Beneath the inscriptions on the largest fragment is a 
 vertical line close to the edge of the fracture, which I
 
 410 CARTOUCH OF XERXES. 
 
 believe to have formed part of tlie border around an 
 Egyptian cartoucb of the same king. My reason for so 
 thinking is, that a similar comldnation of cuneatic and 
 hieroglyphic legends occurs upon the celebrated porphyry 
 vase ascribed to Artaxerxes Ochus at Venice ; and, more- 
 over, because among the otlier fragments found was a 
 cartouch bearing the name of Xerxes. 
 
 I am favoured by Mr Birch, of the British Museum, 
 with the following highly interesting remarks on these 
 and other alabaster vases of the same period : — 
 
 " The discoveries of Mr Loftus at Susa, likQ those of 
 Mr Layard at Nimrud, have brought to light* some 
 Egyptian fragments, of considerable interest for the 
 history of the Persian dominion in Egypt. He has 
 discovered fragments of those alabaster vases which, 
 like that of Paris and its companion in the treasury of 
 St Marc at Venice, once ornamented the palace of the 
 Persian monarch. These vases are all of arragonite, or 
 the so-called Oriental alabaster, which, fashioned into 
 vessels of elegant shape, was in use for unguents, cosme- 
 tics, and other precious substances, as early as the fourth 
 dynasty, and continued so till the age of the Persian 
 rulers. But there is one remarkable distinction as to the 
 quality of the material. The vases of the early epoch are 
 made of fine semi-transparent alabaster, of uniform grain 
 and colour, while those of the later period are of the kind 
 called zoned, showing the successive accretions of the 
 stalagmite of which they were composed. The quarry of 
 this kind of alabaster seems to have been opened during 
 the twenty-sixth dynasty, about 750 B.C., and the age of 
 vases and otlier vessels made of it can consequently be 
 determined. It comes from Tel-el-' Amarna, and is the ala- 
 baster now in use. The columns sent by Mehemet 'All to 
 Pope Pius IX., and erected in the church of St Paolo 
 Fuore le ]\Iura at Kome, are from this later quarry. This
 
 HIEROGLYPHIC RECORDS OF THE PERSIANS IN EGYPT. 411 
 
 alabaster is probably the kind called by Tlieoplirastus 
 (De Lapid., c. xii.) chernites, and by subsequent writers 
 chermites; Pliny (N. H., xxxvii. 11, 71-73) descril)e(l it 
 as resembling ivory. It was in a sarcophagus of this 
 material that Darius was buried. 
 
 " The name in hieroglyphics upon the vase reads Kha- 
 shairsha, and is the same as that upon the vase at Paris. 
 It refers to Xerxes I., and shews that the vase in ques- 
 tion had been made in Egypt, and transported thence 
 to Persia, where it had received the additional Persian, 
 Median, and Babylonian inscriptions, in the same manner 
 as the bronze lion-shaped Aveights at Nimrud had Phoe- 
 nician and Assyrian inscriptions. 
 
 " The records of the Persian rule are so scarce in Egypt, 
 that a short note of the most remarkable monuments 
 may not be unacceptable. The principal one is un- 
 doubtedly that of the ofhcer Utaharsun,''' whose statue 
 is in the Vatican, and which mentions the conquest 
 of the country by Cambyses, and its subsequent sub- 
 jection to Darius. But the most numerous memorials of 
 this period are those of the Cosseyr Eoad, where a series 
 of proscynemata have been engraved to the local divinity 
 Khem, lord of Kabti or Coptos, by two Persian and one 
 Egyptian officer. The first of these is one of Atauhi, or 
 Adeues, a saris of Persia, who inscribes the sixth year of 
 Cambyses the thirty-sixth of Darius and the twelfth of 
 Xerxes, in which last year he hadt made the inscription. 
 As these two first reigns correspond with the length as- 
 signed to them in Manetho, it has been generally suj.posed 
 that they were inscribed to record that fact, rather than the 
 circumstance of Atauhi having paid ' his vows in the face 
 of the God Khem' in these years. In subsequent in- 
 
 * M. De Rouge, statue naophore du Vatican, Rev. Arch., viii., p. 37. 
 t Burton, Exc. Hier., PI. viii. 1 ; Rosellini, Mon. Stor. Pte. i., toui. ii., p. 1C3, 
 and foil.; Lepsius, Denkm. iii. Bl. 283.
 
 412 HIEROGLYPHIC RECOUDS OF THE PERSIANS IN EGYPT. 
 
 scriptions lie calls himself the son of Artames, and of a 
 female named Kantau or Candys. Previous, however, to 
 this year of Darius, an Egyptian officer, who bears the 
 same name, Aahmes, Amosis, as the last imhaj^py monarch 
 of the twenty-sixth dynasty, an officer of troops, superin- 
 tendent of constructions, and having the charge of the 
 royal works of the whole country, son of Kakhnumhat, a 
 similar functionary, and of Tsaennefertum, daughter of 
 one Psaumetik, or Psammetichus, had made excava- 
 vations from the sixteenth to the twentieth year of the 
 same monarch.'"" A wrong interpretation of . these in- 
 scriptions had led to much confusion, for it was supposed 
 that Darius had retained the family of the wretched 
 Amosis in the government, in the condition of dependent 
 meleJcs, which the text does not justify. The Amosis of 
 the Cosseyr Road is undoubtedly of the family of the 
 Saite dynasty. The principal inscriptions, however, of 
 Atauhi are of the thirty-sixth year of Darius, whom he 
 callst ' the beloved of the god Khem dwelling in Coptos.' 
 In one which bears the date of this same year, he gives 
 also the thirteenth of Kliishairsha, or Xerxes, whom he 
 calls the son of Darius, mentioning both monarchs as if 
 living. At this period Atauhi held the rank of Repa, or 
 lord-lieutenant of Coptos.J Now it is remarkable that 
 in other proscynemata he mentions Xerxes alone, as on the 
 remarkable inscription of the nineteenth of Thoth, in the 
 second year of Xerxes,§ which probably marks the reduc- 
 tion of Egypt again to the Persian rule after its revolt 
 (Herodotus, vii. 7) in 484 b.c.|| The other proscynemata 
 
 • Lepsius, Denkm., Ab. iii., Bl. 283, p. Cf. Burton, Exc. Hier., PI. iii. iv. 
 
 t Lepsius, Denkm., iii. 283, p. J Lepsius, Denkm., iii. 283, n. 
 
 § Lepsius, Denkm., iii. 283, u. 
 
 11 In the lists of jNIanetho, both as given by Afrioanus, Eusebius, Syncel- 
 lus, and the Armenian version, the reign of Darius is placed at twenty-one 
 years. Cf. Bunsen's Egypt's Place, vol. i. appendix, p. G42, 643. After much 
 oscillation of opinion, B.C. 525 is the admitted date of the conquest of Egypt.
 
 HIEROGLYPHIC RECORDS OF THE PERSIANS IN EGYPT. 413 
 
 of this officer, dated in the sixth and tenth and twelfth 
 years of Xerxes, are less important, as Egypt* remained 
 in the Persian power almost till the conquest of Alexander. 
 But the works in this road continued only to be carried 
 on in the fifth and sixteenth years of Artaxerxes by Ariu'- 
 resh,t another Persian saris. 
 
 " With the exception of the temple at El-Khargeh, 
 there are no other remains of the Persians in Eg}'pt, 
 the country having been administered as a great 
 satrapy under its local governments, and retaining its 
 privileges. The inscription on the cartouch found by 
 Mr Loftus reads KhashmrsJia or Khshairsha, as on the 
 vase in the Bibliotheque Imperiale at Paris, and not 
 KhishairsJia like the name upon the Cosseyr Road ; but 
 this minute difference does not necessarily prove that a 
 later Xerxes is intended. Unfortunately, there is not 
 enough remaining to decide whether the inscription which 
 is found after the name of Xerxes and Artaxerxes on 
 these vases at Paris and Venice, occurred also on these 
 vases. This inscription, which means the 'great house 
 — the great,' is an interpretation into hieroglyphics of 
 the title 'great king' of the Persian inscription — the 
 first expression, ' the great house,' meaning commander 
 of the whole world, according to the interpretation of 
 HorapoUo." J 
 
 The old miitaveli was perfectly astonished when told 
 how much I valued such fragments. " Am4n ! Aman ! — 
 What a pity ! " he exclaimed. " Only to think what an ass 
 
 * Lepsius, Denkm., 283, k. 1. 
 
 t Ibid., Bl. 283, o. 
 
 1 1. 61. For these inscriptions on the Paris vase, see Rosellini, M. St., Pte. i., 
 torn, ii., p. 176. Champollion, Pr6ci.s, PJ. No. 125-125 a. Cayhis, Reciieil, v. 
 PL XXX. Lenormant, Musee des Antiq. Egypt., fo. Paris, 1841, p. 37. Pauthier, 
 Essai sur I'Origine des Ecritures Chinoise et Egyptienne, Svo, Paris, 1840, 
 p. 111. Journal Asiatique, Fev., 1823. M6raoires de I'Acad., xii. 143. For 
 the Artaxerxes vase, see Mr Pettigrew in the Archseologia, vol. xxx., PI. vi., 
 p. 275.
 
 414 THE MtJTAVELfs REGEETS. 
 
 I was ! A few years ago, after a heavy rain, I found a 
 large cup like that, but three times its size. It was quite 
 perfect, and covered with writing ; but, not aware of its 
 vahie — 'Ali forgive me ! — I broke it up, and made it into 
 chibuk bowls and mouthpieces. They lasted me a long 
 time. And I might perhaps have sokl them for a 
 toman ! Aman ! We grow wiser as we grow older ! " 
 Although I deeply regretted the loss of such a treasure, 
 it was infinitely amusing to hear him repeatedly bewail- 
 ing the opportunity he let slip of turning his discovery 
 to better account. 
 
 The excavations upon the Great Mound fully convinced 
 me that if any primitive buildings still remain perfect at 
 Susa, they are to be disentombed at this portion ©f the 
 ruins. With the exception, however, of the inscription 
 of Susra, several bricks in excellent preservation, and the 
 fragmentary records'"" above mentioned, there was nothing 
 further found in the trenches, and my funds failed before 
 I could satisfactorily explore the depths of the ruin. 
 Notwithstanding the assertion of my friend the sacristan, 
 there was no aj)pearance of the stone searched for. 
 According to his best recollection, it had stood close to a 
 deep ravine, and there seems every probability that 
 during the winters' rains it had fallen from its position, 
 and been covered up near the base of the mound. He 
 had not seen it for many years. Still, the bricks and 
 inscription, which I was so fortunate as to uncover, were 
 undoubted proofs of the remote antiquity ascribable to 
 the great Susian citadel. 
 
 We have additional confirmation on this subject in the 
 
 * The results of my trenches in the great citadel have only recently 
 arrived in England, but as the language in which these complicated old 
 Scythic monuments is written, is still a mystery even to the initiated in 
 cuneiform decipherment, we must, I fear, wait long until its difficulties 
 may be unravelled. There is every probability that some of the brick in- 
 scriptions extend as far back as the period of the patriarch Abraham.
 
 SCULPTURED TROUGH. 
 
 415 
 
 very archaic sculptures upon a trough of yellow limestone, 
 lying in the channel of the Shaour at the foot of Daniel's 
 
 Sculptured Trough at Daniel's Tomb. 
 
 tomb. Around the sides are two animals — doubtful 
 whether dogs or lions — apparently about to devour two 
 prisoners with their arms tied. As Sir K. Ker Porter 
 gives an exceedingly rough and incorrect sketch of these 
 animals, the annexed woodcut from Mr Churchiirs 
 careful drawing is here inserted. Whether or not the 
 scene herein represented is intended to commemorate the 
 events which befell the prophet, I leave to the coLsidera- 
 tion 01 my leaders.
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 Tiie " Black Stone" — Its Discovery and Adventures — Its Connexion 
 with tlie Welfare of Khilzistan — The Plot for its Removal Defeated 
 — Investigations among the Rivers of Susa — Identification of the 
 " Ulai," or Eulseus — Bifurcation of Modern Rivers — Sheikh ^bdulla 
 Forgiven — Friendly Parting between the Arabs and the Frank. 
 
 It was upon the surface of the Great Mound that my 
 now indefatigable cicerone of the ruins discovered the 
 celebrated " black stone," the safe custody of which is sup- 
 posed to exercise such wonderful influence on the welfare 
 of the province. As certain details connected with its 
 history are not generally known, it may be interesting to 
 narrate them in exteyiso. 
 
 When the present guardian of the holy shrine was a 
 very little boy, he used to accompany his father, who 
 preceded him in the same capacity, from Dizfiil to 
 Shush. His partiality to antiquarian pursuits soon 
 manifested itself, and he made a practice of seeking in 
 every hole and corner of the ruins for " picture-stones," 
 and, of course, precious metals. Engaged one day in his 
 usual pursuit, he accidentally stumbled over the stone 
 projecting through the soil at the top of the roadway, 
 where my large excavation was made. The summit of 
 his ambition at that time was, boylike, to move and roll 
 it down the steep slope of the mound, that he might see 
 it crashing its way through the thick undergrowth of 
 brushwood. Year after year, however, elapsed before his
 
 THE "BLACK STONE.'' 417 
 
 strength was sufficient to accomplish this great exploit. 
 Down it w^ent at last, however, to the intense delight of 
 the young Hercules. From its high estate, occupying as 
 it had done, for so many centuries, the threshold of the 
 temple, or of the king's own palace, overlooking the 
 country around from its elevated position, it was sud- 
 denly debased to the ignominious office of a washing 
 block by the edge of the Shaour at the foot of Daniel's 
 tomb. Here it was seen in 1809 by Captain Monteith 
 and his companion Captain Macdonald Kinnear, who 
 could then have purchased it on moderate terms. Cir- 
 cumstances however — not caused by any popular oppo- 
 sition — rendered its removal inconvenient at that time, 
 however desirous these gentlemen were of possessing it. 
 According to the old man's story, two other Firenghis came 
 shortly afterwards and offered him one thousand four hun- 
 dred kerans (nearly seventy pounds!) for this curious piece 
 of sculpture. He hesitated ; whereon they said : — " Well I 
 consider the proposal, and when we return we wiU pay 
 you the money and carry it away ! " But, alas ! they 
 never returned ! Poor Grant and Fotheringham were 
 murdered near the foot of the great mountains at the 
 instigation of the ruthless Kelb 'Ali Khan, the AVali of 
 Luristan, under whose protection they travelled ! These 
 offers on the part of the Firenghis w^ere soon magnified, 
 and spread like wildfire among the superstitious Arabs, 
 who now began to set great value upon it — thinking, 
 doubtless, that if a Frank conceived it worth his while to 
 carry it away, it must be valuable indeed. 
 
 It is then related that " when Sir Eobert Gordon visited 
 Susa in 1811, he found the stone more highly estimated ; 
 and in 1812 its reputation was so established throughout 
 the country as a talisman, powerful against the plague, 
 hostile invasion, and other evils, that a person, sent by 
 him expressly to purchase it, and authorized for that
 
 418 ITS HIGH ESTIMATION AND DESTRUCTION. 
 
 purpose by Mohammed 'Ali Mirza, Prince of Kirman- 
 shah, althoiigli lie liad placed it in a boat on the river 
 Shaour, was compelled to relinquish his prize by the 
 inhabitants of Shuster, Dizfiil, and other places adjacent 
 to Susa." '" 
 
 From that time its security was considered a matter 
 of such vital importance to the province, that the Arabs 
 " collected among themselves two thousand tomans, which 
 they presented with two fine horses to the Prince, and 
 it was decreed by his Royal Highness that the stone 
 should not be removed from Susa." But jealousy of 
 external influence could not protect it from native 
 cupidity. A blind Beni Lam Seyid came with two at- 
 tendants to say his prayers to Daniel. During six months 
 they hovered about the tomb, waiting an opportunity, 
 and at length blew up the stone with gunpowder, in the 
 vain hope of enriching themselves with the treasure which 
 it was supposed to contain. It became, of course, gra- 
 dually reported that the perpetrator of this outrage was a 
 Firenghi emissary in disguise. Under all circumstances, 
 therefore, it is not surprising that the European visitor 
 should be regarded with great suspicion and abhorrence ; 
 the more so when it is considered that immediately after 
 the above occurrence, a series of misfortunes befell the 
 province — " the plains were depopulated by the plague, 
 the bridge of Shuster suddenly broke, and the famous 
 dam at Hawlza was carried away; all which disasters 
 were, of course, ascribed to the destruction of the tahs- 
 man.^'t Hence it was that such a feeling of hostility and 
 suspicion attended all visits of Em^opeans to Susa. 
 
 In order to preserve the fragments intact, they were 
 collected together and secretly built into a pillar in the 
 veranda of the tomb. This wonderful relic is described 
 
 * "Sir William Ouseley's Travels in Various Countries," vol. i., p. 420. 
 t " Journal of the Royal Geographical Society," vol. ix., p. 69.
 
 ITS DESCRIPTION. 
 
 419 
 
 to tave been twenty-two inches long and twelve inclies 
 broad. Sheikh Mohammed voluntarily gave me an 
 account of it, and his description perfectly agrees with 
 the sketch made by Captain Monteith. He said that on 
 one side were figures of the sun, moon, stars, birds, and 
 
 The " Black Stone." 
 
 Other objects, which he understood were representations 
 of the gods (or rather sacred emblems) whom the people 
 
 * The above M'oodcut is a copy of that published from General Monteith's 
 .ketch in Walpole's « Travels in Turkey, vol. n., p. 426.
 
 420 ATTEMPT TO GAIN POSSESSION. 
 
 of Sliush formerly worsliipped ; and that on another side 
 was writing, while the remaining two faces of the block 
 were defaced. The above was, I believe, the import of 
 the black stone ; but, as the cuneiform record had not 
 been carefully copied, it was desirable that I should obtain 
 a cast from it, if it were found impracticable to obtain 
 possession of the original. 
 
 As any direct suspicion of my object would have com- 
 promised the prosecution of the general excavations, and 
 placed me in considerable personal jeopardy, I took care 
 never to visit the tomb, or to make any inquiry concern- 
 ing the highly valued talisman. At length, however, 
 when my excavation funds were nearly exhausted, it 
 became necessary to take some steps in the matter. 
 
 The old keeper of the tomb was my frequent visitor, 
 but hitherto I had avoided all allusion to the black stone, 
 and he had been equally reserved on the subject. One 
 day as he sat enjoying bitter coffee in my tent, I abruptly 
 opened negotiations by asking him to afford me the 
 opportunity of examining it ; but he opened his eyes in 
 well-feigned astonishment, and denied all knowledge of 
 its whereabouts. To his unaffected surprise, however, I 
 precisely indicated the pillar where it lay concealed, by 
 means of information elicited from other quarters. Find- 
 ing it useless to attempt farther deception on this point, 
 he acknowledged its existence, but resorted to various 
 subterfuges to drive me from my purpose : — " Well ! but 
 there is nothing upon it ; it is a plain black stone." I 
 merely replied, — "There are figures on one side and writing 
 on the other." — " Firenghis are wonderful people ! You 
 come here, and, without having ever seen this stone, not 
 only describe it correctly, but point out the exact spot 
 where I buried it years ago ! By the beard of Danyel, 
 you know everything ! You come, and you dig up palaces 
 which our fathers never saw, and read a language on its
 
 THE MIJTAVELl's DIFFICULTIES. 421 
 
 great blocks of marble which must have been written by 
 the Gins ! Surely ! it is useless to teU you lies, because 
 you know the truth! But, as to this said ' Sang-f- 
 Ghyawr (Infidel's stone !) : you will be able to make 
 nothing of it, because it is broken into pieces, most of 
 which are larger than my hand, and many are much 
 smaller." I suggested that the various pieces might be 
 fitted together, and if not, that all I required was, to make 
 paper casts of them, as he had seen me do with the 
 Artaxerxes inscription. Then came the objection, — " If 
 we take down the pillar, the tomb will fall, — and what, 
 then, will become of me its guardian V He quite forgot, 
 however, that the same difiiculty presented itself when he 
 built the pieces into the pillar years ago. I proposed 
 that due precautions should be taken for the safety of the 
 tomb, by propping it up during the short time required 
 to complete my examination of the relic. His conclud- 
 ing argument was by far the most potent, and here my 
 chief difiiculty lay : — "But pilgrims or workmen are 
 always here now. Every person in Dizful is talking about 
 the big idols (the bulls of the colonnade), and in a few 
 days all the town will be here to see them. How is 
 it possible to do what you ask 1 " I determined that 
 the departure of the workmen should be hastened, and 
 suggested that the extrication, copying, and reburial of 
 the stone might be readily effected some night when no 
 person was in the neighboiu'hood. Here the subject for 
 the present dropped, and the old man was left to ponder 
 over the conversation. On his rising to depart, I dropped 
 a few coins into his willing hand, with the remark that 
 they were a portion of the reward intended to be bestowed 
 for the trouble he had experienced from so many work- 
 men residing in the tomb. His hand clutched instantly 
 on the glittering coin, and his look told me that he fully 
 understood their real meaning.
 
 422 THE PLOT DEFEATED. 
 
 For nearly a week the old man kept himself aloof from 
 my camp, lest reports might arise injurious to his reputa- 
 tion as a good Mussulman. At length, however, he inti- 
 mated his willingness to enter into my plans, provided 
 a favourable opportunity should occur for that purpose. 
 The workmen were duly paid off, and there appeared 
 every prospect of our effecting the dark mysterious deed. 
 All details were arranged, the props ready, and the 
 hour fixed upon, when, to my utter vexation, a shoal 
 of pilgrims arrived from Dizfiil, and seized posses- 
 sion of the sanctuary which my workmen had but just 
 deserted. Operations were consequently deferred,— ^but 
 next day the numbers of the devout increased — and the 
 next — and the next — till it became evident that 'the 
 annual pilgrimage to the shrine had commenced long 
 before the usual period. The wonderful reports spread 
 abroad concerning the excavations had raised public 
 expectation to such a pitch that it could be no longer 
 restrained ; men, women, and children, bringing their tents 
 and j)roperty, and evidently contemplating a lengthened 
 stay, flocked to the banks of the Shaom\ 
 
 The scene was a busy one, as they gathered in groups 
 among the columns, and discussed the questions how and 
 whence those huge blocks were conveyed to their present 
 position. Children played along the edges of the trenches, 
 their rich dresses contrasting brilliantly with the now 
 dying and brown vegetation of the mounds. However 
 interesting such a scene might be at any other time, it was 
 anything but agreeable at that moment. I lingered for 
 several days upon the spot, but, the number of Daniel's 
 visitors increasino; instead of diminishinof, I was at leno'th 
 reluctantly obliged to abandon my project. For some 
 time I was inclined to suspect that the old man had 
 played me false, and that he had himself arranged the 
 inopportune arrival of the pilgrims ; but it was afterwards
 
 THE RIVERS OF SUSIANA. 423 
 
 reported to me that lie had been compelled to seek his 
 own safety by a hasty flight in consequence of his sus- 
 pected arrangements with myself. What became of him 
 afterwards I never learned. 
 
 The excavations having satisfactorily settled the 
 much-debated question as to the identity of Shilsh with 
 the Susa of the Greeks, my next efforts were directed 
 towards solving the problem with reference to the de- 
 termination of the Susian rivers. 
 
 The ancient geographers make distinct mention of four 
 great streams — the Choaspes, Eulseus, Koprates, and 
 Pasitigris, of which the Eulseus and Pasitigris were in- 
 finitely the most important. At the present day there 
 are four rivers flowing through the province of Khtizi- 
 stan — namely, the Kerkhah, Shaour, the Dizftil river, and 
 the Karun. Modern writers ■'' all concur in identifying 
 the Choaspes with the Kerkhah, — the Koprates with the 
 Dizful river, — and the Pasitigris with the lower part of 
 the Karun. Some even go so far as to regard the Shaour 
 as the ancient Eulseus ; but, as it is only a narrow stream, 
 at certain seasons expended in cultivation before it forms 
 a junction with the Dizful river, it appears, on this evidence 
 alone, highly improbable that the Shaour can represent the 
 navigable river by which Alexander sailed from Susa to 
 the sea ; t or that which Ptolemy mentions, after the 
 Mosseus, as the chief river of Susiana. Not concurring 
 in this determination, I sought upon the spot itself for 
 a more satisfactory solution of the question, and was 
 more fortunate in this research than for the black stone 
 in the tomb of Daniel. 
 
 The difliculty hitherto attending the subject arose, not 
 so much from the apparenthj confused accounts of the 
 
 * Consult the " Journal of the Royal Geographical Society," vol. iii., p. 
 258 ; ix., p. 85; xii., p. 105 ; and xvi., p. 91. 
 t Arriani Expeditio Alexandri, Hb. vii., c. 7.
 
 424 DISCOVERY OF AN OLD RIVER-BED. 
 
 ancients, as from our own imperfect knowledge of the 
 countries tliey described. Moreover, during tlie tw^enty 
 centuries since those histories were written, many and vast 
 chanoes have occurred in the courses of the rivers them- 
 
 o 
 
 selves, flowing, as they do, through soft alluvial soil. 
 
 My first inquiries w^ere directed to Sheikh Mohammed, 
 whose age and constant migrations over the adjoining 
 plains, seemed most likely to aflbrd the required infor- 
 mation. I was not long in ascertaining that his autho- 
 rity was valuable. He told me that, many years ago, a 
 bifurcation of the Kerkhah took place near Pai Pul, soon 
 after issuing from the mountains ; that the eastern 
 branch of the river flowed about two miles eastward of 
 the great mound at Shush ; and that after absorbing the 
 Shaour at a point below a ford, now called Umm-et- 
 timmen, it flowed to its junction with the Kariin at 
 Aliwaz. 
 
 A few days subsequent to this conversation, during a 
 ride to Dizful, soon after passing the last of the undu- 
 lating low mounds which extend in that direction, I 
 noticed a considerable depression, and immediately pro- 
 nounced it to be the eastern and extinct branch of the 
 Kerkhah, to which Mohammed had alluded. Its width 
 is not less than nine hundred feet, and its depth, drifted 
 up with sand, varies from twelve to twenty feet. This 
 depth of channel below the level of the plain completely 
 established in my mind its importance as the bed of a 
 once-navigable stream ; while the numerous remains of 
 irrigating canals with high embankments, which diverge 
 from it on either side, proved it to have been a main 
 artery. The Arabs of the locality call it the "Shat 
 atik," or " ancient river." In corroboration of this fact, 
 a sma,U runner of water from the Kerkhah flows along 
 the course of the old channel, and is exhausted in the 
 cultivation of the lands on the eastern side of the ruins.
 
 ACCOUNTS OF THE GEOGRAPHERS. 425 
 
 It is the last water-course crossed on the road from DizfM 
 to Susa. 
 
 I subsequently crossed this old channel at several 
 different points, and observed that it everywhere retained 
 the same character. Nothino; would have afforded me 
 greater pleasure than tracing its entire course, but other 
 duties claimed my attention, and obliged me unwillingly 
 to quit the plains of Susa. 
 
 The existence of this ancient channel beins: once 
 established, and its identity with the historical Eulseus 
 admitted, it is no difficult matter to reconcile all the 
 apparent discrepances ' of the early geogTaphers. We 
 can fully understand how, in consequence of its con- 
 necting the Kerkhah and the Karun, its name might be 
 applied indiscriminately to either of them, and vice versd, 
 Ijy persons not intimately acquainted with the minute 
 features of the country. 
 
 Quintus Curtius '"' informs us that, in his march from 
 Babylon, " Alexander came to the Choaspes, and then 
 entered Susa." This is evidently the modern Kerkhah. 
 
 Strabo,t however, in describing the further progress 
 of the conqueror from Susa to Persepolis, enumerates the 
 rivers crossed in the following order : — " Kext to the 
 Choaspes is the Koprates, and the Pasitigris." Now, it 
 is evident that, if he crossed the Choaspes in approach- 
 ing Susa, he could not again cross it in quitting that 
 capital for Persia, unless it be allowed that he crossed 
 two branches of the same river. 
 
 Ptolemy t does not allude to the Choaspes, but places 
 Susa upon the left branch of the Eulseus, upwards of a 
 degree above the point of confluence with the right arm 
 of the river. The latter part of his description is some- 
 what obscure, but his evidence is material towards 
 establishing the fact of there being two branches of the 
 
 * Lib. ii. 9. t Casaub., page 729. X Lib. vi., c. iii.
 
 426 THE EUL^US IS THE ULAI. 
 
 Eulaeus, wliich cannot possibly be other tban tlie two 
 streams of the Choaspes mentioned by Quintus Curtius 
 and Strabo. 
 
 Pliny, '"■ referring to Susa, says that " the Eulseus sur- 
 rounded the citadel of the Susians," which might well 
 be the case if a branch flowed on either side of it, and 
 these were connected by means of canals or moats for 
 defence. 
 
 The most interesting explanation, however, afforded 
 by the identity of the Kerkhah and the old channel 
 with the two streams of the Eulseus, is that of the re- 
 markable passage in the Book of Daniel : t " AncT I saw 
 in a vision ; (and it came to pass, when I saw, that I was 
 at Shushan in the palace, which is in the province of 
 Elam ;) and I saw in a vision, and I was by the river 
 Ulai/' "And I heard a man's voice hetiveen the hanhs of 
 Ulai" As this expression stands, it is perfectly incom- 
 prehensible; but, if we understand it to mean, between 
 the two streams of the Eulceus, nothing can be more lucid 
 or intelligible. 
 
 It is a remarkable fact, that the Sabseans divide the 
 Kerkhah into three parts (one of which, as observed 
 by Mr Layard,J is called "Akhrokh 'Alaitha," "the 
 Upper Kerkhah ") ; which division may refer to the trunk 
 stream of the ancient Kerkhah, and to its bifurcating 
 branches. 
 
 A difficult passage in Diodorus Siculus§ is likewise 
 rendered clear by the discovery of the Eulseus' channel : — 
 *' Antigonus (advancing from Susa) having passed part 
 of his troops over the river (Koprates), Eumenes sud- 
 denly crosses the Pasitigris, and attacks them. Anti- 
 gonus retreats to Badace on the Euloeus, and with diffi- 
 
 * Lib. vi., c. 27. + Chap, viii., verses 2, 16. 
 
 X "Journal of the Koyal Geographical Society," vol. xvi., p. 94. 
 
 § lAh. xi^.j c. 17.
 
 THE EUL^US IS THE PASITIGRIS. 427 
 
 culty makes his way through the country of the Cosscei 
 to the inhabited part of Media." He did not retreat to 
 Susa, because, by so doing, it would have been necessary 
 to cross the eastern Eulseus twice in his march into 
 Media. He therefore preferred halting on its eastern 
 bank at Badace, by this means escaping the risk of sur- 
 prise while entangled " between the banks of the Ulai." 
 
 There is no question among geographers concerning 
 the identity of the Pasitigris and Eulseus, but it was 
 never before explained how the two names were applied 
 to the same river, as must have been the case from 
 Arrian's passages : " Nearchus sails back past the outlet 
 of the Tigris to the mouth of the Pasitigris, which he 
 ascends till he comes to the bridge of boats by which 
 Alexander was going to pass his army over to Susia."'"* 
 The Pasitigris here is undoubtedly the Kariin. 
 
 " The navy of Alexander sails from the Persian Gulf up 
 to Susia (by the Pasitigris or Karun). Alexander, who 
 was then at Susa, emharh and sails doivn the Eidceus 
 (evidently the extinct channel Avhich extended to the 
 Pasitigris) : he then sails from the mouth of the Eulaeus 
 (Pasitigris) along the Gulf coast to the mouth of the 
 Tigris." t There can be no doubt that the modern Karun 
 was the ancient Pasitigris.| As Susa is distant forty miles 
 from the nearest point of the Karun, it is evident that 
 the first mention of Eulseus in this passage does not refer 
 to the Karun, because Alexander embarked at Susa. It 
 is equally apparent that the Eulseus, afterwards men- 
 
 * AiTian, " Indica," 42. t Arrian, " Exped. Alex. » vii. 7. 
 
 X Sir Henry Rawlinson remarks on this river, that it was named by the 
 old Persians Dijldhi K6ddk, or the Little Tigris,-and this was translated 
 into Arabic by Dijlah, D6jeil. With this indication, then, he had no diffi- 
 culty in recognising in the Greek ^aa\ the old Persian word Pas sigmfpng 
 "low " "inferior," and in thus translating Pasitigris, like the Arabic Dujeil, 
 « the'inferior or little Dijlah." See « Journal of Royal Asiatic Society,' vol 
 jx., p. 90. Other authors adopt the more simple derivation, Pasitigris, as if 
 "Persi" Tigris.
 
 428 
 
 VIEW OF SUSA ON AN ASSYRIAN BAS-RELIEF. 
 
 tioned, could be no other than the Kdriin, the same which 
 Nearchus ascended to Susia (the territory of Susa), and 
 the same which Ptolemy'"' mentions, after the Mosseus, as 
 the chief river of Susiana. 
 
 But a farther convincing proof that the Kerkhah bifur- 
 cated in ancient times, and that its eastern arm, connecting 
 
 c=J '<?■ t=r ES -^T '-' 
 
 ^f 
 
 Cs 
 
 fl 
 
 
 View of Susa ou a Sculpture fi-om Nineveh. 
 
 it with the Karun, was the Eulseus of Susa, is foimd in 
 one of Mr Layard's sculptures from the palace of Senna- 
 
 * Lib. vi., c. 3.
 
 VIEW OF SUSA ON AN ASSYRIAN BAS-RELIEF. 429 
 
 cherib at Koyunjuk (Nineveh).'"* We have on it a 
 representation of Susa as it stood in the days of Ashur- 
 bani-pal (to whom this monument is due), and it is the 
 more interesting, because we are able to recognise upon 
 it a faithful picture of the modern ruins seen from the 
 southern side ! 
 
 The large mound on the left of this sculpture is without 
 doubt the great mound or citadel, the smaller mound 
 is the palace, wliile the town, with its walls and date- 
 trees, exactly corresponds with the low eastern ruins.t 
 Nothing can be more correct than this identification. 
 The inscription upon it reads " district of Madaktu ;" and 
 an inscription on the adjoining slab, which is a con- 
 tinuation of the subject, states that the Susians were 
 defeated by the Assyrians near the district of Madaktu, 
 and near the city of Shushan. 
 
 In the large river flowing from the mountains, and 
 laving the foot of the citadel, I distinguish the Choaspes 
 or modem Kerkhah — the Shaour being then absorbed by 
 this or the smaller stream, and therefore not shewn on 
 the sculpture. The true Eulaeus — the extinct river- 
 channel above described — is undoubtedly to be identified 
 with the upper and smaller river. The angle made by the 
 two streams, and their direction, flowing towards the large 
 river, the Tigris, at the bottom of the slab, must be re- 
 garded as intended to represent a bifurcation, and not 
 a junction. The pond between the larger rivers is the 
 great Chaldsean marsh at the mouth of the Kerkhah.J 
 
 * No. 50 iu the Northern Assyrian Gallery at the British Museum. 
 
 t Compare this sculpture with the Plan of the Ruins. 
 
 X On first seeing this sculpture, I at once identified the city thereon shewn 
 with Susa, without being aware that Mr Layard had already done so. I 
 was also delighted to find the rivers represented as the present configura- 
 tion of the country led me to expect they should be, and in every respect 
 agreeing with the views advanced by me in a memoir " On the Identification 
 of the River Eulgeus," communicated to the Royal Geographiqal Society. 
 Mr Layard's explanation of the rivers (« Nineveh and Babylon," p. 452) does
 
 430 BIFUECATION OF THE KERKHAH. 
 
 It is unfortunate that the adjoining slab on tlie right is 
 destroyed, because, I doubt not, we should have there 
 seen the other rivers, and thus had a skeleton map of the 
 ancient province of Susiana. 
 
 It may be objected that the theory above advanced, 
 concerning the bifurcation of the Choaspes and Eulaeus 
 from the same stream, requires contirmation and further 
 explanation. My belief is, that the Eulseus was an arti- 
 ficial channel for irrigation and defence, formed by 
 throwing a bund, or dam, across the main river, and that 
 this barrier ceased to exist eioher from neglect or canton 
 destruction. 
 
 The artificial bifurcation of rivers is by no means an 
 unfrequent occurrence in that alluvial region ; we need, 
 therefore, have the less hesitation in adopting this mode 
 of explanation. Instances have already been described in 
 the two branches of the Euphrates above Babylon,'"" and 
 of the Karun at Shuster.t The remarkable breakage of a 
 modern dam on the Kerkhah itself may not be an inap- 
 propriate subject here to describe. 
 
 Previously to 1832, the Kerkhah flowed past the large 
 and important Arab town of Hawiza. In order to culti- 
 vate the country on the north-east of the place, a person, 
 called Hashem, dug a canal about fifteen miles higher up 
 the river. As in the case of the ancient PallacojDas of 
 Alexander, the ground proved low, soft,^and yielding, and 
 soon required a dam to restrain the overflowing of the 
 Kerkhah into the canal. During higli rises of the river, 
 this was frequently much damaged ; at length one night 
 the whole stream of the Kerkhah, breaking down the bar- 
 rier, quitted its former channel, and left Hawiza entirely 
 without water, excej^t such as could oe obtained by 
 
 not agree with mine, but Le was not then aware of my having discovered 
 the extinct channel. 
 
 * Page 44 of this work. f Page 299.
 
 ABDULLA FORGIVEN. 431 
 
 digging wells in the old bed. Several governors of 
 Khuzistan liave endeavoured to remedy this disaster, but 
 so far, for many reasons, without success. A new canal 
 was dug above and opposite to the Nahr Hdshem, and 
 was called the Mechriyya ; it being intended to divert the 
 course of the river from the channel of the N4hr Hashem 
 into its original bed. Khanler Mirza spent, it was said, 
 7000 tomans'"' in building a bund or dam across the 
 Kerkhah at the new cut when the river was at its 
 lowest level ; as soon as the great rise took place, the 
 water flowed into the Mechriyya cutting, but, from some 
 cause unexplained, rushed back again, utterly demolishing 
 the bund and all the works on which the Prince had 
 expended so large a sum. 
 
 There can be little doubt that the bifurcation of the 
 Eulseus from the Kerkhah was effected by means of a 
 similar bund, and that the desertion of its channel was 
 caused by the breaking of this artificial barrier in a man- 
 ner similar to the Nahr Hashem in modern times. 
 
 The points connected with the determination of the 
 Euleeus are of great importance in enabhng us to com- 
 prehend the comparative geography of the country in 
 question, and it is satisfactory, by thus explaining away 
 apparent discrepances, to rescue the veracity of the 
 early historians from unmerited censure and disparage- 
 ment.t 
 
 A day or two before quitting Susa, I received intimation 
 that the Prince's secretary had received a large bribe, and 
 was about intriguing to obtain pardon for Sheikh Ab- 
 dullah from the Shah-zada. Such being the case, I 
 determined on being beforehand with the Vizir. Sending, 
 
 • Nearly ^3500 sterling. , 
 
 t Such of my readers as may desire to investigate this interesting subject 
 more fully, will find the above details more minutely laid down in my paper 
 " On the Determination of the River Euteus of the Greek Historians," 
 communicated to the Royal Geographical Society.
 
 432 IMPROVED OPINIONS. 
 
 therefore, for Sheikh Ghafil, I gave him to understand 
 that, being about to quit the country, it was my desire 
 to do so without, if possible, leaving behind me any 
 rancorous feeling towards Europeans ; that I, therefore, 
 entirely forgave Abdullah ; and that, as a proof of my 
 being in earnest, I should likewise use my influence with 
 the Prince to obtain his forgiveness. I reminded him of 
 the dislike which the Arabs had long entertained towards 
 my countrymen, and that all the return we had received 
 for the money spent in the district, and for our endea- 
 vours to establish amicable relations with them, was a 
 determination to oppose our objects. 
 
 He acknowledged that we had always acted bountifully, 
 and endeavoured to do good; — "But," said he, "the Arab is 
 an Arab; he was born a donkey, and you cannot expect 
 that he will die a horse !" At the same time he admitted 
 that the opinions of his people had much changed regard- 
 ing the Firenghis since our residence among them. 
 " They have at least discovered that Firenghis have one 
 and the same God as themselves ; that they are just and 
 honourable in their dealings — a fact which they could not 
 say for Arab or Persian ; you have not dug up the Imam's 
 bones, but, on the contrary, it is observed that you have 
 evinced the greatest desire not to injure a single stone, 
 out of respect for the feelings of the Arabs I" Such was 
 the opinion pronounced by the chief of the 'All Kethir 
 on his intercourse with Europeans, 
 
 Although my residence at Susa had been accompanied 
 with much opposition and annoyance, yet, on the whole, 
 I had passed an agreeable three months upon its mounds, 
 which had now become endeared to me like old friends, 
 from whom I felt loath to part. At length, however, the 
 day arrived when I was destined to take a final leave of 
 a spot associated with many interesting recollections. 
 
 Before quitting the plains, I spent a day at the camp
 
 PARTING. 433 
 
 of Sheikh Mohammed, who had so frequently been my 
 resource in case of need from the date of our first inter- 
 xiew. At bidding him adieu, in return for his trouble 
 and kind services, I placed on his shoulders a handsome 
 abba, with which he was as content as though it had been 
 a bag of tomans. I had likewise intended to visit Sheikh 
 Ghafil, but his camp being out of the way, and the heat 
 too great for comfort, I contented myself with semling 
 him a dress of honour by the messenger he had deputed 
 to guide me to his encampment. On receiving the (bess 
 for his chief, the messenger j^laced it upon his head, and 
 went throuoh such a series of contortions, inflexions, o-enu- 
 flexions, and manoeuvres, that it appeared as if the honour 
 were too weighty for him to bear, and that he was likely 
 to sink under its astoundino; influence. 
 
 A great change had indeed taken place in the behaviour 
 of the x4rabs. The intercourse established between us 
 had had the effect of uprooting many fixed prejudices, 
 and, I trust, that future travellers ^\dll experience a more 
 courteous and hospitable reception than that which greeted 
 the Frontier Commission on three several occasions. The 
 more I saw of the Arabs, the more convinced was I that, 
 however wild or bigoted they may be, they possess at 
 heart a disposition capable of love and respect towards 
 the Firenghi. 
 
 2 E
 
 2234 
 
 1950 
 
 1860 
 
 1700 
 
 1600 
 
 1500 
 
 1400 
 
 1300 
 
 CHEONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 FIRST CHALD.EAN EMPIRE. 
 
 Names of Kings. 
 
 Urukh. 
 
 Ilgi. 
 
 SIiinti-Shil-Khak. 
 Kudur-Mapula. 
 (perhaps Chedorlaomer.) 
 
 Isnii-Dagan. 
 
 Ibil-Anu-Duma. 
 
 Gurguna. 
 
 Naramsin. 
 
 Punia-Puriyas. 
 
 Durri-Galzu. 
 
 Khammu-rabi. 
 
 Shamsu-IIuna 
 Sin-shada. 
 
 Rim-sin. 
 Zui-sin. 
 
 Merodach-Gina. 
 
 Cuneiform Becords, where Discovered. 
 
 BdwSriyya 'at Warka; Great 
 Mound, Niffar; Do. Sinkai-a; 
 Mugeyer. 
 
 Niffar; Warka; Sinkara; Muge- 
 yer. 
 
 Mugeyer. 
 
 Dates of Corresponding 
 EveuU in the Bible. 
 
 Mtigeyer. 
 Mugeyer. 
 Miigeyer. 
 
 Sinkara. 
 Akker-Kuf; Mtigeyer. 
 
 Red Mound at Sinkara; Mflgeyer; 
 Gher^i-a near Baghdad ; on Ta- 
 blets from Tel Sifr. 
 
 On Tablets from Tel Sifr. 
 
 Upper terrace of the BuwSrIyya, 
 and Wuswas gateway, at War- 
 ka. 
 
 On Tablet from Mugeyer. 
 
 Abu-Shehreyn. 
 
 N. of the Bfiwiirivva at Warka. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Birth of Abraham, 2130 
 
 The Exodus, 
 
 Death of Moses, 
 First Servitude, 
 
 1625 
 
 1585 
 1558 
 
 Between 1400 B.C. and 625 B.C., we know little of the Chaldasan Monarchy, but in B.C. 1110 a 
 Chaldaian King named Merodach-adan-akhi defeated the Assyrians, and carried off their gods 
 as trophies to Babylon. The lower plains of the Tigi'is and Euphrates seem to have been 
 gcvenied by independent kings, except at such times as the Assyrians were able to hold ttiL-ni 
 in subjection. In the time of the Assyrian Queen Sammuramit (Semtramis). wife of Phulukh 
 III., about 760 B.C., the Assyrian dominion over Chaldrea was for a short period estalilislied ; 
 and ultimately Seunacherib, in 702 b.c. , defeated Merodach-Baladan, King of Babylon, and placed 
 his own son Esjirhaddon on the throne. In 625 B.C., Nineveh fell before the united armies of 
 the Medes and Babylonians, fi-om which time was established the 
 
 SECOND CHALDtEAN (or BABYLONIAN) EMPIRE. 
 
 E. C. 
 
 about. 
 
 Names of Kings. 
 
 Cuneiform Eecords, where Discovered. 
 
 Dates of C( 
 Event-i in 
 
 rresponding 
 tlie Bible. 
 
 625 
 
 Nabopollasar. 
 
 On Tablets from Warka. 
 
 
 
 605 
 
 Nabo-kuduri-uzur. 
 
 Babylon; Blrs Nimii'id; B5gh- 
 
 
 B.C. 
 
 
 (Nebuchadnezzar.) 
 
 diCd; Sinkara; Cylinders in 
 Europe. 
 
 Jehoiachiu 
 
 599 
 
 562 
 
 Evil-Merodach. 
 
 
 Zedekiah, 
 
 588 
 
 660 
 
 Nergal-shar-ezur. 
 
 Babylon; Cylinder from Baby- 
 
 
 
 554 
 
 (Neriglissar ) 
 
 lon, at Trin. Col., Cambridge. 
 
 
 
 538 
 
 ( Nabonidus 
 ■j and 
 
 Mugeyer; Red Mound, Sinkara; 
 on Tablets from Warka. 
 
 
 
 538 
 
 ( Bel-shar-ezer. 
 (Belshazzar.) 
 Taking of Babylon by 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cyrus. 
 
 
 
 
 * T)ie list of t'hald.Tsaii Kings in this Tablo, is Ixjrrowed fiom Mr Vaux's " Nineveh and PersepoUs" («h edition) 
 To it are iuided the nion: i«cent discoveries, and a list of localities whence the Cuuc-'orm Records of the variojs king 
 were derived.
 
 436 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 PERSIAN EMPIRE. 
 
 B.C." 
 
 About. 
 
 Names of Kings. 
 
 Cuiififdnn Eecords, where Discovered. 
 
 538 
 
 Cyaxares. 
 
 
 636 
 
 Cynis. 
 
 Murajlicib ; on Tablets from Warka. 
 
 525 
 
 Cambvses. 
 
 Sinkara. 
 
 5L>2 
 
 Smerdis the Magiau. 
 
 
 521 
 
 Darius I. 
 
 (Hystaspr-s.) 
 
 Persepolis; BisUtuu; Hamadan; ou Tablets from Wa 
 
 4S5 
 
 Xerxes I. (Ahasueius 
 
 Pcrsepolis ; Susa ; Hamadan ; Viin ; on Tablets from \ 
 
 
 of t-criphire.) 
 
 Vase at Paris. 
 
 472 
 
 Artaxcrxes I. 
 CLonj^iiDrtiius.) 
 
 
 425 
 
 Xerxes 11. 
 
 
 424 
 
 Darius II. 
 
 (Notlius.) 
 
 
 404 
 
 Artaxerxos II. 
 
 Susa; Vase at Venice. 
 
 
 (Mnemon.) 
 
 
 362 
 
 Artaxerxes III. 
 (Ochus.) 
 
 Persepolis. 
 
 338 
 
 Arses. 
 
 
 336 
 
 Darius III. 
 
 
 
 (Codomauus.) 
 
 . 
 
 GREEK EMPIRE IN CHALD^A. 
 
 B. C. 
 
 Names of Kings. 
 
 Cuneiform Records, where Discovered. 
 
 
 330 
 
 Alexander the Great. 
 
 
 
 311 
 
 Seleucns Nicator. 
 
 
 
 280 
 
 Antiochu.s Soter. 
 
 On Tablets from Warka. 
 
 
 261 
 
 Antiochus Theos. 
 
 
 
 246 
 
 Seleucus Callinicus. 
 
 
 
 226 
 
 Seleucns C'ei-aunus. 
 
 
 
 223 
 
 ►jVntioclius the Great 
 
 On Tablets from Warka. 
 
 
 187 
 
 Seleucus Philopator. 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 Antiochus Bpiphanes. 
 
 
 
 164 
 
 Antiochus Eupator. 
 &c. &c. 
 
 
 
 No cuneiform inscriptions have been discovered of later date than Antiochus the Great. 
 
 THE END.
 
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