1413
Hf

BANCROFT LIBRARY

THE OFFICE OF ADELANTADO

UOSCOE R. HTLL

iUNTED FROM POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY
Yoi.r.ME XXVIII. No. 4, DECEMBER, 1913

NEW YORK
LISHED BY GINN & COM PAS' V

THE OFFICE OF ADELANTADO

ROSCOE R. HILL

REPRINTED FROM POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY
VOLUME XX VIII, No. 4, DECEMBER, 1913

NEW YORK

PUBLISHED BY GIN N & COMPANY
1913

H4-

THE OFFICE OF ADELANTADO

THE office of adelantado was one of the oldest conferred
in mediaeval Spain. " In the history of San Pedro de
Arlanga it is said that Nuno Nunez, judge of Castile,
married Theudia, daughter of Theudio, adelantado of Leon." J
This statement carries the title back to the tenth century.
More definitely it is known that Fernan Fernandez was adelan-
tado of Estremadura in the time of Alfonzo VIII, the Good
(1158-1214). The first mention of the office in Spanish legis-
lation is found in the time of Ferdinand III (1217-1252), but
it is not until the reign of his successor, Alfonzo X, the Learned
(1252-1275), that the nature, qualifications and functions of
the adelantado were set forth in legal terms. They appear in
the two general codes, El Especulo 2 and Las Siete Partidas?
as well as in a special code entitled, Leyes para los Adelantados
Mayores* During the succeeding reigns, as occasion demanded,
modifications and additions were made to this early legislation.
There were two kinds of adelantados. The adelantado del
rey, de corte or mayor was a more immediate representative of
the king, while the adelantado de comarca, fronterizo or menor
was the more common type. Although of great importance,
the former office seems early to have fallen into disuse, its
functions passing to other high officials, since all mention of it
is omitted from the later codifications.

1 Salazar, Origen de las dignidades seglares, fol. 60 b.

2 Libro 4, titulo 2, ley n. 3 Partida 2, titulo 9, ley 19.

* The several codes may be found in convenient form, reprinted in full, in Los
C6digos Espanoles, edited by San Martin in twelve volumes. There is a very satis-
factory introduction to each code. Martinez Alcubilla, C6digos de Espafia, is a one-
volume work of no especial merit*. It contains only a brief note on the Especulo,
For a summary in English of Las Partidas and El Especulo, see Walton, Civil Law
in Spain and Spanish America, pp. 72, 75-77.

5 Ordenamiento Real (1346), lib. 2, tit. 13; Nueva Recopilaci6n (1681), lib. 3,.
tit. 4.

646

SBcroft

E OFFICE OF ADELANTADO

According to the provisions of the earlier codes, the adelan-
tado mayor was preeminently a judicial officer, occupying the
highest rank in the judicial system as it was then established. 1
The name of the office was derived from the fact that the sub-
ject was put forward into the king's place. 2 Because of the
many complaints about the decisions of the lower judges, the
king was naturally unable to hear all the appeals that were
brought to him ; and he accordingly appointed a supreme judge,
who was called the adelantado mayor and who should act in his
stead. 3 The original jurisdiction of this officer extended even
to controversies between nobles (rieptos), which might lead to
wager of battle. His appellate power included all cases subject
to appeal from the lower judges. 4

The incumbent of so responsible a position was to be a man
not only of noble family {de grand linaje) and loyalty, but also
of prudence and wisdom. Besides these characteristics, he
must possess the general qualifications prescribed for the judges
of the realm. According to the law the judge had to be of good
family (de buen linaje}, in order that he might be ashamed ta
make any mistakes in his judgments. He should be a man of
clear intelligence, so as to understand the arguments presented 1
by the lawyers, capable of avoiding all undue influence and of
judging rightly. He should be able to read and write, that he
might himself examine all papers, documents and petitions,
which might be presented. He should be even-tempered, so
as not to complain or become irritated at the accusations of the-
parties. Finally, he should render exact justice to every one.*

The purpose of the brief code of five laws, known as Leyes-
para los Adelantados May ores, was to " establish the rules of
conduct to which the said functionaries should conform them-

1 For a discussion of the judicial system of Spain in this period, see Danvila, EJ
Poder Civil en Espana, vol. i, p. 175.

2 " El Rey lo adelanta, poniendolo el Rey en su lugar. " The vague notions pre-.
vailing among writers on the Spanish dominion in America as to the meaning of the
term is illustrated by Lowery's definition : " Adelantado, a title derived from the verb
adelantar, whi:h signifies to advance, to keep on, to surpass." The Spanish Settle-
ments in the United States, 1513-1561, p. 135.

3 Partida 2, titulo 9, ley 19. 4 El Especulo, libro 4, titulo 2, ley if,
5 Partida 2, titulo 9, ley 18.

'648 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY [VOL. XXVIII

selves in the exercise of the duties of their elevated rank."
The first of the laws prescribes that the incumbent shall take a
double oath concerning the interests of the king and of the
people. He must swear to honor his lord and counsel him
rightly, to keep his secrets and protect his rights. He must
-also swear to judge justly and not to be influenced by love or
hate or fear or supplication, or by any gifts that might be
offered. The second law deals with the matter of jurisdiction
in the same terms as the Partidas, except that it goes more
fully into detail. The third law provides the form of the oath
to be taken. The fourth law deals with the procedure of the
adelantado mayor upon his entry into the office. He should
challenge all noblemen who were not keeping the peace this
being rather a form than anything else. He should make a
tour of inspection of the minor judicial districts (merindades),
confirming in their offices the minor judges (merinos) who had
honestly performed their duties, and removing the incompe-
tents, at the same time causing them to make good any injuries
or injustices that they might have committed, and putting in
their places men who would enforce the laws with equity.
Careful instructions, also, were given as to the procedure of the
adelantado mayor in the ordering and carrying-out of investiga-
tions that had to do with misdemeanors and crimes of subjects,
high and low. The last of the laws enumerates the interests
that the adelantado mayor was obliged to protect. He should
guard the kingdom against robbery and other crimes ; see that
the churches were not injured, burned, destroyed or entered by
force ; and protect the interests of the clergy, the military
orders, the religious brotherhoods, the nobles and women of
rank. He must keep the highways in a safe condition for
travel and see that no new castles were built without the con-
sent of the king. He should prevent the holding of judicial
proceedings on specified feast days. He must avoid the use of
torture, except in rare cases, and then only before a number of
honorable witnesses. In the appointment of minor judges,
furthermore, he must not be influenced by any gift or service.

The office of adelantado menor came into existence about

No. 4] THE OFFICE OF AD ELAN T ADO

I23Q. 1 The derivation of the name was the same as that of the
higher official, for the adelantado menor was also to take the
place of the king. According to the Partidas he was a very
important official, " placed by the king over all the merinos, not
only over those of the districts and regions but also over those
of the villages." 2 The chfef distinction between the two offices
lay in the fact that, whereas the judicial functions of the adelan-
tado menor were not supreme, his administrative functions were
more extensive than those of the adelantado mayor. He was
thus a judicial officer, endowed with extensive administrative
powers, and placed in charge of a certain designated district.3
As late as 1681, in the codification known as La Nueva Recopi-
lacion, provisions were included dealing with the adelantado
menor. From that time onward the office fell into complete
disuse. Because of the abuses committed by the adelantados
menores they were supplanted by the alcaldes mayores.

The Siete Partidas provides that the adelantado menor must
be a man neither proud nor haughty 4 ; and the Nueva Recopi-
lacion further specifies that he must be able to care for the
royal interests and especially to protect the frontier districts
from evil and danger. 5 Like all other royal officials, he was
obliged to take an oath to guard the life, honor and priority of
the king; to give his good counsel; to protect the royal prop-
erty ; to obey all the royal commands ; and to fulfil the duties
of his office well and loyally. 6

The judicial functions of the adelantado menor were both
original and appellate. His original jurisdiction extended to
all civil cases involving either the personal or real property of

1 "The first adelantado de la frontera was the valiant Fernando Ruiz de Castro,
who died in Orgaz about the year 1239, taking relief to Cordova at the command o
the king." Salazar, Monarchia de Espana, vol. i, p. 155.

2 Partida 2, titulo 9, ley 22.

3 Ibid. It is the adelantado of this second and later type who is described by one
of the older writers (Salazar, Origen de las dignidades seglares, fol 61 a) as, " in time
of peace, the president or chief justice of some kingdom, province or district, and, in
time of war, the captain general," and is defined by a modern writer on jurispru-
dence (Escriche, Diccionario de Iegislaci6n y jurisprudencia, vol. i, p. 287) as "the
military and political governor of a frontier province, corresponding to the Roman
provincial president." 4 Partida 2, titulo 9, ley 22.

5 Libro 3, titulo 4, ley I. 6 Partida 2, titulo 9, ley 26.

650 POLITICAL SCIEXCE QUARTERLY [VOL. XXVIII

the residents of his district (adelantamiento) as well as to cer-
tain " specified matters of other districts." He had cognizance
of all cases of justice, with the exception of riepto, broken truces,
security of the king and counterfeiting. 1 Later legislation took
away from the adelantado menor original jurisdiction over civil
matters, leaving him only in possession of appellate powers in
that respect. In criminal matters his powers could be exer-
cised only in the place where the crime was committed. 2

The adelantado menor was placed over the lesser judicial
officers (merinos and alcaldes de villas"} of his district, and was
empowered to hear appeals from their decisions in all matters.
In the performance of this appellate function, as well as in the
exercise of all judicial powers, he was to be accompanied by
persons learned in the law (sabedores del fuero) and also by a
clerk, 3 who should be provided with a book in which a record
of all decisions should be kept. 4 Upon petition therefor, he was
obliged to grant appeals from his decisions to the king; and in
case complaint was made before him by a noble in form of
riepto or he had knowledge of treachery justifying riepto, he
should refer the matter to the king at once, since matters con-
cerning the nobility were beyond his powers. 5

Not less important for the welfare of the adelantamiento were
the administrative functions of the adelantado menor. He had
to visit his district periodically, punishing evil doers and seeing
that all received justice. Having finished the visit, it was his
duty to make a report to the king on the condition of the coun-
try. He was charged to take care of the interests of the dis-
trict, especially avoiding excessive expense and annoyance to
to the inhabitants. 6 He could appoint lieutenants, 7 but these
must not be nobles or powerful persons. 8 He also possessed
the power of nominating alcades menores. 9

In order to protect the adelantado menor from dishonor and

1 Especulo, libro 4, titulo 2, ley 12.

2 Nueva Recopilaci6n, libro 3, titulo 4, ley 15 (Pedro, 1369).

3 Partida 2, titulo 9, ley 22. 4 Nueva Recopilaci6n, libro 3, titulo 4, ley 18.
5 Partida 2, titulo 9, ley 22. 6 Ibid.

7 Nueva Recopilaci6n, libro 4, titulo 4, ley 3 (Henry II, 1407). * Ibid, ley 5.
9 Ibid, ley 16 (Ferdinand and Isabella, 1476).

No. 4] THE OFFICE OF ADELANTADO ge r

to cause the people to hold him in due respect, a series of pen-
alties were provided in the Espectilot For injury by word of
mouth, a fine of five hundred sueldos should be paid. If the
adelantado were wounded in hand or foot by a common person,
the offender paid two hundred and fifty maravedts or forfeited
the hand causing the injury. In case the injury caused the loss
of a member to the official, the offender forfeited a hand, and
one-fifth of his goods went as an indemnity to the wounded
judge. The murderer of an adelantado lost his life, and one-
fourth of his property went to the king. In case the offender
were a " rico ome de pie o mano" he paid five hundred mara-
vedis to the wounded judge and a like amount to the king, and
if he were a " rico ome de arma" besides the preceding penalty,
he lost all his royal lands.

The office being one of great power, the Siete Partidas
imposed various restrictions upon its holders. The adelantado
menor was not permitted to bring accusations against any one
during his term of office. 2 Neither he nor his dependents could
have any business interests, directly or indirectly, except that
they might buy needful food and clothing, and, in case they
received any inheritance, they might dispose of it as they saw
fit. 3 To guard against possible abuses of authority and against
individual influences, the adelantado menor was forbidden to
marry during his term of office, though he might take a concu-
bine if he so desired. 4 Because of the nature of the office he
was not allowed to enter certain privileged towns ; he must not
take more than the prescribed fees, under pain of losing his
office; and he was not permitted to receive more than one
hundred and fifty maravedis a year for maintenance while visit-
ing each locality. 5 At the close of his term he was held judi-
cially responsible for all of his acts, and even his relatives might
testify against him. 6 In case it were shown at the trial that any
injuries or crimes had been committed because of his negli-
gence, he was obliged to pay a fine equal to double the amount
of the losses. 7

1 Libro 4, titulo 2, ley 5. * Partida 7, titulo I, ley 2.

3 Partida 5, titulo 5, ley 5. * Partida 4, titulo 14, ley 2.

6 Nueva Recopilacion, libro 3, titulo 4, leyes 8, 9 and n.

6 Partida 3, titulo 16, ley I. 7 Nueva Recopilaci6n, libro 3, titulo 4, ley 4.

652 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY [VOL. XXVIII

Such were the nature and functions of the office of adelantado
menor in Spain at the time when she was laying the foundations
of her colonial empire in the New World. 1 Since the domin-
ions acquired beyond the seas were regarded as provinces of
Castile, it was natural that the term adelantado menor or fron-
terizo, as it had been employed during the Moorish conquest,
should be applied to the persons who were appointed to repre-
sent the crown in these dominions.

The main problem that arises in connection with the study of
the office in its new environment is to determine whether it was
actually an office or merely an honorific title. The difficulty
arises from the fact that the adelantado in America possessed
other titles, and there is no clear distinction as to what func-
tions or powers were associated with each title.

The first adelantado in America was Bartholomew Columbus, 2
to whom the office and title were granted by his brother Chris-
topher in 1497. The grant caused displeasure at court, since
the appointment of an official of such high rank was distinctly
a prerogative of the crown. 3 However, the king and queen
saw fit to confirm the title and office to Bartholomew Columbus
in return for the services he had rendered in the Indies. 4

From the beginning of the sixteenth century, capitulations or
contracts were made by the Spanish crown with ambitious men
who sought to win fame and fortune through discovery and
exploration in the New World. In the first years of the cen-
tury, however, no higher office or title was granted than that of
local governor of the region concerned, and even this was
accorded only in exceptional cases. 5 By the capitulation drawn

1 In the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella the adelantados of Spain were those of
Castile, Le6n, Andalusia, Murcia, Granada and Cazorla. Altarnira, Historia de
Espana, vol. ii, p. 454.

2 Bernard Moses, Establishment of Spanish Rule in America, p. 69, states that
Christopher Columbus was given the title of adelantado. A search of the capitula-
tions and patents concerned has failed to reveal any such grant.

3 Partida 2, titulo I, ley 2.

4 Herrera, Historia general de las Indias, dec. I, lib. 2, cap. 15, gives an account
of this affair. The patent confirming the office and title was issued July 22, 1497,
and is printed in full in Navarrete, Viages etc. , vol. ii, pp. 217-218.

5 Of thirteen capitulations made between 1500 and 1512, only two, those with

No. 4] THE OFFICE OF ADELANTADO

up in 1512, however, Juan Ponce de Leon was promised the

title of adelantado * in case he found the land of Bimyny. 2 In

this promise of 1512 and in the actual grants of 1514 to Vasco

.. Nunez de Balboa of the adelantamiento of the coast of the

--South Sea, and to Ponce de Leon of the adelantamiento of

v'jBimyny and Florida is seen the real beginning of the use of the

*\ term adelantado in America. 3

**~ As there was no direct legislation on the subject during the

early period of colonization, the inception of the office and title
of adelantado in the New World must be studied in the agree-
ments (asientos) and contracts or capitulations between the
crown and the early discoverers, and in the patents granted to
the latter. From the patents alone little information can be
secured. They contain only an indication of the territory in
which the powers of the adelantado were to be exercised; a
statement that his powers and prerogatives were to be the same
as those of the adelantados of Castile, thus demonstrating the

Vicente Yanez Pinz6n and Alonso de Ojeda (1501), promised the office of governor;
the other offices promised were those of captain of the ship or expedition, or captain
and corregidor of the area concerned. In a number of the capitulations no mention
whatever is made of office or title. See Documentos IneYlitos de Indias, first series,
vols. xxii, xxxi and xxxviii, passim.

1 " Item que vos hago merced del titulo de Nuestro Adelantado de las dichas
Yslas de las otras que en la forma susodicha descubrieredes." Ibid. vol. xxii, pp.
26 et seq. In common with other writers, Lowery errs in stating that the first capit-
ulation conferred upon Ponce de Le6n the title of adelantado. Op. cit. p. 135.

2 The name is variously spelled in the documents of the time.

3 The capitulation with Ponce de Le6n (February 23, 1512) is^snted in Docu-
mentos Ineditos de Indias, first series, vol. xxii, pp 26-32. The paTfcit to Balboa
was granted September 23, 1514, and is preserved in copy in the Archives of the
Indies, est. 109, caj. I, leg. 5, no. I, fol. 174 b-175 b. At this time Balboa was in
America and the patent was sent to Alonso de Puente, treasurer of Castilla del Oro,
in a letter of the same date (ibid. fol. 171; Documentos Ineditos de Indias, first
series, vol. xxxvii, pp. 287-288); but this did not reach Balboa until well into the
year 1515 (Oviedo, Historia */.,' vol. iii, pp. 42-43; Quintana, Vida de Balboa, in
Biblioteca de Autores Espanoles, vol. xix, p. 297). Ponce de Le6n's patent was
granted four days later (September 27), and is preserved in the Archives of the
Indies, est. 139, caj. I, leg. 5, no. 5, fol. 19 b-2i a. As he was then at the cour
in Valladolid, he received the patent at once (September 30), as is shown by his
autograph receipt for it (ibid. fol. i). It is thus seen that although the patent to
Balboa was dated a few days earlier than that to Ponce de Le6n, the promise to the
latter had been made two years earlier, and he came into the exercise of the powers
and privileges of the office of adelantado several months before Balboa did.

654 POL1 TICA L SCIENCE Q UA R TERL Y [ VOL. XXVIII

identity of the office in the two hemispheres; and a command
to all servants of the crown, both high and low, to render due
obedience and respect to the possessor of the title. 1 Not in the
patents, then, but in the capitulations is to be found the history
of the changing thought of the rulers of Spain regarding the
organization of their colonial empire in America; and in their
provisions the nature of the office is best exhibited up to the
time when the regulations of the crown took statutory form and
were duly codified.

During the course of the sixteenth century, which was the
active period of Spanish discovery and exploration in America,
some seventy individuals made contracts with the crown to
undertake the extension of the new realm. To less than half

1 Throughout the period of the use of the term adelantado in America the patent
was drawn up in the same phraseology. That to Ponce de Le6n (a copy of which is
preserved in the general registers of orders, appointments etc. , Archives of the Indies,
est. 139, caj. I, leg. 5, no. 5, fol. 19 b-2i a) is typical, and as the patents are un-
published, a translation is here given : " Don Fernando, by the grace of God etc. In
order to grant benefit and favor to you, Juan Ponce de Le6n, esteeming the services
which you have rendered to me and those which I expect you will render in the future,
especially in regard to that which you have done and performed in the discovery of
the island of Bimyny and the island Florida, which are in the Indies of the ocean sea,
which y< u have discovered, and on account of the great service which you have ren-
dered there in everything which in the Indies has appertained to our service, and
confiding in your sufficiency and ability, in order that there shall remain a memory of
you and your services, it is my desire and will, with respect to that which appertains
to me, that now and in the future during all your life you shall be my adelantado in
the said islands of Florida and of Bimyny, which you have discovered, and in the
other islands and lands, which you shall discover in those parts at our command,
which have not been discovered by any other person. And you may be able to use
and may use the said office in everything connected with and appertaining to it, ac-
cording to and in the manner of our adelantados in these kingdoms of Castile; and
you may enjoy all the honors, concessions, favors, exemptions and liberties, preemin-
ences, prerogatives and immunities which by reason of the said office you may and
ought to enjoy and should be rendered to you. And you may have and possess all
the rights and other things appertaining to and concerning the said office of adelan-
tado, according to law in the manner in which our other adelantados of the said Indies
enjoy them. And by this my order I command the councillors, judges, magistrates,
knights, squires, officials and gentlemen of all the cities, villages and towns, which
there shall be in the future in the said islands which, you shall discover in those
parts, that when you, Juan Ponce de Le6n, have made the oath and formality, which
are required in such cases and which you should make, they shall have, receive and
consider you as my adelantado of the said islands and they shall exercise with you in
the said office and in all the cases and things appertaining to and connected with it
and shall observe and cause to observe toward you all the honors, concessions, favors,

No. 4] THE OFFICE OF AD ELAN TA DO

of this number was the office and title of adelantado promised. 1
As no grant has been noted later than 1600, the use of the term
adelantado may be considered as confined to this period.

Notwithstanding their general similarity of tenor, the indi-
vidual clauses of the capitulations show a great deal of varia-
tion in order, form and substance. Four clauses are common
to all the capitulations: (a) a statement of the object of the
expedition, together with a permission or license to undertake
it; (b) a promise of the grant of the title of adelantado; (<:)
a promise of the office of governor of the region to be dis-
covered and settled ; and (d) a promise to fulfil the agreement
on the part of the crown, provided that the individual shall
comply with all the stipulations of the contract.

Usually the statement of the object of the expedition was
brief and was accompanied by a recognition of former services
as a basis for the grant. The region in which the operations
were to be carried on was specified as accurately as the existing

exemptions and liberties, which by reason of the said office you should have and
enjoy and which should be observed toward you. And they shall support and cause
to support you in all the rights connected with and appertaining to the said office ac-
cording to and with that with which they support and must support our other adelan-
tados of these said kingdoms and of the said Indies, and nothing more nor beyond,
and in conformity with the said laws. For I, by these presents, admit you and have
admitted you to the said office, and I give you power and faculty to use and exercise
it in the form above indicated. And I command the illustrious prince, Don Carlos,
my very dear and much beloved son, the princes, dukes, prelates, marquises, counts,
grandees, masters of the orders, priors, commanders, sub-commanders, wardens of
the castles and fortified and unfortified houses, members of my council, judges of my
audiencias, mayors, sheriffs, justices of the peace, magistrates, knights, squires, offi-
cials and gentlemen of all the cities, villages and towns of the said Indies, that this
favor, which I thus grant, of the said office of adelantado of the said islands of
Bimyny and Florida, and the other islands which you shall discover, they shall ob-
seive and fulfil and cause to observe and fulfil this my order, in everything a? is con-
tained in it; and against the tenor and form of it they shall not go nor contravene i*
at any time nor in any manner, under the penalty of my favor and of ten thousand
for my exchequer. Given in the city of Valladolid, the 27lh of September, 514 years.
I the King. Countersigned and signed by the same."

J Of seventy capitulations examined, twenty-nine promised the title of adelantado.

Following is a list of those who are known to have borne the title of adelantado
during the sixteenth century, given as far as possible in the order in which they made
their capitulations with the crown. No capitulations or patents have been seen for
those marked x, and the dates of these, which in some cases are conjectural, have
been determined from secondary sources.

656

POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY [VOL. XXVIII

DATE

ADELANTADOS

REGION ASSIGNED

TERM

1497
1512

ISM*
1518

1519

15*9
!5 2 3
1524
1526
1526
1527
1527*
"1528

1529*

1529
rf'53
1532*
"1534

^ 1534
1535
'!53 6

*i536

i536x
"1537
<> 1539*

* 1540

* 1540
^ 1540
" 1544
*i547

Vi555 x
1564
i5 6 4

'1564
v 1565
1/1568
1568

J 1569
v i 5 7 5 x
^I 5 8 7 x

* I59i x
J 1600

Bartholomew Columbus ....
Juan Ponce de Le6n
Vasco Nunez de Balboa ....

Indias (i. e. the New World).
Bimyny and Florida

One life.
One life.
Forever.
Two lives.

Forever.
Forever.
Forever.

Forever.

One life.
One life.

One life.
Forever.
Two lives.

One life.

One life.
Two lives.
Forever.

One life.
Two lives.

Two lives.
Two lives.

Forever.
Forever.

Forever. '

South Sea.

Diego Velazquez . . .
Ferdinand Magellan and Luis
Falero .

Certain islands . ...

Spice Islands

Francisco Garay . . ....
Lucas Vazquez de Ayllon . . .
Rodrigo Bastidas .......
Francisco Montejo . .

I'aimco.
Lands north of Hispaniola .
Santa Marta.
Yucatan and Cocumel
Rio de las Palmas to Florida . .
Bermuda
5*htv,C*. 34..

Santa Marta
Coast of South Sea from Chinchu,
200 leagues.
Tumbez
Maranon to Cape de la Vela . .
Trinidad.
200 leagues toward the Straits of
Magellan
Rio de la Plata
Santa Marta
From R. San Juan to Cartagena
and Peru ...
200 leagues from Rio Salado,
New Andalusia

Panfilo de Narvaez ... .

Fern an Camelo . . .

Pedro de Alvarado.
Enrique Cinquer and Guillermo
Sayller
Simon Alcazaba

Francisco Pizarro

Diego Ordaz
Antonio Sedeno
Diego de Almagro

Pedro de Mendoza
Pero Fernandez Lugo
Licenciado Espinosa

Juan Despes

Juan de Salinas Loyola ....
Hernando de Soto . .

Yguarsongo . . ....
Rio de las Palmas to Florida. .
Rio San Juan.
Rio de la Plata to Straits of
Magellan.
Popayan.
Cartagena

Pascual de Andagoya . .

Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca . .

Sebastian de Belalcazar ....
Pedro de Heredia

Francisco Orellana
Juan Sanabria ... . .

Amazon ...
200 leagues from mouth of Rio
de la Plata
Rio de la Plata.
Western Islands
Omagna, Yomeguas, Quivandto,
in New Estremadura.
Rio de Darien.
F lorida

Domingo de Irala

Alvaro de Amendana
Pedro Marvaez de Silva . . . .

Juan de Villora
Pedro Menemlez de Aviles . . .
Pedro Marvaez de Silva ....
Diego Hernandez di Lerpa. . .
Juan Ortiz de Zarate . . . . ?

New Estremadura

New Andalusia.
Rio de la Plata ... . .

Juan de Garay
Juan de Torres
Hernando Arias

Rio de la Plata.
Rio de la Plata.
Rio de la Plata.
New Mexico.

Juan de Onale

No. 4] THE OFFICE OF ADELANTADO

geographical knowledge of the time would permit; and the
earlier capitulations commonly contained a prohibition against
encroachment upon Portuguese territory. 1 Permission or license
to make the expedition was then specifically given, accompanied
by the provisions that all expenses were to be paid by the party
entering into the contract. The purpose of the undertaking
was set forth as being one or more of the following, viz., dis-
covery, exploration, conquest, pacification or settlement. In
the earlier capitulations the emphasis is on discovery and con-
quest ; later the use of the term conquest fell into disfavor, and
for it was substituted in most cases the word pacification. Set-
tlement was almost always included as one of the chief objects
of the expedition. To the later capitulations was usually pre-
fixed a species of introduction, consisting of a long and elabor-
ate statement of the propositions advanced by the person seek-
ing the grant. If the demands were not in excess of what the
'crown was willing to concede, most of the clauses of this pre-
liminary statement were repeated in the main body of the
capitulation.

The capitulation proper determined the obligations of the
individual and of the crown and the privileges accorded to the
former. There was no fixed order in the arrangement of the
clauses and no separation of them into distinct groups : they
seem to have been put down at the caprice of whatever person
happened to draw up the document. Constant repetition and
the drafting of legislation on the subject of discoveries made
the order of the later capitulations somewhat more uniform.

In addition to carrying into effect whatever might be inci-
dental to the work of discovery and exploration, the adelantado
undertook to conquer or pacify and settle the region entrusted
to him and to seek the conversion of the natives to Christian-
ity. To these ends the proposed expedition had to be duly
equipped and provisioned, and a number of priests or brothers

'General registers of orders, appointments etc., Archives of the Indies, est. 139,

caj. I, legs. I and 2. Many of the capitulations are printed in Documentos Ineditos

de Indias, first series, vols. 22 and 23. Misprints and other errors are so numerous

in this series that, wherever possible, the originals should be consulted. Cf. Lowery,.

' op. cit. p. 146, note.

658 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY [ VOL. XXVIII

of the religious orders had to be taken along. In every case it
was specified or implied that all this must be accomplished at
the expense of the adelantado, but with the hope of reimburse-
ment from the profits of the new colony, should the expedition
be successful.

The size of the expedition and the extent of the settlements to
be made were not always specified. The number of vessels was
usually stated to be that needful for the accomplishment of the
task, or that which the applicant desired or was able to send out.
Provision was often made for the fitting-out of fleets over a
period of years. The number of settlers or of persons to take
part in the expeditions, wherever mentioned, varies from twenty
to five hundred, but the number rarely fell below one hundred.
At times the capitulations fix the number of settlements to be
founded, each of which usually was to have at least a hundred
inhabitants.

As it was customary to grant a monopoly of the privilege of
discovery, conquest and trading rights, it was found convenient
to place a time limit for the fulfilment of the terms of the con-
tract. The common limit was one year; but in some cases it
was slightly less and in a few considerably more, the extreme
limit of ten years being found in the capitulation with Magellan.

The protection of the newly established colony was almost
always the subject of a clause in the capitulation. The indi-
vidual entering into the agreement was obliged to build a num-
ber of forts, usually from two to four, in suitable locations,
either chosen by himself or in conjunction with the advisers
indicated by the crown. These were to be of a size and
strength sufficient to afford ample protection to the settlers and
were to be built at the expense of the adelantado. In some
cases it was provided that the initial cost of them should be
repaid out of the profits accruing to the crown from the ven-
ture. In return for this outlay the adelantado was given the
command of each of the forts for one or more lives, 1 with an

1 The term " one or more lives," as used in this paper, refers to the period of time
for which offices and titles conferred by the Spanish crown were to be held. One
life indicates that the grant was to last during the life of the grantee only; two lives,
during that of the grantee and that of his son or heir; and so on. The expressions
commonly used were: one life, two live?, three lives, and forever.

No. 4] THE OFFICE OF ADELANTADO 659

annual salary for each one ranging from sixty thousand to one
hundred and fifty thousand maravedts. In order also to pro-
tect the new possessions from dangerous influences, it was
provided that certain classes of persons, including foreigners,
lawyers and individuals under the ban of the Inquisition should
not be taken on any of the expeditions.

The treatment of the Indians was the subject of much atten-
tion in the capitulations. The adelantado was bound to observe
all ordinances and laws regarding these new subjects of the
crown, particularly those which guaranteed them the status of
freedom. After 1526 it was customary to include in each
capitulation, either integrally or by title, the general enactments
of Charles V on the subject/

Certain special rights were usually conferred upon the ade-
lantado, some of which were to be exercised in Spain. Thus
he was authorized to recruit followers in Castile or other speci-
fied places, and he had permission to purchase all necessary
supplies, often free of taxation. He was to receive all possible
aid, also, in the preparation of his expedition, and officials of-
every kind were specifically forbidden to interfere in any way-
with his plans.

In the adelantamiento proper very extensive powers were be--
stowed. The adelantado had the privilege of granting land and

'These enactments were issued at Granada, November 17, 1526. After an intro-.
duction describing the abuses that had prevailed in the founding of settlements and
in the treatment of the Indians, they provide (a) that an investigation of such abuses;
shall be undertaken; (b) that the Indians shall be treated as free subjects of the
crown; (c] that two priests shall be taken on each expedition; (</ > that these priests
shall see that the enactments are obeyed; (<?) that no landings shall be made at other
than specified places; (/) that the Indians shall be notified on landing that the
purpose of the expedition is to convert and civilize them; (g) that forts shall be
built if necessary; (h] that no bartering shall be carried on by force: (') that no
Indians shall be enslaved unless they refuse to accept religious instruction and to
yield obedience, and then only with the consent of the priests and after the fulfil,
ment of due legal forms; (/) that the Indians shall not be compelled to work, but
may be hired for the purpose; (k) that Indians may be granted in encomiemia (cf,
infra] to Christian persons, when this shall be for their benefit; (// that the expe-
dition shall be recruited in Castile; and I m) that the discoverer shall receive due re-
ward if the terms of the capitulation are complied with. The enactments are given
substantially in the capitulation with Panfilo de Narvaez. Documenlos lnditos de
Indias, first series, vol. xxii, pp. 231-244.

660 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY [VOL. XXVIII

water rights to the settlers whom he took with him. He could
assign Indians in encomienda, 1 usually only for one or two lives.
Exemptions from taxation were allowed, not only to the ade-
lantado, but also to the settlers and even at times to such mer-
chants as might go to the colony. The adelantado was freed
for life from the payment of import duties (almojarifazgo),
and the settlers were granted the same exemption for periods
ranging from six to ten years. The tax on sales (alcabala),
also, was usually waived for either ten or twenty years. An-
other valuable favor to the adelantado was the grant, for life or
for a term of years, of a share (ordinarily a twentieth or a
twelfth) of the entire amount of the profits of the colony accru-
ing to the crown. In the ecclesiastical tithe, however, which in
America was a perquisite of the crown, the adelantado had no
share, though a portion of the proceeds of the tithe was often
assigned for the building of churches in the new colony.

Gold and precious metals were the articles from which the
greatest profit was expected, and the crown was naturally desir-
ous of securing the most ample share of them. It seems that
the ultimate aim was always to secure a fifth ; but as this per-
centage was evidently considered rather high for the first few
years of a new enterprise, it was customary to make concessions
by which the adelantado and his followers were not obliged to
pay the full fifth. At first a progressive scale was arranged,
viz., one-tenth the first year, one-ninth the second and so on
until the crown's share should be one-fifth. Later a distinction
was made between mined gold and that secured by barter or
otherwise. Mined gold paid one-tenth for a period of six or
ten years and then was subject to the progressive scale, whereas
gold secured by barter paid one-fifth from the beginning, and
that found in sepulchres and like places paid one-half.

In many of the later capitulations there was a clause regard-

1 Literally " commandery." The term indicates the arrangement, which early be-
came usual, under which a group of Indians were assigned, usually under their
" cacique" or chief, to some Spaniard of good repute who would oblige them to
work under humane conditions and who would see to it that they were taught the
Christian faith. Both coercion to labor and conversion to Christianity were viewed
as means of uplifting them from barbarism to civilization.

No. 4] THE OFFICE OF ADELANTADO

ing the disposition of the property or ransom of captured
princes. Of this property or ransom, the king was to receive
one-sixth and the remainder was to go to the captors ; but in
case the chief were killed, one-half of the property was to go to
the king.

The obligations of the crown consisted, as a rule, in the
bestowal of honors rather than in the assumption of any finan-
cial liability. Of course the protection of the government was
given to the adelantado, assuring him due honor and respect,
not only in his own adelantamiento, but also in all parts of the
kingdom. Ordinarily he was to enjoy a monopoly of carrying
on expeditions to the colony and of trading and fishing rights
within his district.

The office of adelantado was granted for one or two lives or
in perpetuity, usually with the power, in case the incumbent
had no heir, to name his successor. No specific salary was
connected with the promise of the office, but in some of the
later capitulations it is stated that he shall enjoy such salaries
as appertain to the office. Furthermore, as a rule, the adelan-
tado was made high sheriff (alguazil mayor), but separate pat-
ents were granted for each of the offices. The term of the
latter office was generally the same as that of the office of
adelantado, and no salary was connected with the position.
The most important power of the alguazil mayor was the
appointment of the ordinary sheriffs or bailiffs.

Every adelantado was made governor of- the province that he
might settle, thus giving him control of the political administra-
tion. This office was granted for one life or for two lives, and
carried with it not only a considerable salary but also, at times,
a yearly grant of financial aid. When stipulated in maravedis,
the salary ranged from 150,000 to 725,000; when in ducats,
from 1000 to 5000. The larger salaries carried with them the
obligation to pay an extensive retinue or certain prescribed lesser
officials. 1 The salary was always to be provided from the in-
come of the province, never from the royal exchequer at home.

1 In 1530 Diego de Ordaz was obliged to pay a justice of the peace, ten squires,
thirty laborers, a physician and a druggist. Archives of the Indies, est. 139, caj. I,
leg. 2, no. 3, fol. 5.

662 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY [VOL. XXVIII

In order that the adelantado might control the military or-
ganization of his province, he was made captain-general. The
promise of this office often appears in the same clause with that
of governor, although separate patents were usually issued. An
ample salary was provided, sometimes separate from that as
governor and sometimes included in it.

The final clause of every capitulation was a promise of the
sovereign to comply with the terms of the agreement, in case
the adelantado fulfilled all that was required of him. A typical
example of this clause is to be found in the capitulation of 1526
with Francisco Montejo, adelantado of Yucatan :

If you do that which is indicated above at your own expense and in the
manner already set forth, observing and complying with the said pro-
vision which is incorporated above and all the other instructions which
we shall order you to observe and to do for the said land and for the
conversion of the natives to our holy Catholic faith, I say and promise
that this capitulation and everything contained in it shall be fulfilled
exactly to you as is indicated above. 1

A study of the capitulations entered into by persons who did
not receive the office of adelantado shows a remarkable similar-
ity to those examined above. In fact, every clause of import-
ance in the capitulations of the adelantados is to be found in
one or more of the capitulations of the non-adelantados, with
the exception, of course, of the clause promising the office and
title in question. Except for the fact that the expeditions of the
non-adelantados, as a rule, were not so large as those of the
adelantados, and that the non adelantado was obliged to build
only one or two forts, the form and content of the capitulations
of the two classes of discoverers was substantially the same.

Formal legislation regarding the office of adelantado in
America is first found in the Ordenanzas sobre descubrimiento
nuevo e poblacion, issued by Philip II at Segovia in 1563.*
These ordinances were confirmed ten years later, 3 and finally
were incorporated, practically without change, in the legal code

^ocumentos Ineditos de Indias, first series, vol. xxii, p. 223

* Ibid. vol. viii, pp. 484-537. 3 Ibid. vol. xvi, pp. 142-187.

No. 4] THE OFFICE OF ADELANTADO

known as the Laws of the Indies. 1 After the publication of
these ordinances, the capitulations were little more than a repe-
tition of their provisions. They specify, in a minute and
orderly manner, all the customary obligations, duties and privi-
leges of persons making contracts with the crown for discoveries
and settlements, and receiving in return therefor the office and
title of adelantado, or some other. They show, also, that the
adelantado was the highest in rank of the three offices conferred
for the purposes in question, viz., adelantado, alcalde mayor
and corregidor.

From the language of the Ordenanzas and from the terms of
the capitulations themselves it is clear that the adelantado pos-
sessed administrative, legislative and judicial powers in his
colony. Among his administrative functions was that of grant-
ing in encomienda, for purposes of labor and of religious
instruction, all Indians, not otherwise assigned, and all who
might become available therefor during his term. If they were
within the district of a Spanish settlement, the grant could be
for two lives and, if without, for three lives. There was, how-
ever, one important limitation : the power to assign Indians liv-
ing in ports and capitals of the provinces was not conferred
upon the adelantados but was always reserved to the crown.

The power of appointing lesser officials was conferred upon
the adelantado ; in some cases absolutely, in others only to a
limited extent. Having organized his province by dividing it
into suitable districts known as alcalaias mayores, corregimientos
and alcaldms ordinarias, he could fill the first two offices by
appointment and confirm the elections made by town councils
to the last. A suitable salary had to be provided by him for
each of these officials. He could also name the regidores and
other town officials of the new settlements, in cases where they
were not otherwise provided for by the crown, subject to the
condition that they should be confirmed by royal order within
four years. In conjunction with the councils (cabildos) of the
new towns, the adelantado had to provide commons, watering-

1 The Spanish title is Recopilaci6n de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias. The first
edition was published in 1681, by order of Charles II. For a discussion of the code
/. H. H. Bancroft, History of Central America, vol. i, pp. 285 et seq.

664 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY [VOL. XXVIII

places, highways and roads needful for the development of the
settlement.

The financial powers of the adelantado were not inconsider-
able. He and his successor could make dies for the coinage of
money. With the consent of the officials of the royal treasury
of the colony, he might employ its funds to such an extent as
should be necessary for the suppression of rebellion. He could
also make temporary appointments to fill vacancies in the treas-
ury department.

The ordinary military power necessary for the general ad-
ministration of the colony was vested in the adelantado. In
particular, he was to build three forts and to arm and provision
them. The command of these forts was vested in him and his
heirs perpetually, with a suitable salary to be paid by the royal
treasury from taxes collected in the province itself.

The legislative power of the adelantado included the making
of ordinances for the government of the colony and for the
working of the mines, provided that such ordinances were not
contrary to justice or to royal orders. The ordinances of the
adelantado were valid for two years; in order to continue
longer in force, they had to be confirmed by the king.

Both civil and criminal jurisdiction was placed in the hands
of the adelantado, but only on appeal from the lieutenant-gov-
ernor, alcalde mayor, corregidor or alcalde ordinario. From
his decision an appeal might be taken to the Council of Indies,
in civil cases involving amounts greater than six thousand dol-
lars, and in criminal cases where the penalty imposed was death
or mutilation. It was also provided that the adelantado should
be directly responsible to the Council of the Indies ; and vice-
roys and audiencias were forbidden to meddle in the affairs of
the adelantamiento. 1

1 The viceroy in the Spanish provincial organization was the representative of the
crnwn and the highest administrative officer, having also judicial and military powers.
The first viceroyalty was established in 1534 in Mexico. Later three others were
formed to govern the whole of Spanish America, viz., Peru (1542), New Granada
(1717, 1739) and Buenos Aires (1776). The audiencia was a high court of justice,
exercising at times certain administrative powers. It also served in an advisory
capacity to the viceroy and formed a check upon his powers. The first audiencia
was established in Santo Domingo in 1511.

No. 4] THE OFFICE OF ADELANTADO

As already observed, the adelantado enjoyed many privileges
and exemptions, both because of his rank and because of the
great expenses to which he might be put. The privileges in
question fall into two classes : those to be enjoyed in Spain be-
fore the departure of the expedition, and those to be enjoyed
in the colony itself. The first class included such favors as
would aid in the preparation and execution of the work pro-
jected. The leader of the expedition could enlist men any-
where in the kingdoms subject to the crown of Castile and
Leon, and avail himself of all means of advertisement necessary
to attract public attention to his undertaking. While this was
being done, the local officials were especially charged not to in-
terfere in the least with his plans, but rather to do whatever they
could to further them. Whoever enlisted in the expedition of
the adelantado, furthermore, was compelled to obey him and
must not desert him or join any other expedition, without due
permission, under pain of death. All officials were instructed
to grant every facility for the passage of the expedition through
their districts and for its departure. It was especially provided
that no restrictions should be placed upon the inclusion of the
necessary live stock in the supplies to be taken to the colony.
The House of Trade (Casa de Contratacion) at Seville was ob-
ligated to do everything in its power to aid the undertaking,
even to the extent of not investigating the character of the per-
sons who were enlisted in it. However, the adelantado should
see to it that all his followers were persons of good character
and that none of the prohibited classes were included.

The greatest privilege enjoyed in the adelantamiento as such
was the right of the adelantado to select for himself in the dis-
trict of each Spanish settlement a repartamiento and to ex-
change it for a better one should the occasion arise. This he
could bequeath to his eldest son or divide among his children,
either legitimate or natural. He was also permitted to own
encomiendas in provinces outside of the adelantamiento. The
adelantado, also, could import each year a fixed number of negro
slaves and two shiploads of arms and provisions, free of duty.
In the customary judicial investigation (residencici) at the
end of the term of office, the services of the adelantado were

666 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY [VOL. XXVIII

to receive due consideration, and the conduct of the trial was
to be regulated accordingly. If the contract had been ful-
filled, the crown would grant to the adelantado encomiendas
in perpetuity, together with the title of marquis or some other
of like rank, as well as extensive tracts of land.

Finally, it was provided in the Ordenanzas that " discovery,
settlement and pacification with the title of adelantado should
be given and conceded only in provinces not contiguous with
the district of the province of a viceroy or royal audiencia,
from which the region could be easily governed, and the dis-
covery, settlement and pacification could be made." 1 Where
the settlements were to be formed within the jurisdiction of a
viceroy or an audiencia, the title of alcalde mayor or corregidor
was to be granted.

Such then was the dignity offered to induce the ambitious
Spaniard to leave his home and to brave the wilds of an un-
known wilderness for the purpose of extending the dominions
of his sovereigns in the New World and of seeking the con-
version of its native inhabitants to the religion of his race,
always, of course, with the hope that great wealth would come
to himself. The size of the expedition, the obligations imposed
and the expense involved limited the holding of the office of
adelantado to members of the nobility or to men of ambition
who had served as subordinates in earlier expeditions and had
been enabled to acquire the financial means for more ambitious
projects.

On the basis of the foregoing study, the attempt can now be
made to determine whether, in America, adelantado was merely
an honorific title or designated an office with functions actually
to be performed. The confusion on this point arises from the
incompleteness of the legislation of the time, from the fact that
identical functions, powers and privileges were granted to
officials bearing different titles and ranks, and that the adelan-
tado always held a number of other offices which were never
clearly differentiated from that of adelantado.

1 Ordenanza 87, Documentos Ineditos de Indias, first series, vol. viii, p. 513.
This had not been the rule up to this time (1563), nor was it strictly adhered to
afterwards, as is seen in the case of Juan de Onate, adelantado of New Mexico.

No. 4] THE OFFICE OF ADELANTADO

At first glance it would appear that adelantado was nothing
more than an honorific distinction. In substantiation of this
view two facts may be cited : first, that the adelantado was
ipso facto governor, captain general and high sheriff of his
colony and that the duties he had to perform belonged to these
offices ; and second, that many of the local governors who were
not adelantados possessed the same functions as the latter.

On the other hand there are several considerations that tend
to prove that adelantado was more than an ornamental title ;
that it designated an office with functions of its own, even
though these functions were at times discharged and later taken
over completely by other officials.

The relation of the term as used in America to its use in
Spain precludes the idea that it was merely an honorific title.
In the establishment of a colonial system, offices and functions
common in Spain would naturally be transplanted. In Spain
the adelantado was a judicial and executive officer of high rank.
The dignity was commonly conferred upon persons who under-
took the conquest of territory from the Moors. 1 The same
crusading spirit was carried over to America, and the use of the
term adelantado may be considered as identical in the two
hemispheres. If this be true, it can hardly be supposed that
an office endowed with such important functions could suddenly
be transformed into a title simply, because applied to conditions
which were not, after all, so very dissimilar to those prevalent
in Spain during the period of the Reconquest.

This view of the matter is supported by the language of the
capitulations themselves.

You may use the said office in everything connected with and apper-
taining to it, according to and in the manner of our adelantados in
these kingdoms of Castile, and you may enjoy all the honors, conces-
sions, favors, exemptions and liberties, preeminences, prerogatives and
immunities, which by reason of the said office you may and ought to
enjoy,

is the phraseology used to indicate the extent of the adelan-

1 The grant of the adelantamiento of Cazorla to the bishop of Toledo, in return for
the conquest of the region, is a notable example.

668 POLITICAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY

tado's powers and privileges. A reference to the legislation of
the Siete Partidas and of other early codes shows the duties
that he had to perform and the privileges that he should enjoy.
Again, in the ordinances of 1563, the offices of adelantado,
alcalde mayor and corregidor bestowed upon the leaders of
expeditions for discovery and settlement are differentiated from
one another in rank and in the stipulations to be fulfilled. This
legislation must be regarded as the crystallization of earlier
practice and an evidence of what had been the custom during
the preceding half century. The two latter titles certainly
carried with them functions, and it is reasonable to infer that
the same was true in the case of the adelantado. The ordi-
nances, furthermore, provide that there shall be an investigation
(residencia) of his administration, precisely as in the case of
other officials who had served the crown. And if this were not
enough, a survey of the actual administration of their respective
provinces by adelantados, such as Ayllon, Montejo, Pizarro,
Mendoza, Cabeza de Vaca, Belalcazar, Irala, Menendez de
Aviles, Garay, Onate and others, 1 who succeeded in exercising
the authority with which they were invested, would show that
the title was one of office and not simply of honor.

The reason for the discontinuance of the office and title of
adelantado in America lies in the fact that their bestowal
belonged in a peculiar sense to the period of discovery and
conquest. By the beginning of the seventeenth century most
of the territory claimed by Spain had been brought under the
administrative control of viceroys and under the judicial power
of audiencias. Since no region was left in which administrative
and judicial functions could be combined to the advantage of
colonial organization in the hands of a special officer like the
adelantado, the office necessarily disappeared along with the
circumstances responsible for its introduction.

ROSCOE R. HILL.

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY.

1 Cf. supra, p. 655, note I.

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accompanied by stamps, articles not found available will be returned.

Subscriptions should be forwarded and all business com-
munications addressed to the publishers, Ginn & Company,
Lancaster, Pa., or 70 Fifth Avenue, New York.

Yearly subscription, three dollars; single number, seventy-five cents. Back*
numbers and bound volumes can be obtained from the publishers.

Lithomount
Pamphlet

Binder
Gaylord Bros.

Makers

Stockton, Calif.
PAT. JAN 21, 1908