The Queen's Fnglish Dean Alford THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES fc< BOHN'S SELECT LIBRARY THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH A MANUAL OF IDIOM AND USAGE ET THE LATE HENRY ALFORD, D.D. I>£.A.N OF CANTERBURY. SEVEyTH EDITION. LONDON: GEORGE BKLL AND SONS YOEK STREET, COVENT GARDEN 1888 Pa '1 igoguli tbite ]>" I Istinc '■ !'• pedes) inreuuflti toepti, leru b iii^ maJisqne, • m miaenun itiiii in execrali Sajcli peruicieaqae liiterarum." II 6 COKTl i.'Al;. •■. CONTENTS. Preface v " &IAP. I. INTRODUCTORY 1 II. Spelling III. PRONUNCIATION 30 IV. Idiom and Construction 54 Conci.DDING Advice 205 Appendix 209 Index .213 2118755) PREFACE TO THE THIKD EDITION. THE opening paragraphs of the present work will explain how far it ^differs from the previous editions. 1 may here say, that several portions have been re-written, and new matter has been added, to the extent of about seventy pages. The motto at the back of the title-page has been bor- rowed from a little work by Signor Pagliardini, entitled " Essays on the Analogy of Languages." It expresses, in a jocular form, what every one who values our native tongue in its purity must feel : that most of the grammars, and rules, and applications of rules, now so common]) made for our language, are in reality not contributions towards its purity, but main instruments of its deteriora- tion. These rules are often laid down by persons ignoranl of the analogy of languages, of the laws of thought, and of the practice of those writers whose works are the great fountain-heads of our English usage. Difficile t>*t .... non scribere, when we see men whose knowledge does not extend to the most ordinary facts of derivation, and re- quirements of speech, exalted into authorities whereby to judge of the correctness of Shakspeare, and Milton, and the English version of the Bible. We may not indeed say. Malim cum Platone enure: but we maj say con- fidently, that the old writer had in his mind Borne reason for his mode of expression, which was far above the grasp of his modern critic. I am happy to have been, in the course of my writing these "stray notes," made acquainted with some modern English Grammars which form exceptions to the descrip- tion just given: Grammars based upon essential facts and viii PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION principles which are utterly unknown to the " pcedagoguli" of Counl d'Arco'a epigram. I may mention among these, Dr. Latham's sensible English Grammar, and "An English G-rammar specially intended t'"r I il Schools and Private Students," by Edward Rigginson: Longmans, 1864 It i> my pleasing duty again to express my thanks to my many Correspondents, for their valuable contributions, inquiries, hints, and corrections; to mj I both ,tl<- and ungentle, for their teaching by example and bj pr pi : and t" the Public in general, for the kind interest which they have shown in these Btray notes on speaking ami spt'llinir. Can ri nr.ii.i . 12, 1870. PUBLISHERS' NOTE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION. I- reprint B< vend small errors which still remained in tin* texl have been corrected : and a lull index, the want of which was fell in former editions, baa been a Lded. THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH: A MANUAL OF IDIOM AND USAGE. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. 1. Introductory. — This work is a re-publication of the little treatise, which, under the former of these titles, has been for some years before the public. It was considered desirable to render more generally useful the matter con- tained in that treatise: and hence the adoption of the slightly varied form in which it now appears. 2. Besides the slight alteration of arrangement, con- siderable additions have been made, arising from corre- spondence, and observation, subsequent to the last edition of the former work. 3. It may be well to premise once for all, that it is my object not so much to enquire in each case what is accord- ing to strict rule and analogy, as to point out what is the usage of our spoken Language. 4. In many, indeed in most cases, that usage will 1" found reasonable, and according to Bome assignable rule : and therefore we shall often tind ourselves dealing with considerations pertaining to grammar, and referable to rule. But neither grammar nor rule governs the idiom oi a people; and there will be a multitude of Cases, where Sic volo, sic jubeo is the only measure of the tyranny of usage. 5. It was my intention to have arranged the contents oi this new issue of "The Queen's English" under the park B THE QUE1 V'& ENG1 W/. speech. But ili>' attempt ;it once shewed that Bach an arrangement would be undesirable. It would break the thread of continuity between matters naturally suggested the one by the other: and even it' it bad been rigidly adhered to, could hardlj have l" 1 ' o so managed as to be self-indexing. 6. Consequently the idea \\;is abandoned, and the arrangemenl of the former work only bo far modified as to clear, and bring out, and complete, the separate parts. 7. Queen's English, what?- I ought to begin by explaining what I mean by the term, "Q sn's English. It is one rather familiar and conventional, than Btrictly accurate. The Sovereign is of course no more the pro- prietor of the English language than any one of us. Nor does sli.', uor do the Lords and Commons in Parliament embled, po me particle of right to make or unmake ;i word in the language. But we use the phrase, the Queen's English, in another sense; one not without example in some similar phrases. We Bpeak of the Queen's Highway, not meaning that Her bfajestj is possessed of that portion of road, but that it is ;i high road of the land, as distin guished from by-roads and private roads : open of common right to all, and the general property of our country. And it is with the Queens English. It to Bpeak, this land's great highway of thought and Bpeech; and seeing that the Sovereign in this realm is the person round whom all our common interests gather, the centre of our civil duties and of our * - i v i 1 rights, the Queen's English is not an unmeaning phrase, but one which maj Berve to teach ome profitable lessons with regard to our ' tnd to its ii-'- and abu Lnd it maj be, and is for u>, a *erj useful phraat conveying another meaning. That which we treat is not the grammarian I lish, nor the Dictionary-wriU English, bul the Queen's English: not that En| lish which :.iin individuals, more or quainted with their tub- {• . have chosen to t.^ll u> we ought ik and write, mi that which the nation, in the secular unfolding of will and habits, h peak and write. W • ihall by-and-by. 9 l llod our roiiiui •!! ! Longue the highwa) of INTRODUCTORY. thought and speech ; aud it may not be amiss to carry on this similitude further. The Queen's Highway, now so broad and smooth, was once a mere track over an unen- closed country. It was levelled, hardened, widened, by very slow degrees. Of all (his trouble, the passer-by sees no trace now. He bowls along it with ease in a vehicle, which a few centuries ago would have hern broken to pieces in a deep rut, or would have come to grief in a bottomless swamp. Then' were no Croydon baskets, in the day when Henry II. and his train came to do penance from South- ampton up that narrow, hollow, rough pilgrims' road, Leading over Harbledown Hill to Canterbury. 10. Now just so is it with our English language — our Queen's English. There was a day when it was as rough as the primitive inhabitants. Centuries have laboured at levelling, hardening, widening it. For language wants all these processes, as well as roads do. In order to become a good highway for thought and speech, it must not have great prominent awkward points, over which the mind and the tongue may stumble; its words must not be too weak to carry the weight of our thoughts, nor its limiting rules too narrow to admit of their extension. And it is by processes of this kind in the course of centuries, that our English tongue has been ever adapted more and more to our continually increasing wants. If it ever was found too rough, too unsubstantial, too limited, for the require- ments of English thought, it was smoothed, strengthened, enlarged, — till it has become for us, in our days, a level. firm, broad highway, over which all thought ami all speech can travel evenly and safely. Along it the lawyer and the parliamentary agenl propel their heavy waggons, clogged with a thousand pieces of cumbrous ant [quated machinery, — and no wonder, when they charge freightage, nol by the weight of the load, combined with the distance, bui by the cumber <>f impediments which they can manage to offer t" the progress of their vehicle. Along it the poel and novelist drive their airy tandems, dependenl for their success on the dust which they raise, and through which their varnished equipages glitter. On the same road divines, licensed and unlicensed, ply mice a week or more, with Omnibus <>r carrier's cart, promising to carry their \>:\<- THE QUEEN'S EN01 tSB. another land than thai over which the road ads, jus! as the coaches <>ut of London used to - - 1 1 i — I • «>nr boyish eyes by the " Hatm d <■ nd • /' ribed on them. And along this same Queen's highway plods ever the great busj crowd of foot-passeng — the talkers «>t' the market, of Bociety, of the family. Words, words, word ! and bad, 1< >u- 1 and Boft, long and short; millions in the hour, innumerable in the d unimaginable in the year: what then in 1 1 1 « - life? what in the history of a nation P what in that of the world f Ami not one <>t' th< r forgotten. There is a boob where they are all set down. What a history, it has been well said, is this earth's atmosphere, seeing thai all words spoken, from A. lam's firsl till now, are still vibrating on ensitive and unresting medium. 11. Bui it is n.it bo much "t' the great highway itself Queen's English that I would now speak, as of Borne the laws and usages of the road; the by-rules, so t" speak, which hang up framed at the various Btatioi that all may road them. The language of a j pie is no trifle. The national mind is reflected in the national Bpeech. the way in which men express t heir thoughts is si i | .-I and mean, it will he very difficult for their thoughts thein- |.e being the same. It' it is high-flown and bombastic, a character for national simplicity ami truth- fulness, we may be Bure, cannot be long maintained. Thai nation mn ml it has ever been so in historj ) not far in rapid decline, and from 1 led from its I ! .• i\ important feature in the lauguage of s people baa it a in that people's character and •IV. 12. Chatterton'a imposture. Carefulness al minute a« i urn n and grammar may app or to mptible. Bui it would ive M of this id( a. Two Btrike me, ol v. idely differeut kin< ; ms . purporting t" have been w ritten in irly tii poet ns m< ■! Bovi l< Literary out tip in ; man) in the me do even now. But t lie imp Mm 1 , which was not easj to detect at the time, ha been INTRODUCTORY. now completely unmasked by the aid of .a little word of thi'ee letters. The writer uses " its" as the possessive case of the pronoun " it " of the neuter gender. Now this pos- sessive "its" was never used in the early periods of our language; nor, indeed, as late down as Elizabeth. It never occurs in the English version of the Bible, made in its pre- sent authorized form in the reign of James I.: 1 "his" or " her " being always used instead. "They came unto the iron gate that leaflet h unto the city ; which opened to them of his own accord" (Acts xii. 10). "Of beaten work made he the candlestick; his shaft, and his branch, his bowls, his knops, and his flowers, were of the same" (Ex. xxxvii. 17). "The tree of life, which yielded her fruit every month" (Eev. xxii. 2). It is said also only to occur three times in Shakspeare, and once in " Paradise Lost." The reason, I suppose, being, that possession, indicated by the possessive case " its" seemed to imply a certain life or per- sonality, which 'things neuter could hardly be thought of as having. 13. IDetection of St. Peter by his speech.— The ol her example is one familiar to us, of a more solemn cha- racter. When St. Peter was stonily denying all knowledge of his suffering Master, they that stood by said to him, " Surely thou art one of them; for thou art a Galilean, and thy speech agreeth thereto." So that the fact of a provincial pronunciation was made use of to bring about the repentance of an erring apostle. 1 Wt> have it in one place In our present copies, viz., Levit. xxv. 6 : " That which growetb of its own accord." Bui this has been an altera- tion by the printers : Kin;; Janns's authorized copies have " of it own accord:" just a; Shakspeare wrote "The innocenl milk in it mosl innocent mouth : " ami"-.) to it grandam, child, and it grandam will give it a plum." The usage of "it" for "Us" is still found in the pro- vincial talk of the Midland and Northern counties. (See en this subject Dr. Latham's " History of the English Language." pp. 527-9, 589.) CHAPTEE II. srn.i I I I The character of tliis work will provent, as has been already observed, anything lik<' Btrictly r!.i -silicl anun mcnl "i" material. Those who useil musl be contenl bo tnivt entirely t<> the alphabetical index for finding the treatmenl of ;i word or a phrase of which thej are in search. Omitting the "u" in words in "-our." M\ first remark shall be <'ii the trick oowso universal on the other side of the Atlantic, and becoming in Borne quarters com- mon among as in England, of leaving <>ul the u in the ter- mination " -our ;" v. riting hot Ac. Now the objection t<> this is, nol thai it makes u unlike anything in tln> English Ian for \\<' do tlms Bpell >-")iir of thr words tlms derived, for example, null,' r, g >■■ ,-, bul thai it is | arl of a m< in- nt to reduce our spelling to uniform rule, and t.. help forward the obliteration <>t' ;il! trace of the derivation ana bisl words. It is true thai honor and favor are de- riv< inally from Latin words Bpell exactl) the bul it is also true that we did n them direct from the l tin, I'nt through the French forms, which ended in "/•." Bometimi - words come throu i lanj as tfa fore thej n ach us — '.. v. I . • :i in ■. Thai Latin, French | I." I ' in :in art \< }<• El | liv in lite " I alxunination and _/•" or would hcnccfurtli In confined to th< of the ir." Tl tli. in. and in be sri:u.TXG. printed in America; and while we are quite contented to leave our fashionable friends in such company, I hope we may none of us be tempted to join it. 16. " Neighbour." — We have spoken of these words in "our" as mostly having come to us from the Latin in "or," through the French in " eur." It lias been observed, that this is not the case with some words involved in the "or" and " our" question. One of these is " n< ighbowr." This has come from the German nachbar; 1 or perhaps 1 I observe that the dictionaries derive it from the Anglo-Saxon •* nehjebur : " in which case the « lias more right in the word than the o. A very ingenious derivation, hut I believe also wrong, has been sent me by a Scottish correspondent, dwelling under the shadow of Ben- Nevis. His letter is too interesting to be abridged, so I give it as it stands : — "Kii.mai.lii: Manse. r.v Fort William, N.B., 24th June, 1864. " Kev. Sir, — Seeins'm your 'Queen's English' mention of the Danish word ' Nalio' as possibly the original form of the English ' Neighbour,' I am induced to give you the following facts, and a conjecture regarding the further history of that word, hoping they may prove sufficiently interesting to plead my excuse for troubling you. " In the northern counties of the Highlands the common Gaelic term for neighbour is still, as it has been for time immemorial, this Danish Vabi pronounced Naabi; whereas in the southern Highlands a totally different word, and one of pure Celtic lineage, is used. " Now it is notorious that the Norsemen held the northern Highland counties, as well as the outer Hebrides, for ages, and still there are settlers in Caithness and in Lewis who boast of unmixed Danish bluod. There are very few traces of Norse in the common language of the country, but the names of places generally are Scandinavian; and on the whole the wonder is, not that Rabo should retain his place in the Highlands, but that there are not many more of his kith and kin along with him. " Having thus shown that Kabo is naturalised in the north Highlands, I proceed to tell how he travelled to the south Highlands. When the Caledonian Canal was being wrought (from about Hon to 1822), many north-country Highlanders were, as a matter of course, employed on it, and after it was finished several of them went to the Orinan Canal bIso a Government work — in the south of Argyleshire. There they natu- rally addressed one another as Nabi, just as an Englishman would say ' mate,' or ' comrade,' and tie- word, quite new to the Argyleshire-men, appeared so outlandish and odd th >i they fixed it as a uickname on the North-men, calling them all ."■■ " This is a fact of which I have abundant proof, licit ah, nit forty y II i a set of canal-workers in Argyleshire were called Naabii . and my conjecture about the further travels of the word may be easily antici- 8 THE QUI \ 1L18H. from the Danish or rather Nbi impounded from the words tuer, near, and boe, t" live or dwell; and it i- therefore urged, thai an exception Bhould !"■ made in its • i the ending with "»/•. and it Bhould be written "neighbor." I am afraid the answer must be, that English custom has ruled the practice another way, and has decided the matter for us. vV< '1" uot follow rule in spelling the other words, but custom. We writ •->•, in sj >i t «• <>t' the French $* not* ur, orat< ur, gouv rn< ur. It' we once begin reforming our Bpellingon rule, we ought t.< be sonsistent, and to carry our principles throughout. It is only tli<' maintenance of our national custom and usage for which ;i reasonable man can plead. We have uo Academy to settle such things for us; and as long as neighi uniTersally spell in England with a u, I Eear we must be contenl t<> conform, even though it appear to hare been paled— tlmt here we see whence ran:- .'■ . about which there is so much disputing. Navvy is said to have been originally applied to canal, workers, and l" i to be a contraction of Navigator, which I do not consider ut ull likely. My on n Dsno-( Vlt ic account api e ira much n probable; f"r though I cannot prove ilmt any of the Highland workers went tonth from Crinan (th iugh their baring done so is most likeh . I know that the contractors and superintendents were English and Srotch (it being a GoTernmenl work I, and they wonld easily convey the w with tli- in, even though they knew n i its original meani S> far my correspondent. Kow in-', his account does not quite land upright by itself. For the North-men, who w< re " many " when working at the Caledonian Canal, which they left in 1822, I nly it. 1 1 " when they went to the Crinan Canal : and it was they only, 1 1 • f canal men in general, who were nioknomi I .So that the ] hsh contractors, wl tern t" be the only link binding on the south the story, wonld not l>e likely tu adopt the term J name i \ t \ centuries; which bears on it the marks of manj a conflict of thoughl and belief; wh< \i tv uncertainties and anomalies are records of our inter- course with other nations, and of the agglomeration of our mingled English people. You may gain, with no greal trouble, uniformity of spelling, and of pronunciation accord- ing to spelling ; bu1 you will do it al the sacrifice of far more than the gain is worth. A smooth fronl of stu may be a comely thing for those thai like it ; bul rerj few Bensible nun will like it. it' they Know that, in laying it on, v.. are proposing to obliterate the roughnesses and mixtui of Btyles, and traces of architectural transition, from the \' nerable fronl of an ancienl cathedral. I have heard thai it is only the ehort'hand department of the phonetic move- ment which can at all be described as being in a flourish- ing state; aid to that I wish all prosperity, provided always that it rises on the ruins of the other. 20. "-eilt" and "-ant." Here is another instance, iii which our acknowledged English custom in spelling us to defy all rule. How does it staid with the words ending in -• nl and -on/, derived from the participles of Lit in \ . H me of these follow rule, others depart from it. The first conjugation of Latin verbs, forming its par- ticiple in - nitive -anti$, \ •• to a sol of deriva- tives in our I • which keep con- 1 - 1 lit to the termina- i -mil. yYq have abundant, reluctant, exuberant, rem ' . aid 1 1 But in tl I, t bird, and l i li 1 tin con j n foi m« have not I • • n able to keep the derivatives Bteadi t" the original typi I • low it : in SPELLING. 11 some, usage varies ; in a few, they have rejected the primi- tive form, and have adopted the -ant. We always write different arid difference; indeed the derivative differential seems to fix these forms on us, as transcendental fixes tra as- cendent. Dependent and dependant seem to be written in- differently. But defendant and attendant are universal. In some cases, the rules of pronunciation have Kept the -ent unvaried. Take for instance the derivatives from Latin verbs ending in -esco, — crescent, quiescent, acquiescence, arborescent :V 'and such words as detergent, emergency. In all these, the> substitution of a for e would change Hie suit sound of the preceding consonant into a hard one: we should be obliged to say creschant, deterghant, &c. 21. The question, in- or en-, in words beginning with the preposition variously thus represented in Latin and French, seems utterly to defy any answer according to rule. Engrave, enrich, engross, enroll, are universal ; but so are infant, intent, inflame: while we have both enquire and in- quire, both enclose and inclose, both endorse and indorse, used indifferently. We have also insurance and assurance indifferently used; and the liberty of choice in this case i- owing to the fact that we may use both verbs, to assure and to insure, of that kind of making safe, which (lie sub- stantive represents. 22. " Ecstasy " and " apostasy." — There seems to be considerable doubt in the public mind how to spell the two words ecstasy and apostasy. The former of these espe- cially is a puzzle to our compositors and journalists. Is it to be extasy, extacy, ecstacy or ecstasy? In the absence of any preponderance of usage, the question is decided for us by the Greek root of the word. This is ecstasis (tK "Hi " is "lay," Looking very 1 i K •• - pari of the active \ t - 1- 1 1 : — •• I ];iv in bed this morning." Bui this, again, is perverted into laid, which belongs t.> the other verb. I have observed thai Eton men, for some reason or other, are especially Liable to confuse these two verl J I. The apostrophe of the genitive singular. — There Beema to be some doubt occasionally fell about the apostrophe which marks the genitive ease singular. One 1 1 « • t uncommonly outside an inn, that fly's and gig's are to be Let. In a country town blessed with more than .me railway, 1 have seen an omnibus with "Bailwat Station's' painted in emblazonry on its side. It is curious, that at one time this used to be, among literary men, the usual way of writing the plurals of cer- tain nouns. In the "Spectator," Addison writes "P ceWt opera's" with an apostrophe before the s. And we fiml "the making of grotto's*' mentioned as ;1 favourite employment of ladies in thai day. •Jo - . Occasionally this apostrophe before the a in plurals is adopted to avoid an awkward ii Dgruous appearan as in another instance from 1 1 1 « - '• Spectator," wher< Addi- son Bpeake of the way in which some people use "their who's and their whiches." Certainly" add bean awkward-looking word, and so would"/'/. It would in as if we were compelled to admit the intruder in th caw b: for withoul him, how Bhould we ever be able to ex- press in writing that people drop then- h's, or omit to dot their t*» and cross their is t Bui if we do, we must fully bar the gate again, .■ » n < 1 refuse to tolerate bis pr in any plurals where he is not absolutely required. 27. I have observed, on the part of our advertisii hoi i. In. la. ive the proper plural '■/. ii d to denote a \ eh;, le, \\ h( n v. i do not .••inn I\ tin. I "fly " ii .in. I \.r\ rarel) ind< "flit »," the OUvioUS and onl\ I ••_'it i mate plural : tilt" reason apparent!) I* i , that then of a ludicrous mean- ly d l\ the word. But ii we do not thins SPELLIXG. 13 of the insect when we see "fly " in the singular, why should the plural form necessarily raise the thought in our minds ? 28. It has been questioned, whether the name of the car- riage '"' not really derived from the verb, serin-- thai cer- tain night-coaches were once called "fly-by-night" ? And if so, why should it be required to follow the rule of the substantive? But we may answer, was not that substan- tive itself also, in its time, derived from the verb ? It is not merely the»analogy of this particular substantive, but that of the language, to which we would bind the new noun. 29. A dispute was referred to me by the compositors of a certain journal, as to whether we ought to write Messrs. Jacksons works with the apostrophe before the final 8 in Jacksons, or after it : in other words — for it comes to the same — whether, in speaking of the firm, we ought to say Messrs. Jackson, or Messrs. Jacksons. It seems to me that, by using the plural appellative Messieurs, we have already adopted the former of these. Each member of the firm is Mr. Jackson : we may regard the whole firm, if we will, as made up of Mr. Jacksons. But in speaking of the firm as a whole, we use the other form, and say the Messrs. J. irk- son. It is plain that we have no right to mix both forms together, and to say the Messrs. Jacksons, with both names in the plural. So that, the practice of the commercial world having bound us to speak of the Messrs. Jackson, — when we speak of Messrs. Jacksons works, the apostrophe or si-n oi the genitive case ought to come before the final s {Messrs. Jackson's works), and not after it {Messrs. Jacksons 1 works). The example by which the other side in the dis- pute defended their view, was ingeniously chosen, bul did not apply. They urged that in writing " nine months im- prisonment," the apostrophe is put, not before, bui after, the final sin months. Certainly: because we cannot Bay, and never do say, nine month: whereas we ran and do always Bay, Messrs. Jackson. 30. What is the apostrophe ?— "We are Led on by our last paragraph t<> say something aboul this same apostrophe itself.' First, what is it? what does it meanr 1 See a learned and interesting Pamphlet by the late Mr. Sergeant Manning, " On the Character ana Origin of the 1' • ire Augment in English, and its Cognate Dialects." 1 f. THE QUEL V*8 1 \<;/.Isir. When I speak of " the Senator" in one sentence, and of "// - - son " 'in another, what has happened to the word Senator in becoming Senator's, with the apostrophi The question was at one time answered by Baying that "tht Senator 1 e son" was an abbreviation of ••//,, Senator, his son." And we may remember thai the prayer for all conditions of men in our Common Prayer book ends with the words "for Jesus Christ his sake." Bui more attention Bhowed that this was an erroneous view of the matter. It tailed to account for all feminine genitives: "yourwi father" cannot be "your wift his father;" and tor all plural genitives: "the children's bread" cannot he "the children l /." More attention Bhowed thai the a preceded by the apostrophe is an abbreviation of the added syllable "-is" marking the | ive or genitivi Thus " the Senator' 8 son" in English answer filius in Latin. 81. But if //c S son, with an apostrophe bet* the rand s, signifies the son of the Senator, how am I to express in a similar form ///< sons of the Senators t in other words, what becomes of the apostrophe when we want to male a | in the plural .- \\ •• have 00 in- flexion, as in Senatorum fUii, by which it can be expressed. i we use the final -is to mark the possessive in the plural we do in the singular F It would Beem to a Latin scholar al o to do; yel we doit. We have already cited Hi- children' 1. Bui mosl t>f our plural nouns already end in i ; and to them we do ool superadd another * \s it 1 i tl. trophe, hut we indicate its omission by -imph putting the apostrophe after the plural noun. We . " the ators' sons' wiv^ t : " the '•." I mention this, qoI to inform any one of m, well-known a practice, bul because it gii ii which there is some difficulty, The of i he m.iv I •-. a desire to avoid the occur- Of the tWO sll'il.lllt let). ether. This ^ei'ius likely, beeuiuiu wo extend it to other words ending in .-•, or in a sound like s, though they maj not be plural. '1 '! for thy i ike," meaning, for the sake of thj : 1 1 1 \s hich case t he word " • " oughl plainly to l>e written with » ; iphe after it. Thus SPELLING. 15 too, we should say "for patience' sake," meaning, for the sake of patience; and again, we oughl to put the apos- trophe after "patience." 32. But we are not consistent in this. If we were speaking of a person named Patience, we should say, Patience's father is here": and we form the possessive cases of James, and Thomas, and Charles, not by the mere apostrophe, but by the apostrophe with the s. "Thomas is Charles's son": James is Thomas's son: therefore Charles is James's grandfather." Again, we say and write " Bass's Ale," not "Bass' Ale" : "Chambers's Journal," not " Cham- bers' Journal." 33. Plurals of compound names. — Very nearly re- lated to the last question is the following. Which of these two is right, — the Misses Brown, or the Miss Browne? For the former it may be said, that Brown is the name of the whole species, and that the young ladies, being individuals of that species, are Misses ; for the latter, that each of the young ladies being Miss-Broicn, the whole taken together, or any two or more, are Miss-Browns. So that either way is justifiable. Usage is all but universal in favour of the latter in conversation. We may say we met tin- Miss Browns, not the Misses Brown. But we can hardly justify this our colloquial practice, if we bring in Mrs. "Brown, and say we met Mrs. and tlw Miss llr»wns. For, by enumerating thus first the individual, and then the species, we hind our- selves to the former way of spelling. The sentence, as 1 have last given it, is inaccurate ; because it really says that we met Mrs., and flu- Miss, Browns; i.e., one Mrs. and one celebrated Miss, rejoicing in the name of, not Brown, but Browns. If we had wished to keep to the ordinary colloquial usage in this case also, we ought to have said that we met Mrs. Brawn and the Miss Browns. 34. A correspondent writes: "Calf-skin is spoken of in the singular. Does the plural admit of the word calf being transformed into calves, with the letter a added to the Word skin?" The answer. I conceive, must be, that in the compound term calf-skin, we use the firsl word as a generic adjective, calf-skin, not calfs skin : as we do when we say, "bound in calf:" and that we have no more righl to change calf into calves when we change skin into skins, L6 Tin: qui / \ - i vol tsh. tiian we 1 4 ia bound in calf," •• two !!•<■ bound in <-.il\. \ similarly doubtful case preaents itself in cdk I,, The former of these, as describing a li-li made of ;i single calfa-head, is hardly defensible on am rules •■!' propriety ; but it is universally used in pre- ther. The reason possible may be thai of pronunciation Eavours the v rather than the/, w should n.it orally writ'-. uol pigs'-faee, I -lit pig'S'faee. !• 1 1 ) ; i \- I 1. whether of these two ia right, or " apoonsfuU." The answer - rery obriou8. It -| nful is to be regarded as one word, as I suppose it is, then spoonfuls i> its plural. "The earth broughl t"«>rth by handfulc Q d. xli. 17». Bui if we keep the compounding syllables separat ■< full, then we oughl of course to say two spoons full, and bo on. '11 mposite word " ■-/ nful" has an existen E its rn, and musl follow the laws "t thai commonwealth of rds t.> which it belongs. To make its plural " t full," is to blol ou1 its sepa ustence word. Iiis form of plural does uol convey the meaning intended. til" is a different thing from ••/.' The former implies thai three separate re used : the latter expri I bree mi of the size indicated. •Attorneys" and " moneys. " — There Beema i liability t.> error in the formation of Borne plur themselves. The words " attorn* y " and " money " are often made into "attorniet" and " monies" in the plural. This : we mi well t urn t he singular plural " /. I am aol aware thai any one or " l more careful writers use the right plural y$" and " mon* y \ »n i |K>uden1 is aboul t.> dedicate a 1 ook I pal roni He wishes to expri I it ude for •• ui.i n\ kiii-li l 'i it feeling uncomfortable as to the i the expression, .ih;ill have t.> \ch /. <" \\ liich doe > well px pr< bis many SPELLING. 17 It is a very easy matter to cairn liis apprehension, and allow him the full expression of his gratitude. Nothing is commoner than the making of abstract nouns into concrete in this manner. I trust we all remember the verse in the Lamentations of Jeremiah, ch. iii. 22, " It is of the Lord's mercies that we are not consumed, because His compassions fail not." In the same chapter we read of " all their imaginations against me." And in Ps. lxxxix. 49, we have the very word in question : " Lord, where are thy former loving- hi mhiesses, which Thou swarest unto David in thy truth? " In all these examples, the word which originally signified an attribute, is taken to indicate an instance of the exercise of that attribute. "Loving h in finesses" are, instances of loving kindness. A curious case of this licence in speech may be seen at pre- sent on the walls of our railway stations, where an agent an- nounces that he has upwards of -500 "e^/W/awrx" to dispose of. 39. " Means." — A question arises as to the proper construction of certain nouns bearing the plural form. The first which I shall notice is " means." " Those pieces of hypocrisy were, with him, means to an end." " That piece of hypocrisy was with him, a" — what? — a mean to an end ? No, — this is not English, though it may be correct in grammatical construction. " That piece of hypocrisy was, with him, a means to an end." This is how we speak. And we say, "the best means of accomplishing your end is," if we are going to speak of one mode of action only; not "the best mean is," nor " the best means are," unless we mean to enumerate more than one. 40. The plural "acquaintances" is found fault with because acquaintance itself is a plural noun — "they sought, Him amongst their kinsfolk and acquaintance." But here is another instance <>f thai which we have been just treating. "A hiring kimluess," is an example of the abstraci quality Loving-kindness, and so we have the plural " loving-kind- nesses." So " an acquaintance " is an example of acquain- tance, concretely present in an individual with whom wo are acquainted: and if this substitution is to be allowed, we cannot object to its taking a plural form, and becoming " acgiitiintaiirrs." It is precisely analogous to " I'lat'ums" used in the same concrete sense. c 1- Till: <>r/ \ >s ENQl IS II. II. "News." — \'i\ Bimilar is our way of dealing with ■• [f v.' are aboul to mention only, we say the latesl news "if," nol " In tin indeed the use of the plural verb al all is unusual, even if era] things are to l e mentioned. Jt' w< one oul imetim . " The lai // ." has i" en jusl ified, on the ground that •• /- main quivalent to " remat der," ti ing no such singular noun as ■• a n m • Bui the defence is unquestionably wrong. The word " i and is intended t" be, plural, in signification, as well as in form. The human body is broken up by death, and ia no Ion trded as a whole, bui as a heap of decomposing pai A 1 1 « I tli-' Bame idea is prcsenl in Bpeaking of any thing which has passed into deca^ or dismembermenl : we speak mmonly of the ruiiu of a church or castle, though in this e we may aay that it has become .• " we h ■• /■ tr mm* r," " r ■■•'■ > i," " ip -m." all plurals. l_'. •• Mewses." — There ia another word which, by conspicuous notices on the London walls, appears to have me one of thi I mean " m I should have 1 n inclined to say, "South Portman Mews are on the 1-t'i as you go up Orchard Street." Bui clearly this is qoI the waj of speaking which is mosl intelligible to the coach* men and grooms of London. Foral the entrance oi one of the Biarylebone mews (1 am using mv own plural), I ee a notice posted for the regulation of tb< " <>i the metropolis. 1 Besid< the incongruity of its | tic 1 [a my article printed in " Good Words" for Novemb r, 1863, I had mipposed ihiM form ol the not current throughout London, and had ascribed ii i" the laU ne. I rwi ived the follow letter from Dr. Thomson, the medical offloer of health i »r Mar; which enabli my former statement i — •• I 'i i LB i mi M i 01 Mien u. ' >l i i' i H or Hi vi i ii. w, • .N I " Si ! i . • .■ I : ] - , . * . . \\ the tii in Mi t allow i fu« ! I \\ lll< Il I . .'. : . . . t0 Marjrli I • Irawn up SPELLING. 19 associations, this word " meivses " is a very queer monster. Fancy ordering " two Daily Neivses," by way of two copies of the " Daily News." Still, we must allow the Marylehone parish authorities this much indulgence, as to confess that their word is not altogether without precedent. 43. " Summons." — With regard to summons, which appears to be another of these plural words become singular, and in the usage of which we have long ago become accustomed to read that " summonses were served on all the offenders," a barrister hers suggested to me that it is in fact derived from the French semonce. Probability is given to this idea, from the fact that the verb representing the serving of the Legal process, is in English most commonly pro- nounced, not to "summon," but to "summons," as it natu- rally would be, if from the French verb " semoncer." In Landais' large French dictionary, the meanings are thus given : — "Semonce, subst. fern, (du latiu submonitio, fait de sub- vwnere, avertir secretement, a demi-mot), invitation t'aite dans les formes pour quelque ceremonie. — Avertissemenl fait par quelqu'un qui a autoritc. — lieprimande. " Semoncer, v. act., faire une semonce : donner un aver- tissemcnt." So that, at all events, the proposed derivation is not far- fetched ; for the signification exactly corresponds. The only missing link is, the historical proof, from the old French of our courts, that "semonce" and "semoncer" wex*e actually used in them, and from French passed into English. This, which I am not able to give, some of my legal correspondents may perhaps supply. I observe that Todd, in his edition of Johnson, derives summons from the formal Latin name of the writ, " summon is." Bui this does not seem so probable. 44. Is "chickens" a legitimate plural? Jf we go by myself, and in my original copy of the draught they are Btyled Mew - In correcting the proofs, however, the legal authorities of the parish substituted the terra you < >l «j< ■< • t. to, in defiance <>t' the Queen's Engl lmt in direct obe lience to the inexorable 35 ( '■• o, 3, • np. ' *-. \ assed in 1795, where the term Mewses occurs thr u liout. " Very faithfully pours, " R, Hi HDA 8 | HOMSON, M.D., F.E.S. •• Medical Officer of Health." THE QUJB1 \ 1LISH. authority, yea : for the English \ a of the Bible has it. M itt. wiii :'.7. ;iii' king only. At all i usage lias long ago sanctioned both the singular and the plural No one would doh " We had a chick for dinner"; and we have all our li been used to the Bign of the" Sen and Chickens." Bui we u-«' the other and more Btrictly correcl plural also: making, I think, a slight distinction between the two forms. We say,*' Do you keep chicken ? " Bui we read, "( lathereth her chickens beneath her win Does uol this indicate a leaning to " chicken " for the generic plural, " chickens M for the iii'li\ idualised ': For the chicken are kepi en ma t he chick< ns run in, one bj one. 1'.. " Diocess " or " diocese. " — Oughl the districl over which a bishop lias ecclesiastical jurisdiction to be spell d The latter form is found in a few of our older w titers, and is by some persons retained in our own days. The "Times" newspaper once pertinaciously adhered to it. In letters inserted and extracts given, the spelling was even altered t(. this form. Of late it appears to have been abandoned. There is really no justification for it. The i ems t" have come from the Norman- l ii< 1 1 .//■ bu1 its derivation, as well a- the usage <>t the greal majority "t English writers, fixes the spellii tl ther way. The word is derived from the Greek " '/ ," with the " eta " or long - in the Ias1 syllable bul onej and oughl m> more to l> spelt diocess, than • to be uiH'll cl 16. "Need" and "needs." \ correspondent a whether the suppression of the in the third i nl.ir of "to need" may l><- regarded as sanctioned by taiuly, ii-> one in the c days would think <>\ Poll the housemaid nol light the dining-room i • • - < I ; i \ . " Our practice in thi » abridge " needs • .ln't " Bui it i • to I- •• •■! thai the SPELLING. 21 s is dropped only when another verb follows : we say " He need have the strength of Hercules to lift that stone:" but if we leave out " have," we must say, "He needs the strength." 47. Division of a word between lines. — The divi- sion of a word, when the former portion has to be written in one hne and the latter in another, may seem but a trifling matter; but it is one worth a few moments' attention. The ordinary rule is, that the break should be so made, as to let the new line begin with a consonant. And notice that this is not the same matter as division of the word into its component parts. This latter ]u*occss must follow the order of derivation and in Hex ion of the word : but in division between lino and line, we are obliged to transgress this order. For instance, in dividing the word attainted into its component parts, we say that at- is the first, taint- the second, and -ed the third : taint being the root of the word, and -ed the added sign of the past tense. But in dividing this word between two lines, we' should put attain- in. the former line, and -ted in the latter. If any one i disposed to object to this way of dividing, ami to require that we should in all cases follow the composition and in- flexion of the word, and begin the new line with the -ed, he may at once be shown the impossibility of doiii^ so, l.\ trying it in the case of any verb ending with e preceded by a mute and a liquid, as humble, or any which turns a final y into ie, as multiply, in making its past tense. The word humbled is confessedly of two syllables: but if we are to divide on the rational plan, where is the break to occur : It is true that, in this particular ease, on no plan is the account to be given quite satisfactory. The pronunciation of the word in reading, making the e of ed mute, may 1 e represented by"humbld." lint this is not expressed by hum-bled, nor by hu/mb-led, nor indeed by any mode of division thai can lie devised. The inference is, thai we should, if possible, avoid dividing such a word at all. But in such words as multiplied, though the rational division according to inflexion fails, the ordinary rule is easily fol- lowed : -plied, when the e is mule, becomes the last syllable, and the division is made accordingly. I I. "To" and " too."— I have observed that Mr. 22 THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH. i in one of his itting true thai " ro" and " Uy I ; m < ; them both ; bul it is also true thai with u> has appropriated " too " the adverb of addition or for the preposition; and that in the expression "shutting /"." it i- tin- preposition, ami not the adverb thai is used ; that vhich the d< bul being omitted, and the preposition thus '_'••" iiu: tlir adverbial Bense of clot i or I: 1 . Doubling the final letter.— There a babil any less usual » E a mono- Byllabic word by doubling tin- final letter. Tims 1 have a " This bouse to lett." And in one of the Dumerous mining circulars which are constantly swelling one's daily parcel of letters, I observe it Btated, thai the y rich and promising. Thus, likewise, cleat profil is sometimes d< scril ed as " mil," instead "i " net." Benefitted. — This reminds us of another doubling of a final letter, respecting which there is con- erable doubt. Does the verb to benefit, in forming its iplo, double its final letto - lit true, in the firsl edition of this work, thai this doubling only takes places in a syllable on which tin- acceni is laid, and that the pur] of it is to ensure the righl pronunciation ? A i ht it would seem so. if the particii quit were Bpell quiied,ii would be pronounced .is in requited, and would lose the sound of its verb : whereas by Bpell it quitted, that sound is retained. A • of fit, rebel, ni'l I other woids of the same kind. When the Byllabl o acceni on it, the reduplication Be* ms not to be aeeded, tor there can be hut oneway of pronouncing it ; we might as well make the participle of rememl m- tli.it of benefit, benefitted. Bul tin- inii lie , ni Irish correspondent, whom I quote at length in paragraph that this trieW • out in thi • Ming, travelling, grovelling, and the HI..- words. So thai all. it Booms as if utuigo \ our on lo in I he mat 51. *• Civil! \ tondcnl by we double tin- / in eavilli r. w h« -ii 1 1 1' a< i 'lit is undoubtedly on the t I r, I sup] i hat we wi Ii to 1 SPELLISC. 23 some difference evident between such words as " reviler" and "caviler." That no rule requires us to lay the accenl nil the second syllable <>u account of the doubling, is evident from such words as "cruelly," "royally" "jovially," &c.' 52. " Dare." — The same correspondent asks whether good writers make " dare " do duty for the past tense of "to dare"? I do not quite understand this question. I never saw that done which is described. Docs my correspondent mean that he doubts whether good writers would say, "They urged him to take the leap, but he dare not " ? I imagine that every one would write " he dared not : " I am sure that every one would say, "he didn't dare to." Let me put in a word to rescue " dare " from being treated as we just now saw " need " must be treated. It is no1 according to the hest usage to say, " he dare not do it." The s of the third person present must not be suppressed : but we must say " he dares not do it." 53. Double letters in compound words. — When do we, and when do we not, express double letters coming together in certain compound words? No one writes camelleopard : but withhold is universal in the Authorised Version of the Bible, and in Shakspeare, and hi all careful modern writers. I have observed a tendency gaining ground to drop one h and spell " ivit hold," but we do not write washouse, watchouse; which shows that the double h need not be avoided as intolerable. 54. Sometimes, when- a double letter occurs at the end of a monosyllable used in compounding a word, we drop one letter. Thus from writ, we have wel-fare, wel-come : from full, fulsome : from all, al-icays, al~mighty, also. But these seem to be adverbs, or adjectives adverbially used. The same docs not happen to substantives. From bell we have not beUpull, bu1 bell-pull, and beU-tower: iron; wall, wall-flower: from gall, gall-bladder, gall-nut : from hell, hell-fire: from mill, mill-stream, mill-dam, mill-stone: from pill, pill-box, &c. The only verb thai occurs to me, "pass," ompounded both ways: from it wo have pas-time, but we have also / /.• &nd. pass-word. . "Lose" and "loose." — I have several times •2i 77//: QUEEN'S ENGl 18TI. noticed the verb to lost Bpell ! \ more euriotu in- nee of tli-- arbitrar) character of English u t.» elling and pronunciation, could hardlj be given, than these two words furnish: but usage musi be obeyed. In this ' is not consistenl w ith itself in either of the two practices: the syllable - " keeps the Bound of i in looi . but changes it for thai - I i in eJko< the syllable " — " I • ps the sound of i in dose, dote, but changes it for • in chose, l< Bui when nsa I' a this requires us to give the o in Ion the sound of " in luminary , we fee] indeed thai reasoning about sj«-ll- inu' and pronunciation is almost at an end. "Sanitary" and •* sanatory." — Siun'/nn/ and aatory are but just beginning to be rightly understood. BantA //•//. from sanitas, Latin for soundness) or health, in. -.in-, appertaining t.> ht alth .• Banolory, from sono, t>> cure, means appertaining t<> healing or curing. "The town is in such a bad sanitary condition, thai Borne Banatory measures must be undertaken." I was surprised to Bee, in the "Illustrated News" of October 81, 1868, a print and description <•!' Biurree, one <•!' the " Sanitariums " for our t roops in India. 57. " Pharaoh." I have noticed thai the title of the ancient Egyptian Icings bardl) ever escapes mis-spelling. Thai title is PharooA nol PharooA. Y-t a Leading article in the "Ernes," nol long since, v.. is full of Phaboah, printed, as proper names in leading articles are, in con- spicuous capitals. Nay, even worse than this : on ni_\ Brsl \i-it to the South Kensington Museum, an institution ad- mirably calculated to teach the people, I found a con- spicuous notice with the same mi> spelling in it. I gav< memorandum ol il t" the attendant ; bu1 whether it h been corrected or nol I cannol ss f. Mis-spelling in newspapers. It is in ii. papers, and especially in provincial newHpapers, thai m frequent faults in Bpelling are found. No doubl there is much to be -.ii.| which ma) accounl for tlii-.. Sometin their editors are men of education, aided b) a *erj in- efficient ittaff, and are ;it the mercy of their comna and i> . i I • mutinies the) are half-educated men, • . the ii e ol words which the) do nol understand, SPELLING. 25 Examples might be gathered of the most absurd mis- spelling and misuse of words, from almost any copj of anj provincial journal in the kingdom. In a country news- paper, not long since, I read that a jury might be " im- mersed" in a heavy fine ; the meaning being, of course, that they might be " amerced.'" "We were informed once, in the "Evening Star," a Loudon penny paper now extinct, that the Pope went to the " basilisk" of St. Peter's ; mean- ing "basilica," the name given by the Romans to several of their largest churches. 59. "-ize " or "-ise." — How are we to decide between s and z in such words as anathematize, cauterize, criticise, deodorize, dogmatize, fraternise, utilise, and the rest ? Many of these are derived from Greek verbs ending in -izo ; but more from French verbs ending in -iser. It does not seem easy to come to a decision. Usage varies, but has not pro- nounced positively in any case. It seems more natural to write anathematize and canh ri::e with the z, but criticise is commonly written with the *. I remember hearing the late Dr. Donaldson give his opinion that they ought all to be written with s. But in the present stale of our English usage the question seems an open one. 60. "Show" and "shew." — It is not easy to saj how the verb corresponding to the substantive show comes to be spelt shew. Here again we seem bound to follow usage, and not rashly to endeavour to reform it. Still, perhaps, something may be said tending to illustrate the present usage. It has seemed to me from observation as if the tendency were to write the verb shoiv, as the substantive is unques- tionably written, when an outward demonstration is in- tended, and shi'ir, when we speak of a demonstration to the mind: "He showed me his house, ami shewed me thai it was worth the rent he asked." If there be anything in what has been said, it would seem to follow that the sub- stantive, "a show," should always be spelt with an o: its meaning being restricted to an outward display made to the senses. P.ut perhaps this is mere f aney. In the English Version of the Scriptures, shew seems without exception, both for verb and substantive. The same use is Found also in the Common Travel- Book. The tendency of the modern THE QUI :/ \ ' S ENGl ISH. printer baa been t-> abandon this Bpelling altogether, and i.. use t he o in ev< rj til. '-Scottish'' ami "Scotch." \ lent enquires about •' Scottish,*' and "Scotch," asserting that the latter form is a mere corruption, and that *' no intelli- r educated English-man, makea use of this Tuption." With reference t.> the question itself, I can only 'Non nostrum .... tantas componere lil B • Is my correspondent's assertion, I oly • I. •! in Shakspeare," Much Ado about Nothin I ii. bc. L), " Wooing, wedding, and repentin itch jig, a measure, and a cinquepace : the first suit hot and hasty, like a Scotch jig, and full aa fantast ical." I conclude thai Shakspeare will Batisfy the requirement to intelligence and education. In three other places, be has tish." 62. "Overflown" for " overflowed." — We not un- frequently read that the whole valley was •• overflown," in- l .; "overflowed." "No one," writes Dr. Latham i •■ II . rtorj of 1 he English Lai ." p. 556), I hope) brought himself to "the water overflew the field." I. Words terminating in " -ery " or " -ry." — I seem to be uniform i:i regard to such nouns a> deanery, fishery, &c. Dr. Latham (p. 478) tells n- th&tfi hery is a double derivative, fish, fisher, fishery : and bo of brewery, cutlery, &c. But the Bame cannot be I of deanery, shrubbery, piggery: and it may 1"' I question how they got their <■ in the termination. Thi much tn I .■ aid on the attraction exercised by comn inds in a language over those which nearly resemble tin-in. In our old I t Canterbury we find usually '/- anry, and this form Btill subsist - in h< ronry (althou pronounce it hernery), foundry, laundry. Such word pinery, vinery, might !"■ quoted "ii both Bides. For it the termination were -ery, the mute • preceding would 1 « - >- 1 1 1 - pressed : and If -ry, the word Btanda as it ought pirn i me curious ii> U rmina- ii : witness buttery, which may have been buti tnd t he above-quoti I ry. SPELLING. 27 65. " Cemetery." — There is a word with a similar ending, but not to be placed in the same category, or dealt with by the same analogy. I mean cemetery, which owes its -cry, not to any habit of the English language, hut to the ending of the Greek Koifji^iipajy, ccemeterium, a sleeping-place. 66. Meanings of such words. — It may he observed that words with this termination are of two meanings : one local, as in all the instances hitherto quoted: the other abstract, describing the pursuit, or the general quality, pertaining to the simple root. In this, as well as in the former case, the uncertainty of usage as to the spelling prevails. A\ r e write chemistry, palmistry, devilry; but witchery, lechery, venery, treachery. 67. "Stationery," "confectionery." — Is the gene- rally assumed difference between stationary and statiom ry worth keeping up? I venture to think it is. The adje< - tive comes to us direct from a lower Latin form, stall - narius, and signifies, abiding at rest. The substantive ci s from the same, but through another derivative, stationer, the man who keeps a station or shop for books (as distinguished from an itinerant vendor). This being so, it had far better retain the trace of its derivation by ending in -ery, than he referred back, by ending in -ary, to a meaning which is wholly passed from it. There is an analogy in confectionery ; in which case there is no adjec- tive confectionary requiring the distinction to he made. 68. Diphthongs. — One word which occurred above re- minds us to say something respecting the transference of Greek and Lai in diphthongs into our own language. 1' we have the cases where the diphthongal form is by usa retained. In these, it is desirable to keep the distinction between in- : 1 11*1 oe char. An author has always to looh keenly at his proof s with this view: and very feu books are withoul some examples of mistake. The matter is complicated by the awkward circumstance thai in italics the difference is so Blighi as to be almost imperceptible: that while in ronian type we can print correctly Caesar, homoeopathy,- the former from " Eaisar," the latter from " homoiopatheia," — in italics we prinl Ca ir, homoeopathy , with hardly any appreciable distinction. THE QUE1 VS 1 NQLISH. Shall wc drop diphthongs? Then cornea the question, I- it desirable to drop altogether these a* kward, un-English-looking diphthongs, and substitute - for them erywhen baa already «1> "n«- in equal and yt Possibly, so thai it l»- not done rashly. Bui w,. should lose by it in some cases: e.g., home-opathy would li«' in danger of losing its right pronunciation though it would, perhaps, acquire ;i meaning not alto- ther inappropriate. In this, as in other cases, we musi wail upon U-. i 7<>. "Cherubim," "seraphim." — Tli<> varying plu- rals of cherub and eerapk, as found in our Bible and I mmon Prayer Book, occasion Bome perplexity. Being anxious to give an accounl of thein, I obtained the follow- ing from a friend whose scholarship I can trust: — "The forms, 'cherubs,* 'cherubim* 'cherubin,' 'eheru- bims,' and 'seraphs,' 'seraphim,' 'seraphin,' ' seraphims,' are, or profess to be, plurals of the words ' cherub* said 'seraph' respectively. The words themselves are taken directly from the Hebrew, and in thai language the plurals are 'cherubim' and 'seraphim.' In the English \ . rsion the plurals appear as cherubims and s< raphims, the translators finding cherubim (or 'in') and seraphim (or 'in*) in the Latin and Greek Versions, and, it may be, thinking thai these terminations would nol carry to the majority <>f their readers the plural sens.' withoul the addition of ».' Cherubtn ana Beraphwi are properly Chaldaic or Rabbinic forms, and are i h> >sc generally used in the old< ' : *5. of the Septuoginl Version! mi), that version having probablj been made bj persons to whom the Rabbinic form was mosl familiar. (The form I' however, in later MSS. and in ili<' editions of the Septua- i, been altered t" im.) From the Septuoginl tins form was int roduced t" the Latin Vet found it a waj into the Te Deum, where it has remained untrans- lated in tli. Ei Ii h I 'r.i per I '" ok." 71. " Clue 01 clew*"? < in ht we to write clue, cleu ' Beyond doubt, the latter is the original and the 111 orthography. We are, however, reminded thai do 1 'I ho eurliiT 1 SPELLING. 29 less an authority than Shakspeare has chie ("All's Well that Ends Well," act i. sc. 2). So that it seems the spelling now becoming universal has something to be said for it. Still we think the lovers of accuracy may, without imputation of pedantry, make a point of the original form. CHAPTEB III. )• i [ ATIOl 72. Pronunciation.— I pass from Bpelling to pro- nunciation A i i.l here a fen introductory words may be irable. In pronouncing, as in mosl things thai \\.' do, two extremes are to be avoided ; precision and alovenline I i outward indications mark a man more plainly th habii of pronouncing his own tongue. To be accur without being precise, distinct withoul being artificial, to be everywhere heard, and always undersl 1. withoul noticeable effort, — these are the excellences of good pro- nunciation; and while they come by ;i happy instinctive tacl to Borne men, others Beem never able t" attain them, and Beldoin, if they lack them, to feel their deficiency. In this matter, the accidents of birth and early training go for much; bul they are no! insuperable. I have known cases of men who have risen from the rani — whose provincial or vulgar utterai I could my member, who yel before middle age have entirely* off every trace of these adverse circumstances, and speak . uViit.lv as their high-born and carefully trained ers. 71. Misuse of the aspirate. -These remarl I me • actio thai v. of all faull . the Leaving out of the aspirate where it oughl to be, and putting it in where it oughl not to be. This is a \ ul i nol . « . 1 1 1 i 1 1 . • . I to this or thai province of England, nor especially prevalenl in one county or another, bul incident throughoul I land to pel ol lovi I and inferior education, princi- pally to those among the inhabitants ol town-. N..tl. ., m m a l* lo« the mark in intell t, and en< i y, a tb unfortunate habii : in in- 1 , w e bul moderately k< en in | PRONUNCIATION. 31 ception, lie would see how it marks him in Belf-respect and energy, because if he had these, he would long ago have set to work and cured it. Hundreds of stories are current about the absurd consequences of this vulgarism. We remember the barber in "Punch" who, while operating on a gentleman expresses his opinion, that, after all, the cholera was in the hair. " Then," observes the customer, "you ought to be very careful what brushes you use." " Oh, sir," replies the barber, laughing, "I didn't mean the air of the ed, but the hair of the hatmosphere" 75. As I write these lines, which I do while waiting in a refreshment-room at Beading, between the arrival of a Great- Western and the departure of a South-Eastern (rain, I hear one of two commercial gentlemen, from a neighbour- ing table, telling his friend that " his ed used to hake ready to burst." 76. The following incident happened at the house of friends of my own. They had asked to dinner some acquaintances who were not perfect in their aspirates. When they made their appearance somewhat late, imagine the consternation of my relative, on receiving from the lady an apology, that she was very sorry they were after their time, but they had some ale by the way. The well-known infirmity suggested the charitable explanation, that it was a storm, and not a tipple, which had detained them. ' 77. I had once a very curious communication on the subject of the pronunciation of the aspirate. My corre- spondent objected, that the portion of my Essay which treated of this matter conveyed no meaning to him, for that from a child he had never been able to tell the diffe- rence in pronunciation between a word beginning with an h, and one beginning without: and he insisted that I ought to have adopted some method of making this plainer. He adds, "In all cases where the h is used, to me it appears superfluous." I adduce this to shew thai there are some cases in which the neglect of the aspirate is simply in- curable. Still, I have kin>wn instances where i1 has been thoroughly eradicated, at the cost, it is true, of consider- able pains and diligence. 78. " Umble," &c. Bu1 there are certain words with regard to which the had habil Lingers in persona uol other- THE QUI ' S EltCl I8H, wise liable t.. it. We still Bomethnes, even in good society, bear "ospttoJ," "erb" and "umbb," all of them, in my opinion, very offensive, bul the lasl of them by far the woi illy when beard from an officiating clergy- man. Tin- English Prayer-1 k has at once Bettled the pronunciation of this word for us, by causing as t.> give to Q l ..in- "humble and hearty thanks" in the general thanksgiving. "Umble and hearty" few can pronoui withoul a pain in the throat: aaa"umblanarty" we cer- tainly never were meant t.. -a\ ; "aumbleand fcearty" is tin- only pronunciation which will suit the alliteral i\«' Btyle ..t' the prayer, which has in it "not only with our ftps, bul in our Ktx -." 1 1' it be urged that we have " an humble and contrite heart," J answer, s.> have we the " Btrength "t n_r survive the satire of Dickens in " David Copper- field": "I am well aware that 1 am the umblesi person u'oiiiir." >.ii-l Uriah Beep, modestly, " lei the other be who he may. My mother is likewise a very umble person. We live in a numble abode, Master Gopperfield, bul have much to be thankful for. Mj father's former calling was umble; be v. ii." 79. 'I'll 1, unaspirated pronunciation <'t' humble has been defended, partly on the ground <>! being borrowed from the Italian, partly h\ the allegation that I have failed t<> prove from thi' Prayer-1 h tin' intention "I' the compilers of <>ur Liturgy that the aspirate Bhould be pronounced. It I been asserted that the alliteration in the words, " humble and hearty," perfect withoul the aspirate on the former word, as with it ; and I am told that the tat of t be urrence "l "thy humble tervantt," ami "thine unworthy decides nothing, becau ewe have "thy li<>n I glory." Bul !»• it observed, that in order !■• answer um.iit.aii instance oughl t" have been produced, u.it ..! a different unaspirated vowel with "Hi;/" before it. hut oi tl '»/. una i vowel, i the Bhorl u | ; I- ave in themselves Bounds more or l( irlf approaching t.> the power "i .1 consonant, an. I therefore PRONUNCIATION. 33 enduring- "thy" and "a" before them. The long u has this power; we may say "a unit" "a university," because the first syllable sounds as if it began with "you," and y has here the power of a consonant. But the short u, as in " humble,' 1 is not one of those vowels which require a con- sonant to enunciate them : one could not say " a vnlearned man : " and I must therefore still maintain that the occur- rence of " thy humble" and "thine unworthy," shews that the h was meant to be aspirated in the former case, as we know it was not in the latter. 80. An apparently more formidable objection has been brought against my conclusion from "thy humble" and ''thine unworthy" "Were I," it is said, "to find the words 'my umbrella ' in some standard work, should I at once exclaim, ' Oh, this writer calls it ' hwmbrella ' ? Here is an example of the short //.'' My answer is very simple. Mine is now almost universally disused : and my lias taken its place before vowels. The translators of the Bible wrote " mine eyes : " but if I found " my eyes," or " my own," in a modern book, I certainly should not charge the writer with meaning me to read " my heyes," " myhown." I must still maintain that, when the same persons, in the same book, wrote "thy humble," and "thine unworthy," they meant to indicate a difference, in respect of the aspirate, between the pronunciation of the two words thus differently preceded. 81. A correspondent, writing from Ireland, charges me with being in error for finding fault with those who drop the aspirate in the word "hospital" "for," says he, "no one in Ireland, so far as I am aware, ever thinks of aspirating the h in that word." This is certainly a curious reason why we should not aspirate it in England. It re- minds me of an American friend of ours, who, after spend- ing two or three days with us, ventured to tell us candidly, that we all " spoke with a ."front/ English an-, /,/." 82. "Which." — The same correspondent states that lie never met an Englishman who could pronounce the relative pronoun "which." He charges us all with pro- nouneine; it as if it were " witch." I mav venture to inform him that it was his ear which was in fault. T I rdinary English pronunciation "which" is as distinguishable i) Till QUEEN'S ENGU8H. from "witch" as it La from the coarse trish and Scotch •• wk4ch." 83. " A " or " an " before a vowel. — What is our rule — or have we any — respecting the use of a or mi bef words beginning with an aspirated ht The rule commonly given is this: that when the accent <>n the word thus be- ginning is on the first syllable, we must ase a ■• when it is on the second or any following syllable, we maynse <»». This i mable enough, because the first syllable, by losing it- accent, also Loses some portion of the strength of aspiration. We cannot aspirate with the same strength the first syllables in the words history and historian, and in consequence, we commonly aay a history ; but an his* 84. Still, though ili is may define our modern practice, it is rather s reasonable description "fit. than a rule recognised by our best writers. They do not scruple to use as before aspirated words, even when th<' accent falls on the first syllable. En the course of an examination through the letter /< in the Concordance, verified by the text inallpasss which seemed doubtful, I have found in the English Version of the Bible very few instances of the article a used before a word beginning with /'. We have anhalf, anhammer, on hand, hi i high hand, an handmaid, an harp, an haven,an id, an /"•'/'. "// heart, an hedge an helmet, an /"//', an herdsman, an heretic, an heritage, an hill, an lm host, an house, an hundred, as husband, as hymn, mi hypocrite. The only exceptions which 1 have found are, a hill, .!<>sh. xxiv. 88: a holy solemnity, I-.i. rxx. 29. So that the surprise of a com • indent at Archbishop Trench's having written "" / was hardly justified I •!" n«.t, <>t course, m< an to say that the usage of the translators of the Bible should be our rule now : but in the ab eneral fixed rule, we hardly find fault with writers who choose to follow widely prevalent, and still kepi before th.- >lic in the Boob most read of all I ■•>■ -k s. [ must just PRONUNCIATION. 35 remark, that the fact, that we are more particular about this matter thau our ancestors were, seems to shew that, notwithstanding the very common vulgarism of dropping the aspirated h, the tendency of modern times has been rather to aspirate more, than less. 85. " Such an one." — A correspondent questions the propriety of the common use of "an" before "one," in the phrase " such an one." I bring this forward not with any idea of deciding it, but because in my examination of the usage of our translators of the Bible, a curious circum- stance has come to li^ht. Thev unifonnlv used "such a one," the expression occurring about thirteen times. In the New Testament, the printers have altered it through- out to " such an one : " in the Old Testament, they have as uniformly left it as it was. It seems to me that we may now, in writing, use either. In common talk, I should always naturally say "such a one," not "such an one," which would sound formal and stilted. 86. An " ear," " a year." — A correspondent enquires how the indefinite article should be expressed before the words ear, year. Here is just one of the instances in which the distinction between " a " and " an" is valuable. By always saying " an ear," "a year" we ensure at all events that something like the right pronunciation of b< >1 h words should be heard. 87. Only one hen in Venice. — A student at one of our military academies had copied a drawing of a scene in Venice, and in writing the title, had spelt the name of the city Vennice. The drawing master put his pen through the superfluous letter, observing, "Don't you know, sir. there is but one hen in Venice?" On which the youth burst out laughing. Being asked what he was laughing about, he replied he was thinking how uncommonly scarce eggs must be there. The master, in wrath, reported him to the colonel in command, a Scotchman. He, on hearing the disrespectful reply, without in the least perceiving the point of the joke, observed, "An a varra naatural obser- vaation too." 88. " Idear," &c. — A worse fault even than dropping the aspirate, is the Bounding words ending \sith a or aw, as if they ended with ar. A correspondent, accustomed 36 THE QUEEN*8 ENGLISH. apparently to attend the Souses of Parliament, sm.ls me >ng remonstrance againsi ibis practice. Ee s "Woe betide any unfortunate member if he strews the it with 'ditches': the laughter is open and mercilec 1 -ui honourable members may talk of the'lawrr' <'t" the land, or 'scaum the idear,' with perfecl impunitj. One <>t" the greatest offenders in i his matter is a well-known opposition speaker whom I Bhall not name. The startling . in which he brings out idear is enough to make the hair of any one bu1 a well-seasoned Cockney Btand on end.*' My correspondent goes on to • is a great Btumbling-block to peop le with this failing, bo- oing of course in their mouths Amelia ran. I remember once seeing a little elementary trad on French pronuncia- tion, in which, opposite the French k, was phi l ur, by way of indicating t-> British youth the pronunciation thereof. I showed the curiosity t" several Londoners, but they could nol be made t.> >.■.■ the point <>t' the joke." Calling •• u " "oo," — There i> a very offensive vulgarism, most common in the midland counties, bu1 found more or less almost everywhere: giving what Bhould be th-' Bound "f the u in certain words, a- if it were oo; calling " duty," dooty; "Tuesday," Toosday; reading to us that "the clouds drop down the doo;" exhorting ui •• dooly to <1<> the dooties that are d <•> from us ; " asking to i be " noospapt r." And this is no1 I rom incapacitv t.. inter the sound; for though many of thi {•pie call /" "■," noo, i ne ever yet called "/< w,' _• nit it arises from defective education, or from gt 90. "Heritor" — " curator." -A Scottish correspon- dent, speaking <>f some u prevalent in the north, "'Heritor,' proprietor <>f landed property, is mi commonh pronounced ' eritor,' which is manif< jtly incon- tent with 'heritage' 'hereditary, 1 Ac., in which theaspi- given, [n our Scottish courts of law, we made on the ' d' oev< d i bul in other than law uses the word is always accented on the first syllable. This reminds me of another term in • Curat /-.' pronounced curator, in violation, tainly, of the Latin analogy, it ii told of i witty PRONUNCIATION. 37 Scottish counsel, that when pleading before the House of Lords, being corrected by one of their lordships for his false quantity in the pronunciation of this word, he replied, with a profound bow, that he must submit to the authority of so learned a senator, and so eloquent an orator." 91. " Decanal," &c. — In one letter sent to me, fault is found with the pronunciations "decanal," " ruri-decanal," " optative," on the ground that it is the genius of our language always to throw back the accent to the first syllable of a tri-syllabic word, as in " sen tit or," " or tit or," " minister." In such a case, custom is our only guide. It is not to be thought that, because we say " send tor," " ortilor" " minister" Ave have any objection to tri-syllabic words with the accent on the penultima ; we have hundreds of them: witness "objector," "protector," "reflector," " assertor," &c. So that no rule can be laid down, except the "normei loquendi." Think of " disputer" and "dis- putant !" 92. Manifold. — A correspondent asks for a comment on the pronunciation of the word " manifold." He thinks that we lose the idea of its original composition by calling it, as we generally do, " mannifold" and that it ought to be called "many-fold" as if it were two words. My reply would be, that the end proposed is a praiseworthy one, but I am afraid it will not justify the means used in attaining it — viz., the violation of common usage, which has stamped " mannifold " with its approval. It may be that the mispronunciation first originated in the apparent analogy with " manifest." I would remind him, that this is not the only word which Buffers change of pronunciation when compounded. We call a "vine-yard" "vinyard:" the man would be deservedly set down as a pedant who should do otherwise. We call a "cup-board" a "cub- bard" a "half-penny " a " haepny," and we similarly con- tract many other compound words. The great rule, I take it, in all such cases of conventional departure from the pronunciation of words as spelt, is to do nothing which 1 an attract attention. We naturally think somewhat less favourably than we otherwise should of a person who Bays "vic-tu-al" when the rest of the world Baj "vitlali" 38 TEE QUEEN* 8 EEGLJ8B. "med-ucine" when others Bay "medfcint ;*' "ve-ni+on" where we thought \\<- Bhould hear "wnW We '"m- inonly exped thai inch a man will be strong-willed, and hard to deal with in ordinary life : and I think we are not ii wrong. •■ Prophecy." — A oorrespondenl complains of the stress laid on the final syllable of the substantive prophecy: and t, ■• What Bhould \\<' think of ecstasy, fallacy, phantasy, especially if put in the plural?" J5ut in this case, usa is right, ana apparent analogy wrong. E ttasy, as we have already :-< " polar ridge." But I have received an interesting testimony from Dr. Goddard I: 1 1 linn in ir the settlement <>i the pronunciation given above. "Cowper," he Bays, "not only decided the matter by 'making his nam.' rhyme to trooper; 1 but in conversation always 1 egged his friends to call him Cooper. I have this from a very old gentleman whom 1 attended in his last illness. II. • was Thomas Palmer Bull, son ><( Cowper's friend, 'smoke-inhaling Dull.' an. 1 had himself :-.l the poel make the remark." 1<><>. ■• Cucumber." — Another word also brings into question the "coo" and " but without any such chance •■!' a settlement. It is the agreeable hut somewhal indigestible gourd Bpelt c-w-c-tt-m-6-e-r. Is it t.. be coo- cumber r coir-cumber f or hew cumber? The point is < warmly debated : bo warmly in certain circles, that when 1 had a house lull ..f pupils, we were driven t.> legislation on it, merely t" keep the peace of the hou ehold. Wnen< the unfortunate word occurred at table, which was ah.. every .lay during the Bummer months, in- variably Bet in. At Last we abated the nuisance bj ens ingtbal in future the first syllable should be dropped, and the article be called for under the undebateable name of mbi r." Perl I tin ■. tin' str I claim mighl I •• el up for kew, or Q-cumber: Beeing that the I. Mi nam.', <•».■ - n har-lh h\ English lips be "tl m i e pronounced. 101. -Revenue" and "Trafal It v. ill. supi : Led \\ het b( r we are I pnue or '1 he Latter is hardly possible in PRONUNCIATION. 41 tions ; e.g., in that of "revenue cutter." Trafalgar and Trafalgar again, will, we suppose, both hold their ground. But, inasmuch as it is not easy to pronounce Trafalgar Square, the other pronunciation has a fair chance of becoming universal. 102. " -ough." — It were hardly to be expected that a writer on pronunciation could escape questioning on that crux Anglorum the -ough. "Should the word 'hough' be pronounced huff, hoff, hoe, hoo, or how? " This puts one in mind of the amusing " squabble of the vowels " over the title of Lord Houghton, inserted a few years ago in " Notes and Queries." It will at once be seen by enume- rating the various sounds attaching to this combination of letters, how utterly hopeless it must be to lay down any rule, and how necessary to ascertain the prescriptions of usage. n , i we have the sound of off. trough I uff. oe. rough enough chough sough dough though plough ,, ,, ow. through ,, ,, oo. The general practice, I believe, is to pronounce " hough " as if it were huff. I have heard a clergyman read " He hoffed their horses," but " He huffed " is more usual. 103. Mis-pronunciation of Scripture names. — I cannot abstain from saying a few words on the mispro- nunciation of Scripture proper names by our clergy. '.1 his. let me remind them, is quite inexcusable. It shows a dis- regard and absence of pains in a matter, about the I part of which no pains ought to be Bpared. To lake it on no other ground, is it justifiable in them to allow them- selves to offend by their ignorance or carelessness the ears of the most intelligenl of their hearers? This was nol the spirit of one who said lie would not eat meat while the world lasted, if it scandalised his neighbour. J'>ut this is not all. When I hear a man flounder about among St. 42 THE <>r/: /:\-s ENGLISH. Paul's salutations, nulling half of them wrongly, I am sun that that man does n<>t know his Bible. Tin- same care- less] ess is sure to show it s.lt" in misappropriation of b wrong understanding of obsolete phrases, and the like. The man who talks of Aristobulus in the Lesson, is as likely as nol t«> preach from St. Paul's " I know nothing 1'V myself/' t>> Bhow us thai the Apostle wanted divine teaching, and nol to I"- aware thai he meant, hewae eoneeiout of any fault. 1 1" !. Examples. — Three Sundays before this was written, Jan. Is, l*i::'.. we had the crucial chapter, Rom. wi.. for the evening lesson. A friend writes t>> me from a distanl city in Italy: "In tin- afternoon a Btran officiated; bul as he Baluted ^Myncritua and Patrdbas, I knew what to expecl in the Bermon, and bo it wi Another writes from London, thai he was on thai day at a fashionable London church, and heard Epen&tus and Patrdbas introduced i > » the congregation, A clergyman in the V\ England found on his breakfast-table one Bionday morning a note from his congregation to this effect : — To '!. now Steph&naa ; ' This misconception, sir, doth pain u^ i For it i-< Stephanas we know, Ami bog that yon will call him bo." - A friend "f mine heard the- following in a London church, and, strati ly, from a schoolmaster: — "Trophlmus have 1 lefl at MilStum Bick." Bui il perhaps may be said to mo, with the beautiful inconsequence <'t' the logic <■(' the presenl day. Is a man a perfed Christian minister, because he knows how to pronounce these names: To which I K answer, "No, bj do means; bul he is, at all r t.i il a if he did nol know how to pronounce them." 1 Boa the text I raph itt bi low. • I have bad :i very amusing letter, written auonymously, from tlio clergyman In the VI nd to whom tin snt. II'- i to a rat hi r enrioni ooncl m tl e lei t i f my hai told the tie infere thai I wdi i • ent, and tliol I made the \'i A i may tx my on mmunicating \\ali liim, lot i him th ! oroly tell the tale as 'twas told PRO NUN CI A TION. 4,3 105. "Johnny Stittle." — I am put in mind, by this question, of "Johnny Stittle," a redoubtable preacher who used to hold forth at Cambridge, in a chapel in Green Street. The tradition of him and his sayings was yet a living thing, when I went up as an undergraduate in 1828. His wont was to rail at the studies of the University ; and in doing so on one occasion, after having wound himself up to the requisite pitch of fervour, he exclaimed, in a voir,' of thunder, " D'ye think Povl knew Greek ? " ' 106. A writer in a now extinct newspaper adds the fol- lowing to many instances of mispronunciation of Scripture proper names. " Too well do I remember the city of Colossi pronounced Coloss, as if it were a word of only two syllables ; the ejxistle to Philemon, 'the gainsaying of Core' (one syllable), betraying that the speaker had no concep- tion he was talking of the person who in the lGth chapter of Numbers is designated ' Korah.' An informant, whom I well know, heard the name of the returned slave in St. 1 I have had two interesting communications from Cambridge, giving accurate details respecting " Johnny Stittle." He is mentioned in the Rev. Abner Brown's " Recollections of Rev. (lias. Simeon," Introduction, p. xiii., where he is described as a " day labourer,"' and it is said that Mr. Simeon thought well enough of him to encourage him by pecuniary assistance. In a memoir of Rowland Hill, by Mr. Jones, are the following notices of Stittle : — " During Mr. Hill's residence at Cambridge he was much attached to •Johnny Stittle,' one of Mr. Berridge'a converts. He was naturally a gifted man, though, like his patron, he moved in his own orbit, lie preached for many years in Green Street, Cambridge, and died in 1813, in his 87th year. "As Mr. Hill was on his way to Duxford to preach fur the .Mis- sionary Society, he suddenly exclaimed, ' I must go to Cambridge, and see the widow of an old clergyman who is living there, fur I have a message to leave with her.' On being asked if the message was im- portant, he replied, ' Yes, sir, I want the old lady— who will sunn lie in heaven — to give my love to Johnny Stittle, and to tell him I shall ion see him a^ain.' " Another correspondent says, " I am old enough to remember, and to have actually heard. Johnny Stittle at Cambridge. lie compared eternity, in one of his sermons, to a great clock, which said 'tick' in one century, and 'tack' in the next. Then suddenly turning t<> some gownsmen, he said, ' Xow go home, and calculate the length of the pendulum.' " One must acknowledge that if there was eccentricity here, there was something very like genius also, .} t 77//: QUEEN'S ENGLISH. r nl'i Epistle to Philemon, read, 'One (monosyllable) Simus, 1 instead of Oneaimus." I have also :i complaint of a clergyman \\h>> insists on always Baying ••.l' ; . and an anecdote of ;i remark being made, how well the Vi nil'- > i ult\ mtu was chanted. 107. Samaria and Philadelphia. — A correspondent requests me to endeavour to corre< i the very common mis- pronuo . into the proper sound, Tin - thd-us. < »ii the other hand, one of my Censors exprei a hope thai . ! o strongly adi our following the - in the pronunciation of their proper names, 1 shall be col and never again, in r. ading the Lessons, call those ancienl cities, Samaria and Philadelphia, othem than Samaria and Philadelphia. The answer to this is very simple— viz., thai 1 >\<> ao1 advocate the following of the Greeks in the pronunciation of their proper names, in any case v. here English usage has departed from their | nunciation. It is in cases where there is n<> such usa and where the reader is thrown back on whal oughl to be lus own knowledge of the form and composition of the name, thai we are pained at discovering thai one who oughl to be able rightly to > Bhorten the I syllable bu1 one, in those nam< - of cities which in < : r> ended in la. Alexandria is novi called Alexai leucta, Sel imaria and Philadelphia, Samat and Philadelphia. Bui uo Buch usage infringes the prop r G pronunciation of "EpamHus, Aeyncrltue, Patrtib .! and the like. < >f cour e, im- mutable. We i ZabttUm, bul the day may come when the Btricter Bcholars may have overborne common and ay ZabuUm, which is right according to the Hebrew and the Greek. Wen Sennachtrib ; and i hat a correspondenl w rites in strong ten the Btrictly accurate pronuni a blunder. V. hen I i ol,tl e a pra< '. t . pronounce the name- of two ol the PB0NUXCIAT10X. 45 Greek letters, as " Epeilon" and " Omtcron : " now, such sounds are unknown in schools, and the right pronuncia- tion, " Epsllon " and " Omzcron" is universal. 109. " Inimical." — One word, in which the proper classical pronunciation has gradually overborne the con- ventional, is inimical. Our forefathers called this inimical ; but no one would venture on such a pronunciation now ; all the world says inimical. 110. Urbane. — Tlnee correspondents have written about another Scripture name. It is that of a person saluted in Eom. xvi. 9, and in our present Bibles sjielt TJ-r-b-a-n-e. The common idea respecting this name is that it belongs to a woman, and most readers pronounce it as three syllables, Urbane. But it is simply the English for the Latin name Urbanus, in English Urbane, or, as we now call it, Urban. We have not forgotten " Sylvanue Urban," the Editor of " The Gentleman's Magazine " in its good old times. The royal printers, who have made so many unauthorised alterations in the text of our Bibles, might with advantage drop out the final " e " from this word, and thus prevent the possibility of confusion. 111. Junias. — I may mention that in verse 7 of the same chapter, Junia (so in our Authorised Version), who is mentioned with Andronicus, is not a woman, but a man, Junias. 112. Covetous. — While treating of the pronunciation of those who minister in public, three other words occur to me which are very commonly mangled by our clergy. One of these is " covetous" and its substantive " covetous- ness." I hope that some of my clerical readers will be in- duced to leave off pronouncing them " covetious," and " covetiousness." I can assure them, that when they do thus call theAvords, one at least of their hearers has his appreciation of their teaching disturbed. 113. A second injured word is the adverb " whoUy." It is not uncommon to hear in the Communion Service. " submitting ourselves holy to His holy will and pleasure." " Wholly" a\' fact, prevailed in even to the alteration of our conventional Uing. What was once " battail," then •• battt I." has now becom< "battle;" "chattail," or "chattel," has become "cattle ;" "eubtile," or"tubtU," has become "subtle;" '." or "eaetel" has i.e. .me "cattle." The word "devil" is Ear more frequently pronounced " d\ wle" than "de-viU;" indeed, tliis latter pronunciation, in the mouth of an affected precisian, is offensive. Q 1 taste, and the observance of usage, must in Buch matters beourguidi 116. A correspondeni enquired about the pronunciation ..f oatie. [s it to 1 leief A search among classic authorities resulted in favour* ; l.ut custom in our own language has. I think, sanctioned the reader may take hi- choice. 117. Criticism in a newspaper. — A very curious and choice hit of newspaper criticism on these renuv was sent me. A writer says': "There i-. '•' our mind, mething small, nol to Bay Ludicrous and absurd, about 1 I had remonstrant ring called tliis booh tin- " /.' './>," whereas it is, by ch. i. 1, " ibe Revels! i e wa hare n n of 1 1 1 « - meanini the preposition ; i lerih ui t to bee rding, wen illustrate .i | oint hereafter t • ' I •<(. PR ONUNCIA TIOX. 47 the notion of a dignitary of the Church of England con- stituting himself the censor and reporter of small slips of pronunciation, such as Sophcenetus for SophcenUus, and the like. We should think none the worse of a man for tripping once, or even twice, in those long Pauline lists of salutations. Not to trip at all would, except in the case of practised and familiar scholars, suggest to us the notion that rather more pains and time had been be- stowed upon the matter than it deserved." 118. Where this critic found the name Sophametus among the Pauline salutations, I am at a loss to say : at all events it shows that he practised his own advice, and had not bestowed more time or pains on the matter than it deserved. 1 119. But it is his docrine, that in knowledge of the pro- prieties of these minute points in Scripture, inaccuracy is better than accuracy, that I would especially hold up for reprobation. Very little time or pains is really re- quired in the matter. Every clergyman is, or ought to be, familiar with his Greek Testament ; two minutes' reference to that will show him how every one of these names ought to be pronounced. If he is in the practice of regular reading in the original, he will not want even this two minutes' reference. And those who cannot refer to the original will be kept right without any pains at all, if the clergy are right ; for they will simply follow their leaders. Surely this doctrine of the writer in the newspaper cannot represent the general opinion among those bodies who have of late years been making such remarkable advance in the accurate study of the original text of the Scriptures. and have by the results of the training in some of their admirable colleges done so much for the credit of biblical scholarship in England. 120. For my own part, I was disposed to put together 1 The blunder was rather amusingly defended thus: '-We acci- dentally substituted for the less known Epeenetus what is to the classical scholar the more familiar and analogously formed name Sophsenelna/ 1 Now ;is regards the classical scholar, — Epeenetus, the writer on cookery, is about as often mentioned in A.thena?us, as Sophaenctus in Xenophom and the matter in question being 8t. Paul's li. 43 THE QUEE2P8 EXGLI8H. this critique and :i letter which I received from a friend, ing thai he had heard a person, nol a clergyman, read ArdOnu and Orion and the Pleiadee. I could not help imagining thai I had bracked my critic tripping t "■;■■. n man in what I daresay he believes to be b >me more of these Pauline Balutations. L21. Serious accompaniments of ignorance in this matter. — The really serious aspect of the matter comes before us when we bear what my friend a hope much for his power of rightly divining the word of truth. That it mav j-h-asi- Him who is the fountain <'t" wisdom, to make exceptional and to endow even ignoranl men with insighl into the meaning of His word, no one would deny; still, it is not our business t" take Buch exceptions tor granted, hut rather to take for granted Sis ordinary course of proceed* ingon our part, and to provide for its su ay. Ee who feela this, will uol think correctness even in I Lists of Pauline Balutations a trifling matter. l-!_'. Pronunciation of "-6d." — A word aboul a prac- tice very common \\ ith cur clergy : the pronouncing of the full -'t the " weak " pasi tenses of verba. Is it nol full time to Leave ofl this pedantry? The < made for it, i E course, is thai it puts a differ* oce b< tween solemn utterance in church or anywhere "t" divine thin and our ordinary talk. Bui it is for this very reason thai I desire to challenge it. There are jusl ten times too many differeno between these two things; and by their means it is thai we are enabled to wrap up in napkins and to bun n\ of the matters thai dearly concern us. Archbishop Longley. [remember, when Arch- op Longley, after his enthronement on a Friday, spent PRONUNCIATION. — . 49 SdlSM S^*t?S te, r, — of relief g over „ h s: ^^.Maftst-ss?*- afraid that when I hear ti 10 rt +i *T But * am •he outer co u " t *£ £? "* 8 ° eS U " from " How carefully you J rS^p. the P ° or «**«■■* the M°;SS C : t( ^^tlC Mmd ' Id » ■* 8"^ rl.ytlimic.nl imnoune u^ ThL 8 % ° r m an 7 strictly When talking of fi^Sfa! ™ W cler ^' mei1 who, does,^„ 4; ; t7 1 S ou T e lfc as a11 the ™ rid An American friend who wnTf ^7? »J *«w^ this in our cathedTa TnS , ^^ With me Iiad heard have thongntTaiC^n^ t 5 ffi*fi» t f J' 1 ; 1 " " t0 + ° ab r d t0 be ««** visin it, as if the read; £ ,- r '?' ^ V 1IaWfl *** a But I do not suppose one zn n If ^^ S ° hmn dut ^ this. P1 ° ne m a thousand has courage fur thi 27 thcrf ^vo\ d olt C \7r°i ""W * wiU b0 ^crstood nounces full su C l V,? * ^ ' ' * eneral us ^° P">- form, unless C arfsimX ' ??f (m ^ P**" ordinary rule and dront ] ' P ~ ^J*' ^ foUow the ana aroptheire). It would be mere pedantry, 50 THE QUEEN* - ENGLISH in reading Gen. \iv. L9, because we Bay, in the former part of tin.' rerse, " And he ble$$*d him,*' to insist on oontinning, "and said, /■' fdbt Abram." As we drop the* according to usage in the form* >unce it according to nsage in the latter. 128. "Heron." — A correspondent is Scotland writes that an English friend questions the correctness of pro- nouncing A- '■"/< as a word of two syllables, and affirms that tli.- usage in the south is to pronounce the word as though spelt hvrn. And he enquires, — 1. whether, under both forms of spelling, the word is pronounced as of one syllable; L\ whether when Bpelt and pronounced /<ns of common readings. I ma; an instance Doxra Hon, often made with some confidence, of :i word in the famous passage in Shaki "Tempe t," beginning, "The cloud-cap! towers." V- imonly read in the modern editions, " And, like the baseless fabric of a \ ision, leave not a wreck behind." No, Bays the corrector, nol wreck, hui rack', rack b ing thin floating vapour, such is seen on the blue sky before a change of weather. Now the original word, it is true, is wrack, but there is every probability thai by this Shakspeare meant wreck, not float- ing vapour. Two reasons may be given for this opini< 1. In this \> >ry play, he calls the wreck of a ship by the nam.' wrack: "The direful Bpectacle of the wrack, which touched the very virtue of compassion in thee;" and in "Measure for Measure" (ad iii. bc. i.), "her brother Frederick was wracked a1 2. The word rack, in the sense of the thin cloud spread over the blue sky. is never [>t with the definite article, " the rack?' Tims in •• Samlet, " We ofb againsl Borne Btorm, a silence in the heavens, the rack stand still." And Bacon, in his •• Natural Elistor i, " the clouds above, which we '-all •the rack.'" in all other examples given in the dic- tionaries, the same is tin- case-, ami it would appear as contrary to usage t.> Bay " - it would !"■ t" " a north," or " a nenith." This bein) re have no re- source hut 1.. face the corrector boldly, and to maintain that "leave nol a wrack behind," means, leave not behind so much hi]) when she has broken op,— nol even a spar !•> be remembered by. 184. Emphatic reading: "princess." — A question been a ked, naturally enough, at the present time, about the pronunciation ox princes*. It appears that many .•t' our best speakers and readers say pnnciie; hut my c^n-c pondent thinks that the tendency of moder luca- tion i- i" call it i I think, and hope it will he felt, that modern education, as against the speakers ami read lit to prevail. The other pronunciation ha~.it seem me, ari en mainly from that foe to good reading, emphatic' antithesis. I hold the rule for all good reading to he, wlmn two ten dfically distinguished occur together, let is laid, in the a' f any Bp CU\] fl - PRONUNCIATION. 53 quireinents of the context, be on that which they have in common, not on that in which they differ. Thus, " the prince and princess," not " the prince and princess." 135. Thus we heard one speak of " the French Emprer and his Empress;" and thus might it be said that an Indian officer had a tiger eaten by a tigress. 136. And the same emphatic reading gives rise to offence in regard to matters of a more solemn import. We not unfrequontly hear in church such emphases as " Give us this day our daily bread; and forgive us oiu- trespasses:" "Malcer of all things, Judge of ail men." This last is a sad descent from the sublime address to Him who is " all in all." 137. The very pronunciation which we are blaming pro- bably took its rise in church: — "Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, the Princess of Wales," &c. 138. While these sheets are in the press, a correspondent has written to ask whether the in among and amongst should be sounded as in belong, or as u in sung. He is aware that the latter is the general pronunciation, but ven- tures to think it is not the correct one. The case seems to be one in which usage must rule. The sounds of the English vowels are not so fixed that we can found upon them any law applicable to a particular case, as against common practice. Even if among and amongst required justification by precedent, the pronunciation of the in toncjue, one, and done might be cited to bear it out. OHAPTEB IV. IDIOM AND CONSTRl T CTI' 189. Usage and construction. — 1 now come to that which must form a principal pari <>t" my work,- -considera- • .1 of 1 1 1« usage of words and construction of sentcm And lei me repeat, in order to prevenl mistakes, thai my objecl in these notes is no1 to lay down nor to exemplify mere rule rammar,— though of course the considera- ich rules musi often come before us,— bul to illustrate the usages and tendencies of our common lan- guage, as matter of fact, by the discussion <>t' «pi<'st i arising oul <>f doubtful words and phrases. Oih' of the mosi interesting subjects connected with a language is its tendencies: the currents, so to speak, which Bet in for or againsi certain modes of speech or thought. These are to ]„■ discovered in nil languages, and in none more notably than our own. We are a mixed race, and our tongue rw, here bears traces of the fact. We have gone through iii'Tr crises of religious and ]»>liii<;il Btrife than mosi nations, and thoughl and speech have ever been freer in England than in other countries. Prom these, and from other circumstances, the English language has become more idiomatic than mosi others; and the tendency i^ *till going on among us, to set ;i-i'!.- accurate grammatical construction, and i" Bpeak rather according to idiom than to rule. 140. Idiom. The word "uliom" is derived from the Greek, and properly signifies a tlii<- or habil peculiar t.» • •ii'- ]■• trson or Bel "t persons, and forming an exception to aeral rulea Our • •!' the term has confined this meaning in English to matters of language, Winn speak "t an idiom, we mean om< me wai "i i • uliar t" some one languag family of lan< guages, which can onlj tx accounted for bj the pecul IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 55 tendency, or habit of thought, of those who use it. When we say that a phrase is idiomatic, we mean that it bears this character. 141. Now let us see to what this amounts. Such ex- pressions, if judged by strict rules, will commonly fail to satisfy them. In so far as they are idiomatic, they are de- partures from the beaten track of that grammatical con- struction, and that characteristic analogy, which are common to all languages. For the rules of grammar and of logic, being dependent not on local usage, but on the constitution of the human mind, are common to all nations. And when any nation sets up, so to speak, for itself, and indulges in the peculiarities which we call idioms, it takes a course which these general rules do not justify. 142. Idiomatic mode of address. — Let us show this by some examples. It is the habit of modern European nations to avoid the second person singular in addressing individuals. Some languages use the second person plural instead : some the third person. The English, the French, and others, say "you" for "thou:" the Germans, and those cognate to them, say " they" for " thou : " the Italians, still more strangely, say " she," meaning " your excellency." These are the idioms or idiomatic usages of these languages respectively. Every one speaking any of those languages must use the idiomatic expression, or he will render him- self ridiculous. 1 1 Nay, the consequences may sometimes be much more serious. A correspondent sends me the following story: " My friend, a student in the University of Heidelberg, acquired his first knowledge of German chiefly by colloquial exercise with his fellow-students, who habitually addressed each other in the second person singular. ' thi.' Having thus acquired enough of the language to blunder through a conversation, he was present at a party, where he danced with the sister of one of his fellow-students, ami entertained her with the choicest German at his command, but unfortunately always addressed her :is ' <'".' This (to a German ear) impertinent familiarity was either overheard by, or re- ported to, the young lady's brother, who deemed it imp ssible to wipe out the scandal by any other means than a duel. In vain my friend explained his ignorance of the German conventional mode of address. The offence had been committed in public, and it' the culprit wished to remain at Heidelberg in peace in future, lie must li-lit tie re. They fought accordingly, and the skilful German cleverly inflicted a Blight wound which drew blood; honour was Batisfied, and the affair ended in pipes, friendship, and beer." THE QUEEN' 8 ENGLI8B. 1 13. But, if we judge bucIi expressions l.y strict rules, they cannot 1"' defended. It cannol 1"' correct to addn one person as if he were many: it cannol be correct bo look at and address oi as it' be were not present, and, ent, were more than one. We all know to Hiding we do not criticise and carp at < v. ry such . but simply a ce in it as being the oomn 1 1 1. Elliptic usages. — Let us take another u Borne languaf ZUptic than others : tl the habits of thought cavil at our English sentence, and to treat it as Borne of my sentences have 1 1 treated, might aay, "Bises at Biz and Bets at six! Biz what ! Six mile-, or Biz minutes. «>r t i',ut we '1" not in practice thus cavil, becau are in the en- joyment of commoi . and v. pared, in the daily use of cur langus mil that which the thought will naturally supply. 145. Caprice of idiom.— One more example. En 1 lish, our common mode of salutation t<> one b " How aTyt u of course we all understand, that in Ihi^ pi • the vcrl) •' do " iii B in the i which it bears in the reply of the discipL I "I. ird, if 1 , h( ball 'I" well." But suppose b person were to insist on thi being ■ried throughout our conv< rse, and t" make it an • tion to the question " H o cPyedo?" tl: cannot in the same I went to \ or !:. and he did well." We should at once reply, iugh.1 on the matter, that while the verb admits of being thus used in certain tenses, and in certai onexions, it does not admit of being thus used in certain other l< md in <-t: her connexions : and thai the account to be aiv< u of this IDIOM AND COXSTRUCTIOX. 57 is, that the English people will have it so : it is au idiom, or arbitrary usage, of their language. 146. The capricious character of idiomatic usage is ad- mirably illustrated by this very example. For though it is admissible to say, " I went to see A or B, and he was doing very well," the words would not carry [the sense, that I was able to say to him " How d'ye do ? " and he to reply, " Very well, thank you;" but would convey the impression that he had lately met with an accident or had been lately ill, and was going on favourably. 147. Example from the Greek. — I want yet one more example for the purpose I have in view, and I will take it from a dead language. In the Greek, — which is perhaps the finest and most subtle vehicle ever formed for human thought, — it is the practice to join a plural noun of the neuter gender to a verb in the singular number. Now, of course, according to the rules of universal grammar, this is wrong. A plural noun should be joined to a plural verb. But the Greek had his reason, and a very good one it was. He felt, that things without life, when spoken of in the plural, formed but one mass, and might be treated as one thing. And so the tendency of the national thought, which was to define and to express the subtle distinctions of thought, prevailed over the rule of grammar, and the usage became idiomatic. 148. Spoken and written English.— Let another thing also be remembered. We must distinguish between the English which we speak, and that which we write. Many expressions are not only tolerated but required in conversation, which are not usually put on paper. Thus, for instance, everyone says "can't" ioT cannot, " won't" for vill not, " isn't " for is not, in conversation ; but we seldom see these contractions in books, except where a conversation is related. This is a difference which the foreigner is rallv slow in apprehending. He says, "I vill not," "I amnot," "I must not" "I shall not:" "1 am," for u Tm,""they are," for "they're:" and he often may be detected by Ins precision in these matters, even after he has mastered the pronunciation and construction of our language, This difference between our Bpoken and our written language should alwavsbe borne in mind, when we 58 THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH. treating of expressions commonly found in colloquial English. Many persons, in judging <>f them, bring them to the test of the stricter rule of written composition, to which they are not fairly amenable. 1 l:». •• Those kind of things." — Let me farther illus- trate this tendency of nations by another usage now almost ome idiomatic, and commonly found in the talk of us all. I in. an the expression "these " or " those hindofthii ■:>." At first Bight, tins Beems incorrect ami indefensible. I' would appear as it* we ought i" Bay " this hind of things," " that I of thi It becomes then an interesting inquiry', as it was in th«- other case, why this should l»' bo. And here again my readers must excuse me if I go to a dead language for my illustration -not for my reason: the reason will be found in the laws of thought: but it will be 1 • -t illustrated by citing the usage of that language in which, more than in any other, the laws of thought have found their expression. I. ■• Attraction." — In the Greet language, there is an idiomatic usage called attraction. It may be thus d ribed. It' an important noun in a sentence is in a cer- tain c se, Bay the genitive or dative, a relative pronoun referring to it is put in the Bame case, though by the con- struction of the sentence it ought to be in another. Thus, if I wanted to put into Greek the sentence, ••/;/"/•-■ ii i>> the man whom f saw" the relative pronoun "whom*' would uol be in 'In' accusative case, as it ought to be, gov* n by the verb "saw," but in the same case as •• man," \i/., dative, and the sentence would be roughly repress nted, as the mere form of it is concerned, by the English " / gave it l" //"• )/"///, /" whom I saw" 151. N" in tip- way of Bpeaking of which I treat, it is evident that this Bame tendency, to draw tin' less impor- tant word into similarity to the more important on.', i- 1 to prevail over strid grammatical exactness. W • are speaking of "things" in th.- plural. Our pronoun "this real!) ha- reference to " kind," not to " things : " lmt the fact ot"things" I'm- plural plural com- plexion to the whole, and we are tempted to put"Mt»" int.. the plural. That tin-, is th.- account to be appei i till l ore plainly from the fad that not unfxc* IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 59 qucntly we find a rival attraction prevails, and the clause takes a singular complexion from the other substantive, " hind." We often hear people say, " this kind of thing," "that sort of thing:' It must he confessed that the phrases, " this land of things:' " that sort of things," have a very awkward sound ; and we find that our best writers have the popular expression, These hind, those sort. Thus we have in Shakspeare, " King Lear," (act ii. sc. 2) : " These kind of knaves I know." " Twelfth Night," (act i. sc. 5) : " That crow so at these kind of fools." " Othello," (act iii. sc. 3) : " Tliere are a kind of men so loose in soul." In Pope : "The next objection is, that these sort of authors are poor." Examples are also stated to occur in Lord Bacon, Swift, and Addison. 152. " This " and " that."— One word on " this " and " that," as we pass onward. " This " and " these " refer to persons and things present, or under immediate considera- tion ; "Unit" and "those" to persons and things not present, or not under immediate consideration ; or if either of these, one degree further removed than the others of which are used",/nV and "these" We find this rule sometimes curiously violated in conversation and in writing. A barrister tells me that the confusion is common in the Irish law courts: "Those arguments I n.>w use," ,Ve. Another Irish correspondent is often greeted with, " That's a could day. yer riv'rence." I have a Scottish friend, who always designates the book which he has in his hand as "thatbook ;" the portfolio of draw- ings which he is turning over as ••///<...■,• drawings." 153. We have this usage in England, hut it carries another meaning. If I have a I k in my hand, and say. "thatbooh will make " great sensation," I mean to remove my own and my hearer's attention from the particular THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH. volume, or even the present consideration of its conit ■■:. and ' • describe it in its general, and as it were historical, ■t on the world. \. The oddesl departure from the common osage of " this " and " ///■'/." which I remember t>> have ol was in a notice which I repeatedly saw, in the Bummerof L863, posted < i six '•//(«//.-•," consecutively in the same sentence. Take tin 1 sentence, ••II-' said, thai the meaning which the report which thai man told him had 1 □ thoughl !•> bearvt more than bad been intended." Bere I have air "that,'* conjunction; and I may express " ^ '\ v "that," demonstrative pronoun; "which," I ' re- lative pronoun; "the report," by "that," dem pronoun; "which" again, by "that," relative pronoun; and then J end with "that man," " thi\ "thate," occurring consecutively: " tie said thai that that that i!i"t that man told him had been thoi mean, was more than 1 been intended." Nay, $ >■• n "thats" mai be us d to- ther, if one of th( m is s mere <-it:iti"n. " I ai rl that t hat ' that,' that thai that that person told me contained, was improperly emphasized." And this use maj be carried even further yel : " I »ert, that that, thai thai 'that,'///-// thai ilmt that person told w tained, im- plied, 1. misundersl 1." 157. Prom this threefold import of the word it some- doI apprehended which "t it^ meanings it 1>. IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 61 in a given sentence. Ps. xc. 4, in the Prayer-book version, runs thus — " A thousand years in Thy sight are but as yesterday, seeing that is past as a watch in the night" Here, of course, that is the demonstrative pronoun, and refers to " yesterday," which has just been spoken of ; ' and it ought, in reading, to have a certain emphasis laid on it. But not unfrequeutly we hear it read in the responses of the congregation, as if it were the conjunc- tion: " Seeing that is past as a watch in the night." I remember having some trouble in curing our choi-isters at Canterburv of singing it thus. 158. "this much,"" that much."— What are we to think of the very common expressions, "this much," ''that much?" We continually hear and read, "This much I know," " Of that much I am certain," and the like. It might be supposed at first sight that this way of speak- ing was indefensible. " Much " is an adjective of quantity, and requires, in order to define it, not a pronoun, but an adverb. We may say very much, pretty much (where "pretty" is \ised in its colloquial adverbial sense of tolerably, moderately), as much, so much, or thus much ; but from such a view it would appear that we must not say "this much," or " that much." Still, may not another view be taken ? High, deep, long, broad, are adjectives of measure ; but we may say a foot high, a yard long, an ell broad. And if we choose to designate with the hand, or otherwise, the measure of a foot, yard, or ell, we may sub- stitute the demonstrative pronoun for the substantive, and Bay with precisely the same construction of the sentence, '• this high" " this long," " that broad." Now, bow is this with " much"? If I may use this and that to point out the extent of length, height, and breadth which I want to indicate, why not also to point out the extent of quantity which I want to indicate r When I say " Of this much I am certain" I indicate, by the pronoun this, something which I am about to state, and which is the extent of my certainty. When 1 say, " That much I km woefor 1 Not, as one correspondent insists, to "a thousand years." The rendering is not exact ; literally, the words stand as in our Bible version, " as yesterday when it is past, and fas] a watch in the niyht.'' But in both cases, the reference is to "yesterday," 62 THE QUEEN'S ENQLI8H, indicate, by the pronoun "that," the piece of intelligence which my Friend supposed to be new to me. Bui it may be replied, 1 mighl have Baid, "Qfthie I am certain, "That I knew before." True: bul then I Bhould ezpn nothing as to the extent of my certainty or previous know* l'-'l^e. I believe both expressions to be correct : not so elegant perhaps as " TAtu much," bul at the Bame time uioiv fitted for colloquial use. 150. " That ill." — There is one us.' of that, which is quite indefensible, and ind 1 is nol found except as a pro- vincialism. I mention it, because sonic might supp that what I have Baid mighl 1»' < - 1 1 * ■• 1 in defence "t' it Like- wise. I mean, when it is used as a qualifying word with adjectives nol denoting extent, and when itself musl be explained by "to that extent." I have heard in the mid- Land and eastern counties, "I was thai ill. thai Ldnot go to work:" "He was that drunk, thai he didn'1 know what he was about ." 160. "Ever so," or "never so?" — Arc we to say ter eo" or"n< ." in expressions Like "be he i (never) so old," and the like? Usage seems divided. In familiar Bpeech we mostly say " ever bo:" iii writing, and especially in the solemn and elevated Btyle, we mostly find " m " We Bay to a troublesome petitioner, " u yon ask mi i much, I won't give it you:" bul we read, " Which refuseth to hear the voice of the charmer, charm he never so wisel Can we give any account of thi W'liat is the difference between the expressions f Because one would think there musl be some difference, when two such words arc concerned, which arc the very opposit one of another. Sentences similarly constructed with tl two words are a^ differenl in meaning as possible. " Bad he ever loved at all," and "Had be never love I at all," are opposite in meaning to one another. And o, o< tualli and literally, are the two which we are now considering ; ' in the generi e tbej both convey the one meani which is intended. This may be made plain as folio? "Be it ever so Large," mean-, "though it attain ever} imaginable degr< e oi size :" "1 <• it n< v. r ,* though there he no imaginable which it does let attain." The former i- inclusively affirmative ; IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 63 the latter is exclusively negative ; and these two amount to the same. 161. "What was," "what was not." — There are some curious phenomena coming under the same head as this last. I may say, "What was my astonishment," and I may say, " What was not my astonishment," and I may convey the same meaning. By the former I mean, " how great was my astonishment ; " by the latter, that no asto- nishment could be greater than mine was. 162. "No" and "yes" the same. — Another corre- spondent mentions a curious fact about negatives and affirmatives. If we were to ash the question, " Had you only the children with you ? " a person south of the Tweed would answer "no," and a person north of the Tweed, "yes," both meaning the same thing — viz., that only the children were there. I think I should myself, though a Southron, answer yes. But there is no doubt that such questions are answered in the two ways when the same meaning is intended to be conveyed. The account to be given of this seems to be, that "only" is "none but." "Had you none but the children with you?'' and the answer is "None," affirming the question. So that the negative form naturally occurs to the mind in framing its answer, and "none" becomes "no." Whereas in the other case this form does not occur to the mind, but simply to affirm the matter inquired of, viz., the having only the children : and the answer is " Even so," or " Yes." 163. "Excuse," "excuse . . not. . ." — "How is it," asks a correspondent, " that, ' excuse my writing more,' and ' excuse my not writing more,' mean the same thing ? " We may answer that the verb " excuse " has two different senses: one being dispense with, and the other, pardon. When a school is called over, the master may excuse (dis- pense with) a certain boy's attendance : or he may excuse (pardon) his non-attendance, This will be at once seen, if we put, as we properly ought, the person as the object to the verb " excuse," as in, "I pray thee have me excused : " the sentence will then stand in the one case, " Excuse me from attendance ; " but in the other, " Excuse me for non- attendance." 16k "Oldest inmate." — In some sentences unobjec- 64 THE QUEEN'S EN0LI8H. tionaMv - cpressed, it is impossible to 1"' rare of the mean- ing. An establishment has been founded fifty jean. A person tells me thai he is "one of its oldest inmato Am I to understand that he is one of the few survivors of those who came to it at or near its first foundation, in which case he may 1"' any age above fifty; or am I to understand that he is at the present moment one <>t' the oldest in age of the inmates there, which might bring his np to between eighty and ninety? In other words, docs the term " oldest" qualify him absolutely, or only as an inmate of that establishment ? It;."). •• Lesser." — The mention of degrees of compari leads me to another point, which I have I [nested to notice l'V more than one correspondent. It is the use /..-•.-•-;• iii certain combinations, instead of less. Are we to stigmatise this as an impropriety, or to regard it idiomatic irregularity which we mu ntent to tolerat It b to me that the latter must be our con Phe usage ia sanctioned by our best writers, and that not here and there, but uniformly. "God made two great lights: the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night." 166. The account to be given of it seems to be somewhat like that which we gave of a former irregularity : that it has arisen originally by the force of attraction to another word, gr> iter, which in Buch sentences \ example, when we have spoken of "the gn iter light," "the light " sounds halting and imperfect ; and the termina- tion er is added to balance the sentence. Sometimes the ii where the other word is i when t "the lesser of two evils:" but still the corn- parison i in the mind, though Dot on the ton) ue. I be too, that it is not only the Bound of the one word •• greati r," which is usually the companion of "I but that of almosl every other comparative in the langua which has produced the effect ; for they are almost without eption dissyllable ft is a ut is " remplir la place," " to fill the place," and thus has for its proper meaning thai which it is now attempted to give the English word replace. Lord Derby went out of office, and was " remplac ." i.e., his pi was filled, by Lord Palmerston; bnt h<- was not replaced, i.e., put back again, by his rival. 173. " Enclosure." — The "enclosure " of a letter, n hat is it ? Is it that which encloses the letter, viz., the envelop or is it something enclosed in the letter, as a dried flower, or a loek of hair': or is it something enclosed with the Letter, as another letter of the Bame size, or a map or plan of a /•■': 1 74. Strictly speaking, 1 suppose the noun is an abstract one, signifying the ad of enclosing, as •>< means the act of exposing. In this sense we might Baj "th< wi of letters in envelopes, before the penny postage w kb- lished, incurred the payment of double postage." Then, when we pa - from the abstrat I to the concrete use of the word, i.e., use it to signify not the act of enclosing, but something which is the instrument, or object, or result of that act, the question arises, ought it to Bignify the thii i nclosing, or the thing i nclost df There are examples both ways. Oinctvn is properly the act of girding. A cinctu is the thing which girds, not the thing which is girded. But, on the other hand,'/ fissure is the rifl produced by cleaving, not the thing which cleaves it. Audi'' , in IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 67 Italian, is inscribed over that part of a cloister which is strictly shut. There seems no reason why enclosure may not be used in both senses, that which encloses, and that which is enclosed. We may say of sheep in a fold, " the flock was all within the enclosure," meaning, within the hurdles surrounding the square ; or we may say that " the flock occupied the whole of the enclosure," meaning the whole of the square enclosed. In the case in question, usage seems to have fixed the meaning in the latter of these two senses, viz., the thing enclosed. An envelope is not said to be the enclosure of the letter, but the letter is said to be the enclosure of the envelope. If I write to the Committee of Council on Education, I receive printed direc- tions as to our correspondence, the first of which is, " Every letter containing enclosures should enumerate them specifically." 175. Clearly however, in strict propriety, the word ought to apply to matter enclosed in, and not merely with, the letter. But when this is departed from, when we write on a sheet of note-paper, and speak of a drawing three times its size as the enclosed, or the enclosure of this letter, we may say that we are using the word letter in its wider sense, as meaning the envelope as it is received unopened from the post. 176. A curious extension of this licence is sometimes found. I remember some years ago receiving a letter from my tailor to the following effect : — " Rev. Sir, the enclosed to your kind order, which hope will give satisfaction, and am, respectfully and obliged." Now " the enclosed" in this case was a suit of clothes, sent by coach, and arriving some two days after the latter. 177. "Emergency." — A clerical correspondent finds fault with the word " emergency " used as a straight (sic) or difficulty, instead of imm< ryency, which signifies falling into, or being immersed overhead, while "emergency signifies just its opposite, or scrambling out." But he is certainly wrong. An emergency is any special occasion, which emerges from ordinary occasions. That 1 bis has come to be understood in the bad sense exclusivelj is one of the very frequent instances of words taking a partial meaning as time goes on. That Johnson, who gives this sense, should 68 THE QUEEN* 8 ENGLISH. have characterised the now universal meaning of 1 1 1 « word ■• a Bense not proper," can only be classed among the man? blemish al work. " Immergency " i monster, unknown to the language. It is difficull to • judging by analogy, what meaning it could bear. 178. "Who ""and " which."— It will 1... well to attempl Borne explanation of the usages of "who" and "which," especially in our older writers. It may perhaps serve to clear up a matter which may have perplex* 1 some, ami to show that there La reason and meaning, where all has appeared confusion and caprice. The common modern distinction between these two Tonus of the relative pronoun is, that '•?'•/('-" is used of persons, "which" of thin Ami this, if borne in mind, will guide us Bafely throughout. ]t may be well to notice that what I am aboul to say d 1 1 • • t apply to colloquial English; indeed, hardly to modern English at all: for this reason, that now we do not com- monly use either the one or the other of these pronouns, l.nt make the more convenienl our. "that," do duty for both. We do not say, " the man who met me."' nor •• the cattle which I saw grazing," bul "the man that met me," " the cattle thai I saw.'' We must take care, however, to remember that which was not always accounted the neut of who, nor is it so in grammar. Dr. Latham Bays : "To follow the ordinary grammarians, ami to call which the neuter of >'•/,,,, i, ;i blunder. It is no neuter at all. bul a coiiipi'iiml word." It is made up of teAoand lUa : and this he shows by tracing it through the various Gothic ami (lerman forms, till we come to the Scottish whilk and the I lish which. 1 \7\>. Both tcAoand which are in our older writers used of When this is so, is there any distinction in mean- . and if so, what is it r I think we shall find that the composition of the word which, out of who anil like, will in eotim measure guide us to the answer ; ami I think, without presuming to say thai every case maybe thus explai 1, that the general account of the two \ merely identifies, whereas "which" da Lei us quote in illustration one of the mosl importanl and well-known 1 An 1 1- pendent informs me that " u>Ai ' i used in Ireland o L'tir •■ i what did i/ou IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. GO instances. If, in the solemn address, " Our Father which art in heaven," "who" had been used instead, then we shoidd have been taught to express only the fact that HE, ■whom we address as our Father, dwelleth in heaven. But as the sentence now stands, if I understand it rightly, we are taught to express the fact that the relation of Father in which He stands to us is not an earthly but a heavenly one ; that whereas there is a fatherhood which is on earth, His is a Fatherhood which is in heaven. And herein I believe that our translators have best followed the mind of Him who gave us the prayer. The bare construction of the clause in the original does not determine for us whether the relative pronoun applies to the person only of Him whom we address, or to His title of Father. But from our Lord's own use so frequently of the term " your heavenly Father." I think they were right in fixing the reference to the rela- tionship, rather than to the Person onlv. 180. Use of " but."— There is a use of the word " but," principally to be found in our provincial newspapers, but now and then " leaking upwards" into our more permanent literature. It is when that conjunction is made the con- necting link between two adjectives which do not require any such disjoining. We may say that a man is old, but vigorous, because vigour united with age is something un- expected; but we have no right to say old but respectable, because respectability with old age is not something un- expected. Even while I write, my train stops at a station on the Great Western Railway, where passengers are invited to take a trip to Glasgow, " to witness the wild but grand scenery of Scotland." Now, 1 ecause scenery is wild, there is no reason why it should not be also grand ; nay, wildness in scenery is most usually an accoinpanimcnt of grandeur. Wild but not grand would be far more reason- able, because wildness raises an expectation of grandeur, which the "but" contradicts. 181. The expression "allow me respectfully, but earnestly %o represent to you," is objected to. Tel here we seem to require the disjunctive particle. A respectful representa- tion carries with it the idea of a certain distance and Formality, with which the zeal implied in earnestness is at • sighl inconsistent: and the disjunctive paj eema 70 THE QUEEN'S ENQLI8H. to show thai though the latter is present, the former ii m>t forgotten. 182. "As" and " so."- A eorrespondenl writes: • M ; 1 1 1 \- . especially I think ladies. Bay, ' Be is not at tall aa hi> brother.' Am I nol righl in Baying thai afters nega- tive '*o' Bhould be used ' Be is nol so tall as his brother Suih oertainl) appears to be the usage of our langoa however dif&cull it may be i>> account for it. \\ " one way of speaking is as good as th«' other;" bul when we deny tliis proposition, we are obliged to say, "one way of Bpeaking i good as the other." 80 cannol 1 -• used in the affirmative proposition, aor as in the negative. Change the form of the sentence into one less usual and still allowable, " the one way of Bpeaking la equally good with the other," and the same adverb will Berve for both affirmative and negative: "the one is equally good with the other;" " the one is nol equallj good with the other.* 1 183. The accuracy of this rule lias been called in ques- tion by one of mj censors, and he gives as his example "There are few artists who draw horses a> well as Mr. Leech": in which sentence he rightly observes thai " well" oughl to have I d used. Bu1 wh\ f Simprj be- cause the sentence is not ajfirmativt , as be designates it . bu1 negative, 'lino are few { nol many), denies the existence of many: then an a few, affirms the existence of some. It never could I"- said "There are a ler* artists, \\h" draw nor well aa Mr. Leech." His example confirms the rule, instead of impugning it. Carrj the negative a little further, and we bave "There are no artists who draw hor M I . - oh." l-i. A correspondenl asks res] ting " the use which is 11. iu becoming pretty general of the conjunction! rod in such expressions as these " Be has I >■> d well 1 - ducted for so long as l bave known him': 'So far a I know, he is alive : ' 'So Boon as be comes, I will Leave." In all three 1 eema to me thai "as "might with advantage be substituted for " bo," and in the first, " for" mighl be omitted. Bui it "so" is to be used, the account to be given is ver) Bimple. I know," " So soon be comi "To thai extenl t" which my knowledge • A.1 that limit of time whii h mark.- his arrival." IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 71 " So " carries the mind on by anticipation over an extent to which the subsequent clause places a limit. The same may be said of " Be so kind as to . . ." and indeed of every sentence so constructed. " So " opens an indefinite extent, which " as " closes by a particular example. 185. " Had rather." — A question has been asked about the expressions "J had rather," "I had as soon," or "as lief." What is the " had " in these sentences ? Is it really part of the verb " have " at all ? If it is, how do we explain it ? "We cannot use " to have rather " in any other tense : it is no recognised phrase in our language. And therefore it has been suggested, that the expression " I had rather " has originated with erroneous filling up of the abbreviated Fd rather, which is short not for I had rather, but I would rather. " I viould rather be" is good English, because "I wotdd be " is good English ; but " I had rather be " is not good English, because " I had be " is not good English. Yet " I had rather be," " I had as soon be," are conijdetely sanctioned by usage. 186. Colloquial contractions. — One word with regard to the colloquial contractions which I just now mentioned. We occasionally hear some made use of, which cannot be defended. For instance, " I ain't certain," " I ain't going." This latter, in the past tenses, degenerates still further into the mere vulgarism, " I wa/rn't going." The last is heard "iily as a vulgarism ; but the other two are very frequently used, even by highly educated persons. The main objec- tion to them is that they are proscribed by usage ; but ex- ception may also be taken to them on their own account. A contraction must surely retain some trace of the resolved form from which it is abbreviated. What, then, is " ain't ?" It cannot be a contraction of " a/m not." What " arn't " is contracted from is very plain; it once was "are not," which, of course, cannot be constructed with the first person singular. The only legitimate colloquial contraction of "I "ni not," is " I'm not :" " I'm not going ; " " I'm not quite sure." The Bame way of contracting is used in the case of "are not." It is usually contracted by attaching the verb to the personal pronoun, not by combining it with the negative particle. We say " You're not in time," not "you arn't ; " " th y're not coming," not " they arn't" or " ain't." 72 THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH. 187. A few remarks may be made on the use in English of feminine substantives. Certain names <>t" occupations and ofj -in i i require them, and others to forbid them. Wesay"< r" and *' empress ;" l»nt wv do not in the Bame sense Bay "governor*' and "governess" In this latter case the feminine form has acquired meaning of its own, and refuses to pari with it. J remember, during the first -weeks of our presenl Queen's reign, hearing clergyman pray for " Alezandrina, our mosl gracious Queen and " Very many, ind 1 ni<>-t names of occupa- tions ant by adding the feminine termination, to make ft difference. The description " pilgrim" for in- stance, may include both men and women : yel I remember onc»' seeing advertised, "The Wanderings of a /'<'/-//•; &c. "Porter*' is another of these words. Whin we are t<>l apply i" the porter, we are nol surprised i" "her thai keeps the gate " answer to our knock. Bui in many public establishments v. the "portress*' an- nounii-'l as the person to whom we are to apply. It is true, the word " portrei - " is legitimate enough, we have in Milton "the poi of hell u r ;it<'-" Bui it does noi follow, becau used in poetry, thai we may use it in our common discourse. I exped we Bhall soon M g\ and tea-dealeress, and licensed p< 188. A rule regarding the classification of both si ther is sometimes forgotten. Winn both are Bpoken of under oih- head, the masculine appellation is used. Thus, ill. me of the European rulers may be females, t] may I i hen Bpoken of altogel i under the denomination "kings*' It has been pointed thai Lord Bacon doe tins . ven in the I two, " Ferdi- i and and [sabella, !. ; Spain." 'I hi would hardly be sai-1 now; and in ordinary language, we Bhould perhaps rather choose to call the European rulers "sover< lint this i ..ii why the rule Bhould be forgotten, nor why smt. i hen it is observed, should be charged with incorreel di or altered to suit modern < [aminfon thai a clergyman, in the follow otence in the prayer .in the ' Sommunion Bervi e, " \'\ e are tau :ht IDIOM A XI) COXSTRUCTIOX 73 that the hearts of kings are in Thy rule and governance," alters the word kings into sovereigns. 189. Punctuation : commas. — From speaking of the forms of words, we will come to punctuation, or stopping. I remember when I was young in printing, once correcting the punctuation of a proof-sheet, and complaining of the liberties which had been taken with my manuscript. The publisher cpiietly answered me, that punctuation was always left to the compositors. And a precious mess they make of it. The threat enemies to understandino: anything printed in our language are the commas. And these are inserted by the compositors, without the slightest compunction, on every possible occasion. Many words are by rule always hitched off with two commas ; one before and one behind ; nursed, as the Omnibus Company would call it. " Too " is one of these words ; " however," another ; " also," another ; the sense in almost every such case being disturbed, if not destroyed by the process. I remember beginning a sentence with — " However true this may be." When it came in proof, the inevitable comma was after the "however," thus of course making nonsense of my unfortunate sentence. 190. In a book generally so accurate as Dr. Latham's " English Language," (p. 57,) the following occurs : " This difference is, by no means, unimportant." Now by this punctuation the words "by no means " are parenthesized ; that is, are pronounced non-essential to the sentence, ami may, as the words included between commas in the sen- tence of "He is, on this very day, twenty years old," be omitted. Let us omit them. The sense is at once re- versed. What the author meant to say. and doubtless did say before the compositor misrepresented him, was. "This difference is by no means unimportant:" without the offensive commas. 191. In a note (p. 95) to the Bishop of St. David's re- markable Charge to his Clergy in 1869, we read, " It may he asked., Why revive these painful memories? It is be- cause they are only, to a very small extent, things of the past." Here again the commas misrepresenl the sense. Take oul the clause parenthesized by them, and we shall have lei't, "because they are only things of the past," a the \,tv opposite of that which the sentence 7\ THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH". in- a nt to convey : which was. of course, this, •• because they are only t" a very small extent things of the past." L92. Comma after "now." — Another word which constantly Buffers from thi treatment is the unfortunate adverb now. it has. as we all know, two usages: one, temporal, the other, resumptive or eon- nexional. " Then, every one believed him guilty ; now, the world is "i" a differenl opinion." This is an example of the temporal now; which, though it does not require a comma after it, admits of one, and is sometimes made clearer by having one. But when now is used in the other Bena a resumptii connecting particle, tin- comma is absurd. This sense is constantly found in the English Version of tlif gospel "l' St. John. " Now Philip was of Bethsaida . . ." i i. 1 1 1 : •• now win mi In' was in Jerusalem at lli.' pass- over . . ." iii. 28): " Now Jacob's weU was there . . ." (iv. 6): &c. In i\*v\ one <>t" these cases, the modern com- positors would in-, rt a comma after ru w, reducing the un- happy sentences to utter nonsense. I have Borne satisfac- tion in reflecting, that, in the course of editing the Greek text "t" the New Testament, I believe 1 have destroy more than a thousand commas, which prevented the text being properly undent 1. L93. Comma between two adjectives. — One very provoking case is 'hat where two adjectives come together, belonging t.. the same noun-substantive Thus, in print- ing a /"'■• young man, a comma is placed after nice, giving, we may observe, a very different Bensefrom that intended: bringing before us the fad that a man is both nice and young, whereas the original sentence introduced t" u young man 'hat was nice. Thus too in the expression ./,-, .// block i/'../." printed \\ it I t commas, i rerybody knows what we in. an ; but t ! i i -s \% < > 1 1 1 I be printed "a great, black dog." Tal in the case where meaning is intensified bj adjectives beii itcd a- in ■• ihr wide vi>l< world," ••t/,, ,!.,/, ,1, .. Such expressions yon almost in- rariabrj find printed " //<< wide, wide world," "thi deep, deep sea," thereby ma!. in" them, if judged bj ani ruL all, into nor • i I'.'l. "The French, and not the Germai m." Is this rightly punctual d? Thei ■• d< fei ID 10 M AND CONSTRUCTION. 75 for the omission, as there is also for the insertion, of the comma. On the one hand it may be said that the words "and not the German" are parenthetical, and therefore want the two commas: on the other, that "German" is just as much an epithet of " system" as if it stood alone, and that we do not insert a comma between an epithet and the noun which it precedes. And to my mind this argu- ment rather preponderates, affecting as it does the look of the sentence. It seems better to regard the construction as elliptical in the former member, and to omit the comma in the latter: " The French (system), and not the German system." 195. Too few commas. — Still, though too many commas are bad, too few are not without inconvenience also. I remember a notice of " the Society for Promoting the Observance of the Lord's-day which was founded in 1831," giving the notion that the day, not the society, was founded in that year. Had the date been 1631, instead of 1831, an awkward interpretation might have been pos- sible. 196. I take the following, verbatim and punctual im, from a religious newspaper : " Education. — In a Ladies' School conducted on Evangelical principles about nine in number, good instruction is given, &c." 197. Stops not unimportant. — Some people, espe- cially such as somewhat plume themselves on knowing the world and the ways of business, will tell us that stops are never to be regarded, — make no imaginable difference. But in this, as in many of their off-hand assertions, this class of layers-down of the law are in the wrong. There are sentences which cannot possibly be understood without the intervention of commas. Notably among such are con- structions where the relative may either describe or limit, according as it is oris not preceded by a comma. Thus when we write. All voted fur him except the Jews, who live in Hotmdsditch, — we assert that the Jews as a class did not vote for him, and that the Jews as a class live iu Hounds- ditch. This is the descriptive force of the relative. But if we write All voted for him except th .has who live in Houndaditch, we say nothing about the .lews in general, but assert that those Jews who live in Eoundsditch did :■] THE QUEEN'S ENQLI8H, for him. Thi - limiting force. And sen- tences of this form are constantly occurring, in Legal docum< ' well as in ordinary writing. l'.'S A curious example of Bense vit i;it«-l by tin' insertion of ii comma occurred the other day in a circular receivt 1 by nir from the south of France : " 31. Negro above all thii i- mosi careful in the primitive matters used in his labora- v. being perfectly healthy and free from all injurious mat 199. Notes of admiration. — While I am ips, a v.or.l i< : ry concerning notes of admiration. These akrieka, as they have been called, are red up and down the page by the compot Ltora \\ ithout mercy. I oni' has written the words "0 is they ought I i be written, and arc written in Genesis \liii. 20, viz.. with the plain capital ■•<>"' and no Btop, and then a comma ai v." our friend the compositor is Euire to write '■oh" with a shriek (!) and to put another shriek after We should use, in writing, as few as possible of thi nuisances. They always make tin- sense weaker, where we «an possibly do without them. The only case where they an- r.ally necessary, is when the langU • filia- tion, as in •■ Eow beautiful is night ! " or, "0 thai I might find him!" 200. Semi-colon and colon. — Is there any difference between tl -.•,,/.,/, and the colon .' And. as a question consequent on thi., do we want both? I venture to think that there i a difference, and th.:t we do want both. 'I ix-colon si: .to clauses between which the sense i- not immediately carried on, as after a comma, nor disjunctively broken off, as after a colon. It i-. useful, after perhaps a of commas, to indicab iter hr, ak in the or at all events one differing in kind. A colon, on the other hand, mar! lerable break: and fore a disjunctive particle, where, for t! i onnecting particle omitted. 201. We will gjve Borne examples. Take t! lh aved others- himself he cai t lave." cl of geraniuma in the a ni re, although strictly Bpeaking the centre of the lawn is in the- bed, not the bed in th otre. ■J'H. And in the figurative n E this word, and of all words, intelligent common sense, rather than punctilious- ness, ought to be our guide. Centre, and its adjective tral, arc often used in speaking of objects of thought, aa well as of Bight. Let it be borne in mind, when thi- done, that these words apply only to a principal object round which others group themselves, and ool to one which happens to be pre-eminent amongst others. To say that some conspicuous person in an assembly was tin centn of attraction i> perfectly correct ; but to Bay that Borne Bub- ject of conversation, merely because it happened to occupy more "i the time than other Bubjects, was the a ntral topic of the evening, is incorrect and unmeaning. 205. -, By and by. "--The Following question may be irded aa pertaining rather to orthography, bul it 1 ii - bearing on construction also. Ought we to write by and by, or I'n and /"/■ .' by th* by, or l>i/ the byef There isa ten- dency to add a vowel, by way of giving emphasis in p Dunciation, when a preposition is used aa an adverb. Thus "too" ia only the preposition " to" emphasised j a"6j ' A i ndcnl informs me, that parliamentary notice to land- owners, which l> • ir manj years, and I to the bar of hundreds of thousands al once, contains the words " within n yards, or then I the proposed work." ibsolutely wrong i for tho i i the line which pa I ' -line is tin line which passes through Chatham, IDIOM AXD CONSTRUCTIOX. 79 ball, at cricket, is only a ball that runs by. In this latter case the added " e " is universal : but not so in by-play, by-end, which are sometimes spelt with it and sometimes without it. And we never add it when " by " is used as an adverb in construction in a sentence, as in passing by. This being so, it is better, perhaps, to confine this way of spelling to the only case where it seems needed, the bye ball, and to write " by and by," " by the by." 206. " Endeavour ourselves." — A mistake is very generally made by our clergy in reading the collect for the second Sunday after Easter. We there pray, with refe- rence to Our Lord's death for us, and His holy example, "that we may thankfully receive that his inestimable benefit, and also daily endeavour ourselves to follow the blessed steps of his most holy life." This is often read with an emphasis on the word " ourselves," as if it were in the nominative case, and to be distinguished from some other person. But no other persons have been mentioned ; and the sense thus becomes confused for the hearer. The fact is, that " ourselves " is not in the nominative case at all, but in the accusative after the verb " endeavour," which at the time of the compiling of our Prayer-book was used as a reflective verb. To endeavour myself, is to consider my- self in duty bound. That this is so, appears clearly from the answer given in the Ordination service, where the Bishop asks, " Will you be diligent in prayers and in read- ing of the Holy Scriptures, and in such studies as help to the knowledge of the same . . . ? " And the candidate replies, "I will endeavour myself so to do, the Lord being my helper." 207. "To be mistaken."— The usage of the verb to mistake is somewhat anomalous. Its etymology seems simple enough — to take amis*. And by the analogy of "misunderstand," "misinterpret," "mislead," "misin- form," "miscalculate," it ought to be simply an active verb, as in the phrases, "you mistook my meaning," "he had mistaken the way." This would give as its passive use, "my meaning was mistaken byyou." But our English usage is different ; we have those phrases, it is true, bul we far more commonly use the verb in the passive, to carry what should be its active meaning. To be mistaken is not, 80 TIIK QUEEN 1 8 ENQLISB. with us, to be misapprehended by another, but to commit a mistake oneself . This La a curious translation of mean- ing, l'Ut it i> now rooted in the language and become idio- matic. "I thoughl BO,bu1 I was mistaken," is universally said, no! " I mistook." We expect to hear "yon are mis- taken," and Bhould be surprised a1 hearing asserted "you mistaking," or "you mistake," unless followed by an accusative, " the meaning," or " me." When we hearths former <>t' tli begin to consider wla'ther wv righl or wrong; when the latter, we at once take the measure of our friend, as one who lias not long '—aped from the Btudy of the rules <>f the lesser grammarians, by which, and nol by the usages of society, circumstan have compelled him to learn his langua 208. " Good looking" or "well looking." — A corre- spondent asks me. good looking or wM looking? Here is another instance of idiom versus accuracy. And idiom de- cidedly has it. To speak of a well-looking man would be to make oneself ridiculous: all usage is against the word. But, at the same time, to be good looking is uol t<> look g I • is, in one Bense, to look uh II ; or, if we v. ill. to have g 1 looks. So that thewhole matter Beems to !»■ left to which in this case is decisive. 209. "Very pleased."- -Is the expression" w ry \ admissible? The ordinary usage before a participle is •• ven much:" " I very much pleased.'' No one would think of Baying, " I was very cheated in the transaction." Bui on the other hand, we all Bay " very tired," " very ailin •■ verj contented," " verj discontented." Where then i> the distinction f The accoun! Beems to be thi . Ii the par- ticiple descril uly the action or the Buffering implied in .eil.. in other words, if it continue a verb, " verj alone will uol serve to qualify it. ■• Verj " Bimply Lnten- sines: and it must have Borne quality to intensify. S cannot intensify a mere event. In other words, it " very alone be used, ii must be followed bj an adjective, or bj something equivalent to an adjective. "Tired" is equiva- lent to "weary:" it i a participle i. an adjective : therefore we ma. "verj tired :"" ailing " ia equr lent to •■ ] 1\ : " "i a tented" and "discontented"! qualities and ten rd of an event which ' IDIOM AND COXSTRUCTION. 81 happened. Judging " very pleased" by this rule, it is in- admissible. " Pleased" is a state of mind, carried on be- yond the mere occasion which gave rise to it. Introduce a marked reference to the occasion, and " very " becomes at once inappropriate. "We cannot say " very nattered," but must say " very much nattered." I own I prefer " very much pleased," as more conformable to usage. 210. " Latter," of more than two ; "last," of only two. — One point made very much of by the precisians is, the avoiding of the use of " latter" when we have spoken of more than two things, and of " last " when we have spoken of only two. Is this founded in any necessity or propriety of the laws of thought ; or is it a mere arbitrary regulation laid down by persons who know little and care little about those laws ? 211. Let us inquire into the matter. The notion is, that in speaking of two things, we can have only positive and comparative ; that for a superlative we require three or more ; and when we have three or more, we must use the superlative. Thus if I speak of two invasions of Great Britain, I must call the earlier the former, not the first, and the second the latter, not the last. But if I speak of three invasions, I must call the third, in referring to it, the last not the latter. Is there reason in this ? Let us look at it in this light. Of two invasions, the earlier is undoubtedly the first, the latter the second. Now "first" is a superla- lative; and if of two, one is designated by a superlative, why not the other ? 212. Still, this is not digging to the root of the matter ; if is only arguing from the acknowledged use of a form in one case, to its legitimate use in an analogous one. Let us take it in another point of view. " First " is unavoidably used of that one in a series with which we begin, whatever be the number which follow; whether many or few. Why should not "last" be used of that one in a series with which we end, whatever be the number which preceded, Whether many or few? The second invasion, when we rpoke of only two, was undoubtedly t lie last mentioned; and surely therefore may be spoken of in referring back to it, as the last, without any violation of the laws of thought. Q-2 THE QUEEN* 8 ENGLISTT. 218. Nordoes the comparative of □ Bsity su^^i that only two axe concerned, though it may be more natural I i speak of th<' ;//•.''/(.-•/ of mor- than two, nol of the grt *'■ r. r thai which is greatest of any number, is r than the rest. i'l l. " Superior," " inferior. " — There is an exj d creeping i 1 1 1 . > general use which cannot be justified in unmar, "a superior man;" "a very inferior person." We all know what is meant : and a certain sort of defence may be Bel up for it by calling it elliptical: by savin-- thai the comparatives are to be filled uj> by inserting "to most men," or the like. Bui with all its convenience, and all the defence which can 1"' set up for it, this way of Bpeak- ing is lmt desirable; and if followed oul aa a precedent, cannol bul vulgarize and deteriorate our languaj •Jl">. It may be hard to assign exactly the differ* between " oldest " and "eldest." Whatever it may l»'. it 18 cl.arlv matter of idiomatic usage, and no1 derivable from any distinction in the words themselves. Bui thai there is a difference, may in a moment be shown. We cannot say, "Methuselah was the eldest man thai ever lived;" we musl say, "the oldest man thai ever lived." iin.it would hardly be natural to Bay, •"his lather's oldest born," if we were -; • aking of the first-born. It' we were to say of a father, "He wa bu >ded by his oldest should convey the impression thai thai son v . the eldest, bul the oldest Burviving after the loss of the eldest, And these examples seem to bring n> to a kind insighl into the idiomatic difference. "Eldest" implies not only more years, but also priority of righl ; nay, it mighl sometimes even !"■ independent of actual dura- tion of li: A first-born who died an infant was yd tin- «/ [f all mankind were assembled, Metnu- di Would he the oldest : hut Adam WOUld ho tl M. of men. Whether any other account i- to '"• given of this a the caprice of I cannol Bay, hut must have the question to those who are better versed in the com- 1 ..f Ian M \ objeel 1 • ribe the current •1, rather than to inquire into the ar< of the 1 216 I 1 with thil inquiry aboul " olde t " and IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. C3 "eldest" is the subject of a letter which I v>ill give entire : — "Sir, " When I came on deck the other morning in the Red Sea (very near the place at which Moses and the Israelites are supposed to have crossed), I was seized by three fellow-passengers— a Russian, a French- man, and a Swiss — who, nolentem volcntcm, constituted me umpire in a dispute which they were carrying on upon a point of English grammar. The Russian, it seems, was his father's eldest son, and he had lour brothers, all, ex necessitate, younger than himself. In speaking of the oldest of these four, he called him 'my elder brother'; on which the Frenchman said, ' I thought you were your father's eldest son.' ' So I am,' he replied ; ' but I spoke of the elder of my brothers. I am not one of my own brothers, and therefore when I speak of my elder brother, I don't include myself. He I spoke of is the oldest of my brothers, not the oldest of my father's sons.' To this I replied by quoting Milton — ' Adam the goodliest of his sons since born, the fairest of her daughters, Eve.' That, however, we agreed was only justified by poets' licence. Finally, I ruled that though my Russian friend was strictly and gram- matically correct, yet, according to common usage, the expression cm- ployed by him was calculated to mislead. He seemed to think it rather hard that the English people, having constructed a grammar, should not conform to its rules; and hinted that in Russia no such liberty of the subject would lie permitted — that when laws were made, people were ex- pected to obey them ; and that a man who talked bad grammar would be in danger of the knout. " Will you be so good as tell us in your next edition whether the Russian or the Frenchman was right, and whether you approve of my ruling ? " Your obedient servant, " W. F." 217. It was somewhat curious that the Eussian should have blamed us for inconsistency: for surely "my elder brother" must mean "the elder brother of me," just as "vnj better half" means, " the better half of me." We may also hereby illustrate what was just now said about " oldest " and " eldest : " " my eldest brother " could never be said by the first-born of a family, seeing that the title belongs to him alone: whereas when "my oldest brother" is said, he excludes himself, and indicates the brother next to him in age. 218. "Talented." — We seem rather unfortunate in OUT designations for our men of ability. For another term 1'V which we describe them, "talented," is about as bad as possible. What is it? It looks like a participle. From what verb? Fancy such a verb as "to talent!" Cole- 84 riiE QUEEN'S ENQLI8H. ridge somewhere criea out againsl this newspaper word, and .-a vs. [magine other participlee formed by this analogy, and men being Baid t.. be pennied, Bhillinged, or pounded. He perhaps forgol that, by an equal abuse, men are Baid to be " moneyed " men, or as we Bometimes see it Bpell it' the word itself were nol bad enough withoul making it worse by false orthography), " monied." ' •Jl:*. -Gifted." — Another formation <>f this kind, "gifted," is at presenl very much id vogue. Everyman whose parts ,nv to I"- praised, is a gifted author, or speaker, or preacher. Nay, sometimes a yerj odd transfer is made, and tli'' i " ii with which tin' author writes is Baid t" be " gifted," instead of himself. 220. "To leave," absolute.— Exception has I taken to whal lias been called the neuter use of the verb to leave: "I shall nol leave before December 1." Bu1 it is ii"t coned to describe this as a u<<<'■ no doubt. 221. •• I be;; to . . . " A corres] hut is highly offended with the very common expression, "I beg to inform you," '"I !■• - i" Btate," Ac., requiring that the word "leave" should be inserted after the verb, otherwi . the words are n< 1 A friend I. teotion to the fact thai In "The ' WM- Guide," printed m 1824, the word " tal u ■ii r.|iii\;ilc-!it tO 'Ii'' I IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 85 In this case, I think custom lias decided for us, that the ellipsis, " I beg," for " I beg leave," is allowable. 222. " Could not get."— Connected with the last are, or may seem to be, certain elliptical usages which cannot be similarly defended. Thus when the object has been to visit a friend, or to attain a certain point, we sometimes hear the excuse for failure thus expressed, " I meant to come to you," — or, " I fully intended to be there ; " " but I couldn't get." The full expression would in this case be, " I couldn't get to you ; " or, " I couldn't get there." But the verb " to get " is used in so many meanings, that it is hardly fit for this elliptical position. Besides that the sentence ends inelegantly and inharmoniously, an am- biguity is suggested : "couldn't get what ? " a horse ? or time? or money to pay the fare ? or some one to show the way ? 223. " Does not belong." — Another word objec- tionably thus used is the verb " to belong." " Is Miss A. coming to the Amateur Concert to-night ? " " No : she does not belong;" meaning, does not belong to the Society. And then perhaps we are told that " though she does not belong this year, she means to belong next." Here again we may say that belong is a verb of so wide a signification, that it will hardly admit of being thus detached from its accidents, and used absolutely and generally. 224. To " belong Leeds," &c— I am reminded by a valued correspondent, of another use of the verb " to be- long," already familiar to me, as having been long resident in the north-midland counties. " We have," he says, in these parts a provincial usage of the word ''belong:" as, " belong to Halifax," " belong to Leeds: " or, more com- monly, " belong Halifax," " belong Leeds : " meaning, live there. The late Mr. F. W., one of the largest proprietors of land in Yorkshire, and M.P. for the vet undivided county — and, let me add, a wise and munificent friend to the Church, — was withal so little lavish on his person, that he might easily pass for a very humble farmer. He was one day accosted on the roadside by two Btrangers in a gig on their way to Wighill, near York. "My man, do you belong Wighill? " lie answered, "No, Sirs, Wighill belongs me." 225. " To progress." — The verb to " progress," is challenged by one of mv friends as a modern Ameri- 86 THE QUEEN* a ENGLISH. canism. This is nol Btrictly accurate. Shakspeare uses it in Kinj,' John (act. v. Let me wipe off this hon arable dew, That ulrerl; n tliy «.h. < '.. ." ' Eut you will observe thai the line requires the v< rb t i pronounced , . ool /. . bo thai this is perha hardly a case in poinl the word, a rerb formed on 11"' noun pr 226. Passage from Milton. — Milto verb, in the magnificent peroration of his " Tr< al formation in England." 1 cannol forbear citing the whole passage, as it may I e a relief to my readers and t<» nrj in the midst i>t' i hese verbal enquiri "Then amidsl the Hymns and Hallelujahs of smimc our may perhaps 1"' heard offering at high strain* new and lofty measures, to sing and celebrate thydn mercies, and marvellous judgments in th 1 through' out all ages; whereby thia great and warlike nation, in- structed and inured <•» the Eervenl and continual prad of Truth and Righteouf ad casting Ear from tier the rags of her old vices, may | □ hard to thai high and happy Emulation, to be found the Boberest, wisest, and iii"-t Christian people a1 thai day, when Thou th Eternal and shortly ex] ted King, Bhall "pen th< the several kingdoms ol the world, anddi itributing aai ional honours and rewards to religious and jusl commonwealtl shall pu1 an end to all earthly Tyrannies, proclaiming thy universal and mild Monarchy through heaven and earth. Where they undoubtedly, thai by their labours, count and prayers, have been earnest for the common good of Religion and their country, Bhall reo ive i the inferior orders of the Blessed, the regal addition of Principalis l. gions, and Thrones into their glorious Titles, and, in Bupereminence of boatifick vi ion, progret t'nythe datel ' I mention, oa la i y I inndj an account of I ■*% 1 1 i < - 1 » baa In en ... nt me by :i i ident anxious to vindicate Sh l re from J i n ^ i 1 1 -_c Mod modern vulgarism. He would understand ''doth pi "docth i ' the latter word being a •ubttaU' tire. Surely, be oao hardly be in earni it, I am lurpriood to tins advocated la t. ible little English Gramma? of Mr. Hi- ; n on, IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. £7 and irrevoliible circle of Eternity, shall clasp inseparable Hands -with Joy and Bliss, in over measure for ever." 227. It niav be noticed again that Milton's use of the verb is not exactly that which is become common now. He seems to make it equivalent to "moving along," or " moving throughout," in an active sense. These favoured ones are to progress the circle of Eternity, i.e., I suppose, to revolve for ever round and round it. The present usage makes the verb neuter ; to progress meaning to advance, to make pro- gress. I can hardly say I feel much indignation against the word, thus used. We seem to want it ; and if we do, and it does not violate anv known law of formation, by all means let us have it. True, it is the first of its own family ; we have not yet formed aggress, regress, egress, or retrogress, into verbs ; but we have done in substance the same thing, by having admitted long ago the verbs suggest, digest, project, object, reject, eject ; for all these are formed from the same part of the original Latin verbs, as this "progress" on which we have been speaking. 228. Some of these words are set down as English verbs in the folio edition of Bailey's Universal Dictionary, pub- lished in 1755. But there is as wide a difference between dictionary words and English words, as between vocabu- lary French and spoken French. AVe might in a few minutes find a list of dictionary words which would intro- duce us to some strange acquaintances. What do Ave think of "abarcy," " aberuncate," " abolishable," " ab- stringe," "abstrude," "acervate," "acetosity," "adjugate," " admetiate," "adminicle," " advolation," "adustible," &c, &c. ? Thousands of words in the Dictionaries are simply Latin, made English in form, without any authority for their use. 229. Nouns made into verbs. — In treating of this verb to "progress." a correspondent notices thai there pre- vails a tendency to turn nouns into verbs: "The ship remained to coal:" "the church is being pewed:" "he was prevailed on to head the movement." I do not see that we can object to this tendency in general, Beeing that it has grown with the growth of our language, and under due regulation is one of the most obvious means of en- riching it. Verba thus formed will carry themselves into 89 THE QUEERS ENGL1SB. use, i i • spiir of the protests of the purists. 1 Some years ago, precise Bcholars used to exclaim against the verb "to na ;" and a very ugly candidate for admission into the language it was. Milton introduced its participle when he wrote, " He through the armed lilrs harts his exp< r* need eye." Still, as v..- know in the case of "talented" and "moneyed," the participle may be tolerated long before the verb is invented: and n<» instance of the verb "to i rj„ ,-i- nee " occurs till quite recently. Bui all attempts I i exclude it now would be quite ineffectual. 2:>(». Does an organ "blow"?— A correspondent referred to me the question whether in Milton's line, '• Then let the pealing organ blow,*' the verb "/»•" is rightly used. The organ, it was urged, ieblovmi and it might as well be said that the fire "Mot when it is Mow n. But I believe Milton to be quite correct. The whole action of the organ is, to produce Bound by hl'ifnnj into the pipes: and this it is, rather than the filling the bellows with win. 1. that is meant. The action of fire is. not t<> blow, but to burn: whin it i$blovm,i\ burns: but when th.' organ >* blown, it, bj aid of it> ralves, opened by the pressure on tin- keys, blows, and produces music. 231. •• To treat of." or -to treat" ?- To treat of, or /" treat? Plainly, which we please. To treat is to handle, to have under treatment, to ili.^-u.<.<. The verb maj be u with an object following it. to ••/,-.,,/ ,/ subject:" oi maybe used absolutely, to "treat concerning" or " of r , n a subject. It is one of those verj main cases so little un- derstood bj th'- layers down of precise rules, where writers and speakers are left to «h. th.. humour takes them, 1 1 1 wicii different ways of expn -ion. ■J'..!. Fallacy: — of two ways of expression, one must be wrong. And I may once for all notice a fal- ; arguing, into which the sciolists who would [slate for our Lai are continually betrayed. It consists in assuming that, of two i les of ex] a, if onu I"- shown to he right, the other must necessarily !"• 1 I have before rr.c '• Tin- Joiner*! [nstmi tor in ■•'■'• i"<" i*g untl /land- rail n ;.'' IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. go, wrong. Whereas very often the varying expressions are equally legitimate, and each of them full of interest, as bearing traces of the different sources from which our language has sprung. 233. "The book Genesis," "the city London."— There is a piece of affectation becoming sadly common among our younger clergy, which I had already marked for notice, when I received a letter, from which the fol- lowing is an extract : — " I wish to call your attention to the ignorance which is sometimes exhibited by clergy and others of the true meaning of the preposition in such expressions as 'the city of Canterbury,' 'the play of " Hamlet." We sometimes hear it proclaimed from the desk, ' Here beginneth the first chapter of the book Genesis : ' and we read in parochial documents of ' the parish of St. George,' ' the parish of St. Marv,' instead ' of St. George's," of St. Mary's,' &c." 234. I believe the excuse, if it can be called one, set up for this violation of usage is, that " the book of Genesis " and " the book of Daniel " cannot both be right, because the former was not written by Genesis, as the latter was by Daniel. But, as my correspondent says, this simply betrays ignorance of the meanings of the preposition " of.'' It is used, in designations of this kind, in three different senses : 1. To denote authorship, as " the book of Daniel : " 2. To denote subject-matter, as "the first book of Kings: " 3. As a note of apposition, signifying, "which is," or " which is called," as " the book of Genesis," " of Exodus," &c. This last usage meets us at every turn ; and the pedant who ignores it in the reading desk, must, in consistency. drop it everywhere else. Imagine his letter describing his summer holiday : " I left the city London, and passed through the county Kent, leaving the realm Kngland at the town Dover, and entering the empire France at the town Calais, on my way to the Republic Switzerland." 235. It has been suggested that the "of" in "the diy of Canterbury," may be territorial : that as it is rendered in Latin by " de," this " de " may be the same that we find in "Henrirtis de Estria." But I cannot quite agree with this view: because though it might seem to be justified in the case of a town, it clearly would not be in that of a book, 77//; QUEEN* S ENGLISH, in any other in which the territorial connexion i. !. 1 may remark in pai gain D i-s in with its prescriptive laws, and prevents the uni- versal application of rules. While we always say "the city of Cairo." nol "the city Cairo," we never say "the river <•( Nile," bnt always "the river Nile." Bo too "the il in its subjective sense, as de- quality in her, ui in the subjeci <•( 1 1: 1 ' Benten< in the latter phra ■•. we use fearful in its objectivt an effect produced by being an objeel content- I • I. The heart is subject to fear, the height is n " attained his eightieth year " must properly mean " entered his eightieth year." It seems to me that the gentlemen were right. A youth has attained his majority the very day he enters upon it, not the day he dies and quits it, his life being complete. A man attains a posit ion in life the moment he is appointed to it, before he has begun any of his duties. And so a man attains his eightieth year the first day that it can be said of him that he is in his eightieth year: not the last day that this can be said: for he has then attained his eighty-fir8l year. 241. "Or" and "ncr" in a negative sentence. — A good deal of confusion is prevalent in the usages of "or" and " nor" in a negative sentence. When J wrote, in the last paragraph but three, "he was certainly nol very reverent in his conduct or in his writings," was I :j THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH. hi or wrong? Ought L to hare said, "he was nol very reverenl in li i -. conducl nor in his writings We in. iv regard this sentence in t\\" ways, which may berepre- tted by the two following modes <>!' punctuation: 1. "He was nol very reverenl in bis conduct, or in his writings." 2. "He was oo1 verj reverent, in his conduct or in bis writings." According to the former punctuation, is wrong; it should be "nor." Bui observe thai thus we gel a Bomewhal awkward elliptical sentence: " He oo1 very reverenl in his conduct, nor (was he very reverent) in bis writinj In the Becond form of the tence, "or" is right, and " nor " would be wrong. This will be evidenl in a moment bj filling up the sentence with the other alternative particle, " He was qoI verj reverent, either in his conduct or in his writings ; " not, "He v. not very reverent, neither in his conduct, nor in bis writings." 242. We may, if we will, strike out the negative alto- gether from the part of the sentence containing the verb, and attach it entirelj to the alternative clauses. Bui in this case it is usual to place those clauses before the pre- dicative portion of the sentence : " neither in his conduct, nor in his writings was be very reverent." 243. The commonly received rules respecting " or " and "nor" 'I" nol Beem to bave been observed bj our best writers. Cowley has, •■ For n- not buildings make i court. < m- ] omp : but 'tie the kii it. The truth is, thai these same rules are, in almost every t' doubtful application. In these lines, we may live the former proposition in two ways: "'tis m>t buildings or pomp that make a court," "' tie doI buildin that make a court, oor is it pomp thai makes a oouxi \ i line ma v be said of aunosl everj Bimilar sentence. 1 Only we must take .are t<> be precise, where the use of mi • the <-ther reallv alters the "Wh iver shall not honour father or mother . . ." bae a very different meaning from "Wh eer Bhall oo1 honour father nor mother . . ." In the former case, dishonour done to either .. •• doI p ly, or of i « i Itj ." I O r. be. 7. IDIOM AND COXSTRUCTIOX. 93 parent incurs the penalty which follows : in the latter case, only dishonour clone to both. 244. Elliptical sentences. — As I have been speaking of an elliptical sentence, I may remark that it is astonish- ing what an amount of ellipsis the English ear will tolerate : in other words, how gi*eat an effort the mind of a hearer will make in supplying that which is suppi'essed. This extends sometimes even to changing the construction, and turning affirmative- into negative, tacitly and uncon- sciously, as the sentence falls upon the eye or ear. A remarkable example of this occurs in one of the most solemn prayers in our English Communion Service : " We do not presume to come to this Thy Table, most merciful Lord, trusting in our own righteousness ; but (ive do pre- sume to come, trusting) in thy manifold and great mercies." Put this admirable sentence into the hands of our ordinary rhetoricians, and it would be utterly marred. The ap- parently awkward ellipsis would be removed thus : " We presume to come to this Thy Table, trusting not in our own righteousness, but in thy manifold and great mercies." But at the same time, the whole character of the sentence and of the prayer would be altered. Who does not see, that by the opening words, " We do not presume," the key-note of the whole prayer is struck — the disclaiming of presumption founded on our own righteousness? It was worth any subsequent halting of the sentence in mere accuracy of construction, to secure this plain declaration of the spirit in which the prayer was about to be made. 245. General rule in such cases.— Ami this leads us to a rule which we should do well to follow in such cases. To secure the right sense being given, and the right emphasis laid, is the first thing: not to satisfy the nil.s of the rhetoricians. Many a sentence, which the mere rhetorician would pronounce faulty in arrangement, does its work admirably, and has done it for centuries: let him correct it and re-arrange it, and it will do that work no more. Its strong emphasis will have disappeared: its nervous homeliness will have departed, and it will sink down into rapid commonplace. 24G. Arrangement of words in sentences.— Let us now enter on this matter somewhat more in detail. 94 THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH, The one rule which is by the ordinary rhetoricians to regulate the arrangement <>f words in sentencee, is i! tliat "those j a set ience which arc m< iiccti il in tit- ir -/( ■"/(/ be as closely as p< '■■! in position;" or, as it is propounded by l>r. Blair, ".1 capital rule in the arrangement of is that the r la or mt mln re most ru arly n lati d should be plaa d in the st nit nee as near to each otht r as possibl . mutual relation el arly appear." 247. Ordinary rule. — Now doubtless this rule is. in the main, and for general guidance, a good and useful one: indeed, so plain to all, that it surely needed uo in- cul< But there are more things in the English language than seem to have been dreamt of inthephilo- !iv of ih" rhetoricians, ]f this rule were uniformly applied, it would break down the force and the living interest of Btyle in any English writer, and reduce his matter, as we just now said, to a dreary and dull monoto For it is in exceptions to its application, that almost all rnr and character of Btyle consist. Of this I shall g abundant illustration by-and-by. Meantime let me make Borne remarks on two very important matters in the oon- action of sentei : the requirements of is, and the requirements of ; neither of which are taken into account by the ordinary rule. . Emphasis requires its violation. — Emph ins tli'- . or force of intonation, which the intended requires to be laid on certain words, or els n a tence. Very often (not alv. can indicate this by i he t'"!-]" ••lit of the Benfc if. Bo laii have far greater capacities this way tint! our own; but we are able commonly to ufficiently f or the careful and intelligent reader. •J!:*. Now 1. • this done? A sentence arrai according to the rule above cited, Bimplj ye the me >rds in their ordinary and straightforward i •: ion ; and in I h, ov< ing to the difficult) oft< u felt of departing from this arrangement, \ ery rally I •• ...•■'■ ■,;. I \\ ith it. at the r r.ls aot conveying the fullness of the meaning which we in- tend* !. For let tploin, that whenever we wish to IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 95 indicate that a stress is to be laid on a certain word, or clause, in a sentence, we must do it by taking that word or that clause out of its natural place which it would hold by the above rule, and putting- it into some more prominent one. - A substantive, for example, governed by a verb, is in a subordinate position to that verb ; the mind of the reader is arrested by the verb, rather than by the sub- stantive ; so that if for any reason we wish to make the substantive prominent, we must provide some other place for it than next to the verb which governs it. 250. In the case of words. — Take, as an example, the words " he restored me to mine office : " where the words are arranged in accordance with the ordinary law, and the idea expressed is the simple one of restoration to office. Ihit suppose a distinction isto be made between the narrator, who had been restored to office, and another man, who had been very differently treated. Of course we might still observe the rule, and say " He restored me to mine office, and he hanged him ; " but the sentence becomes thus (and it is to this that I request the reader's attention) a very tame one, not expressing the distinction iu itself, nor ad- mitting of being so read as to express it sharply and deci- sively. Now, let us violate the rule, and see how the sentence reads : " Me he restored unto mine office, and him he hanged." Thus wrote our translators of Genesis (xli. 13), and they arranged the words rightly. No reader, be his intelligence ever so little, can help reading this sentence as it ought to read. 251. And let there be no mistake about this being a violation of the rule. The words nearest connected are "restored," and "me," which it governs: " hanged," and "him," which it governs. When I take "me" out of its place next "restored" and begin the sentence with it, letting the pronoun "he" come between them, I 'Inmost distinctly violate the rule, that those words which are most nearly connected in the sense should also be most nearly connected in the arrangement. I have purpo ely chosen this first instance of the simplest possible kind, to make the matter clear as we advance into it. Let us take another. St. Peter (Actsii. 23) says to th > Jews, speaking of our Lord, "Him, being delivered by the determinate THE QUEEN'S ENQLI8S. counsel and foreknowledge of God, ye have taken, and by wicked hands have crucified and slain." Eerewe have the pronoun " Him " placed 6rst in the sentence, and at a oon- aiderable distance from the verbs that govern it. with the dans. • •• being delivered by the determinate counsel and foreknowledge of God," inserted between. Yet, who d< not see that the whole force of that which was intended to 1 e conveyed by the sentence is thus gained, and could not otherwise be gained? Arranged according to the common rule, the sent. Mir.' would have been, " Ye have taken Him, being delivered by the determinate counsel and foreknow- Ledge of God, and by wicked hands have crucified and slain Him ; " and the whole force and poinl would have 1 n lost. 252. And parenthesis, in the case of clauses. — And as this necessity for bringing int<» prominence affi the position of words in sentences, so .hies it also thai of clauses. A clause ia often subordinate in the construction to Borne word or some other clause ; while it is the object of the writer to bring the subordinate, nol the principal, clause into prominence. And then. a< we Baw with regard to worda just now, the clause which is inferior in construc- tive importance is brought out and transposed, so that the reader's attention may be arrested by it. Or perhapa the writer feela the necessity of noticing a-, he passes on, certain particulars which will come in flatly, and s]><»il the balance of the sentence, if reserved lill their proper place. Such passing notices are called "parentheses, ' from a Greek word, meaning insertion by the way ;' and everj Buch inser- tion is a violation of the supposed aniversal rule of position. •J.".:;. Thus, for example, I am narrating a circumstance which, when it happened, excited my astonishment. Un- doubtedly the natural order of constructing the sentence would be to relate what happened first, and mi surprise at ii afterwards. " I was Looking at a man walking on the hank of tin- river, when he suddenly turned about, and plunged in, to mj grea1 surpri But who does not the miserable waj in which the last clause drags behind, rind Loses all force? We therefore take this clause out "t' A i n • the derivatii ]u! Wiiut then d to I tin for t' tlio prep litii n -it, ,i ': IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 97 its place, and insert it before that to which it applies, and with which it ought to be constructed : we word the sen- tence thus : "I was looking at a man walking on the bank of the river, when, to my great surprise, he suddenly turned round, and plunged in." I need not further illustrate so common a transposition : I will only say that it produces instances of violation of the supposed rule of arrangement in almost every extant page of good English; and in common conversation, every day, and all day long. 254. Sometimes these insertions are such obvious inter- ruptions to the construction, that they are marked off by brackets, and it is thus made evident that the sentence ih intended to flow on as if they did not exist ; but far more frequently they are without any such marks, and the common sense of the reader is left to separate them off for himself. It is impossible to write lucidly or elegantly without the use of these parenthetical clauses. Care ought of course to be taken that they be not so inserted as to mislead the reader by introducing the possibility of con- structing the sentence otherwise than as the writer intended. But at the same time it may be fearlessly stated, that not one of our best writers has ever been minutely scrupulous on this j mint: and that there does not exist in our language one great work in prose or in poetry, in which may not be found numerous instances of possible misconstruction arising from this cause. And this has not been from care- lessness, but because the writer was intent on expressing his meaning in good manly English, and was not anxious as to the faults which carping and captious critics might find with his style. 255. Lord Karnes gives a rule that " a circumstance ought never to be placed between two capital members of a sentence: or if so placed (I suppose he means, if it be so placed), the Jirxt word in the consequent member should be one that cannot connect it with what precedes." Any one on the look out for misunderstanding may convince himself by trial, thai tin 're is hardly a page in any English 1 ook which will not furnish him with instances of violation of this rule. 256. Examples. — Let my examples begin ai home. Take a sentence which occurred in a previous portion of this work : " certain persons fall, from their ignorance, into u 98 THE QUE EX'S ENQLI8H, absurd mistakes." The parenthetical clause here is " from their ignorance." It has been proposed to aineud it thus: "certain persons, in consequence of their ignorance, fall into absurd mistakes." Now this is not what I wanted to say ; at least it is a blundering and roundabout way of expressing it. The purpose is, to bring the fact stated into prominence: and this is done by making the verb "full " immediately follow its subject, " certain parsons." Accord- ing to the proposed arrangement, it is the fact of what is about to be stated being a consequence of their ignorance, which is put into the place of prominence and emphasis. Very well, then: having stated that they fall, and being about to say into what, it is convenient, in order to keep the sentence from dragging a comparatively unimportant clause at its end, to bring in that clause, containing the reason of the fall, immediately after the verb itself. To my mind, the clause, in spite of the possible ambiguity, reads far better with "/row" than with " in conttquenet of," which is too heavy and lumbering. The possibility of a ludicrous interpretation — tike falling from ignorom man falls from grace, <>r falls from virtue, is effectually precluded in the mind of any man who happens to remem- ber that ignorance is neither a grace nor a virtue. In con- templating the way in which our sentences will be under- stood, we are allowed to remember, thai we do nol write for idiots: and it musi require, to speak in the genteel language which Borne of my correspondents uphold, a m abnormal elongation of the auricular appends >r a re ider to have bu d to his mind a fall from the sub- lime he: -lit of ignorance down into the depth of a mistake. 7. Ellipses of auxiliary verbs.— What is to be our rale as to t be ellipses of auxiliary verb I? bat conditions may we leave nut the auxiliary of a second verb in a series of clauses, making thai of the firsl Berve for it P 3. Examples. -Take this sentence: "Would have been broken to pieces in a deep rut, or conic to grief in a bottom wamp." It might have keen said, that this a only be idled in thus, " Would have ba d broken to pieces or would have been come to grief ina bottomless swamp : " for a pari of a complei tense means Dothing without toe n il of the tense. Thai is, l supp IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 99 the whole of the auxiliary verbs which belong to the first verb in a sentence must also belong to all other verbs which are coupled to that first verb. Now, is this so ? I do not find that our best writers observe any such rule. In Deut. vi. 11; Israel is admonished, " When thou shalt have eaten and be full, beware lest thou forget the Lord." We all know that this means : " When thou shalt have eaten and shalt be full." But, according to the above-cited view, it must be filled up, " When thou shalt have eaten and shalt have be full." 259. From Scripture. — You might, by applying to the Bible the same treatment of which I have just been giving examples, show it to be full of ambiguities, which no one in all these generations has ever found out. Take examples from one chapter, Acts xxii. In verse 4, I read, "And I persecuted this way unto the death." This violates the sup- posed law of arrangement, and falls under the charge of ambiguity. The gospel might, according to these critics, be understood from it to be a ivay unto death instead of a way unto life. Take again verse 29, " Then they departed from him which should have examined him." Now we all know what this means. It is a more neat way of express- ing what would be the regularly arranged sentence, " Then they which should have examined him departed from him." But here again the captious and childish critic may find ambiguity — "Then they departed — from him which should have examined him." In Eom. xv. 31, St. Paul requests the Eomans to pray that he may be " delivered from them that do not believe in Judoea." According to our fidgetty friend, this ought to mean, those who refuse to assent to a geographical fact. 260. Grammar of our authorised version. — I must not, however, forget that some of my correspondents find it convenient to depreciate the language and grammar of our authorised version of Scripture. 1 I would recommend 1 One gentleman says : " When I was at school, it was the habit of my tutor to give his class specimens of bad English far correction. You will be surprised to hear, that those specimens were chiefly texts from Scripture. They were given with all reverence, nevertheless. It was because the readiest examples were to be had from the Bible, that any were taken from that source at all. Again, Shalcspeare is held up In- yon as a pattern tu modern grammarians. With all respect, [cannot understand how any man, with the education that you must have re- 100 THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH. them to try the ezperimenl of amending that langus They may then perhaps find that what the translators themselves once said is true. A story us told, thai they had a recommendation from a correspondent to alter a certain word in their version, giving five sufficienl reasons Eor the change. They are said to have replied thai t : had already considered the matter, and had fifteen sufficienl reasons against the change. I think if my correspondents .■an bring themselves to consider reasonably any passage in which the English grammar of our authorised version appears doubtful, they will find themselves in the Bams predicamenl as this correspondent of the translators. I have often tried the experiment, and this has generally I d the result. Mind, our presenl question is not thai of their having, adequately translated the Qreek, bul whether or not they wrote their own Lai rammatically and clearly. 261. Of Shakspeare. — Still, lest I should seem to he a •• man of one book only," I will give from OUT grea1 English writer, an instance (from anion- many) OX what ild be called a similar ambiguity. In the "Two Gentle- men of Verona," (act i. BC. 2,) Julia says : — •• 1 1 hateful hands, to tear roch loving wordal Injurioui wasps, to feed on such iweel honey, Ami kill the beet that yield it with your sting According to my correspondents, we oughl to understand this as saying that the bees yield the honey by means of t he wasps' st in J. Best way of proceeding in regard of such rules. — Bui I conceive we have had i b of th< called universal ml. . All 1 would a\ on them to my younger readers is. the less you know <- meaning must be, that Mr. Reenter employs tradition far, that it tarnishes him with the means of flying in IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 103 the face of tradition — of contradicting the whole scope and tenor of tradition — of doing, in fact, precisely the reverse of that which an actor would do who scrupulously followed tradition. Bad as this sentence is, it might be matched ten times over any day on the table of a reading-room. 268. The same term in different cases. — Can we, in an elliptic sentence, use the same term, once only ex- pressed, as doing duty both in the nominative and accusa- tive cases? The late famous Oxford Declaration of the Clergy described the Canonical Scriptures as " not only containing but being the Word of Grod." The meaning was sufficiently clear : but is the phrase correct ? I ven- ture to think that it is not, and that it should rather have been said "not only containing the Word of Cod, but themselves being the Word of God." Both pi-ecision and propriety are thus better secured. 269. Indeed we may venture to lay it down as a rule, that in sentences where several forms of speech converge, so to speak, on one term, that term is better expressed or indicated after each of them, than reserved to be expressed or indicated once only at the end of all. " He not only requested an introduction to, but received with the utmost courtesy, placed himself by the side of, and from that day kept up friendly intercourse with, my young protege," is far better written, " He not only requested an introduction to my young protege, but received him with the utmost courtesy, placed himself by his side, and from that day kept up friendly intercourse with him." In this sentence, the change for the better is obvious : in many others, con- structed in the former manner, it may not be so plain : but that the change is for the better, if judiciously made, will I think in every case be ultimately apparent. 270. Position of adverbs : " only." — Much has been said by my various correspondents about the placing of adverbs and other qualifying terms ' in respect of the verbs or nouns with which they are connected; and the dispute has turned especially on the situation of the adverb "only," with regard to its verb. " Did yon see a man and a woman ? " " No ; I only saw a mom." This is our ordi- 1 See this expression justified below, pnrngmih 370. /: QUI JBXGl 1 nary colloquial English. Is I • the ped down on us, an : ; it is 1 I< i want your adverb 'only' to qualify, nol your aci ing, but ili" number of ; h »m y< The proper opposition to 'I only m //'would ,/ man, 1 or '/ sa touched him.'' 8 • far the pedant; now Eor common Bense. Common sense al once replies, " I beg the pedant's pardon ; he says I didn'1 be adverb 'only' to qualify my a ■: " ( ' -• ing. I I did. For what was the aci of seeinj The two things to be opposed are two of Beeing. Seeing a man. ami ing a man ami a woman, h was not the same sight. I o Ly performed theone; 1 did qoI go further, and per- the other. I only saw a man ; I did □ a man : ;! woman." Of COUne ill" Other way is right also, an !. strictly speaking, the more technically • of the .-. I. m it by no means follows thai the more exad i pression is also the better English. Very often we cannot have • cactness and smooth ber. Wherever this i B i , e, i!i" harsher mel lod of constructing the sen- tence is. in colloquial English, abandoned, even at the risk of exactness and school rules. The adverb "only," in many sentences where strictly Bpeaking it oughl to follow eerb and to limit the objects of the verb, is in good English placed before the verb. 271. I. * as tal sample of this from tl i storehou is of g 1 English, our A.uth the ires, in Ps. lxii. r. •■■ read, " They only consull i him down from his excellency;" i.e., their consulta- tion is on abject only, bow t i ca I bim down. also .Malt. \iv. 86. 272. The account of the matter 1 this : J maj n e m\ advi rb " only " where two thir of which are affected by the iction, to qualify the jhed from the other, or 1 may, if I will, lie the action into two parts, the one having regard to Mi thin | acted on, and the other bai I to the other; and I may make use of mj adverb to qualify one part of the action as compared with the other. [I I say, ••///•/// , yon* thing more" I mean, thai being , I will < ofine that action I and IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 105 not extend it to any more ; if I say, " I will only state one thing more" I mean that all I will do is, to make one state- ment, not more. But our gentlemen with their rules nev< r look about to see whether usage is not justified; they find a sentence not arranged as their books say it ought to be, and it is instantly set down as wrong, in spite of the common sense and practice of all England being against them. 273. " Both." — This last-mentioned adverb is not the only word whose position is thus questioned : " both " is another. This word, we are told, should always be placed strictly before the former of the words to which it belongs in the sentence, not before the verb or noun which applies equally to the two. Thus, if I say " They broke down both the door of the stable and of the cellar," I am charged with having violated the rules of good English. The pedant would have it, " They broke down the door both of the stable and of the cellar." Now, to my mind, the difference between these two sentences is, that the former is plain colloquial English : the latter is harsh and cramped, and could not have been written by a sensible man, but only by a man who thought less about conveying the sense of what he said, than about the rules by which his expression should be regulated. But let us see how the great masters of our English tongue wrote. Let us balance Shakspeare against Lindley Murray. In the "Tempest," (act i. sc. 2,) Prospero tells Miranda that the usurping Duke of Milan, her uncle, '' Having both the key Of officer and office, set all hearts i* th' state To what tune pleased his ear." This is, of course, a clear violation of the rule ; according to which the words ought to have run, "having the hey of both officer and office." 274. " The three first Gospels." — As connected with the question of the arrangement of words, I may mention that I have been in controversy, firsl and last, with several people, 1 while I have been engaged on mj edition of the Greek Testament, about the expression "the three first 1 See paragraph -172, bel w. 106 tUF. QUJSE1PB ENGLISH. Gosj'i Is." My correspondents invariably in;iint;iin that this expression, which I always use, must be an oversight, ami that I OUghl to say "the first three Gospels." I should like to argue this oul ; and the present Beemi a good opportunity for doing so. 275. There arc Four Gospels, as we all know. And such is the distinctive character of the three which are placed first, as compared with the one which is placed last, that it often becomes necessary to speak of the three, and the one in two separate classes. It is in doing so thai I Bay " the three first Gospels," and my correspondents want me to say •• the first three Gospels." Which of the two is right? or, if both are right, which of the two is the betti 276. .My riew is this. The whole number is divided into two classes: tine first class, and the last class. To the former of these belong three: to the latter belongs one. There are three thai are ranged under the description "first:" and there is one that is ranged under the description "last." Just in this way are the two classes spoken of in that Baying of our Lord, "There arc last which shall be first, and there are first which shall be last." (Luke xiii. 30.) It is not iv thai one only should be Bpoken of as first, and one only as last, as this quotation shows. The whole class is first, as compared with the whole other class which is last. Of twelve persons I may make two i lasses, and speak- of the five first, and the seven last. This [g correct and Logical way of Bpeaking. The opposition be- tween the two cla as staid and complete, as when I say that of twelve men there are ( i \ < • tall and Beven short. If then I wish to divide twelve men into two classes, I say. and 1 maintain I say rightly, the five first and (hi last. 1 1 I wish to divide the four Gospels into I •■■ I say. aid maintain I say rightly, the thru first Gospels, and the last I rospeL 'J77. No* lei as trj the correctness of the other exi sion. " ihe first threi Gospels" Used in common talk.it would of course convey the same idea ai the "titer. Bui that is not our preseni question. Our question is, which of the two is the more precise and correct? When I say '•Hi' first three," the idea presented to the mind is, thai I a in j ak of another three, which shall be ■• ' in IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 107 contrast to them. The proper opposition to " a tall man " is " a short man," not a short stick. When therefore I take twelve men, and dividing them into two classes, speak of the tall five and the short seven, I may be intelligible, but I certainly am not speaking precisely nor properly. And so when I take four Gospels, and, dividing them into two classes, speak of "the first three," and " the last one" I may be complying with technical rules, but I maintain that I am not complying with the requirements of common sense, and therefore neither with those of good English. 278. A correspondent writes: — "As to the ' three first Gospels,' your explanation is clear. But would it be right to say, ' in the three first weeks of the quarter, the receipts were below the average ? ' and if not, why not ? " In my opinion, it would be perfectly right to speak thus ; and in the particular instance given, "the three first weeks" would be better than " the first three weeks," for another reason ; that " three weeks " being a not unusual designa- tion of the portion of time extending over three weeks, the expression, " the first three weeks" would fail to direct the attention to the receipts week by week, which appears to be the desire of the speaker. 279. Another correspondent says, " I should once have sided with your opponents as to ' the three first Gospels : ' but I am convinced by your arguments." " I think, how- ever," he continues, "you would not defend what we often hear from the pulpit, or even more commonly from the clerk's desk. ' In the third chapter of St. John, the three last verses, are these words : ' Or, ' Let us sing the three first and the three last verses of the 92nd Psalm.' " 280. To this I answer, Why not? The "three first" verses are, the three verses whose place, with reference to the rest, is first. It is only a short way of saying, the three verses which come first : and so of the "three hist.' 1 Look at our daily procession into church. ^V l»;tt is the order? The Choristers are first : First, is a quality which may be predicated of them just as being in white surplices may be : they are the twelve tirst in order: or more briefly, they are " the twelve first." Then come the Lay Clerks, tin- twelve next in order, or in brief, "the twelve next." Then come the clergy, the four, or seven, or twelve lust. 108 THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH. 281. Hardly any good English so much wrath expended on it as this "three first," or "three last." It was hut the other day that I had a whole vial of scorn poured over me because 1 have used ii in my" edition the Greek Testament: the Reviewer being of course aware thai this is done of malice prepense, and I is believed to be _'. One another. — Oughl we to say, "h hind to r," or " be hind one to another" ' The lal ter La beyond question th<' more correct, and is found in the English sion of the Scriptun uch ph " Be Kindly affectioned one to another in brotherly Loi But the form< r ha idiomatic, aud the other would sound pedantic in conversal ion. t. The history of the inaccuracy may I «• iln:s tr. When we say, •• Love one another," " one another " ia nol a compound word in the objective case after the verb, bul is two words, tin- former in the nominative, the latter in the objective case : in Latin, " Diligite aliua alium:" one love another. Bui the ear has become so accustomed to the Bound <>i' " om am th r " pronounot d together, thai we have come to regard thai sound as indicating a compound word, and to treat it as Buch after a preposit ion. 284. Each other— The same is the with "each other." " Love each other," is •• Love each the other : " and sowlirn a preposition intervenes, we ought properly "Each • the other." Bu1 we d>> not, and never shall. Idi< - prevailed, even \ ttablished in a mistake, i nt, propriety. .. Confused use of "he" and "it.' Paull has l n found with me by some of m) corre pondents and . for the confused use, aa thej are pleased to i it, of the personal pronouns "he" and "it." Now here ia another matter on which thej and I are entirely al issue. A rule ia cited from Dr. I II. thai "wh< th.- pronoun 'he' will be ami . because two or more males happen to be mentioned in the Bame clause "i a sentence, we oughl alwa another turn to the i in, or to use the uoun itsell and nol the pronoun: when th-- repetition of a word u issary, ii is nol off- Hi-- translators of the Bible," continui - Dr. I IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 109 " have often judiciously used this method: I say judiciously, because though the other method be on some occasions preferable, yet, by attempting the other they would have run a much* greater risk of destroying " (he means " a much greater risk, namely, that of destroying ") "that beautiful simplicity which is an eminent characteristic of Holy Writ. I shall take an instance from the speech of Judah to his brother Joseph in Egypt : ' We said to my lord, the lad cannot leave his father, for if he should leave his father, his father would die.' The words ' his father ' are in this short verse thrice repeated, and yet are not disagree- able, as they contribute to perspicuity. Had the last part of the sentence run thus : 'if he should leave his father he would die,' it would not have appeared from the expression whether it was the child or the parent that would die." 286. So far Dr. Campbell, "Philosophy of Ehetoric." Now it so happens, that although Dr. Campbell lias been able to find an instance to illustrate his point, this is a matter about which the translators of the Bible, and in- deed the best of our English writers, care very little ; of this, numerous instances might be produced out of our English Bible. I will content myself with two : the first from 2 Kings i. 9 : " Then the king sent unto him a captain of fifty with his fifty : and he went up to him : and behold, he sat on the top of an hill." To common sense it is plain enough who is meant in each case by he and him, and I don't suppose a mistake was ever made about it: but the sentence is in direct violation of Dr. Campbell's rule. Again, in Luke xix. 3, 4, we read of Zaccheus: "And In- sought to see Jesus who he was ; and could not for the press, because he was little of stature. And he ran before, and climbed up into a sycamore tree to see him : for he was to pass that way." Now here you see the pronouns " he" and "him" are used indiscriminately, sometimes of our Lord, sometimes of Zaccheus : and yet every die known to whom to apply each of them. The caviller might find ambiguity over and over again; and accordingly one of my censors says of this very example, " you surely do not defend the construction of these sentences?" All lean toll him is, they run thus in the original: and this, our 110 the (pienees of attempting ii anyone may see who will spend an hour with the Statutes at la< 'Jack v.as very respectful to Tom, and always took off his hat when he met him. Jack was very rude to Tom. and always knocked off his hat when he met him.' Will anv one pretend that either of these sentences is ambiguous in meaning, or unidiomatic in expression P Vet critics of the class now before us are bound to contend thai Jack showed his respeci ly taking off Tom's bat, or else that he show. .| his rudeness ly knocking off hi- own. It is useli n to multiply examples ; no i k was ever written thai could stand ;i hostile examination in this spirit: and on. 'that COUld stand it would 1..' totally unreadable." 288. I will add a to -how the usefulr. on certain occasions, of these penny-wise grammarians. The churchward) as of a pari h Dear Bristol, ha\ ing reason to make a presentation to the Bishop, mel to draw it up. Churchwarden A broughl the draft, beginning, "My Lord . . ." Bui Churchwarden B man of education, with the rule i t grammar i •-• v on his tongue. " M\ course incorrect, where the "pi ore" were two person 'lie- presentation, he maintained, oughl to i ,• IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. \\\ corrected ; and it narrowly escaped going up to the Bishop addressed to him as " Our Lord . . ." 1 289. Does "than " govern an accusative case ? — What are we to think of the question, whether "than" does' or does not govern an accusative case? "than I:" "than me:" which is right? My readers will probably answer without hesitation, the former. But is the latter so certainly wrong ? We are accustomed to hear it stig- matised as being so ; but I think, erroneously. Milton writes, (" Paradise Lost," ii. 299,)— " Which when Beelzebub perceived, than whom, Satan except, none higher sat." And thus every one of us would speak : " than who " would be intolerable. And this seems to settle the question. 290. Two ways of constructing " than." — The fact is, that there are two ways of constructing a clause with a comparative and "than." You may say either "than I" or " than me." If you say the former, you use what is called an elliptical expression : i.e., an expression in which something is left out ; — and that something is the verb " am." " He is wiser than I," being filled out, would be, " He is wiser than I am : " " He is wiser than me," is the direct [and complete construction. The difference between the two usages seems to be this : and it is curiously con- firmative of what has been sometimes observed, that men in ordinary converse shrink, in certain cases, from the use of the bare nominative of the personal pronoun. Where solemnity is required, the construction in the nominative is used. Our Lord's words will occur to us (John xiv. 28), " My Father is greater than I." But in ordinary conver- sation this construction is generally avoided, as sounding too weighty and formal. In colloquial talk we commonly say either "Ho is older than me," or perhaps more fre- quently, "He is older than I am." And so with the other personal pronouns, he, she, we, and they. 291. Dr. Latham in mentioning this cons! ruction (to which, however, lie prefers the other) quotes from Prior, " Thou art a girl, as much brighter than her, As he is a poet Bublimer than me : " and from Swift, " You are a much greater loser than me." 1 See Apj endix, 112 THE QUEEN 1 S ENGLISH. But he does not treat "than whom,*' an uon which Leaves do choice, as aot admitting of an elliptic con s t r uction, i which therefore, as above observed, seems decisive. 292. Still it is urged that "than me" cannot be light: or can only be right when "me" is necessarily in govern- ment, as in the Bentence, " He likee yon better than me." I i do no moiv in reply, than urge the necessity of Baying, ••than whom," to show that "//<(/» "can and d dly govern an objective case by its own power, and th< ma; rn M me," or " him." or " her," or " them," if choose SO to construct the sentence. 298. It is me. — The mention of the nominative and msative of the persona] pronoun • oof inaptly introduce a discussion of the well-known and muoh con- erted phrase, "It is me." Now this is an expression which every one uses. Grammarians (of the smaller order) protest: schoolmasters (of the lower kind) prohibit and chastise; I. nt English mm. women, and children go on ing it, and will go on Baying it as long as the English langua poken. Sere isa phenomenon worth account- ing for. " Not at all so, 1 »ur censors: " don't trouble yourself about it; it is a mere vulgarism. L ave it off yourself, and ir\ to persuade every one else to leave it off." !. Bui I cannot. I write a letter inviting a friend win. is very particular on these points, to come to Cant bury. I writ-' in some fear and trembling. All my adverbs are (what I should call) misplaced, that I maj i offend him. Bui at last, 1 am obliged to trai .in if my good resolutions. I am promising to meet him at t he :■ tal ion. and I - to v. rite : " if you the plat form ' an - 1 /.' that will be 1 Bui my pen reft iction (to end i . I believi 1 bu [cam ; i ' be c instruction. " Thai will in it, in b] kid, of my resoh e t be besl po« jil le 1 or. . i I DUB, that in the indepen- h ted • v. ill he me ("r I >." no difference v, batever in if t he | | >un he made by its pre\ ruction in the Tic : an apol >gj : hut it 1 IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 113 "been actually maintained that the accusative is right in this clause, because the personal pronoun represents a noun governed by the verb "see": "that will be me [you will see]." 296. Dr. Latham's opinion. — Let us see what a real grammarian says on the matter : one who does not lay down rules only, but is anxious to ascertain on what usages are founded. Dr. Latham, in his admirable "History of the English Language," (p. 586,) says, "We may .... call the word me a secondary nominative : inasmuch as such phrases as it is vie = it is I, are common. To call such expressions incorrect English, is to assume the point. No one says that c'est moi is bad French, and c'est je is good. The fact is that, with us, the Avhole question is a question of degree. Has or has not the custom been sufficiently prevalent to have transferred the forms me, ye, and you, from one case to another? Or perhaps we may say, is there any real custom at all in favour of J, except so far as the grammarians have made one? It is clear that the French analogy is against it. It is also clear that the personal pronoun as a predicate may be in a different analogy from the personal pronoun as a subject." 297. And in another place, (p. 584,) he says : "What if the current objections to such expressions as it is me (which the ordinary grammarians would change into it is I), be unfounded, or rather founded upon the ignorance of this difference (the difference between the use of the pronoun as subject and as predicate)? That the present writer de- fends this (so-called) vulgarism may be seen elsewhere. It may be seen elsewhere, that he finds nothing worse in it than a Frenchman finds in c'est moi, where, according to the English dogma, c'est je would be the right expression. Both constructions, the English and the French, are predi- cative : and when constructions arc predicative, ;i change is whal we must expel rather than he surprised at." 298. The account which Dr. Latham has here given, is doubtless the right one. There is a disposition, when the personal pronoun is used predicativclv, to jint it info the accusative case. That this is more prevalent in the pro- noun of the first person singular than in the other perhaps arise from the fact which Dr. Latham bos < i 114 Till: QUEEN'S ENGLISH. where established, that me is aol the proper, but only the adopted accusative of /. being in fad a distinct and inde- pendent form of the personal pronoun. As he elsewhere expresses it, "They (J and me) an not only two words, but the names for two different ideas." But it may fairly be asked, whence arises this disposition to shrink from the use of the nominative casein the predicate':' For it d not apply to all instances where the pronoun is predica- tive. "He said unto them, it is I : be not afraid." This is a capital instance; for it shows us at ..nee why the nominative should be Bometimes used. The Majesty of the Speaker here, and His purpose of re-assuring the dis- ciples by the assertion thai it was none other than Him- self, at once point out to us the case in which ii would be proper for the nominative, and not the accusative, to be used. 1 299. " It is him," " it is her." — Dr. Latham goes on to say. after the first of my two citations, (p. 587,) "At the same time it must be observed, thai the expression, ii is me = it is I, will not justify the use of ii is htm, it is h< r = it is he, and ii i.< she. Me, ye, you, are what may be called indifferent forms, i.e., nominative as much as accusative, and accusative as much as nominative fft'wi and her, on the other hand, arc not indifferent. The ->» and -<•. are pectively the Bigns of cases other than the nominate • Bui is this quite oonsistenl with the idea that the categorical use of the pronoun i'i the predicate may be different from that of the same prOUOUU BS 8 BUDJectf Mi may aol have been the original accusative case of / : bul it is unquestionably the adopted accusative, in constant i inch. Where lies the difference, grammatically, between it is me, and ii is him, or ii is her, as far as present u- is concerned r [1 seems to me that, if we are prepared to defend the one, we ought in consistency also to defend the other. When, in the tngoldsby legend, the monks of Rheit haw the | r anathematised jackdaw appear, " Regard! of grammar, they ened out, 'That's him!' And I must show an e.pial disregard of vohai ordinarily \<< if vs.- would give a oorred account of the 1 The predicate In the jusstion, " Is it 1 ? " (Mntt. x\u. M), is hardly I :it. IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. H5 prevalent usages of our language. At all events, in so doing we shall be following our best writers. Cowley has, " Say what thou wilt, Chastity is no more Thee, than a porter is his door." 1 301. There is one form of construction which is some, times regarded as coming under the present question, but 1 I venture to reprint here, as of great interest, Mr. Ellis's letter to the " Reader," of May 7, 1864 :— '"IT'S ME.' " To the Editor of ' The Header.' "Colney Hatch Park, 30 April, 1864. " Sir,— In reference to your remarks on it's me in your notice of Dean Alford's 'Plea for the Queen's English,' I consider that the phrase it is /is a modernism, or rather a grammaticism — that is, it was never in popular use, but was introduced solely on some grammatical hypo- thesis as to having the same case before and after the verb it. It does not appear to have been consonant with the feelings of Teutonic tribes to use the nominative of the personal pronouns as a predicate. To them — and therefore to English people — it is I is just as strange as est ego, tori iyw, would be to Latin or Greek. These last languages require ego sum, iyio tipi (Matt. xiv. 27 ; Mark vi. 50 ; John vi. 20). The pre- dicate was here simply omitted. In Gothic we have precisely the same construction, ik im (John \i. 20). The English Wyclittite translations both give I am. But the Anglo-Saxon version, like the modern German, is not content with leaving the predicate unexpressed, and we find ic hit eom; High German, ich bin es • literally, / am it; namely, that which you tee. The Heliand paraphrase is very explicit (Schmeller's ed., p. 90, line 2), ' Ik hium that bam Godes ' (' I am the Son of God '). The Welsh and Gaelic try to be emphatic, the first saying myfiydyw (q. d. myself am), and the second, is mite a ta ann (q. d. it's myself that's living). But of course wc do not look to these languages as a guide to English. The Danish is very peculiar and important on account of its intimate re- lation with English. As in English, the dative and accusative cases of the personal pronouns now coincide in Danish, Jeg } mig (I, mc); Da, dig (thou, thee) ; Han, ham (he, him). We find the following rule laid down in Tobiesen's Danische Spracklehre (Sternhagen's ed., 1S28, p. 215) : — ' After the impersonal verbs, dot rrand dct bliver (it is), the per- sonal pronouns^W/, du. han are not used in the nominative, but in the dative, as drr er mig der bar gjort det (it's me that did it) ; dot er dig, i har van-! mettt r <•'< rfor (irS thee who was its master) ; det blivt r It so, a ri ville lair med (it's him that we wish to speak with) ; [where also the construction of the relative and preposition is English] ; and similarly in the plural s det er os,jer, dem (it's us, you, them).' This is perfectly explicit, and shows the same construction as the English ; but. in the Testament, the wish to be uncolloquial has apparently forced the trans- 116 Tin: (>rr/.ws ENGLISH. with which, in fai 1. I mean that occurring in such phrases ae " V » didn't know it t>> •• / ied it t<> l>r him." In these, the accusative ca ;i r«- simj.lv in government, and nominal ives would I"- ;il t « >- ther angrammaticaL The verb subetantive takes the same case after it as went before it. It is in bet, in to . equivalent to as, or as being. " You didn't h it to be 7." would be equivalent to "yon didn't n m it ."' which of course would be wrong. _'. -You and I," accusative. — A correspondent tea in-' to notice " a usage now becoming prevalent among persons who ought to know better: viz. thai of 'von and It* after prepositions governing the accusative." Il<' gives an instance from "Bothwell/'a poem by Professor Aytoun, . L99): u But it wore vain for von and I In single fight our Strength to try." On the impropriety of this there can of course be only one opinion. "Perhaps," my correspondent adds, "Pn Aytoun may have read 'John Gilpin,' and, innocent bim- ; of rorkneyisms, may have supposed that it is good English to say " On horeebai k after we." 803. "As thee."— When Thomson, in "Rule Britain wrotr "The nations not so blest as thee," was he writing red English! I venture to think- he was. As, 1 1 U « • than, is capable of being used in two distinct constru the elliptic, and the complete. "Ae thou" is the elliptic later t depart from the usual custom when the words aro given to Jesus, luit be returns to it when they are echoed by I'eter (Mult. xir. . II- rrr, a ba b Je aid, h i> I ; but Peter laid, Lord, if il The conclusion seems to be thai good ICnglish, and n purism. \\Y have now, I think, come to regard the e form hi the i onoun as a form, and 1 1 1 i — n il: he I tones Mill saj cili We are therefore in the dition as the French with h we have not qu i •'! tlicir ' lui d dn't dare '). " AutXAirosa J. Eli [( «iii be curious if, titer all, II proved that our mueb> I hraso is the real)) good English, and its rival "a mistaken purism." IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 117 construction, requiring the verb substantive for its com- pletion, "as thou art." "As thee," like "than whom," is the complete construction, in which the conjunction of comparison has a quasi-prepositional force, and governs the pronoun in the objective case. The construction cited from Sir Walter Scott by one of mj critics as faulty, " Yet oft in Holy Writ we see Even such weak minister as me May the oppressor bruise," is perfectly correct : not, it is true, the usual form of ex- pression, or the more elegant, but one to Avhich, on purely grammatical grounds, there is no objection. The attempt which my critic makes to convict it of error by assuming it to be' the elliptical form, such . . . as me (am), only shows how much some of us need reminding of the first principles of the syntax of our language. 304. A correspondent enquired whether Pope's lines, '• Who shall decide when doctors disagree, And soundest casuists doubt, like you and me ? r ' involve a grammatical error — whether they ought not to end "like you and I?" Here the answer is very plain. The querist has been misled by the elliptical theory of such clauses, fancying that the verb " doubt " should be supplied at the end, and that " like you and me " must be wrong, because we cannot say " like you and me doubt." But, as we shall see further on (par. 470), " like you and I doubt" is an inadmissible vulgarism : and in consequence, the elliptical construction is here out of the question. " Like " ( = like unto) governs both personal pronouns in the objective case. If precedents are created for this, we have them in abundance : " There was none like thee before thee" (1 Kings iii. 12): "Others said He is like him" (John ix. 9), and often. A nominative ease after "like" is never found. 305. Use of " of." — We have said something of super- fluous preposti ions : let us remark on the use of prepositions themselves. The preposition "of" is sometimes hardly dealt with. When I read in an article in the Times, on a late annexation, "What can the Emperor possibly want of these provinces of Savoy ? " I saw at once that the writer 118 THE QUEEN 1 B EN0LI8B. mus1 be a native of the midland counties, where your friends complain that you have not "called of them of n long time." Now in this case it is not the expression. l>ut the Bense meanl to be conveyed by it, thai is objectionable. •• What can the Emperor want of these [provinces?" is very g 1 English, it" we mean "Whal request has he to mare of these provinces?" But if we mean, as the Tine*' writer evidently did, ""What does he want with the pro- vinces?" i.e., "What need lias he of them?" then it is a \ algorism. : . There is a peculiar use of prepositions, which is allowable in moderation, but must nol be too often resorted to. It is the placing them at the end of a sentence, asl have just done in the words "resorted to;" as is done in the command, "Lei nol your good be evil spoken of;" and continually in our discourse and writing. 807. Prepositions at the end of sentences. — The account to be i:i ven < if this is, that the preposition, which the verb usually takes after it, is regarded as forming a pari of the word itself. To epeak of, to reeori /".are hardly verbs and prepositions, bu1 form in each case almosi one word. Hill let ns ••""11. ••Where do VOU come from r " is the only way of putting thai inquiry. "Whence come _\"u':'' is of course pedantic, though accurate. "Where are you going to? " tly like the other question, but here we usually drop the "to" merely because the adverb of reel "where," has come to be used for the adverb of in"ti"ii " whither," and therefore the "to" is nol w If a man < 1 1< • West-COUntry men ni">tl_v .1", to ■• Where are noii ^"iii"; t«>: " he does ii"t violate proprii though he does violate custom. Bu1 Lei us go further .still. i ing t" has nol onlj s local, it has also a mental meaning, being equivalent to intending in the mind. And this n- M exactly the same basis .1- the other. The "to" of the inliniti\e m I is precisely the same preposition as the "to" of motion tow place. " Were you going to do it F "' simply means " Were you, in your mental intention, approaching the doing of il \ 1 n 1 the proper convei bona] answer to Buch a question is. •• I was going to," or " T was 1 1 • > 1 i,i;i\ I 6 : ii"t •" I was -," i; h> r. An instance of this in the English Vi >1 the Bible in the beginning of '. There we n el. in th< tal, thai 81 . Paul find rtain disci] ] I them, " 1 >id the Holy Ghosl when ye believed — when ye firsl be- came beli< To thi t tl " Vve did not much as bear whether there wen B j Ghost." which St. Paul asked them. " Unto what then w< re ye baptized i pli< d, ' Unto the baptism of John." Then be explained to them that John's I ing .i of i i, did aol bring w ith it t he i "I call," tin- i tlii <■ of u gi nt k man « b " Ue dido Ho did ' IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 121 gift of the Holy Ghost. In this account, all is clear. But the English Version, hy an unfortunate mistake, has rendered the narrative unintelligible. It has made St. Paul ask the converts, " Have ye received the Holy Ghost since ye believed ? " So far, indeed, all would be clear ; for they certainly had not, though this does not represent what was said by the Apostle. But it is their answer which obscures the history : " We have not so much as heard," they are made to say, " whether there be any Holy Ghost." Strange indeed, that these disciples, who had probably been for years in the Church, should during that time, and up to the time when St. Paul spoke, never have heard of the existence of the Holy Spirit. Eender the words accu- rately, and all is clear. 312. " Was being written." — I am now going to speak of a combination of words which is so completely naturalised, that it would be vain to protest against it, or even to attempt to disuse it one's self. I mean, the joining together of a present and a past participle, as we do when we say " The letter was being written," " The dinner is being cooked." Such combinations were, I believe, not used by our best and most careful writers, until a comparatively recent date. The old and correct way of expressing what is meant by these phrases was, " The letter was in writing," or "was writing;" "The dinner is cooking:" the verbs being used in a neuter sense. The objection to " being written" for "in the process of writing" is this, — that " written " is a past participle, indicating a finished act. 11 I say " I have written a letter," I mean, I have by me, or have as my act accomplished, a letter written. So that " being written" properly means, existing in a state of completion. "My I iter being written, I put it in the post." And, strictly speaking, we cannot use the combination to signify an incomplete action. Still, as I have Baid, the in- accuracy has crept into the language, and is now found everywhere, in Bpeech and in writing. The only thing we can do in such a case is to avoid it, where it can be avoided without violation of idiom, or giving harshness to the sentence. 313. "Shall" and "will."— The next point which I notice shall be the use of the auxiliaries "shall" and "will" Now here we are at once -truck by a curious 1 -2 2 THE QUEEN* S / \< : 1. 1 8 u. phenomenon. I never knew as Englishman who misplaced "thaJX " and " fill : " I hardly ever have known an Irishman ora Scotchman who did n<>t misplace them sometimes. And it is itrange to ohserve how incurable the propensity is. It was l.nt the other day that I asked ;i person Bprungof Irish blood, whether he would be a1 a certain bouse to which I was goinu' that evening. The answer was, " I'm afraid I uxm't." Eel my friend is a sound and accurate jliah scholar and writer, and I had never before, during all the years I had known him, discovered any trace of the ter island. :;il. Iii attempting to give an explanation of our English usage, I may premise that it is exceedingly difficull to W< -'iii t.> proceed rather (.n instinct, than by any fixed rule. Vet instinct, in rational beings, must be founded OH some inherent fitness of things; and exaniina- tion oughl to be able to detect that fitness. Let as tr\ do lliis. though it may he difficult, in the . fore U& 815. "I will." — The simplest example that can be given is " / will" Now this can have bul one meaning. It can only he used as expressing determination: only, where the will of the person Bpeaking is concerned. " Wilt thou have this woman to tliv wedded wife'r" Answer. "I will" (in the Latin, "volo*'). We cannot use "2 will,*' where a mere contingent future event is concerned, cannot us "1 will" of anything uncertam, anything about which we ho] r fear. "Help me. I'll fali." if strictly interpreted, would lean entreaty to be saved from an of wilful precipitation. " I fear I won't" is an impossible and unmeaning junction ofterma If it meant anything, it could only be, "I fear that, when the time comes, my power of volition will he Found to,, weak for its work." But this is obviously aot what it i-, intended to m< The account then <.f ■• / will rj simple. 816. "I shall."- Now, what is"I«aoK"f [nitsordi- nary use, it just tak< of things future, white ■• / will " cannot be said i tho . bere the thh en of are independent of our own will. " ' / / ihall l" twenty-am " an event quite out of my own power. Bo tar, all ii plain. But there ii / ill" which somewhat complicates the matter. We are IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 123 in the habit, when announcing something which we posi- tively mean to do, to speak of it as if it were taken, so to say, out of the region of our own will, and placed among things absolutely certain ; and in such cases we turn " will " into "shall." The traveller meets with incivility, or he cannot find his luggage at the station. He breaks forth, in angry mood, "I shall write to the * Times ' about this," — and he means the station-master to conclude that his writing is as certain as if it were already done. The " shall " is intended to elevate the •' will " into the category of things indisputable. 317. " You will."— So far then for " will" and " shall" when used in the first person. But how when used in the second? Let us take " You will." "You will" is used when speaking to another person of a matter entirely out of the speaker's power and jurisdiction. " You will be twenty-one next Tuesday." " If you climb that ladder you will fall." This is the ordinary use. Here again there is an exception, which I cannot well treat till I have spoken of " You shall." 318. " You shall."—" You shall" or " You shall not " is said to another, when the will of the speaker compels that which is spoken of. " Thou shalt love the Lord thy God." " Thou shalt not steal" 319. Exceptions.— The exceptions to both these usages may be stated thus, and they are nearly related to that of which I spoke when on the first person. A master writes t<> his servant, " On the receipt of this you will go" or " you will please to go," " to such a place." This is treating the obedience of tin- servant as a matter of certainty, sure to follow of course on his lord's command. The exception in the use of " shall " is that we may say, for instance, " If you look through History, you shall find that it has always been so," and the account of it seems to be, that the speaker feels as perfect a certainty of the result, as if it were not contingent, but depended only on his absolute command. 320. " Will " and " shall " in the third person.— It remains that we consider the words " will" and "shall" as applied in the third person ; said of persona and things spoken about. And here, what has already been Baid will 124 THE QUEEN* 8 ENGLISH. be a sufficient guide in ordinary cases. For all annoui ments of common c\ en in the future, " will " lit.- word to be a •!. " / think it will rain before night." •■ Tomorrow will I"- <nh be in C here niirnwii will, or choi< e, or power, ex< rcia influence over the events spoken of: as for in . *' The sun shall not set to-night T find out tl ." "Next Tuesday ahull bt the ■/." Notice, yon would not say, " Ni ■! Tuesd birthday : "yon must Bay, " W< ■■/ Tuesday fill be my birthday:' I thai is a matter over which you h no o>!itr<>l: but the Queen migli . "Next Tuesday shall b< my birthday ; " I ecause Bhe would mean, "shal h< j'l as my birthday" a matter over which she has control. 821. Instances of almost indifferent usage. — There are some very delicate and curious of the almost indifferent u a i of the two auxiliary verbs. 'I this one. " If he will look, he will find ittobeso." Her use the firsl " will" in the Bense of "eh " // he please to look" But the second has its mere future a " he will find that it is so." Sere however we might i though ii would be somewhat pedantic English, the word '//■' in both memb " If he shall . he shall find it t ." and then the former "shall" would be in the Bense of a mere future, and the second in that sense of absolute certainty, " / will undertake thai la- shall find," of which I Bpoke ju>t now. This Bent mighl in fact be correctly sai and so. The Germans use their "so//," in reporting the conclusions or belief of others, in ly the same Bense. 328. Confusion of "shall" and •will." — An amus- ing instance of the confusion of shall and will was repeated to me by another Scottish correspondent. A young nun's "Institute for Discussion and Self-improvement, is re- ported in a Scottish provincial paper to have met, and dis- cussed the question, "Shall the material universe be d> . - troyt'dr" My correspondenl supposes that the decision was in the negative : or thai if it was in the affirmative, the society cannot have pr Led to carry its resolution into effi 329. Dr. Latham's account of this. — I believe Dr. Latham, in his " History of the English Limoia. was the first to observe thai the confusion in such cases is more apparent than real. The Englishman and the Scotch- man mean the same thing, but express it differently. \ may s,iy either, "the material universe will be destroyed," expressing merely something which will happen someday in the future: or we may say "the material universe ehau be destroyed," in which case we put more solemnity and emphasis into our announcement, and treal it ae something inevitable, pronouncing almosl as if we were exercising our own will in the matter. When we turn the assertion into question, we say, " Will the material universe be d< troyedi "the Scotchman says, " Shall the material univ< i Lestroyed P " Bie mean-, to put, as a question, what we mi ant , v. hen we used shall in t he assertion. But be it ob- 1 u I wonder, respondent, " yon bai ran the story of the In hman « im fell Into the water,' I will be drowned, nobody thai] tare me. 1 " I bats not, because I hold it to beaelumsy Inrentl HI be drowned," would be the natural exclamation of Paddy, bol not • a \>iih ml the emphasis * bicb tlu reqnii IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 127 served, that in turning the proposition into a question, the shall assumes a ludicrous form, because of the deliberative aspect given to the sentence ; and it looks as if the person putting the question had the option whether he would destroy the universe or not. 330. A case in which it seems to fail. — Five years ago I was visiting Loch Maree, in Eoss-shire, with my family. "We took a " trap " from the comfortable inn at Kinloch- Ewe, and lunched and sketched on the cliffs, about twelve miles down the lake. When our time was nearly up, our Highland driver appeared in the distance, shouting, " Will I yauk him?" which, being interpreted, meant to say, " Shall I harness the pony ? " I hardly see how even Dr. Latham's explanation will account for the usage here. 331. I venture to insert the following remarks of a very intelligent Irish correspondent: — " Your rules for the use of ' shall ' and ' will ' seem to me, as far as they go, the most simple and satisfactory I have ever read. But I observe : — " I. No rule is laid down for the use of these words in interrogation. In Ireland the tendency is to make use of ' will ' in every case. I have collected several examples from English writers which seem to me to suggest the following rules : — " ' Will you V is a request. " ' Shall you ? ' a simple question as to the future event. " « Will he ? ' a simple question. " ' Shall lie?' means ' do you wish that he shall.' " ' Will IV is always incorrect. " ' Shall IV has two meanings: 1st, it asks the simple question as to the future event, v.g., ' shall I be of age next month? ' 2nd, it asks, ' do you wish that I shall ? ' v.g., ' shall I call you friend ? ' "II. You say nothing <>f the use of these words in the secondary clauses of such sentences as the following: " ' He hopes that he shall not be thought,' &c. " ' He walked into a church knowing well he should find,' &c. "Phrases of this kind occur very frequently, and, I think, almost all my countrymen would be found t<> use will and would instead of shall and should. I may add 128 THE QUEEN'S ENGLI8B. that, as it Beemfl to me nothing to be found in your book would Bel them righl on this ].«>int , I would propose the following principle for such cases: — If we report in «>ur own words what another has said, or thought, ox known, or felt, we musi ose that yerb which he would have need if, speaking in the first person, he had himself related I circumstance. •• III. There is to be found almost every day in the Times (second column) a curious illustration of the distinc- tion between ' shall ' and ' will.' When a person ad\ for a lost article we sometimes read. ' [f any person brii he shall be rewarded.:' sometimes we find, 'a reward "■ill "be given.' Now here your rules seem fco be al fault. The future event, namerj , the giving of the reward, is dependent on the will of the speaker in the latter c well a> in the former. If the rule hold g 1. therefore, we might . - A reward $hoU be given.' Vet this is never said." 2. This to fall under the list of exceptions mentioned in paragraph 819 j where the result is BO spo as not contingent but certain. '• A reward thaU be given," is the subjective dictum of him who has bo deter- mined: "a reward wil] be given," is the objective future certainty, the determination being lost sight of. 388. Use of superfluous particles — "doubt but that." — We often find persons using superfluous conjunc- tions or preposit n their usual talk. Two are more frequent than othi >ne is the use of but after the \, i-li to doubt. " 1 do not doubt but that he will come. both found in print and heard in conversation. The'* but" /.holly urn v and a vulgarism. " I do QOt doubt that he will come." expn should he u ed. ! . *• On to."— The same may he said of the exprec to. " The Cat jumped on to the chair;" the/., I„ whollv onneeded, and never used bj anj careful write] Bp 5. Defence of it.— Few points mentioned in tl have provol much rejoinder as this reprobation of ••■./( /■■" ! to judge bj its many defenders, to pecial favourite, 'lie pi. , usually set up for it i , that "on" without "t not sufficiently • IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 120 motion : that " the cat jumped on the chair " would imply merely that the cat, being on the chair already, there jumped. To this I have hut one answer; that no doubt the words may mean this, to one w*ho is disposed to invent meanings for them ; but that they do mean this, is surely not true. "The cat jumped on the table, and began. to lap the milk." Who would ever misunderstand this? Take an incident of one's schoolboy long walks. " Coach- man, I'm very tired, and I shall be late in ; but I've got no money in my pocket." " All right, my lad, jump on the box." Was there ever a schoolboy Avho would fail to comprehend this? 336. Since the publication of my first edition several correspondents have again vehemently controverted the opinion here expressed : and I have been even urged tc withdraw it and confess myself in the wrong. I am afraid, therefore, that my correspondents will think me very obstinate for still maintaining my view : and saying, that I cannot conceive what signification of motion towards is gained by the vulgarism " on to," which is not already conveyed by " 071," or at all events by " upon." 337. " On to " and " into." — One correspondent asks why " on to " is not as good English as " into " ? I answer, because " on " is ordinarily a preposition of motion as well as of rest, whereas "in" is almost entirely a preposition of rest. To fall on, to light on, and the like, are very com- mon ; and we are thus prepared for the use of onto signify motion without an additional preposition. 338. " Holding on to." — It will be manifest, that the juxtaposition of "on " and "to" in such a sentence as this, " she continued holding on to the door of the carriage," is not an example within the scope of these remarks. The "on" in this case belongs to the verb-, and " holding-on to" is equivalent to " clinging to." 330. "On" and "upon."— How do our usages of "on" and "upon" differ? In the very few cases where we recognise any difference, the question may be answered by observing the composition of the latter word. It almosl always, as the dictionaries observe, "implies some sub- stratum;" something thai underlies the thing spoken of . Bui then so does also the shorter preposition in most cat K 1 tO THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH. There ia hardl) an instance to be found of which it could positively 1"' Baid, thai we may use the one preposition and may not use the other. Perhaps we may find one, when we Bay thai a direr, describing bis trip beneath the water, would hardly reporl thai he "saw Beveral rusty guns Lj '/"•// the bottom," bul " 1\ iir_ r on the bottom." 340. A correspondenl Bends me what he Bup] in accounl <>i' the distinction, bul 1 believe it to 1"' an erroneous one. " I would (should r ) Bay, ' upon a tower ; ' on the same principle, I would (should ?) say, ' on a marsh.' There would, indeed, be no harm in saying 'ow a tower;' I. ut there would be an impropriety in Baying ' upon marsh;' for up, whether we are attentive or inattentive, whether we have been a thousand times wrong or never, means Bomewhal high, somewhal to which we ascend. I Bhould Bpeak correctly it' I said, ' Dr. Johnson flew \\\ me : " incorrectly, if 1 Baid, ' be/< // upon me.' ' 341. The error here seems to me to be in referring the heighl indicated by up to the motion previous t>'. no1 to the position indicated by, the action Bpoken of. We perhaps cannot Bay "upon the bottom;" no1 however be- cause "■• 'I" nol i ' gel there, bul because the bottom, being of necessity the lowesl point, lias nothing beneath it with reference to which it is high. And as to my corre- pondent's lasl dictum, thai "he fell upon me" would !"• incorrect, lei him look at 1 rXinga ii. 25, 34, !'•. in which places it i-~ Baid of Adonijah, Joab, and Shimci thai Benaiah, the son of Jehoiada, "fell upon hint thai he died." 342. To " open up." The expression " to open »/■. a very favourite one with our newspaper* I' maj hi Beveral "t mj correspondents insist, a certain meaning w ii. t bough I am even no* unable i where I have found i'. whj the Bimple word " oj>en ' would 1 1 • t I"' better. The meaning which it is d< to convey, seems to be, to open i-i - the firsl time, — to break up and open. A railway i- -i I to <•/'• n u communication between two places uol ho connected before. Thus used, the term mai I"- endured, but, Burely, Bhould not be imitated. As to the instances from "Good Word ." which have been produced a fainBl mc ae it' I were respon- IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 131 sible for them, "He opens up in the parched desert a well that refreshes us ; " " These considerations may open zip to us one view of the expediency of Christ's departure ; " I can only regard them as Scotticisms, which certainly would not have been written south of the Tweed. 343. The parallel which the defenders of the expression have drawn between open up and rise up, grow vj>, is hardly a just one, seeing that in these cases the adverb, or in- transitive preposition, up, gives us the tendency in which the progressive action indicated by the neuter Verb takes place ; and even if it do not that, intensifies and gives pre- cision. More apposite parallels would have been found in rip up, tear up, pull up, where up defines the active verb; a more decisive one still, in the term to shut up, where up implies the closing and finality of the act indicated ; and for this reason should hardly be used with the opposite word to open. IS we shut up a communication, we ought to open it down rather than up. Put the word with any analogous term, and its inappropriateness will be perceived. A new railway develops, expands, promotes, the traffic; but we could not say it develops up, expands up, promotes a j'. the traffic. 344. A correspondent states that in Northumberland, the expression is " open out." " It is universally spoken by the common | pie, and frequently by their superiors. Thus, a parcel is rarely said to bo 'opened' without the addition 'out.' " 345. " At best," " at the best."— Which is right, " at beet," or "at the best?" It is plain that this question does not stand alone; several other phrases are involved in it. It affects "at least," "at most," "at furthest," and even such very common expressions as "at first,"' and "at last." 346. The answer, it seems to me, is, that the insertion or omission of the definite article is indifferent. CTsage has generally sanctioned its omission before the verv common superlatives, "first," "last," " most," "least," ••'furthest ;" but when we put a less usual adjective in this construction, i he article seems to be required, or a pos essive pronoun in its place. "The storm was at the (or "its") highest at noon;" "Whal is woman at her loveliest';" And we sometimes till out the phrase w ith the article when we want [82 THE QUEEN* 8 ENG1 TSB it to be more than usually Bolemn : "If he did not love hia father, at the Least he might have honoured him." " Lt the last" is found six times in the English Bible; "at last." if we may trust the Concordances, never; "at the first," twenty-eight times; "at first," never; "at the Least," tli !-.■«■ times; while" at Leasl " is found twice 1 1 Sam. xxi. 4, Luke \>\. 42) ; "at the most," once (1 Cor. xi\ 27); but " at most ," uever. 347. ••All of them," -both of them." These ex. presBJons are often challenged. Are thej right, or not E When I have a number of things, and speak of "one of them," "two of them," "the rest of them," the pre- position "of" has what is called its partitive Bense. It may be explained by "outof," or "from among." Thus, "one of them" is "one from among them;" "two of them" is two from among them;" "the rest of them" is "all from among them that do not belong to ih already named." But, it is urged, "all of them" cannot be "all from among them," because there would be none Left. Neither can "both of them" be said of two, because when jou have taken both, there is nothing Left. 348, But let us examine this, [a it bo certain that the "..f" i n the phraa a " all of them," " both «»f them," ; tli.- same meaning as the "of" in the phrases "our of them," "two of them," "some of them I Let us, -all of them," put " tli-' whole of them," and for tint. "tli'- Mini total of tlirni," or. as our newspapers would Bay, " tl ntirety of them." Now it i> manifest that any one of these i- g I grammar, and that the "of" does not inr. in "from among," hut implies "consisting of:" i^ Bpoken "f the quality, a- "sum total," or "entirety," i quantity. "The sum total of them," ie itimate •• a pint of I,-, r." Why not. then, "all of them," or •• both of tlirni"': The fall. i. \ of the objection here is, tin' timing for the preposition a Bense which it need not ha\ r, just ,• it had tl: Mir I'hr.i »es appa • i"'-ntl\ Bitnilar. In other words, Ihn mi take was, being misled \<\ a fal o analo "Fifty cubits high," or " of fifty cubits high A gallowe fifty cubits high," or, "a dlows of fifty IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 133 cubits high " ? The former expression is used in Esther vii. 9; the latter in Esther v. 14. Clearly, both of these are legitimate. A gallows whose height is fifty cubits, may be said to be " fifty cubits high " : it is high, and the measure of that height is fifty cubits. Thus we have " a mile wide " : " ten thousand fathoms deep." Also, the same gallows may be said to be " of fifty cubits " (high, or in height) : the " of " being used, as in the phrases " she was of the age of twelve years " (Mark v. 42), " of a great age " (Luke ii. 36), to indicate the class or standard of the object spoken of. The gallows is high, and belongs to that class of things whose height is fifty cubits. 350. Adverb between "to" and the infinitive. — A correspondent states as his own usage, and defends, the insertion of an adverb between the sign of the infinitive mood and the verb. He gives as an instance, " to scientifi- ciiUij illustrate." But surely this is a practice entirely un- known to English speakers and writers. It seems to me, that we ever regard the to of the infinitive as inseparable from its verb. And when we have already a choice between two forms of expression, " scientifically to illustrate," and "to illustrate scientifically," there seems no good reason for flying in the face of common usage. 351. "Going" and "coming." — In a letter beariug after its address, " N. B.," I am asked whether the expres- sion " I am coining to pay you a visit" is correct: whether it ought not rather to be " I am going to pay you a visit :" and the cpiestion is extended to the reply, " I am coming," when any one calls ; which is also supposed to be incorrect, and still more so when followed by "directly." I men- tioned the address of the letter to account in some measure for the inquiry; for it seems to me to be one which we Southrons should never have thought of making. In both cases, coming is right. In the former, we mighi use going, bul if would be in the temporal sense, not in that of motion. 15ut in the other, we could not say going at all, if we indi- cated approach to the person calling. An apology is al- most required for setting down things so simple and ob- vious: but the doing so may serve to show what sort of usages prevail and are upheld in some portions of our realm. THE QUI EKGL1SH. 352. "Come to grief."— When I used, in the early perl of this work, the colloquial expression would ha\ rief, I \\ .i - told by one of my i thai it ought to have I n would have gone /" grief. It is qoI easy, perhaps, t.. tiv.it accordin trid rule what is almost a dang phrase, or has bul lately ceased t.> be one; still, I venture to think thai to come to grief is of the two the more accord- ing to the analogy of our usage. We Bay to come toon • not to go to an end > Dan. xi. 45, " He shall come to his end, and none shall help him:" Rev. xviii 17. "in one hour bo greal riches is come to nought,")! "•' -'. v "' :l desperate young villain, thai he will come I" the gall ii. a thai he will go I" the gallows, [nd 1, it' we chose, we mighl illustrate the difference between the two expressions, by Baying what 1 fear was often true of theeffecl of our public executions (now happily at an end), thai goiny /-< ///-■ gallows was bul too likely to end in coming !•> tl> pieces; hut of a broken jug, that it t.> pie< 68. Plants '•"/,/.• up, come into leaf, come into flower ; bul they go to seed, the} gro out of flower. It may 1m- that in this case we regard the above-ground state a> that in which we ourselves are, and the being in leaf and in Bower those in whi.h we wish them t" be, and like to think of them; and bo the passing into t! ites is a kind of approach to us : whereas the Btate of Beed being one L ing to de< ay, anil beyond w hat is om- >>w n place and feeling irds (lowers, they Beem to depart from na in passing into it. Thus the buu goes in behind a cloud, ana out from behind it. Bui we are not consistenl in speaking of the sun. II.' is said t.. •; > down in the evening; bul never t • / /> in t he morninj . - \ ad very minute shades of meaning nel ime - conveyed bj tin' use of oi r other of these verl Yoxi talking aboul a public meeting with a friend who you leu will ho there. It' you Bay to him, " I shall not <■■■,,,■ t.. the meeting," you identify him with those who up the meeting, and imply that In- is d< i ould join him there. It you > . " I hall nol go to tho meetin i i. ii ill;, i more the i aboul to attend, IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 135 and half imply that he would Jo well to stay away also. "Are you coming to church to-day?" implies that the questioner is; "Are yon goingto church to-day?"' implies nothing as to whether he is or is not. To this latter ques- tion one might rejoin, " Xes: are you?" but not so to the former. 355. Misuse of " whom." — In nothing do we find more frequent mistakes in writers commonly careful, than in using the accusative case of a relative pronoun where the nominative ought to he used. A correspondent, for in- stance, describing what he thinks the disastrous effects of my advocacy of "it is me," says, "I have heard persons whom I knew were in the habit of using the form ' it is I,' Bay instead, ' it is me.' " Here, the mistake is very evi- dent, " I knew " is merely parenthetical, put in by way of voucher for the fact — "persons who, I knew, were." The writer might have said, "whom I hieiv to be," or " to have been;" but as the sentence stands, who must be the nomi- nal ivc case to the verb were. 356. A still worse example occurred in the Times a short time since, in translating the Count de Montalembert's famous speech in favour of liberty of conscience. It would perhaps be hard to criticise a report of a speech ; but the sentence was quoted for especial comment in the leading article, and no correction was made. It ran thus: "The gag forced into the mouth of whomsoever lifts up his voice with a pure heart to preach his faith, that gag I feel be- tween my own lips, and I shudder with pain." 357. Now in this sentence, first of all it is clear that " whomsoever lifts" cannot be right, The indefinite rela- tive pronoun ought to be the nominative case to the veil. lifts, and therefore ought to be whosoever and not whom- ■i'r. 358. But then, how about the construction? "The month of whosoever lifts " is an elliptical clause. Filled up, it will be "the mouth of Mm whosoever lifts," or, more completely, "of him whosoever he be that lifts." Tn its shor- tened form we have the object, "Mm," omitted. But we musl not visit this omission on the unfortunate rotative pronoun which follows, and degrade it from its place in the sentence by making it do the work of the missing member. 130 Till: QUEEN'S ENGLISH. 1 A similar mistake la made bj those who say and w rite, •• inv memory doesnol Berve me as to whom il wa The relative is pul into governmenl after the preposition "tn," it being no1 observed thai it 1 im ^ ao connection with thai preposition. "As to" governs the whole clause thai follows: memory was at fault as to tin- question] who il was. 860. •• Different to." — A correspondenl Btigmatises the expression " difft r< nt to," « bich be Bhows 1 1 own I was nol aware of it) has become verj common of late. Of couj such ;i combination is entirely againsl all reason ;inLs, why we s;iv "contemporary with," hut "a con- temporary of" ? The answer to this is to be sought from a different Bource. In "contemporary with," the " n-it/i " on tli'- force of th'' pri position " eon'' or '///," with which tin' adjective is compounded. Bui when thai adjective is made into ;i substantive, it then must be connected with other substantives by the en mary preposition "of," indicating possession or relation. 369. " Neighbour to," " a neighbour of." — A some* what similar change takes place when substantives which may be used predicatively, are used indicatively. Thus we Bay "neighbour /"him," hut •• ;i neighbour of him," or, we commonly express it. ••■if his." If we keep the same preposit ion in the tw< . t he phrase does not retain th.' ming. " II.- is neighbour to him," means, " Ele liv.-s Dear him " : hut " II.' is ;i neighl OUT t<> him. ' m. .ins, " He behaves t" him in a neighbourly manner." ::.". The question at the end of our Lord's parable of the G I Samaritan, " Which of these three, thinkest thou, was neighbour unto him that fell among the thi< forms not an exception to tin- rule first mentioned, but rather an example of it. For the conclusion i" 1-- drawn from th.- parable is, that th.- real claim t<> th.- title "i neighbour is his who acts in a neighbourly manner. 80 that th.- question does not mean, which of these three acted in a neighbourly manner t<> him': hut which of these three had a right i" I •>■ called bis neighbour neigh- bour to him r Then t\,r answer naturally comes, "He th.it on him." , I. Oiu word used for another. I have one or two more illustrations of the blunder of using one word, 11 another 1 meant. In a well-known novel bj one of our most popular writers, we read: "He had not learned IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 139 the heart (sic) of assuming himself to be of importance wherever he might find himself." This can hardly be a misprint. 372. In another novel of the day, we read : " For l A eded to trouble myself:" thai the verb troubled, which I have put in the past, Bhould have been in the present : ju>t as the verb //<"/, which I have pul in the present, should have been in the past. Nbvi in these words appears the cause of tl bjector's mistake. It is the very * -• » 1 1 1 1 1 ne of confusing a perfect tense with a ' one. " I n 1 nol have troubled i n \ >< • 1 1' " is strictly correcl ; being equivalent to" I t •! ool be in the present situation "t' having troubled myself." Every 'perfect is in fact a present. "I have troubled myself" describes ii..' .\ past action, Init th.- present r>. repeal here, that while tin- indefinite pi of a verb must alv. acted as >> past, tin 1 perfect, consisting ••! tin 1 auxiliary "have" with th.- past participle of the verb, dei "ii of t he Btat a< t described by thai participle, and must always be treated and con- Btrui Use of the present to signify fixed desi 1 Si «• Dr. Latham's 1 1 I rj ol tin I ngli 'i Language," p IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 141 — One more point raised by way of objection may serve for our instruction. I had begun a sentence, " The next point which I notice shall be . . ." This was designated as "confusing the present and the future." Here again is a mi-stake as to the usage of the tenses. There is a very common use of the present, which has regard, not to actual time of occurrence, but to design. "Do you go abroad this year? " " I will come unto you when I shall pass through Macedonia, fori do pass through Macedonia," (1 Cor. xvi. 5). In this sense the present was used in the sentence complained of. "The next point which I notice." means, "the next point coming under notice," "the next point which I mean to notice in my lecture." It is neces- sary for one who would write good gram mar, and remark on the grammar of others, to know the usages of the various tenses, not merely to deal with these tenses as they appear at first sight. 380. Sentences wrongly supposed elliptic. — " I mention it, because it may he a difficulty of many others besides him," (see below, par. 477.) This is objected to by one who fills it up thus : " it may be a difficulty of many other people, besides being a difficulty of him." But surely a moment's thought will convince any of us, that such a filling up, nay, that, any filling up at all, is quite wrong, and beside the purpose. The pronoun " /; im " is governed by the preposition, or transitive adverb " be- sides." " Others besides him " is a clause perf eel in itself, and needs no filling up whatever. 381. Caution against rash and positive asser- tions about construction. — Ami this may serve as a caution to us against rashness in this matter of filling up sentences, having hastily assumed them to he elliptical. One of my critics says, " We hear clergymen sometimes Bay . . . than Aim, than her^ than them ! Only place the verb after such words — place the -words is ami are -and see what nonsense it makes -than him is, than her is, than them are." 382. Here is an instance of thai against which T would caution my readers. This writer first assumes thai the construction of t he phrase is as he want - it to be, and then reasons on his own assumption to prove that the phrase |g 1 |_» THE QUEEN'S ENGLI8H. wrongly expressed. The fad is, thai the construction in this case does uol admil of any such tilling up. I have shown (in paragraphs 289 and following), by the unqui tioned and unavoidable use <•!' ••///■/// whom," that than • ins an accusative i i>se directly, without any ellipsis whatever. That the other construction, "than he is," is an admissible one, and cannol in the sli_ r ht«'-t degree affecl the question whether this one is admissible or not. Yet 1 doubl nol that many readers of this illogical criti- cism would be deceived by its rash and ] •• >sit i\ <• character, and imagine the poinl in question <<> be proved. •Construct" and " construe."— -What do you wish us to understand by readers 'constructing' the sentence? Writers ' construct :' readers ' construe.' ' This ,.i'l in reference to m\ having written thai we oughl not "to mislead the reader by introducing the possibility of constructing the sentence otherwise than as the writer intended." And the objection is instructive, as leading t-> the indication of the exact meaning and difference of the two words. Supposing I am examining a class of b< anf them to construi the sentence. He knows perfectly well whal I mean. \\>- turns the sentence into English, if it be in any other language. Bui suppose I tell him to construct the sentence. He knows, or oughl to know, thai I mean thai he explain the construction of the senteni ive an accounl of its concords and governments. M\ Censor's mistake here is, thai he transfers the meaning of the verb "construct," when applied to building up whal t before exist, to the >f a sentence gives as alreadi existing. The word "construing" in the sentence quoted, would make sense, and convej a certain meaning nol \<\\ far removed from thai which I intended: bul it would ool convey thai meaning it elf, thai of supplying s con- action building up the sentence with reference to com ords and government b. I "Above" k.corr< pondent ,' Eoumak< of the adverb 'ofcoi a adjective. Can you use the relative word 'below' in bhe same The u complained <>!', "the abovi ." meaning something which has been before spoken of, is certainly uol elegant, though i* is IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 143 not uncommon. It may easily be avoided, by merely filling in the ellipsis, and saying " the above-mentioned." 385. Adjectives used as adverbs." — I must say something on the question of adjectives used as adverbs: or rather of the allowable forms of qualifying verbs. The common rule, believed in and universally applied by the ordinary teachers of grammar, is, that we must always qualify a verb by the adverbial form, and never by the adjectival. According to these teachers, such expressions as the following are wrong, " The string of his tongue was loosed, and he spake plain." "The moonshines bright" "How stceet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank." " Breathe soft, ye winds, ye waters gently flow." 386. These, Ave are told, ought to have been written with "plainly ," " brightly" "sweetly," and "softly." But this is a case where the English language and the common grammarians are at variance. The sentences which I have the positive di E comparison only ; when we pass beyond thai t.> the comparal ive and superlative, another considera- tion comes in. All as not admit of degrees of tnparison. That many ■l>, is acknowledged. Oftener, oftenest, seldomer, seem to be g 1 English words. Bui these exceptions are rare. We cannot say simplier, brighU H>r. plainlier. And in consequence, when we want to ex] imparative and superlative • - of qualifica- tion of a verb, we commonly have recourse to one of two other constructions: we either take the resolved compara- tive and superlative, rnor< plainly, most plainly, or we take the comparative and superlative of the corresponding ad- jective. Thus, for instance, we bave " wt II" as tin- adverb of good : we cannol say "weZter"and " wellest :" we '1" not Baj " dl" and " most well : " bul we go back to tin- adjective, and we Bay, for our comparative and super- lative adverbs, /••//■r and best. So. too, whereas we m in the positive degree, saj either " tin- moon Bhines bright," or ••tii.- in. .on >lnnrs brightly," we Bhould Bay, in the com- parative and superlative, not •• the sun Bhines umr, brightly, and tin- tin- Bhines most brightly," but, "the sun Bh.ii /./-.;////./•. ami tin- fire shin.- bright* .. Take another example. I originally wrote below, paragraph 584): " li with your inferiors, Bpeas do -than usual; if with your superiors, no finer." My language was chars - being ungrammatical, be- True : but . a> We h.i . . what cannol be done in th.- positive, must 'Ion.- in the other de E comparison : an. I my sentence, though not the si n,-t k correct, and ording to i [n thi too, 1 bere was no cho open between the two forms, the resolved and the adj< Uval comparative. Sad I written, "speak do more k ii" more finely," the conjunct with "no more" would have been awkward, IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 147 suggesting a temporal meaning which was foreign to the construction of the sentence. And had I adopted the form of expression which my Censor recommends, " speak not more coarsely than usual," I might have escaped indeed his censure, but not the charge of having written pompous and pedantic English. 398. " A decided weak point." — Exception is taken to an expression occurring in these notes, " a decided weak point." But there can be no doubt that my Censor is wrong. A "decidedly weak point" is one thing; a"cZe- cided weak point " is another. There is a difference, according as we regard the adverb as qualifying only the adjective, or the adjective and substantive together. " There occurs in his book a remarkable prefatory an- nouncement." Who would think of saying " a T&markably prefatory announcement"? Thus also in the phrase under consideration, had I written "a decidedly weak point," I should have spoken of <\ point di-ridi-ilh/ m-itk; but writing as I did a decided weak point, I spoke of a weak point of whose existence there could be no doubt. 399. Anomalies. — If we use our powers of observation, we shall find in the usage of adjectives and adverbs, as in other usages, many things which follow no rule but that of custom, and of which it is very difficult to give any reason- able account. I mention this to shew how inadequate the laws of ordinary grammar are to regulate or even to describe our practice. 400. " Long " and " short." — Take but one example out of many ; the use of the adjectives long and short, with reference to adverl ial construction. Long is an adverb as well as an adj< We say "How long," speaking of time. "Paul was long speaking." We have no adverb " hngly," though we have " widely" "broadly," "deeply." Now observe the adjective "short." Its use as an adverb is hardly legitimate. Your banker asks you whether yon will take it short, when you present a, cheque to be cashed ; l>ut this use is a technical one. Bui what 1 wish to ol. serve is, ihat the adverb "shortly" is ley OUT USage limited to one department only of the meanings of the adjective, viz., that of time; ami in that department, t" time future. W'e cannot use sh<>rll>/ •>[' time past; we 1 18 Tin: QUI I / :is it. n.ii ii-.' it of duration — "//-• preached shortly;" bul we must use it of thai which ia to come," I hope shortly to \ ..ii." 401. "Just now." This mention of adverbs of time reminds me of an expression which usage has assigned t<> time past, as it lias thai other t" time future. "Just ■." in it-; strict meaning, imports, nearly at the present in. mi. •nt. whether before or after. Vet our general usage has limited its application t.> a point slightly preceding the present, and will uo1 allow us to applj it to thai which is to .-. .me. [f we are asked "When?" and we reply " .lust ii. iw," we are understood to describe an event past, nol an event future. 102. In this ease we have the double use of the term pre- Berved in provincial usage. In the midland and northern counties we have Buch a sentence as •• I'll be with you jusl qow,*' which is perfectly righl in logical precision, though proscribed by English usage. 403. '• Thoroughly working order."— Is it , , n -,, t to •• A machine is in thoroughly working order"? This might be defended as meaning, in Buch order as t.> v. thoroughly. Bui this, I apprehend, is qoI the construc- tion. Bather should we say that " working-order " is u as one word, equivalent, Bay, to " repair:" and in this . "thoroughly" would clearly be wrong, as an adverb can qualify only verbs and adjectives, not substantives. The wrong use has, we Buppose, originated in the fad of "working," a word which will admit of advertical qualifi- on, immediately following. 104. Subjunctive and indicative moods in condi- tional sentences. The general rule.— The u t the indicative and subjunctive moods, after conditional par- ti.' hi.) whether, is a wide Bubject, and one on whi.h considerable ui rtaintj Beems t" prevail. The neral rule appears plain enough: that when matter of i me. I. we should use the indicative: when matter of doubt, the Bubjunctive. " Whether I bt master or n.'U. thing is plain." Here we have doubt: it is left in uncertainty which of the t\\" is master. " Y..u II ~....n see wheih.r I am master, >.r you." Here there do uncertainty : your eyes -hall tee and be enlightened IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 149 as to a fact, of which the speaker at all events has no doubt. 405. Stated by Dr. Latham. — The same rule Las been thus clearly laid down by Dr. Latham : " The follow- ing method of determining the amount of doubt expressed in a conditional proposition is useful: insert, immediately after the conjunction, one of the two following phrases: (1) as is the case; (2) as may or may not be the case. By ascertaining which of these two supplements expresses the meaning of the speaker, we ascertain the mood of the verb which follows. When the first formula is the one required, there is no element of doubt, and the verb should be in the indicative mood. If (as is the case) he is gone, I must follow him. When the second formula is the one required, there is an element of doubt, and the verb should be in the sub- junctive mood. If (as may or may not be the case) he be gone, I must follow him." l 406. Ignorance of this rule. — When a correspendent said of this sentence of mine, "If a man values his peace of mind, let him not write on the Queen's English," that I ought to have written " If a man value his peace of mind," he apparently was in ignorance of thisvery plain rule. For thai every man does value his peace of mind, is of course, assumed, and the phrase to be supplied is the former one in Dr. Latham's rule. "If (as is the case) a man values his peace of mind." 407. This rule perhaps unknown to our older writers. — But this rule, satisfactory as it is for a guide, does not Beem to have been known to our older writers. Our translators of the Bible notoriously do not observe it. In cases where the original (and the rule is not one be- longing to English only, but to the conditions of thought) has the indicative, and the missing phrase clearly must be, '•as is the ease," they have used the subjunctive. An in- stance of this is found in Col. iii. 1, "If ye then be risen with Christ . . . ;" which according to the original ought to be "if ye then are risen." The fact, thai those ad- dressed are thus risen, is proved in the previous chapter, and the A.postle proceeds to ground upon it the exhorta 1 " History of the English Language," p. 646. THE QUE1 VS ENGLISH. ... ti"iis thai follow. ■• Ef ('■ is t} as I have proved) d with Christ." Many more instances cuighl I i given to ishew, thai our translators almosl universally a the subjunctive mo "1 after conditional particles, where bould now use the indicative. M)8. Sometimes thej seem to use the two moods imlif- Ferently. An example is found in .I"l> xxxi. 5-10. '"h I have walked with vanity, or my fool hath hatted t<> deceil : le1 me," Ac •• It' in v step hath twin d out of the way, and my hearl walked after mine eyes, and if any blol /"'//< cleaved to mine hands; then lei me," Ac. So far is indica- tive. Bui .J<>1> goes mi in the same Btrain, and <>m trans- lators in the uexl place adopl the Bubjunctive, " If mine hearl havt been deceived by a woman . . . then let," A<-. In some places, they seem i<> h;i rved the rule. •• Ii' dow thou hasl understanding, hear this" (Job ixxiv. l<>'.*. The .-.inn- irregularity appears t>> prevail in their . onstruction of verbs after " though." Take as an example Col. ii. 5: "Though I be absi al in the flesh," Here the Apostle is asserting his al fact, and the Greet verb i- in the indicative, as by the ordinary rule the Eng- lish should be also : "Though (as i the! I. al en( in the flesh." II". Bias formerly to the subjunctive.— I believe it will I"- found, on the who there is a decided b "ii the pari of our translators to the u E the subjunctive n I. I •!" ii"t of course Bpeak <>T tl of " be" aa an indicative, as in 2 Kings ix. 9: "Ye bo righteous." Thia tn< times brings in ambiguitj i bich m I is actually 1 in ;i condii iona ' Gen. \lii. 1 '.'. " [f \-' be true men." Bui I speak of the prevalence of th< undoubted subjunctives, determined t.» be bo bj the auxiliary, or by i bo form of the verb il ill But now to the indicative. But if thi then in favour of the Bubjunctive, the bin de- led ly n < 'in- condii iona! in 'Mi tall J iu thr iml I don'1 I bother I shall be al the • ommittee ; bu I " I LI mention Thi i v< is oi • •III be,*' ad pi dantic. We all " \'. bother it is, or i IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 151 I cannot say: " not " whether it be." And so of other con- ditional sentences. 412. Phenomenon to be observed. — Here then we seem to have a phenomenon, instructive to those who are mofe anxious to watch the actually flowing currents of verbal usage, than to build up bounds fur them to run in. We have a well known logical ride, prevailing in our own and in other languages, and l;:id down by grammarians as to be followed. But it would seem that it never has been followed universally : that it has not regulated the' lan- guage of the Book in commonest use, and yet that the language of that book speaks intelligibly to us. And more than this: for while that book violates the rule almost uniformly in one direction, we ourselves as uniformly violate it in the other. 413. Verb after "that" without an auxiliary. — While speaking upon the indicative; and subjunctive moods, I may notice that the use of the bare verb without "may," or "might," or "should," after the conjunction "that" which avc not unfrequently meet with in the English Version of the Bible, and in the Common Prayer-book, is not ungrammatical, nor is it to be corrected by inserting the apparently missing auxiliary verb, as I have heard some clergymen do in reading. The verb thus used was the old form of the subjunctive, now generally supplanted by the resolved form with the auxiliary. Thus when we pray "that our hearts may ho unfeignedly thankful, and that we shew forth thy praise not only with our lips but in our lives," \\\r verb " eh w " is as truly in the subjunc- tive as the verb " /"• " in " that I be not ashamed," or the verb " elip " in " hold thou up my goings in thy paths, that my footsteps slip not." That this is so, is conclusively shown by consulting the older versions. Iu John xv. •_'. for example, "he purgeth it, that it may bring forth more fruit," is, in Wiefif's version, "lie shall purge it that it here the more Eruyt." In ver. 16, "thai whatsoever ye shall asl of the Father in my name, he may give it you," is "that whatevi r things ye axen the fadir in mj name, he give to you:" and so on, wherever the auxiliary is found in the more modern version. 414. In the daily .Morning Prayer, we nave, in the third |52 THE QUEEN'S I NGLISH. I Hi •. •• < Irani that this 'lav we fall into no sin : " and in the first Prayer Book, in tlf Collect Eor St. Man M dalen's day, " Give us grace that we never presume to sin t lir. -uu'li the example of any creature." H5. A statement is sometimes made about this word, which i-- 1 1. >t in accordance with tart. I remember, a short time sine.', seeing in a 1 k of instructions how t<> read the Liturgy, that the omission of the word "maj " is onli a blunder of the printers, Eor thai it exists in the "sealed book," from u bich ourprayer-books ought to be copied. 'J'his i^ true, and it is untrue. It *1 i « 1 exisl in the Bealed book, hut was erased by the bishops, who put the pen through it. Thus its omission was no mistake, but a deliberate act, and intended t nvey a [.articular meaning. II'"-. In Psalm Ixxvii. 14, the Prayer Book version has "Thou ait the God that doeth wonders ; " whereas the Bible version runs " Thou art the God thai does! wonders." A correspondent asks, which is righl ? The answer I think musl I"-, that both are right. The direcl construction of the sentence in English requires the Prayer Book render- ing, "Thou arl the God thai doeth wonders : " whereas the other can be accounted for by a doI uncommon attraction of subordinate verbs into the form in which the main • nt. ■me i^ cast. 117. Singulars and Plurals. We will now pas to another matter the use of singulars ami plurals. It is a genera] rule, thai when a verb has two or more nomi- native ca • - t" which it belongs, it musl he in the plural Dumber. Bu1 lei us take .are what we mean by this in each case. When I Bay "John and .lame-, are here." I mean "John is here, and James is here; " hut when I ••///. evening and th morning "•- /•< the first lural verb when it i in f both it- UOllUB ' e|..ir.ile|\ . and also when it i~ ,,|||\ trui th.-m taken together. No* how i-, this in another example? \ in I i.. -.i \ •• two and : ..i •• two ,,//./ two < llearhj I canm -• on the firsl explanal ion. for it cannot be true that two i> four and two , four. But IDIOM AND COXSTIWCTION. 153 how on the second '? Here as clearly I may be grammati- cally correct in savin-- " two and two are four," if, that is, I understand something for the two and the four to apply to: two apples and two apples make (are) four apples. But when 1 assert, the thing merely as an arithmetical truth, villi no apples, I do not sec how " are" can be right. 1 am sa\ rag that the sum of two numbers, which I express by two and In; >, is, makes up, another number, fowr; and in all abstract cases, where we merely speak of numbers, the verb is better singular: two and two "is" four, not " are." 418. "Twice one are two." — The last case was a somewhat doubtful one. But the following, arising out of it, is not so: — We sometimes hear children made to say, "twice one are two." For this there is no justification whatever. It is a plain violation of the first rules of grammar; " in-ice one" not being plural at all, but strictly singular. Similarly, "three times three are nine" is clearly wrung, and SO are all such expressions; what we want to say being simply this, that three taken three times makes up. is equal to nine. You may as well say, "nine are three times three," as " three times three are nine." 419. Cases not understood. — There still are cases in which those who do not thiuk about the composition of a sentence may find a difficulty as to whether a singular or a plural verb should follow two nouns coupled together by "and." The difficulty arises from the fact that "and" has many meanings. Sometimes it imports addition: sometimes it merely denotes an apposil ion, or simultaneous predication of two characters or qualities belonging to (me and the same thing. And it is in this latter case that a difficulty arises, and a mistake is often made. Take, for instance, this sentence, where the writer is speaking of the cheapness of Bibles ai the present day : "The only revela- tion of (Jod's will to mankind, and the only record \\ to be obtained," &c One thing, and not two, is the subject ].-, I THE QUE1 \- - ! \<:i 1SH. the sentence. let in a precisely similar sentence "f my own tip' other day, the ] i 1 » - at tli>' printing-office, more studious for the lett rammar, than for the spirit ol thought, corn And observe th< on the meaning, It I say, "Tl nly revelation of God's will !.. men, and the only record of God's dealings with men, to I btained," &c, I convey tin- idea that I am Bpeaking of two books, one containing tin- only revelation of God's will, the other, the only record of his dealings. It is obvious thai the writer mighl have casl the sentence into another form, ami having said that the Bible contains the only revelation of God's will, and the only record of l's dealings, mighl have gone on to say, "Both th< are to be obtained," Ac. ; hut constructed as the sentence now is, the singular verb, and nol the plural, is required i, , express his meanin 420. Take another case. In Psalm xiv. 7, we read, •■ Destruction and unhappiness is in their ways : " in Psalm lwiii. 25, "My flesh and my heart faileth." iwas remarked by tin' critic in the •• Ti " of September 29th, L863, in censuring the modernizations in the Cambridge Shakspeare, Shakspeare wrote "His steeds to water at those springs on chaliced flowers that lies:" and Prosp i made to say, " lies at my mercy all mine enemii How are tin se apparent violations of grammar to be accounted for'r 121. Account of these usages.— Simply, I bel by regarding the Bensc of the sentences. In each of them, one and the game acl i- pr< dicated of a numl ons or things, con idered as one. Jn the two former Bentem these things are nearly svnonymous: in the two latter, thej are ( thcr. In either caso, I lie acl is one : ami this I. let Beems to have rule, I the rerb in the lar, instead of the more usual plural. It has been mentioned 1 1 fore in t In .t hat in t he < hreeb I. .• ., plural of the neuter gender t teril a singular verb. The thiir.'s composing it ai dered as forming one ra i ban a plurality "i indh idual and t he \, i :. .| I v . 1 -' 1 'ill. found u il h him u In. w lit' . " 'I \' I" - n 1 1 1 -i . ajj ban one." The form IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 155 of the sentence, ruled by the plural noun, is of necessity itself plural. But if the words are to be transposed, "There have been more than one application," the correct- ness of the plural verb is not so clear. The subject of the verbis "more than one application:" and that phrase is not necessarily plural : it is a kind of abstraction, of the same kind as the literal rendering of that Scripture phrase, " more than Jonas is here." In that case, " are here " would give an erroneous sense. It would seem that " There has been more than one application," is right. 423. "Either you or I are . . . ." A correspondent asks which is right: "Either you or I are wrong," or " Either you or I am wrong." This it seems to me is a case where usage has gone astray knowingly, being baffled by the awkwardness of the combined construction. No- thing can be plainer than that the former of these two phrases is grammatically wrong. If "both you and I are wrong," he right, where " you and I " are coupled, " either you or I are wrong," where they are disjoined, can hardly be right, The full sentence is, " Either you (are wrong), or I [am wrong]." We may, if we please, omit the words in square brackets, and thus take the best way of expressing the proposition. But if we prefer to omit the words in curved brackets, we must somehow change the verb. "Either you or I am" is surely intolerable. This has been fell beyond our own tongue. In almost every language, whether ancient or modern, the attempt to enunciate such a sentence is attended with difficulty, and gives rise to an awkward and ungrammatical construction. An admissible form of (ho sentence, it' grammar only were considered, would be " Either you or I is wrong," thus ob- jectivising both, and expressing, "One of us, either you or me, is wr-.ng;" but the sound is harsh, and usages would be \ iolated. 424. I observe that Dr. Latham lavs it down as a rule that in such clauses. 1. Whenever the word either or neither precedes the pronouns, the verb is in the third person. Either you or I is in i ng— neither you nor I is in the wrong. 2. Whenever the disjunctive is simple, i.e., un- accompanied \\ it h t be word 1 itfu r or neither, ihe verb agrees with the first of the two pronouns. I or he am in the wrong. THE QUEEN 1 8 ENGLI8H. //■ / fa the wrong. Thou or !■■ art in tin wrong. //• thou m in the wrong. 425. Still. I do ii"t think usage Banctiona these Bentem ami usage, which in the end is the might which makes right, is iluit of which I am treating. 126. Verbs with a singular nominative coupled to a plural. A difficulty arises as to the proper number of i!i«- verb substantive, when it couples a singular nomi- native case to a plural < Two correspondents have written on tins matter. One cites from a newspaper, "More curates are what we want," and asks whether "are" i- correct. The other is a printer, ami relates thai on tins .-lit. iir.- being sent for press, — "A Bpecial feature of the Reformatory Exhibition were the workshops and work- rooms," the "Beader" in the ..nice corrected " " to "was;" upon which the Author corrected "was" back tin to "were." A dispute arose in the office, Borne Biding with the Reader, Bomewith the Author. The former were the majority: and the minority, though they thoughl •• were" correct, yel acknowledged thai "was" would Bound better. I_'7. And 1 believe thai they were thus not only making an ingenuous confession, hut giving the key to the whole question. In most cases of this kind, that which Bounds right, is right. Ami that which Bounds righl is generally, in the examples before us, that the verb should take the number, he it Bingular or plural, of the preceding nomina tive case. " More curates are what we want." Bui invert the proposition, ami we musl Bay, " What we want is more i in:: So iii the other case, "a special feature of the exhibition was, the work. -hops, and work-rooms:" but, •• the work-shops and work-rooms were a special feature ol the exhibit ion." IJ- Still, this rule does not Becm to have been alvi loll,, we. | bj our I- I w in. In the I !i lish Bible, I' ha •■ . 1 1 . mi of a man's life an liis ii' I Ml] in l'ro\ . \\ i. 25, " 'I h a \ w hieh inel h i ijht nut,, a man. I, ut t he end thereof are t h( deal h." 'II to have been alwa t he plural verb- n hen eil her of t he iKiiiuii.it i\ . plural. \\ , have in on< and the same IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. \tf sentence, (Prov. xvii. 6,) " Children's children are the crown of old men: and the glory of children axe their fathers-." w here it is plain thai the occurrence of one plural, and not the order of the substantives, has ruled the number of the verb. ' 429. Every schoolboy will remember " Amantium irae amoris integratio est ; " in reference to which we may notice, that the Latin possesses the advantage of being able so to arrange the sentence, that the verb shall stand close to, and take the number of, the more important of the two nominative cases. 430. Mistakes in accepting invitations. — A curious mistake is often made in accepting invitations. In full half the notes of this kind which are sent, we see, "I shall be very happy to accept your invitation for the 9th." But the acceptance is not a thing future : the acceptance is con- veyed by that very note, and your friend, when she gets it, will put you down as having accepted. The sentence is written in confusion between " I shall be very happy to come," and "I am very happy to accept," or "I accept with pleasure." And so the former half of the first sentence gets wedded to the latter half of the second. 431. This kind of confusion sometimes produces comical results. "Pat, does Mr. Flanagan live here?" "Yes, your honour, he does, but he's dead." " Why, when did he die':'" "Well, your honour, if he'd lived till next Tuesday, he'd be dead a fortnight." What the man means is tolerably clear. He would say, " He'll have been dead a fortnight come next Tuesday." But in the case of a living man, any assertion of this class must be made with reserve, because he may not live till next Tuesday ; so Pat puts on the reserve, and applies it to the dead, who is beyond the reach of uncertainty. b32. Answers to invitations are set thick with traps Eor the careless and the illiterate. Sometimes, instead of "invitation," we find a noun unknown to our language introduced, and the writer is happy to accept the kind "invite" of Ins host. Sometimes, when the imitation is declined, the poor tenses of verbs are mangled in the most, ruthless manner. Take a few forms at random: "I should be happy to come, but " "I should have been happy to come, 1 58 ////: QUEEA 1LISB. but " " I Bhould have been happy to have come, bui " I i lii .. all these are in use, one aboul as often as another. Lei as examine them one by one. •• I Bhould be happy to come, bui I am pre-engaged." There seems, and 1 believe there is. n< > error here. The form of accepting would I"'. " I shall be happy to come, as [ am dis-engaged :" and " should " is the stricl conditional correlative •! - halL 134. • I hould have been happy to come, but I am pre- engaged." This is wrong, and for the following reason : "should have been" is conditional relatively to something that i> past. ■* 1 Bhould have been in Devonshire lasl Christmas, bui I was ill." And the thing which the writer of the note is speaking of is future, not past. Had the writer said. " 1 Bhould have been happy i<> accepl your invitation, bui L am pre-engaged," all would have been right; because the act of accepting or non-accepting will have belonged to the past, before the hosl receives the letter. . •• 1 should have 1 a happy to have come, bui [am pre-engaged." This is doubly wrong. The " should have been" is wrong, as we have jus! Been: and "to have come" has really no sense at all. Turn it into an accep- taii What can " I shall lie happy to have come," mean? Nothing surely, it" not this," I .shall be rejoi when the visi! is over," which i> a poor complimenl t>> one's friend. 6. Use of certain conjunctional particles. — Care is required in the use of Be veral conjunctional ami prepositional particles. The first <>t' these which I shall ii"! cept." Except means with !!<•■ excepti and exempts from Borne previous list, or Borne previous predication, the Bubstantive or Bubstantives, or clause or • fore u hich it i I// un r- /,/, ,, i.e.. •• with il of Juno" or, " .hum ted." And on this account, wo musl tal thai t ; >n or thing excepted I ue which would have u included in the previous cal it' the exception h id tiol 1»' ii made. . Violation of this rule. This rule La violated IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 159 in the following sentence taken from a newspaper : "Few ladies, except Her Majesty, could have made them solves heard," &c. For how is the word "except" here to be understood? From what list is Her Majesty excepted, or taken oul ? Clearly no1 Erom among the/eu> ladies spoken of. Had the sentence stood "All ladies, except Her Majesty, would have proved unequal to," &c, it would have been constructed rightly, though clumsily; what it meant to express was that "Few ladies besides Her Ma- jesty, could have" done what wasspoken of: and. "besides" should have been the word used. Besides (by the side of) does not subtract, as except docs, but adds ; and thus we should have the sense required : viz., that very few ladies added to Her Majesty, — besides her, — could have done the thin^ spoken of. 438. Use of "except" for "unless." — There is a use of except, which was once very common, but is now hardly ever found: that, I mean, by which it stands for " unless." " I will not let thee go, except thou bless me." This usage is quite legitimate: amounting in fact to say- ing, "In no case will 1 let thee go, excepted only that in which thou shalt bless me." This is found constantly throughout the English Version of the Bible, both in the Old Testament and in the New. 439. " Without." — Without is another word used in somewhat the same meaning. As in the other cases, its prepositional use has led to its conjunctional. Take the following sentence from Sir Philip Sidney: "You will never live to my age, without you keep yourselves in breath with exercise, mid in heart, with joyfulness." In this, "without ij"ti keep" is in fact a construction compounded of "without keeping," aid " unless" or "except you keep." ■1 !(). "A mutual friend." — What are we to think of the expression, "a mutual friend"? what is mutual"? Much the same as " reciprocal. " It describes thai which passes from cadi to each of two persons. Thus forexample, when St. Paul says to the Romans (i. L2), "Thai I maybe comforted together with yon by the mutual faith loth of you and me," the meaning is, in English, "by my con- fidence in yon and your confidence in me." And that our translators meant this to he understood is clear: for they 160 '///■' QUEl V'6 SNGLtSff. deliberately altered the previous versions to this form. Wiclif had '* M faith thai is bothe youre and myn to Tyndale, "through the common faith which bothe ye and I have:" bo also Cranmer and the Gen Bible. 111. Ami mutual oughl never to be used, unless the reciprocity exists. "The mutual low of husband and wit." is correcl enough: bul "a mutual friend of 1 ■« * 1 1 * husband and wife" is Bheer nonsense. A common friend is meant; a friend thai is common t.> both. The word mutual has no place or assignable meaning in such phrase, and yel we occasionally find it used even by th< who pride themselves on correcl Bpeaking. 142. ••We will write you." There is an expression frequently used in correspondence, principally by mercan- tile men: "we will write you," instead of " we will write to you:" •• write me at yourearliesl convenience," instead of " unite to me." [s this an allowable ellipsis r It is univer- sally acknowledged thai the "to" of the BO-called dative may be dropped in certain constructions: " Ee -li-l me a favour;" "he senl me a birthday present;" •■ II.- wrote me a kind letter:" "The Lord raised them up deliverers." In all these cases, the object or which the verb directly governs is expressed. Bui it' it be omitted, the verb at once is taken as governing the per- sonal pronoun or substantive, of which the dative case is thus elliptically expressed. Thus: "He Benl me" would mean, ool " Ee senl to me," bu1 he sent, as his n er, me. "The Lord raised them up," \\.>u|.l imply, n<>t thai Ee raised up some person or thing for them, bul thai Ee lifted them up themseh - II:;. And bo, when we < 1 »-< » i • the Bubstantive directly erned by the verb in the phrase, " II.' wrote mi letter," or " he wrote me word," an. I merely Bay " he wrote me" we cannol properly understand the sentence in any other way, than that ••///." i^ governed by the verb ite." Thai this is not is uo1 t" tin- purpo 'I'll.' construction of such a phi irily halts, ami is defective, nol only elliptical. We should -a\ in all " uniti to me," or " wnti »" word," or the like; never barolj •• write me." IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. \Q\ 444. "And which." — Very curious blunders in con- struction are made by the careless use of " and" with the relative pronoun, coupling it to a sentence which will not bear such coupling. I take these two instances from one and the same page of a charitable report : " The Board offer their grateful acknowledgments for the liberal sup- port hitherto so freely extended, and which has so greatly contributed to this satisfactory result." "It was feared that the untimely death of the surgeon to the hospital, occurring as it did so very shortly after its opening, and to v/iose untiring energy the Institution mainly owes its existence, might seriously affect its future prospects and position." 445. Now in both these instances the conjunction "and" is wholly unneeded, is indeed quite in the way of the con- struction. Two clauses connected by " and " must be similarly constructed. You cannot say, " Then I went home and which is quite true." Yet this is the construc- tion of both the sentences quoted : and the fault is one of the very commonest in the writing of careless or half- educated persons. 446. In the Times of Nov. 11, 1863, occurred the fol- lowing sentence, in the translation of M. Casimir Perriei's letter to the President of the Legislative body: "Ihoped to procure the original placard which was posted on the walls of Grenoble on that occasion, but which I have been unable to do." The following " Form of Order " was distributed widely by a London publisher: — "Please send me a copy of the Shakksim:are Memorial, and for which I enclose Eighteen Postage Stamps." I was surprised to find, that Murray's Handbooks lor Italy abound with this vulgarism. 447. Years have passed since the preceding paragraphs were written, bul the vulgarism seems as frequent as ever. This is an answer to an address presented to the Princess of Wales, and is the composition of an English nobleman : "H.R.H. the Princess <>f Wales acknowledges, &c, mnl _/"/■ which .-7/'' is profoundly recognisant." I quote the Eollov* ing from a novel which shall be name- less: "His having been with Lorenzo at the time of his death, a ltd who had wished to confess to him, raised him M j THE QUI EN'S ENGLISH. prodigiously in the opinion <>f all those \n1i> had been the admirers <>f thai prim I have ivci'ivrtl a notice this rery day from a London bookseller t<> this effect : •• A. l'». C. begs to announce the above importanl con- tributions by Dr. T. to Biblical Criticism as nearly ready, md which he will have t'<>r Bale as soon as published." 448. It wmuM l»i- an endless labour to give anything like adequate number of examples from presenl writers. Hardly any are free from tin- fault. I do nol hesitate to . i \ . ili.it ii i- hardlj possible to take up a newspaper, a pamphlet, or a book, without finding an instance before many niinutrs have pass* I. An expression which a century o would have been deemed intolerable, is tin; raring idiomal ic. 449. "The death is announced of." — I fear the ame is likely to happen to an odious form of sj ch which has lately crept into our newspapers: "The death is announced "t' " " The suspension is reported of " And sonictiincs we have the sentence still further divari- cated thus, "The death is announced in the Liverpool journals, at his Beal in the North of Scotland, of aoute bronchitis, of Mr. Blank." The Bource of this clumsy arrangement must, I suppose, I lit in the fad of our not being able to u e the convenient impersonal form of the French, and to Bay, " They annoui But there are many ways in which the same thing mighl be better aid, and among them the very Bimple < 'in- of keeping the plain order of the words: "The death of Mr. Blank announced in t he Lit erpool journa ' In a lately published volume of vei e, I found a still more remarkable form of this Licence rating words rhich ought to stand together : "And shall hit on some I. in to the a uisanci abaU ." 150. Erroneous epithets. Attention has been di- ted to the erroneous use of adjectives belonging to one bodil) with substantives belt to another. We told that a "conspicuous voia i uot uncommon n I can testify t" having frequentlj heard "a iiiinl smell," and "a beautiful air." No* of course all such expressions will not bear itricl in : but IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 163 are they therefore not allowable ? Every one speaks of "beautiful music:" why may we not say, "a beautiful odour " ? 451. The distinction seems to be this. Any word may be used in that which is called a metaphorical sense : i.e., may be transferred from a material to a mental meaning. Thus " beautiful " being originally a word belonging to the sense of sight, may be transferred to the inward sight, and things may be called beautiful which are apprehended by the mind, with or without the aid of sense. Thus we recognise Beauty in art. Poetry, Painting, Music, are arts: the first apprehended by the eye, the ear, and the thought. — the second by the eye and the thought, — the third by the ear and the thought. In all these the mental vision sees Beauty: we may have beautiful poetry, beauti- ful painting, beautiful music. But smell is not an art : the mere enjoyment of wholesome air is not an art: in neither is there any scope for Beauty, and consequently of neither must "beautiful" be said. "A conspicuous voice" is even worse: it is an absolute defiance of correctness: a torturing of the machinery of one sense into the grooves of another. 452 " Proclivities," what. — This torturing of words may sometimes be perpetrated where people little suspect it. The Americanism "proclivities" is sometimes a con- venient word. It is used as equivalent to "tendencies." But, in reality, it does only half the work of the English term. Glivua being Latin for a hill, procUvw is an adjec- tive signifying down-hill, while acclivis signifies up-hill. We have the term " acclivity " in English, meaning an up- ward slope. So that when we use "proclivities," we must, take care lhat we confine it to its proper meaning. To speak, as the Record did last week, of a statesman having " High Church proclivities," is to make a blunder in terms. A proclivity can never carry a man up on high. The achievement of the man who used to walk up an inclined plane on a rolling globe would l>e Ear surpassed by him who through any manner of proclivities should attain to High Churchmanship. I would venture to suggesi thai as the Americas term has this defect, it would be better to discard it and employ the English one. [54 THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH. ' This distinction has been objected to as hyper- criticism. It lias been ^ai s;iv thai it fled in a Btate of flying. 1>_\ the latter words of the clause we do nol wanl t<> express the Bame as by the former. When an army flies, eon-fusion lias plenty of examples. Discipline is confused; ranks are confused; and it the literal sense of the word is insisted on, its elements are abundantly " fused or blended together." II -One" joined to "his." There is an unfor- tunate word in our language, which few can use without \'i\ - i L.'"iii„ r wrong in grammar, or, which is worse, in common sense. It is the word "one," used in the Bense of the French "on," 01 the German "man," and meaning pie in general '• \\'h:it one baa dune, \\ li- n one was young, ( inc ne'er \\ ill il" again ; In former days < 'in- went by coacb, Bui iicnv one goes by tram." far, " om " \< pretty sure to 1"' right. It is only when this is carried on further, thai the danger arises Supp I wanted to pul into English the Baying of the French gourmand, which, by the way, I am glad an Englishman ox] lyselfr In other Wi'i.ls, li.>\v ;nn I t<> tak<- up llm " om " willi the ive pronoun, "i" with an\ possessive, in English i The French, \ Bay, "With tins Bauce one could eal own father." I this an English i I don'1 mean the meal bul the grammar)? I believe not, though it i> id in currenl literal ure. 11 In rai And dream bimaelf, in po< t'a mood, away." \ I of m\ correspondent >■ "When writing <>n In' 'ulnar, ami composition, "in ought t" be more than usually particular in Aw endeavours to be him ■." IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 165 455. These sentences do not Beem to me to be right. Having used "one" we must also use"ractice." But it will he plain that it is a different meaning of which I am now speaking. A friend tells me that in his part of the world the people say, " didn't use to was:" and a midland cor- respondent, that he has heard in his town, even in good society, the phrase, " used to could." I have a confirmation of this in a letter from Derby. My correspondent says both expressions are very common there. "I have even,' he says, "heard 'used to did.' Perhaps," he adds, "the following example may be new to you. A young man speaks who has married in haste, and is repenting at leisure : "'And when I think >>n what I am, Ami w bat I used to was, I feel l'?e throw ed m\ self aw ;i v Without sufficient cause.' " 457. If you ask me what we are to say in this case, 1 must reply that I can answer verj well on paper, hut not 1-;,; THE QUEEN* - I V01 18 IT. w.ll for tli«- purposes of common talk. M / used" is ne , I . ■• / used not." Bul unfortunately, this expression dot 1 1 - • t -I" the work in common talk. *' / used n>>t to him nt mij uncle's," doea nol convej the idea thai il i doI your babil to meel him there. It rather means, thai he was there, bul thai for some unexplained reason you did qoI see him. Sou meanl to express, ao1 something which it unu your practice not /"./", bul something which it was not your practice to do. "I never used" is better, bul it may be too strong. 1 am afraid there is no refuge bul in the ineleganl word " usedn't," to which I Buppose m<>^t of us have lii.niv t inns been driven. 168. • Riding," " driving." -Biding or driving t This question has been asked by several correspondents, in con- [uence of my story, told further on, of a benevolenl old .•.hi hinaii "riding m his carriage?' I am asked whether this oughl nol tn have been " driving," seeing that riding cannot properly be predicated excepl of per-... us on hor lack. Bu1 there is u..t necessarily any Buch limitation of the meaning of the word t<> ride. It comes certainly from a time when the employmenl of wheels was almosl un- known: bul from centuries ago bas been applied t>> any kind of locomotion in which a person or thing Li borne, whether on an animal, or in a carriage, or as when used of a ship ..n the water. A road is a broad path on which people mas ridi on horses and in vehicles: a road, or /.» sen-,, : and the sense is amply justified bj other cognate of the verb to take : Buch as, to take il well or ill, to /.//.-. // in good part, to take >< man for his brother, and the like. The fad of Buch an objection having been made, uhows the necessity for upholding our plain nervous collo- quial I I i be inroads of modern fine Ian IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION, 167 It would be a loss instead of a gain if " I take it," were to be superseded by " I apprehend ; " or, as we should be sur< to bave it pronounced, " I happryend." 460. "The earth's revolving." — Another correspon- dent inquires respecting the construction of such seutenc as the following :— " Day and night are a consequence of the earth revolving on its axis." He maintains, that heir, revolving is a verbal noun equivalent to revolution, and that we ought to say, " A consequence of the earth's revolv- ing on its axis." He believes that he has proved this by the test of substituting the pronoun for the eai'th, thus: " Day and night on our earth are a consequence of its re- volving on its axis," where he rightly says no one would think of saying it revolving. 461. At first sight this appears decisive. But let us ex- amine a little further. It is somewhat curious that, in this last sentence, we may leave out the possessive pronoun, without obscuring the sense. "Our earth enjoys day and night as a consequence of revolving on its axis." To which a rejoinder may be made, " of ivhat revolving on its axis?" and the answer is " the earth," not " the earth's." We may, if we wish, regard the earth revolving on Us axis as a description of an idea set before the mind. The fact indi- cated by that idea, viz., that the earth does so revolve, pro- duces as a consequence day and night. Day and night, in other words, are a consequence of that fact so indicated : i.e., of the earth revolving on her axis. 462. I believe, then, that both forms are correct in point of construction : and a writer will use one or the other, according as euphony admits or requires. In an instance which my correspondent cited, where I say that "the pro- fusion of commas prevented the text being understood," it is plain that " the text's being understood" would have been harsh and ill-sounding. I believe that, as a general matter of choice, I rather prefer the form of the sentence to which my correspondent objects. It may be that mj ears are accustomed to the Greek and Latin construction, which is according to this form and not to the other. 463. In such sentences as "on the war (or, war's) com- ing to an end," " on a difficulty (or, difficulty's) present- ing itself," I believe it will be found thai is not THE QUEEN" S I V01 TSB. uniform. We always write the possessive of pronouns hi Buch constructions, but not always of nouns. "On bis appearing " " «'n my becoming aware of it " "the cause of its turning sour," and the like. Bui If we convert these pronouns into the nouns which thej repre- sent, the usage will not be consistenl with itself . We say, "On Benry's appearing. . . ": but we Bay, "the cause of the milk (not, the milk's) turning bout." I believe the difference will be found to consist in t hi> : thai we attribute I Bsion to persons more readily than t<> things. But this fails, when we represent both by pronouns. That "it" iliil in>) always take a possessive, we bave observed al ove, par. 12. Nor does it seem to bold, even with nouns, uni- versally. We Bay equally, " On the question being put," ;ni' musi leave usage t<> its freaks. W'.l. The double genitive.- A correspondent has questioned altogether the Legitimacy of 1 1 > « • double genitive be calls it) in such sentences as " 1 1 < -\\ many hired ser- vants "t my Father's. . ." BTe would bave it "of my Father," and, being a clergyman, always reads it so. In doing, be violates not only order, but the propriety "f language also. In Buch sentences, the "of" preceding 1 1 1 - - noun in the genitive is not one of possession, but <>i par- tition. "How many servants of my Father's" "Hon manj servants from among those of my Father," or it we like to call the sentence elliptical, and till it out, "Hon many servants of my Fathers servants ." That tliis is the construction, will be seen, it' we consider in what ca this form can l»- used, We can say, " A country bouse of my lathi]'-." because it is thereby implied that the father baa more bouses than one, and that tliis is ( >i t' them i we cannot say, "the country bouse of my father's," but must say " the country bouse of mj father." This form is useful as frequently conducing t.» per- ipicuity. In a phrase t.. which my correspondent obje< \ i reation of the dean's," " one from among the 'lean's ill.- form which he prefers, " \ creation of the • I- .in." would at nil events convej an ambiguous meanin 165 A rarietj "t' tin- useful wa) of R]>caking occurs when v.'- say, "That lying ••! your's," M those books "i IDIOM ANT) CONSTRUCTION. 169 mine," and the lite. My correspondent does not, I imagine, propose to corred these phrases to, "That saying of you," " those books of me." 466. " Predicate for predict." — A correspondent finds that the newspapers are in the habit of using "pre- dicate" where they mean "predict.'" I have not observed this ; but it may be well to say, that to predicate is simply to affirm this or that of anything, whereas to predict is to foretell a future event. 467. There are certain cases where either word might be used without a fault. And such is the very instance cited by my correspondent: — "It is impossible to predicate what the result will be." The writer very likely meant, to predict ; but he might have intended to say, thai no one can predicate this or that probable result. If so, he expressed himself clumsily, but did not fall into the error com- plained of. 468. "If" for "whether."— "If" for "whether," is another mistake which I am asked to point out. But this usage, though it may not be according to our modern habit, is found in our best writers; and 1 cannot see that there is anything to complain of in it. Under the word " if" in Johnson, we have, cited from Dryden : " Uncertain if by augury or chance." And from Prior, " Doubting if she doubts or no." We also read (Gen. viii. 8) that Noah " sent forth a dove from him, to see if \\u> waters were abated from off the face of the ground." 469. " Seldom or never." — Another of my corre- spondents is offended with " seldom or never," and prefers " seldom, if ever " It seems to me thai the two express the same idea, in slightly differing ways, Imt that both are perfectly Legitimate. The one is analogous to " very little, or not at all," the oilier to " very little, if at 'ill." 470. "Like I do." — " Like" used as an adverb, is also brought under my notice, and the complaint in this ease is not without reason. "Like I do now," "like he was," " Wee we are," are quite indefensible, and are avoided by 170 THE QUEEN 1 - ENGLISH. all tar. I'ul speakers and writers. The mistake lias been occasioned l.v ilir legitimate use of " like " as an adjective at the beginning of a sentence, "where it means "Uketo." Ion may sav, "Like David, I am the youngesl pf m\ family: but yon may nol Bay, " hih I 1 ' wae, Earn the \ onngesi of my familj ." 171. Nouns of number. — Nouns of number are also proposed as a sulijcct for treatment. lam supposed t.> have written incorrectly (par. 506), " When the band of French Guides were in this country ; " and tin' .'pinion is supported by reminding me thai we saj "There was a large congregation," ool ••there were a large congn tion." Most true: and from the consideration <>i this example we may derive something like a rule in such cases. In saying "there wae a large congregation" I am speaking of the a--.inl.l_v ae a whole. It' I were Baying anything which suggested the idea of the individuals com- posing it, I should use, not the singular verb, but the plural. I show!. I hardly sav, " the congregation was wl nil of the same opinion," bul " the congregation were n<-l all of the t'liiir opinion." The alightesl bias either way will influence a writer, when using such words, towards a sin- gular or a plural veil.. 1 should say, that in the ease complained of, perhaps it was the fad of " Guides," in the plural, being the word immediately preceding the verb, that induced me to put it in the plural; or perhaps the knowledge that I was aboul to Bpeak of the hand through- out the following senteii "they," "tft, French- nu n," a..-. 472. ••People" and "Persons." A correspondenl wishes me t.. observe that the former of these terms signifies an a te of persons, and thai we oughl never to -,i\ $everal /"■■/■!'■. bul always several persons, I own I cannot find that this distinction is entirely Lome out. Bacon, a- adduced by Johnson, says, " It a man temp r his actions so as to content evi ry combination of pi "/'/»■, t he musick will he the fuller:" in which sentence, "people* ma to be used for "persons." still, it is a distinction which it IS worth while t<> niii. nih.r : for doubtless it is :.r jn t, that it represents the general imporl of the tWO \N . ' I ' I - . IDIOM AND CO.XSTRUCTION. 171 473. Another correspondent complains that these two words are still used as synonymous: "to me," he says, "a very offensive vulgarism. It is periodically announced by the clergyman of the church to which I go here, that there will be the usual monthly sermons for the young this afternoon, at which the attendance of ' young people ' is particularly requested. Now it seems to me that ' people' is a collective noun of the singular number, and should only be used as such, never for 'persons' Should I be right if I said that the latter is the concrete of people ? " I must reply, that I still cannot see the distinction, nor did T find it observed by our best writers. Even sup- posing it to exist, usage has set in so decidedly against it, that it would be pedantry for our age to insist on reviving it. We should have to sing, " All persons that on earth do dwell," which may be a correction, but certainly is not an improvement. 474. The modern plural folks has been impugned. But usage has so thoroughly sanctioned it, that purism will at this time of day protest in vain. Nay, as so often where a new form has been introduced, the old form takes a dif- ferent meaning from its previous one. " The Conies are a feeble folk": but we could not say, "The Conies are feeble folks." Nor, again, could we speak of the " old folk at home." 475. Another correspondent finds fault with a common method of speech in which we make the abstract noun into the concrete : " Twenty clergy walking in procession." But this surely is defensible, nay, is sometimes necessary. " Twenty clergymen walking in procession," may mean the same thing, but does not so plainly indicate that they walked where they did, because they were clergymen. After all, " twenty clergy " is only an al>l>reviated form of twenty of the clergy, the clerisy, or the clerical profession. In another profession, the adjective is used to perforin a similar duty : we speak of calling in the " military." 476. It is somewhat curious to observe the different forms which have come to designate the professions. Ministers of religion are "the clergy," soldiers are "the military," sailorshardly have a collective name, but are individually known as "Jack," or, if pluralised, "the blue [72 THE QUEEN* 8 I NGL1SH. jay the bar," or the " gentlemen of the lone robe," though their robes are no longer than tli" t the clergy; medical men are the "faculty"; judges are •• tli.' I" -ik! i." or " bigwigs." Artiste, engineers, architects, seem t>> 1"' a- ye\ withoul collective names. 177. 'I know nothing by myself," explained. — Another correspondenl is puzzled bj my having said that •• a man who talks of AristobuTus iii tin- lesson, is as likely as H"t to preach from St. Paul's, ' / know nothing by myself,' t.. >Iimu iis that tin- apostle wanted divine teaching, and not to be aware thai he meant be was wl conscious of any fault." M \ correspondenl cannol conceive how the words can have any other meaning, than that the apostle had no know- ledge of his own. His difficulty (and I mention it because ii may be that of many others besides him) is that he has missed the peculiar sense of tin- preposition "/'//." as here used. I' bears the >f "of" in the words, " I know ic> harm of him" This is still in tin- midland counties, -- / know if harm I"/ him." We have a som.uhat similar usage in tin- Prayer-1 b version of Ps. rv. t. " //• that si ih Hi n"l liij himself" i.e., i- do! Belf -conceited, s.tt.th do1 Btore by himself, as we even now Bay. I have heard a parish clerk pronounce these last words, " he that sitteth //->/ by himself," in allusi..n, I suppose, to the Squire's pew. To return t<> "/ know nothing /"/ myself." Tli.' meaning is decided for us by the original Greek, which i- Bimply, " 1 .•mi conscious Of DO fault :'' ami it is plain that the WOrds of the English version vi undersl 1 when they were tii>t written; for Dr. Donne, in King James the First's time, preaches on them, and quotes them over an. I over in, in t lii- 17-. "The three ' poys ' just mentioned" A cor- pondcnl wl me his Dame vouch) for tin' follow- ing anccd< te. I own I had fancied it was an <>ld stor) : hut v., many things related in .I.-- Miller have happened mi within m\ own experience, thai I must ool t...> readily ;:.|mit j doubi of my correspondent iracy. " M \ iid."' I i " happened t.- !"• present one Sabbath in .i pari h • I h "in'' milcB oorth of Aberdeen, the cler in. in of w hi. h la I rii.' < l.i. ! i I irl "ii of the I b of Daniel, containing the Dames 'Shadrach, IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 173 Meshach, and Abednego.' The reverend gentleman finding some difficulty in delivering himself of these vocables, re- solved not to attempt the task a second time, but simply referred to 'the three " poys" just men tinned.' " 479. I have received another and fuller account of this hind of abbreviation, certified with the name of the hearer, which is a guarantee for its accuracy. In this case the officiating clergyman said, " sa/me three gentlemen," and in- stead of repeating the details of instruments, "sackbut, psaltery," &c., read, "music as before." 480. " Religion in the arm-chair." — In illustration, not of the habit of mispronouncing, but, what is worse, of misunderstanding, another correspondent assures me that he heard a man, pretending to be a teacher of the Gospel, preach on what he called "Religion in the arm-chair," his text being (1 Tim. v. 4), 'Let them learn first to show piety at home :' where the word "piety" as the margin of the English Bible would have informed him, means merely "hindness to I heir relations," and has nothing to do with religion in the stricter sense. 481. A correspondent sends me the following. " A pla- card is to be seen in a certain farmyard in this county : — " 'There is a place for everything, and everything for a place. Any person offending against these rales will for- feit 2d.' " 482. "The right man in the right place."— By- the-by, what are we to think of the phrase which came in during the Crimean war, " The right man in the right />/itce " ? How can the right man ever be in the wrong place? or the wrong man in the right place? W'c used to illustrate the unfitness of things by Baying that the round man had got into the square hole, and the square man into the round hole; that was correct enough ; but it was (lie •putting in- cniitjritoHs things together that was wrong, not the man, nor the hole. 483. " His wrong slippers." — This puts me in mind of the servanl at school once coming into the schoolroom, in consequence of some interchange of slippers, and calling out, "Has any gentleman gol his wrong slippers ? " Now. if they were his, they were not wrong; and if tiny were wrong, they were not his. 171- THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH. 4*1. In ill'' i\\" great hotels al Paris, a notioe in the rooms was wont to proclaim among other articles of the tariff, the ooei of attendance, &c., to an " ill person." This reminded one that well and /// in our modern ose an' only predicates, and never epithets. We i an say •• a person who is ill," hut nol " an ill person : " we can s;i\ " 1 am well," l>nt doI " I am in a well state of health." 485. We still retain the epithetal use in proverbs and antiquated phrases. "It's an ill wind that Mows nobodj any g 1 : " " doing a man an ill turn." I-'.. Buch adjectives seem to have half 1< >>t their adjec- tival force, and to have almost become adverbs. The ad- jectival predicative Bense, 1"' it observed, is physical only. We may say, " \\>- behaved ill," bu1 not, " His behaviour was ill •. " •• He treated him well," hut not, " His treatment of him was well." For these latter respectively we musl substitute " bad" and "g 1.'" 1-7. My corn's] 'ondenl also sent me the following : A M p. I 'ri spin of < heford announced thai he sold "boots and shoes made by celebrated Eloby, London." Mr. Eloby, irate, jint into the Oxford paper: ••The i ts and sh Mr. Crispin Bays he sells of my make is a lie." 488. Ambiguous description of men.- Some odd description* oi men have been forwarded me, arising from the ambiguous junction of compound words. In two three places in London, we sei "Old and \- Booksell — an impossible combination in one and the same man; bui of course meanings seller of old and new 1 leg, An- other tradesman describes himself i ' Oas-h Ider mul Boiler-maker" meaning thai he mak< s-holders and boilers, bui giving the idea thai he undertakes to contain - li i ii i -• 1 1 . We had in Canterbury a worthy neighbour, who advertised himself as" Indigenous Kentish Serbalisl j" meaning, of course, not that he was born amongsl us, bui that he made herbe indigenous in Kent his Btudy. i-:» I have Lying on my table a note ju ived, in the following ' B ( '. begs to apologise lor not acknowledging I'. ( > order at the tune (hut was from home), and thus gol delayed, misplaced, ami forgotten." 1 Bee Appendix. IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. ]75 490. A correspondent sends me the following note : " Mrs. A.'s compliments to Mrs. B., and begs to say that C. lived with her for a year and found her respectable, steady, and honest." 491. " By applying." — " By doing a thing," for "if he will do it" is noticed by a friend as a common error in Scotch papers. " Found on board the steamer ' Vulcan,' a gold locket. The owner may have it by giving the date when lost, and paying expenses." •' Found, in Stock well Street, on Friday early, a gold or gold-plated Geneva watch. The owner may have the same on proving his properly, by applying to Mr. R. B., 166, Hospital Street." 492. " Wants cutting." — Is it right, a correspondent asks, to say "his hair wants cutting," "the lawn wants mowing?" I should say, undoubtedly. His hair wants a certain act performed on it. What is that process called ? Chitting. The word is, of course, a present participle, but it is used almost as a substantive. Thus we say, " the first and second mowings of the lawn were difficult, the third was easier." Thus, too, we speak of a "flogging;" of " readings " of Shakspeare, &c. " He wa nts h is hair cutting " cannot be similarly defended, nor indeed at all ; it ought to be, "he wants his hair cut." 493. Deterioration of the language itself. — But I now come, from the by-rules and details of the use of the language, to speak of an abuse far more serious than those hitherto spoken of; even the tampering -with and deterio- rating the language itself. I believe it to have been in connexion with an abuse of this kind, that the term "the King's English " was first devised. We know that it is a • rime to clip the King's coin ; and the phrase in which we first find the term which forms the subject of our essay, is, "clipping the King's English." So thai il is qoI improbable that the analogy between debasing language and debasing coin first led to it. 494. Sources of our language. — Now in this ease the charge is twofold ; thai of clipping, and thai of beating out and thinning down the Queen's English. And it is wonderful how far these, especially the latter, have pro- 17-; THE QUI ' V'fl I VGL18H. ded in our days. Ii is well to bear in mind, that our jlish comes mainly from two sources; rather, perhaps, thai its parent stock, the British, has been cul down, and grafted with the two Bcions which form the present tree: the Saxon, through our Saxon invaders ; and the Latin, through our Norman invaders. Of these two, th<' Saxon was, of course, the earlier, and it forms the Btaple of the language. Almost all our older a nil simpler ideas, both for things and \ by Saxon words. Bui as time went on, dew want e, new arts were introduced, new id needed words t<> express them ; ami these were taken from the stores of the classic languages, either direct, or more often through tin- French. We all remember that Gurth ami Wamba complain, in "Ivanhoe," that the farm- animals, a- longas they bad the toil of tending them, were called by the Saxon ami British Dames, ox, sheep, calf , pig ; l tit when they were cooked ami broughl t<> table, their in- vaders and Lords enjoyed them under the Norman and Latin names of beef, mutton, veal, and /". To this latter class belong all those larger words in -ation and -ati* u ■•. the words compounded with ex and in • I . attempt to confine himself to <■! r other of these two main branches •f the Lai in his writing or his talk. They are bi- ble; welded together, and overlapping each oti in aim entenco which we use. Bui Bhorl "t ex- clusive use of one or the other, th( verj great diffe- rence in respeel of the amount of use between writers and ! ever the mosl effective writer and Bpeal who knows bo* to build tlie ; r r«at bodj of his discoui oul of lii-i native Saxon ; a. if indeed <•!' tli other terms withoul Btint, as be ueeds them, but uol let- ting them give the character and complexion t<> the w hole. IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 177 496. Process of degeneration : whence mainly arising. In what consisting. — Unfortunately, all the tendency of the lower kind of writers of modern English is the other way. The language, as known and read by thousands of Englishmen and Englishwomen, is under- going a sad and rapid process of deterioration. Its fine manly Saxon is getting diluted into long Latin words not carrying half the meaning. This is mainly owing to the vitiated and pretentious style which passes current in our newspapers. The writers in our journals seem to think that a fact must never he related in print in the same terms in which it would be told by word of mouth. The greatest offenders in this point are the country journals, and, as might be expected, just in pi*oportion to their want of real ability. Next to them conies the London penny press ; indeed, it is hardly a whit better ; and highest in the scale, but still by no means free from this fault, the regular London press — its articles being for the most part written by men of education and talent in the various political circles. The main offence of the newspapers, the head and front of their offending, is, the insisting on calling common things by uncommon names ; changing our ordinary short Saxon nouns and verbs for long Avords derived from the Latin. And when it is re- membered that this is very generally done by men for the most part ignorant of the derivation and strict meaning of the words they use, we may imagine what delightful con- fusion is thus introduced into our language. A Latin word which really has a meaning of its own, and might be a very useful one if confined to that meaning, does duty for some word, whose significance extends far wider than its own meaning ; and thereby to common English hearers loses its own proper force, besides utterly confusing their notions about the thing which its new use intended to represent. 497. Dialect of our journals. — Our journals seem indeed determined to banish our common Saxon words altogether. You never read in them of a uctn, or a woman, or a child. A man is an " individual," or a "person," or a "party;" a woman is a "female;" or if unmarried, a "young < nuust are expressed by thai most « ■< li> wis term, "th* rising n< /•<»//"// ." .\^ t.. tin- former words, it is certainly curious enough thai the Bame debasing of our language Bhould choose, in order to avoid the L, r "."l honesl ...n man, two words, " individual" and "party" one of which expresses a man's unity, and the other, in its common untechnical use, belongs t«> man n*.<>>ri he a "female"? 198. " Party." — The word party for a man is especially offensive. Strange to Bay, the use is ool altogether modern. It occurs in the English version of the apocryphal 1 b of 'I'.. hit \i. 7. " If an .\ il spirit trouble an\. one musl make a Bmoke thereof before the man or the woman, ami the party shall he no more vexed." And in Bhakspeare T. mpest," act iii. bc. 2): "Stbpharo: How dow shall this be compassed ? Canst thou bring in. t., tho part] 1 ■i M.ii.vs: Yea, \ ri r ike bridge." Curious also thai raised by an advertisement Bent me; "Wanted, a party t<> teach a young man .laming '/• ///. A pplj . A' 199. Technical sense of " party."- -I have said thai rty, in its common untechnical use, signifies man at dated, Bui ire must remember that it bass technical < also. " I don't think," says a correal lent, "that pftrty must mean 'man associated,' bul that it means one or more p irdcd in relation to one or more othei IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 179 and that by following out this, the passages in ' Tohit ' and the 'Tempest' may be cleared, without giving any coun- tenance to bagman's English. The parties (partes) in a lawsuit may be each a single person : and a clergyman who gives out a notice about 'these parties being joined together,' although he is wrong in departing from the Prayer-book, does not seem to me incorrect in language." 500. This view seems to be borne out by other examples of this use of " party," in English authors. In Beaumont and Fletcher's " Wit at Several Weapons," (act ii. sc. 3,) we have, — " Whatsoever things have past between the lady And the other party "... And again, — " Are things of no moment betwixt parties and parties ? " Also in " The Captain," (act iii. sc. 3,) — " My brother will be here, and What ? The other party. What party ? " But such examples furnish no justification of "party," as applied to a single person where no other is concerned. 501. " Proceed." — The newspaper writers never allow us to go anywhere, we always proceed. A man going home, is set down as " an individual proceeding to his 502. "Partake." — We never eat, but always partake, even though we happen to eat up the whole of the thing mentioned. In court, counsel asks a witness, " Did you have anything to eatthere?" "Yes." "Whatwasit?" "A bun." Now go to the report in the paper, and you'll be sure to find that " witness confessed to having partaken of a bun," as if some one else shared it with him. 503. " Locality." — We never hear of a, place; it is always a locality. Nothing is ever placed, but always located. " Most of the people of the place" would be a terrible vulgarism to these gentlemen; it must be " the majority of the residents in the locality." 501. " Apartments." — Then no one lives in rooms, but ]-,i THE Ql l ' ESQL18H. always in "apartmeni "Qo I lodgings" would be far meagre; bo we have " eligible apartments." I', ides being ;i vulgarity, this is also an impropriety. Au apartment is properly, not one room, bul a set of rooms : the portion of the house which is Bel apart for one occu- pant, or family <>f occupants. In foreign towns, this is the English use of the \\"i"'l still, as it is the uniform fori 505. An euphuistic blacksmith. — I witnessed the other day a curious example <'t' the use of fine words. A blacksmith was endeavouring t.> persuade the smoke of my kitchen range i" L. r >> hj> the chimney instead of filling the room. ll<' tried to explain to me the conditions under which this might hi- done : and t'< my astonishment added, ■• Sun may always measure the Buccess of an apparatus of this construction, by the incandescence of //<<■ ignited matt rial." 6. " Evince."— No man ever shews any feeling, hut always") nnces" it. This "evince," by the way, is one of the mosl odious words in all this catalogue of vulgarities, for such they really a it. Everybody "evinces" everything. No "II.' asks, hut "rriiirrs .1 ilt-n! ;v." Nb « • 1 1 - is hurt, hut " evinces a sensi of suffering" No one thanks another, but rratitude." I remember, when the French band of the " < J uii Irs " were in this country, t«» have read in the " Dlusl rated News," thai as they proa • d\ d, of course, along the streets of the metropolis (we never read of London in polite journals), they were vehemently (everybody d< rything vehemently ) cheered by the assembled populace (thai is the genteel name for the people). And whatdo _\..u suppose the Frenchmen violate this rule. Repeatedly, in drawing up handbills for charity IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 181 sermons, I have written, as I always do, " Divine service will begin at so and so ; " but almost always it has been altered to "commence;" and once I remember the bill being sent back after proof, with a "query, commence? ' written against the word. But even commence is not so 1 »ad as " take the initiative," which is the newspaper phrase for the other more active meaning of the verb to begin. 508. " Eventuate." — Another horrible word, which is fast getting into our language through the provincial press, is to " eventuate." If they want to say that a man spent his money till he was ruined, they tell us that his unprece- dented extravagance eventuated in the total dispersion of his property. 509. " Avocation." — " Avocation " is another monster patronised by these writers. Now avocation, which of itself is an innocent word enough, means the being called au-ay from something. We might say, " He could not do it, having avocations elsewhere." But in our newspapers, avocation means a man's calling in life. If a shoemaker at his work is struck by lightning, we read, that " while pur- suing his avocation, the electric Jluid penetrated the unhappy man's person." 510. "Persuasion." — " Perstiasion" is another word very commonly and very curiously used by them. We all know that persuasion means the fact of being persuaded, by argument or by example. But in the newspapers, it means a sect or way of belief . And strangely enough, it is most generally used of that very sect and way of belief, whose characteristic is this, that they refuse to be persuaded. \\r constantly read of the "Hebrew persuasion," or the ",/- wish persuasion.'" I expect soon to sec the term widened still more, and a man of colour described as " an individual of the negro persuasion" 511. " To sustain." — Notonlyour rights of conscience, but even our sorrows are invaded by this diluted English. In the papers, a man does uot now lose Ms mother: he sus- tains (this 1 saw in a country paper) bereavement of his maternal relative. By the way, this verb to sustain is doing just now a great deal of work not its own. It means, you know, to endure, to bear up under; to sustain a bereave meat, Joes not properly mean merely to undergo or sulb r ]-•_) THE QUEEN*8 ENG1 T8B. a l"ss, bat to behave bravely ander it. In the aewspapers, however, "sustain " cornea in for the happening to men of all the ills and accidents possible, lien n<\ < /< > /, but to hare personal knowledgt of by trial. 1 518. " To accord." — Another such verb is to " ace which is ased for "award," or "adjudge." " The \ rim was accorded," we read, " toeo and so." [fa lecturer is applauded ,it the end of his task, we are told thai "a compU it ovation ir,<>- urmrili ■! him." Mk "To entail." — Entail is another poor injured verb. Nothing ever leads to anything as a consequence, or brings it about, butil always entails it. This smells stro (.t* the lawyer's clerk; as does another word which we sometimes find in our aewspapers, in its entirety instead ol iW/ or the whole. 515. "Desirability," " displenishing." Vesirahi- lily is a terrible word. I found it the other day, I think, m a leading article in the Tim'*. And a correspondent t me a quotation from the Standard, in which d pit nishing occurs. 516. •■Reliable." Reliabl is hardly Legitimate. We do nol rely a man, we rely upon a Hfin ,• bo thai reliable does duty for rely-upon-able. " Trustworthy" conveys all t he meaning required. .". I 7. "Allude- I //"'A to is iibo<] in a new sense by the journals, and ool only bj them, but alsobj the Government ..Mi.,,. Lf I have to complain to th< !'■ t-Office that a letter iblj directed t.. meal Canterbury ha b( >u mi lenl (•> 1 I read the other day in the Tinu . thai the weather ii I I in. ii> . 'I a changi ! IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 183 Caermartlieri, I get a regular red-tape reply, beginning " The letter alluded to by you." Now I did not allude to the letter at all ; I mentioned it as plainly as I could. 518. Innovations in talk. — I have had an amusing letter from which I extract the following: " All you say is indeed most true : I grieve over the changes and innova- tions in our language I hear daily around me, especially among young people. Young people say 'Thanks' now, never ' Thank you.' I am sick of 'abnormal,' and ' (Esthetic ' and ' elected ' for ' chosen,' all used most absurdly by modern writers. ' Advent ' for ' coming ' I hate ; it seems a sacred word, which ought to be only used for our Saviour's coming. Why has 'people' now an a added to it ? It never used to have ; we do not yet say ' sheeps ; ' and both are nouns of multitude. I can't bear to be asked at dinner if Mr. Blank shall assist me to anything, instead of help, and yet both mean much the same, but the former smacks of ' the commercial gent.' I dare say I could think of many more follies and vulgarisms, but I shall tire you. I wish you to write a third article on the subject. Excuse an old-fashioned single woman (not a female) having plagued you with this letter." 519. "Thanks." AVe had better take in order the words complained of. " Thanks" for " Thank you," seems to deserve better treatment than it meets with at our good Priscilla'e hands. It is, first, of respectable parentage and brotherhood : having descended from classic languages, and finding both examples in our best writers, 1 and pre- sent associates in the most polished tongues of Europe. And then, as generally used, it serves admirably the pur- pose of the generation now coining up, who are for the most pari a jaunty, off-handed set, as far as possible re- moved from the prim proprieties of our younger days. "Thank you" was formal, and meant to be formal: " Thanks" is both a good deal more gushing for the short time that it takes saying, and also serves the convenient purpose of nipping off very short any prospect of more gratitude or kindly remembrance on the part of the young lady or gentleman from whose mouth it so neatly and 1 It occurs fifty-fire times in Shakapeare : and, in the formula " Thanks be to God,"' four times in the English Bible* THE QUEEN'S I NG1 />// I rippingly flow j. Lei " thanks " survive and be wel< ome ; t is best to l»' satisfied with all we arc likely t>> get. i. -'Abnormal." — "Abnormal" is one of il words which have come in to Bupply a wan1 in tin- | •tat. 'Hi. His of scifiicc It means the same as " irregular: " l>nt this Latter word had become so general and \ .< ltu<> in use, thai it would not 1"' sure to express d rule, which " abnormal " does. Thus far its use is justi- fied, and even the old-fashioned lady could hardly com- plain: Inn the mischief is that the apes of novelty have come to substitute it for "irregular in common talk: and Miss, at home for the holidays, complains towards the end of breakfast, that "the ]">st has become quite abnor- mal of late." The effect of this, as of fine talk in general, will be to destroy the proper force of the word, and drive future philosophers to seek a new one, which in its turn will sharr the like fate with its pred< c issor. 521. "Esthetic. — " JEsthetic," again, has its proper use in designating thai which we could hardly Bpeas of before it came into vogue Unfortunately our adjective, formed from the substantive "sense," bad acquired an opprobrious meaning: ami the attempt to substitute sen- ous f or it had altogether failed. There was no remedy hut to have recourse to the Greek, the language of Bcience, and take the word we wanted. If it has Buffered in the ame manner as the last, it is do more than might have been expected: hut I do not remember to have heard it i. where any other word would serve the turn. 522. "Elect." ••Advent." "Elect" ford • i one of our modern newspaper fineries : and it lb Dot t" be In lire) i hat •• .!'/<- /// " is ia | •!' IK hi>iii'_ r its exclusively Bacred reference. I am Dot Burethat t his is t" be regretted, as the popular mind will thus become aware, without explanation, what is in. ant by the Bolcmn seasoD when it comes round. ••Peoples."- 'I'h.' adding of "a" t.. "people" bas been rather a convenience. We always Bpoke of the English people, the French people the German | pie: v.h\ then sIimuM «r doI Bay, the European peoples? At .il! i it i Ix-tter t ban v. hat is doh " u< w \- p r " for it, •' nationalit ! " Assisting " at dinner. -•■ \ "at dinner IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 185 is of course what the single lady characterises it as being, — and even worse. I don't imagine the respectable class whom she somewhat uncourteously snubs would be flattered by the idea that they can descend to any expression so simply detestable. Another correspondent says, "I have been often amused by a host, requesting her guest (this gender is unkind), to assist himself." The construction in which the unfortunate verb finds itself in this usage, is somewhat curious. The challenge runs, " Mr. Blank, shall I assist you to beef ? " The impression of those who are unacquainted with the vulgarism would be, that "to beef" was a verb, meaning to eat beef, or, as very refined people say, to "partake of beef." 525. They do the thing somewhat differently over the water. An English gentleman for the first time seated at the table of an American family, was thus accosted by the lady of the house : " Mr. Smith, sir, do you feel beef ? " 526. "Aggravate." — I have been requested to enter a protest against the use of " aggravate " in the sense of " irritate." My correspondent asks, " Has it any other origin than the coinage of some Mrs. MaJaprop?" To which I answer that the Latin " aggravo " has the sense of to " irritate," and therefore my protest must be some- what modified. At the same time, Shakspeare's usage of this word "aggravate" would uphold a meaning down- right opposite. Thus in " Henry IV.," (Part ii., act ii. sc. 4,) the Hostess says, " Good Captain Peesel, be quiet : it is very late, i' faith: I beseek you now aggravate your choler." And in " A Midsummer Night's Dream," (act i. sc. 2,) " I will aggravate my voice so, that I will roar you like any sucking dove." And in " The Merry Wives of Windsor," (act ii. sc. 2,) "I will aggravate his style," i.e. from being called knave, will make him be called knave and something worse. In all these places the word seems to mean to load, to put a weight upon. This may take place either in the direction of abatement, as in our two former iustances: or of augmentation, as in the latter, and iu the only other place where he use i the word, " Richard II.," (act i. sc. 1,) " Once more, the more to aggravate the note, With a foul traitor's name stuff 1 thy throat," 1« ( ; THE QUEEN'S ENGLI8H. From this meaning, certainly, the modern Bense ol to irritate is a departure: bu1 in the presence of Pliny*! Bay- ing thai wounds " aggravantur," are irritated, when the murderer comes into presence, I '1" not think we hare any righl to find fault wit h it. 527. "In our midst." To say fa our midst, in their midst, Cor in the midsl of iu, or of them, is, to my ininut the word midet is not so: then 1 is no such thing as " midet, and the midst or middeet, indicates a point rela- tively to some objects equidistant from it, jusi as the first and //" last are used with reference to objects following and preceding respectively. In all these cases, not the possessive pronoun, hut the | — essive case of the personal pronoun, Bhould be used: the first of them, the last of us, fa the midst of tht m, or of us. •■l<. Examples of the deterioration. — I send a sen- tence to a paper i'< the Following effect: -"Winn 1 came to the Bpot, I met a man running towards me with his hands held up." Next 'lav I read, "When the very rev. atleman arrived in close proximity to the scene of action, he encountered an individual proceeding at a rapid pair in the opposite direction, having both bis bands elevated in an excited manner." 529. This i- fiction; hut the following are truth. In i Somersetshire paper I saw that a man had had bis l» burned by Bitting for warmth, and falling asleep, on the top of a I inn- Kiln. The lime was called tin' "seething //<■' (i.. •• . -.«///. " means t>. boil, and "sad," or "sodden," 1 1 ^ passive participle); and it was said he would Boon have been a calcined i which, I take it, would hav< an unheard-of chemical phenomenon. 0. In the same paper I read the following elegant "Our prognostications as regards the spirit of the young men here to join theSto rifle-corps pro The same paper, in commenting on the Hop. lej iks through a whole leading article of cor- eal punishment. I mai mention that, m thi the IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 187 accused person figures throughout, as so often in provincial papers, as a " demon incarnate," and " a fiend in human shape." 531. In travelling up from Somersetshire I find the directors of the Great Western Kaihvay thus posting up the want of a schoolmaster at their board : " £5 reward. Whereas the windows of the carriages, &c. Whoever will give information ae shall lead to conviction, shall receive the above reward ; " as being used for which : " the man as told me." 532. The South-Eastern directors seem to want the schoolmaster also. On the back of the tickets for the fast trains, we read the following precious piece of English grammar : — " This ticket is not transferable, only avail- aide for the station named thereon." This implying, of course, that using it for the station named on it, is part of the process of transferring it to some other person. 533. On a certain railway the following intelligible notice appears : — " Hereafter, when trains moving in an opposite direction are approaching each other on separate lines, conductors and engineers will be required to bring their respective trains to a dead halt before the point of meeting, and be very careful not to proceed till each train has passed the other." 534. A wonderful public notice from the East London Waterworks, dated 1868, was sent me: "Detector pipes may be used to guard against and shew overflow from defective ball valves and ball cocks, provided they are placed so that the water flowing therein .in may be Been outside the house if possible, and fixed to the satisfaction of the company." Here, by the ordinary rules of con- struction, it is the waler which is to be "fixed to the satisfaction of the company." 535. In the Monti ikj Chronicle a account of Lord Maeaulay's funeral occurred the following sentence: — "When placed upon the ropes over the grave, and while being gradually lowered into the earth, the organ again pealed Eorth." Here, of course, on any possible gram- matical understanding of the words, it was the organ which was placed over the grave, and was being lowered into the earth. Akin to this was the Eollowing notice, sent to my 1-, Till: QUE E ITS ENGLISH. house the other day by :i jeweller: — "The brooches would have been Benl before, l>ut have been unwell." 6. In a narrative of one of Mr. G-laisher's balloon ascenl ad that, " After partaking of a hearty break- •, tin' balloon was bruughl in(<> the town ami. 1st the cheers ami congratnlationB of the major pari of the in- habitants." They may well hare applauded a balloon which bad performed so unheard-of a feat. :.:;7. In LeckyV* Eistoryof European Morals," (ii. 197.) v,.' read: " Another hermit, being very holy, received pure white bread every day from heaven: but, being extrava- gantly elated, the bread became worse ami worse, till it ,iiir perfectly black." -. Ibiv is an advertisemenl from a manufacturer of iron netting: "This netting answers perfectly ass fence against rabbits, tied to iron standards, stapled to wooden Btakes, fastened to iron or wire fencings pul along at the • of ;i hedge (merely tied to the bushes), or , m op int.. Minill pieces, ami j. ut round Bingle plants, &c." li is well the ;■ for Preventing Cruelty to Animals did nol u r et hold of the advertiser. 539. In a Leading article of the Times, not long since, was this beautiful piece of s 1 i j >^li' •< I English : — " The atrocities of the middle pi e, which called into action the Wilberforoes and Clarksons of the Lasl genera- tion, were not bo fullj proved, ami were certainly nol more harrowing in their circumstani in are the iniquil "j.'-rpot rated upon I he w retched Chi .'. I". Qere you will observe we are by the form of the tence committed to the combination of "were nol so fully proved . . . than." This Is a fault into which careli writ ostantly fall: the joinin ether two clan with a third, whose construction suits the latter >•{ them, but m>t the former. " Ho was more popular, but nol much r< pected i father." Nothii be easier than I.. ;.\..iil the fault. ] your third clause, letting it follow your lii t. and constructing it without reference to \" ! • IK ■».. ue.ro popular than his father, bul inn. hi od." 'Ih'' nun. I of i he ho, i rer eo ilj tills up the ellipsis after " respected," and the sentence • L 'I bus the '!'""■ ' w i iter might 1 i id, IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 189 "were not so fully proved as are the iniquities perpetrated upon the wretched Chinese, and were certainly not more harrowing in their circumstances/' 541. There is another way, making the sentence correct indeed, hut exceedingly clumsy. We may say, "He was more popular than, hut not so much respected as, his father." But to my mind, this is almost worse than the incorrect sentence. It exhibits punctiliousness in all its stolidity, without any appreciation of the sound, or effect, of the sentence. 542. Excuse of hasty writing. — And just let me, as I pass, notice one defence which has been deliberately set up for English of this kind. It has been said that one who sits in his study, writing at leisure, may very well find time to look about him and weigh the structure of his sentences; but that the contributors of articles to the daily press are obliged to write always in a hurry, and have no such opportunities of consideration. . 543. Now this plea either fails in its object of excusing the practice complained of, or it proves too much. It fails, if it does not assign sufficient cause for the phenomenon : if, as I believe, it is not mere haste which causes a man to write such English as this, but deficiency in his power of putting thoughts into words : it proves too much, if it really does sufficiently excuse the writers; for if such writing is the inevitable result of the hasty publication of these critiques, why is not more time given t'<>r their pro- duction, and why are not more pains bestowed on them ? For surely it is an evil, for a people to be daily accustomed to read English expressed thus obscurely and ungram- matically: it tends to confuse thought, and to deprive language of its proper force, and by this means to degrade us as a nation in the rank of thinkers and speakers. 544. More examples. — I am indebted for I he following to a correspondent : — "To Millers. — To be let, a wind- mill, containing three pair of stones, a bakehouse, corn shop, and about five acres of land, dwelling lnai.se, and garden," 545. In the Time*, a few days sine,', an advertise- ment thus ended : " It dead, his wife >.l> and smiles of the whole party." And again, (ch. \iii.. pt. ii.) : "Elizabeth hesitated, but her knees trembled under her, and shf t'rlt how little could be gained by an attempt to pursue them." I also find in the Bame novel, (oh. \x.. pt. ii.): "Each felt for the other, and of course for them- ielv< In this case the correction is easy, as the two persons were Jane and Elizabeth: "Each felt for the other and of course for herself:" but bad the gendi been different, it would have I □ impossible to write the sentence in this form at all. 548 I find the following sentence in Thackeray's " Vir- ginians," ( part iv.): ■• Ee dropped his knife in his retreat against (Ik- wall, which bis rapid antagonist kicked under the table." \ letter in the PaM Mall OaaeUe about a fortnight o (Oct. 23, 1866), begins, "Sir. I have been spending this ant i i in the \ icarage of a pleasant village in Blank- whire, famous for its cricket, which I bave rented during i he parson's holiday." Ina review in the same paper of Aug. 24, 1866, we r< id •• We defj any sensible bachelor anxious to change his condition, to read Ladj Earriett Sinclair's 1 k without drawings painful contrasl in his mind between a future • I with that gifted lady, and with (the writer means, and one |wi • •! with) the fast, verj fast young women with whom be rides In the morning, plays croquet and drinks IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 191 tea in the afternoon, site by at dinner, and dances with at night, but wiselj abstains from marrying." 549. One of the commonest of newspaper errors is to use a participial clause instead of one with a verb, leaving the said clause pendent, so that in the reader's mind it necessarily falls into a wrong relation. Thus we had in the Times the other day, in the description of the York congress, assembled under the presidency of the Arch- bishop: "His Grace said, &c, and after pronouncing the benediction, the assembly separated." And again, in the account of the Queen's visit to open the Aberdeen water- works, " In 1862, the Police Commissioners, headed by the Provost, set themselves in earnest to the work of obtaining a new Police and Water Act, and, succeeding in their labours, the splendid undei'taking opened to-day is the result." 550. Mistakes in the arrangement of words and clauses are found in high quarters not less frequently than of old. In the Times, not long since, a paragraph is headed, " The Late Queen's Huntsman," when "The Queen's Late Huntsman " is intended. A correspondent sends the following from a letter describing the great hurricane at Calcutta in 1864 : " The great storm wave which passed up the lower Hooghly, is said to have been of the height of a man at a distance of ten miles from the bed of the river." 551. The ignorant use of one word for another continues to give rise to curious mistakes. A letter to a newspaper says, " There is in the parish of Helmingham, Suffolk, an ancient graveyard of human skeletons, bearing much re- Bemblance t<>, if not identical with, that mentioned in your impression on Thursday last as being recently discovered on tli-' farm of Mr. Attrim at Stratford-on-Avon." In this sentence let me notice that "as being dis- covered " is also wrong. The writer meant, " as having been discovered." 552. The secretary of a railway publishes in the Times the following notice. J suppose he is an Irishman. "The present service of trains between Three Bridges and East Qrinstead, and the coach now running between Uckfield and Tunbridee Wells, is now discontinued." 192 THE or/7'.VN ENGLISH. I. Tn the leading article of the / -• the same day, appeared tins sentence: "To our mind it was im- po8sible to entertain any <1< »»il >t on the Bubject, at ]■ not sine.' ili«- intimation conveyed by the American minister." STou will observe thai there is here a "not" much. The writer meant "a1 Leaal Bince the intima- tion," &c. 554. A correspondent s.nils mo a very rich example of this confusion of ideas. It occurs in a leading article of tli." Standard: "The progress of Bcience can neither be arrested n<>r controlled. Btill Less, perhaps, in this hurry- ing nineteenth century, can we exped to persuade nun that, after all, the mosl haste may finally prove the worst speed, and that as a rule il must I t' less importance to arrive at your journey's end quickly than it is not to arrive at all."' Of course the writer meant, "than it u make Bure of arriving at all." 555. It is astonishing whal different things people sometimes say from those which they intended i.> say. There was a Letter a Bhorl time sine.', in one of the London pap mcerning a matter which the writer believed to be no err. lit to the Church. In his opening Bentence he intended to announce this. Bui he made a 7ery comical mistake. He asked the editor of the paper to allow him In make !■> credit to the Church. Ami having done this, he Bigned himself "A Priest of the Province of Canterbury." So that, as far as appeared from the letter, a clergyman had made a discreditable tement. It was the old story, of on,' going out to com mil murder, and committing suicide by mistake. '■. The last-mentioned correspondent also points out thr curious difference which is made in the meaning of one and tin- Bame word in a sentence, when variously in- troduced by other words. Thus, if I ,, ,,t ..no in [ndia, •• He will return for two \. ■■-." I am rightly understood meaning thai the length of his stay al home will be two Bui if I say, " He will not return for two years," then I do not, by the insertion of the negative, revei tli.- former proposition, i.e., mean that the length of hi t home will not be two years, but I imply quite differenl : via,, that two yean will ela] IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 193 before his return. By the insertion of the "not," the preposition " for," retaining its meaning of " during," " for the space of," ceases to belong to the length of time during which he will " come," and belongs to the length of time during which he will " not come." 557. My correspondent offers another example, which was originally given by the writer of the article on my little book in the Edinburgh Review for June, 1864. "Jack was very respectfid to Tom, and always took off his hat when he met him." " Jack was very rude to Tom, and always knocked off his hat when he met him." You will see that "his hat" in the former sentence is Jack's, but in the latter sentence it is Tom's. There is absolutely nothing to indicate this but the context. " Will anyone pretend," says the Reviewer, " that either of these sen- tences is ambiguous in meaning, or unidiomatic in ex- pression ? Yet critics of the class now before us [i.e., those who proceed on the assumption that no sentence is correct, unless the mere syntactical arrangement of the Avords, irrespective of their meaning, is such, that they are incapable of having a double aspect] are bound to contend that Jack showed his respect by taking off Tom's hat, or else that he showed his rudeness by knocking off his own." 558. And this is important, as showing how utterly im- possible it is for every reference of every pronoun to be unmistakcably pointed out by the form of the sentence. Hearers and readers are supposed to be in possession of their common sense and their powers of discrimination : and it is to these that writers ami speakers must be con- tent to address themselves. 559. In a report of a charitable society I read of " a desideratum which is entirely absenl from the present building." Now the intelligent committee meant to specify some pressing want which was felt in their present building: some needful accommodation of which it was destitute. Bui they have expressed precisely the contrary meaning. It' a ilt till, riii inn ( understanding t lie word not as classically translated, hut as commonly used) is absent, the thing wished for is present. 560. Confusion of abstract and concrete. — The 1;.| THE QUI UNGLISH. follow ing Bentence, occurring in ;i hotel advertisement, may serve to illustrate a eery common mistake: "Its night- watchman enables gentlemen to be called at any time, and, hourly patrolling the building, adds greatly to the comfort and security of alL" Now we are sensible of an absurdity here. Bui what is the mistake? It is not, you Bee, thai some word, \\ bich to any ordinary reader has but one appli- cal ion, may be so combined as to bear other applications : bul the incongruity is inevitable. A man -who hourly patrols the building enables gentlemen to be called at any time: i.e., I>\ some arrangement which he makes, puts il in their power to be called, by somebody. Whereas the in- tention plainly was to notify that, owing to the fad of a night-watchman being employed, gentlemen can be called at any time by the night-watchman. The mistake is one •. to understand, though called by rather a hard nai h is the confounding of the abstract with the concrete. The fa,-i of the ni^ht-watchman being employed is in its nature abstract : is a consideration apart from persona ami things which put it forth inaction. This fact is indepen- dent of the particular man employed (ht-watchman, and is the source of the advantagea arising from it, who- ever may happen to be BO emploj ed. 561. inflated language in prayers. — I have received more than one Letter from a gentleman who ia much troubled by the inflated language of a book of prayers used in a school of small and ignorant boys. It would nol become me to bring forward as Bubjecta for mirth, sen. tences and pi Leaning is so solemn : [can only deal with the complaint in a general way. And in doing I may saj that there can hardly be a graver offence in tl mpilers of I ks of devotion, than this of using hard words and inflated sentences If there is one i tdal requisite in a written prayer, it is. thai it provide as much I lible Cor every word being undent 1 and felt by those that are to use it. My correspondent iell> me thai the writer of whom he complains invariably felicity for happiness, avocations for employments, and the like. If 1 mighl presume to counsel the teachers of schools and heads of families, I would Bay, i le everj book of prayers which offends in thii v..i_\. The simple and well- IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 195 known collects of the Prayer-book, or even your own sense of the wants of your school or household, will furnish you with better, because more easy and real language of devo- tion, than these high-flown manuals. And in default of cither of these resources, I may venture to say that a school or a family rising from the reverent utterance of the Lord's prayer only, will have really prayed more, than one which has been wearied with ten minutes of a form such as that of which my correspondent complains. 562. Nicknames and expressions of endearment. — Another criticism which I cannot help making, is on the practice of using, in general society, unmeaning and ridiculous familiar nicknames or terms of endearment. A more offensive habit cannot be imagined, or one which more effectually tends to the disparagement of those who indulge in it. I find myself, after the departure of the ladies from the dining-room, sitting next to an agreeable and sensible man. I get into interesting conversation with him. We seek a corner in the drawing-room afterwards. and continue it. His age and experience make him a treasure-house of information and practical wisdom. Yet, as talk trieth the man, infirmities begin to appear here and there, and my respect for my friend suffers diminution. By-and-by, a decided weak point is detected: and further on, it becomes evident that in the building up of his mental and personal fabric there is somewhere a loose stratum which will not hold under pressure. At last the servants begin to make those visits to the room, usually occurring about ten o'clock, which begin with gazing about, and result in a rush at some recognised object, with a summons from the coachman below. I am just doubting whether I have not about come to the end of my com- panion, when a shrill voice from the other side of the room calls out, " Sammy, love ! " All is out. He has a wife who does not know better, and he has never taught her better. This is the secret. The skeleton in their cup- board is a child's rattle. A man may as well suck his thumb all his life, as talk, or allow i" be talked to him, such drivelling nonsense. It must detract from manlin of character, and from proper self-respecl : ami is totally inconsistent with the good taste, and consideration, even in [96 THE QUEEN'S ENGl ISH, tin' lead things, for the reelings <>f others, which are alwi present in persons of good breeding and ( Ihristian court* rex It the world Look through these chinks into the boudoir. Even thence, it' there be real good sense present, nil thai is childish and ridiculous ■will be banished; bui at all events keep it from the world. It is easj Eor hus- band and wife, it is easy Eor brothers and Bisters, to talk t>. one another as none else could talk, without a Nvi.nl of this minced-up English. One Bofl tone, from lips ..li which dwells wisdom, is worth all the "loveys" and •• deareys " which become the unmeaning expletives of the vulgar. I Talking nonsense to children.- A ml as we have ventured t.. intrude int.. the boudoir, let us go one step further up, and peep into the nursery also. And here again! would say, never talk, never allow t.. be talked, t.. children, the contemptible nonsense which is bo often the staple of Qurst iv conversation. Never allow foolish and unmeaning nicknames t.> come int.. use in your family. We all feel, as we read <>f ] r James [..with his "Steenie" for the I dike of Buckingham, and " Baby Charles" for his unfor- tunate son, thai In' cannol have been worthy to rule in England. We often find foolish names like these rooted in the practice of a family, and rendering grown-up men and women ridiculous in the eyes of strangers. And mind, in Baying this, I have no wish to proscribe all abridgments, or familiar forms of names for our children, bui only thi which are unmeaning or absurd. I hold "1 'harley to perfectly legitimate: "Harry" is bound up with the ries .>)' English histor} : Ned, an. I Dick, ami Tom, and .i • k. an. I Jem, ami Bill, though m. ne of them half bo nice the names which they have superseded, are t...> firmly fixed in English practice ami English play, ever t.> be banished. Kate has almosl become a name of itself; i maidens can carry the weighl >.t Eleanor, whereas th< never was a lass whom Nelly t' honour to choose all his mosi emphatic words I eh vocabulary, and who would think- it a la- mentable falling off in his st_\ Le, did hi- write half a do sentences withoul employing at hast half that number of f. reign words. His heroes are always marked by an inguS; his vile men are aure to be blcuit; his lady friends never merely dance or dress well, they dance or dress a merveille; and he himself when lolling on the sofa under tin- spirit of laziness does not Bimply enjoy b he luxuriates in the dolee farnierUe, and wonders when he will manage to begin his magnum optu. And so he can . rough bis story, running off into hackneyed French, Italian, or Latin expressions, whenever he has anything to which he thinks .should be graphically or emphatically !. It really seemi as if he thoughl the English Ian- too meagre, or t iommonplace a dress, in which to i lothe hi> thoughts. The tongue which gave a noble utter- ance to the thoughts of Shakespere and Milton is altogether insufficient to express the more cosmopolitan ideas of Smith, or T< uil.il . or .1 on k i n We have l • fore us an article from the pen of a verj clever writer, and, as it appears in a magazine which aallv prof< -iii the -I,. . ety,' it may be taken I specimen of the style. It describe dancing party, and we discover for the first time how much . to describe a ' bop ' properly. The readei foi me I t bat all the j pie at t be darn e belong IDIOM AXD CONSTRVCTIOX. 199 to the beau monde, as may he seen at a coup cVceil ; the demi-monde is scrupulously excluded, and in fact every- thing about it bespeaks the haul ton of the whole affair. A lady who has been happy in her hair-dresser is said to be coiffee a ravir. Then there is the bold man to describe. Having acquired the savoir faire, he is never afraid of making a faux pas, but no matter what kind of conversa- tion is started plunges at once in mediae res. Following him is the fair debutante, who is already on the look-out for un ban jwti, but whose nez retrousse is a decided ob- stacle to her success. She is of course accompanied by mamma en grande toilette, who, entre notis, looks rather rldee even in the gaslight. Then, lest the writer should seem frivolous, he suddenly abandons the description of the dances, vis-a-vis and dos-a-dos, to tell us that Homer becomes tiresome when he sings of BoGnric 7t6rvta "nprj twice in a page. The supper calls forth a corresponding amount of learning, and the writer concludes his article after having aired his Greek, his Latin, his French, and, in a subordinate way, his English." 570. " Of course, this style has admirers and imitators. It is showy and pretentious, and everything that is showy and pretentious has admirers. The admixture of foreign phrases with our plain English produces a kind of Brum- magem sparkle which people whose appreciation is limited to the superficial imagine to be brilliance. Those who are deficient in taste and art education not unfrequently prefer a dashing picture by young Daub to a glorious cartoon by Eaphael. The bright colouring of the one far more than counterbalances the lovely but unobtrusive grace of the other. In a similar way, young students are attracted by the false glitter of the French-paste school of composition, and instead of forming their sentences upon the beautiful models of the great English masters, they twist them into all sorts of unnatural shapes for no other end than that they may introduce a few inappropriate French «>r Latin words, the use of which they have learned to think looks smart. Of course, the penny-a-liners are amongst the most enthusiastic followers of the masters of this style. They not only think it brilliant, but they know it to bi profitable, inasmuch as i\ adds considerably to their ability -, „i THE QU&Eh - EXGLISR. to Bay a great deal about nothing. The public sees a great deal in the newspapers about' recJu rein dinners ' and 'sump tuous deji (sometimes eaten at night), and about the , rl.it with which a meeting attended by the •.///. of the count y * invarial.lv pi ffj but they get but a trifling specimen "t' the masses <>t' similar rubbish which daily fall upon the unhappy editors. The consequence of all this is that the public is habituated to a vicious kind ol Blang utterly unworthy to be called a language. Even the beat educated people find it difficult to resist the contagion ot fashion in sii.h a thing as conversation, and if some kind of Btand is ool made against this invasion, pure English will booh only exist in the works of our dead authors. 571. "But it is not only on literary grounds thai we think the bespanglemenl talk in th.> presence of ladies about disreputable women by the plain English names which belong t<> them is not con- sidered to displaj a very delicate mind, hut anybody may talk about the demi-monde without fearing either a blush or a frown. \>\ the idea conveyed is precisely the same in the uic in the other; ami inasmuch as words • an only he indelicate when they convey an indelicate idea, we should think that the French words ought to be under the same disabilities as the English ones. In like manner, things sacred are often made gtrangelj t.imiliar hv the intervention of a French dictionary. Persons wh r.\. renoe for the Deitj i- properly Bhown in their English conversation by a becoming unwillingness to make a light of lli-^ holy Name, have no hesitation in exclaiming M /- , .' in frivolous conversation. The English name 1 ,\ . nd< .In your next edition pray ili-|" m of » 1 • • — « - Gallicismi which ming t . .. . prevalent : ' The kwi d at the monv : ' " Mj lii'i I it haa come lo •. dart with me i ' instead i, tth. I > and to tpena* Kor the runner of these there I believe, no < But the lottei usage, " pausing timi relj band in :.ll periods of our literature ; snd the , I English substantive .i voucher i"r it. IDIOM AND COXSTRUCTIOX. 201 for the Father of Evil is nut considered to be a very re- putable noun, hut its French synonym is to be heard in 'the best society.' Far more telling illustrations than these could easily be found, but we have no inclination to seek them. Ideas which no decent person would ever think of expressing before a mixed company are certainly often spoken and written in French, and in our opinion they do not lose a particle of their coarseness by being dressed up in foreign clothes. Wc think, therefore, that the interests of morality as well as of pure taste concur in calling upon those who have influence with the pul >lic to set their faces against this vicious style." 572. I need not say that with every word of this I heartily concur. It is really quite refreshing to read in a newspaper, and a provincial one too, so able and honest an exposure of one of the worst faults of our daily and weekly press. 573. Among recent adoptions of French phrases and words is this, which occurred in " Eegulations for Prisons," from the Home Office, printed in the Times of February 28, 1868: "windows giving on the yard," meaning, of course, opening on the yard. This instance is instructive as illustrating perhaps the way in which such new senses of words creep in. It looks very much as if the phrase had been originally a bald version of the French ex- pression, overlooked iu an official document which itself was beholden to a French origin. 574. Use of expletives. — I am tempted to add some remarks on the use, in speaking and writing, of terms which either seem to be, or really are, unneeded by the sense To prohibit the use of expletives altogether, would perhaps seem hard. In conversation, they seem to be]]. the timid, to give time to the unready, to keep up a plea- sant semblance of familiarity, and, in a word, to grease the wheels of talk; in writing, we often want them to re- dress the balance of a halting sentence, when any other way of doing so would mar the sense; or to give weight to a term otherwise feeble, or to fill ou1 a termination which, without them, would be insignificant in Bound. For these reasons, the occasional use of expletives musl !"■ tolerated; and that style' of Bpeaking or Writing which 202 tii i: QUEE \ a i: \ GL1 8 if. should abandon thein altogether would appear to aa harsh ;ui-l rugged. . "You see," "you know." — I Baid, th>- i ■i! use. Moderation ought to be observed : and where it is n. .t, there is ju>t ground for complaint. The man is properly found fault with who interlards his talk at every turn with "You Bee/ 1 and "You Know." Both these terms nave their use-, and it' thai use 1"' disregarded in an indiscriminate profusion of them, thev will become vapid and meaningless. They Berve, when used as quasi exple- tives, jusl to keep the hearer up to the mark of the know- ledge you are imparting to him, and Bhould 1"' used only as applying to facts or ideas of which he is, or should be, already in possession. 576. "Well," " why." — There are other expletives which Berve merely to indicate the Bequence of the com of talk, or the frame of mind in which it is continued. A simple question is asked ; and your friend's answer begins with " M'<7/." Little as the word means, it jusl does this Bervice: it puts the respondent in rapport with the ques- tioner: he intends by it to say thai he does not absolutely repudiate the inquiry: that, so far, is well, and thai w<- have common ground up to this point. Dr the tirst word of the answer iB"Why, "a particle, of which the meaning is not quite so easy to assign ; but [suppose it gives a kind of dubitative aspect to what follows: introduces a delibera- tive and not quite certain reply ; or perhaps slightly rallies the querist on some obvious element in the reply whioh Ins question shows him to have overlooked. " What would you do tir>t, it' you were to fall down?" " Why get up Bo that the use of such prefatory particles I • 'ii<« i \ i •. by no means to be proscribed. It Bhould however in the main be confined to oral communication or dramatic dialogue, and nol be admitted in the Btyle of n writer. 577. " At all." JT< • i pen in writfc □ composition there are certain expressions more or Le - nearly approaching to expletives, the use of which cannot well be prohibited. I .i in challenged by oi f my correspondents, who giv< list of sentences in which I have used th< i »n " ai all," to Ba\ what difference in the meaning of any of them IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 203 thei*e would be if the words were struck out. My answer must be, in accordance with the foregoing remarks, that the difference in meaning would perhaps not be great, but it would be quite enough to justify the use of the words, as any intelligent reader may at once perceive. " Thou hast not delivered thy people at all" (Exod. v. 23), is surely very distinct, at all events in the feeling of utter desolation expressed, from " Thou hast not delivered thy people." "If thou do at all forget the Lord" (Deut. viii. 19), makes the hypothesis much more complete than it would be without the qualifying words. Or, to take another notable example, where the difference would seem to be less than in the others, " God is light, and in Him is no darkness at all " (1 John i. 5), who does not see that by the words "at all" every possibility of even the least shade of darkness existing in Him is altogether excluded r So that, when my correspondent designates these words as a feeble expletive, which adds nothing to the meaning of the sentence to which it is attached, I cannot agree with his opinion, nor do I think that the majority of my readers will. 578. If the origin of the phrase is to be sought for, I know not any other than may be found in the requirements of speech itself. What the Apostle, in the original Greek of 1 John i. 5, expressed by the strong double negation, oKo-iu iv uvrio ovk toT iv ovfafiia, we could not in English render by "there is not in Him no darkness," because in our language the doubling of a negation destroys instead of strengthening it: we had recourse to another way of expressing total exclusion, "there is in Him no darkne i at all;" " at all," i.e., taking the assertion even up to the measure of all, — "altogether," — providing for, ami taking into consideration, every supposable except ion, every quali- fying circumstance. The preposition "at," in this phrase, lias (he same sense as in " at least," "at best," and the like. 579. "And the like."— This is also designated by my correspondent as a feeble expletive, and indeed as an " Trishi No doubt it may be so used as to become an expletive; bu1 1 am not conscious of having so used it : at Least, in every one of the sentences v\ bich be quotes, 204 THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH. n does full service, as shortly comprehending other amples of the same kind aa those already cited. B80. "The first foundation." — I am asked whether an expression which I had used, "the first foundation of an institution," can be ri^ht, seeing that an institution can have '"it one foundation? The reply is t<> be soughl in the general use of expletive, /.»'.. Buperabundanl words, together with others which already express the meaning required. Thus we have,"0 that they would consider their latter end," when "their end" would, strictly speaking, have 1" en sufficient. Thus also we say. " the utmost end of the earth," " the first beginning of creation"; the ex- pletive prefix in each case tending to give precision and emphasis, and showing thai it is on the fact reasserted by it, thai the stress of the sentence is laid. 581. A notaUe and very Bolemn instance of this ue is found in the title, "the most Highest," given to the Almighty in the Prayer-book version of the Psalms (Ps. ix, •J; \iii. oj xxi. 7 ; etc.). In the Bible version the expn sioii seems not t ,-ur, the "Mosl lliu'h," or, "the Eighest," being its equivalent. lint we have a reduplica- tion of the -mile kind in Acts \ \ \ i . ;> : "After the n straitesl Bed of our religion I lived a Pharisee." In this place, it is difficull to accounl for it. as it represents only tin' Bimple superlative in the original text, rling James's translators seem merely to have retained it from the older English versions, Tyndale's, Cranmer's, and the Gen Bible. J. "From hence," "from thence." These ex- pressions are of verj frequent occurrence. We have in the English Version of the Bible "from hen,,'," in Gen. i. J'.; Deut i\. 12; Jer. exxviit l'»; Luke w. 9, wi. 26; etc.: " from henceforth," 2 Chron. wi. '.' ; Luke \ . 10; etc.: "from thence," almost always, with very few exception •from thenceforth," -J Chron. \\\ii. 23; John \i\. 12. Shakspeare has "from henceforth" only thrice out of forty-one times thai he uses the adverb. Usage has now mped it> mark on the expletive preposition, I think, in ordinary converse. It is true we thus reduplicate 'lie force of the advi rb, bul bin h reduplications are constantly f id in idiomatic la • IDIOM AXD CONSTRUCTION 205 583, Unmeaning exclamations.— Let me say a word on expletives of another kind : exclamations of surprise, or of any other feeling, which taken by themselves carry no meaning. It is perhaps impossible to avoid them alto- gether : speech will break out when emotion is excited : and " You i Inn' l say so," or " Indeed ! ", or " Dear me ! " is some- times heard even from persons best able to give an account of what they say. Yet it may not be amiss to remember, that idle words are seldom quite harmless ; and to impress on ourselves, that the fewer we use of such expletives the better. This was strikingly brought before me during intercourse with Italians one winter in Rome. I had ob- served that my Italian friends often in their talk uttered some sounds very like our " dear, dear," and at first I thought that my ear must have deceived me. But I soon found that it was so : and that sometimes the exclamation even took the form of "dear me!" The explanation of course is obvious. The Italians were exclaiming " Bio, Bio ! " and the fuller form was " Bio mio ! " And the re- flection arising from it was as obvious : viz., that it thus seems probable that our unmeaning words, " dear, dear ! " and " dear me!" are, in fact, nothing but a form of taking the sacred Name in vain, borrowed from the use of a people with whom we were once in much closer intercourse than we now are. Thus it would seem that the idle word is not quite free from blame. 584. Concluding advice. — But it is time that this little volume drew to an end. And if I must conclude it with some advice to my readers, it shall be that which may be inferred from these examples, and from the way in which I have been dealing with them. Be simple, be un- affeeteil, be honest in your speaking and writing. Never use a h»ng word where a short one will do. Call a spade a spade, not a ivelUJcnown oblong hist rument of maim, il indn*- Inj; let home be home, not a residence; a place a •place, not a locality ; and so of the rest. Where a short word will do, you always lose by using a long one. Voii lose in clearness; you lose in honesl expression of your meaning; and, in the estimation of all men who are qualified to judge, you lose iii reputation for ability. The only tin.' way to sjhinc, even in this false world, is to D6 mod68J and un- 206 THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH. uming. Falsehood may l>o a very thick crust, bui in the coura of time, truth will find a place to break through. Eli t' language may not he in the power of all of us; but simplicity and Btraightforwardness are. Write much v . • 1 1 would speak; .- 1 •■ a k as you think. If with JOUT inferiors, let your s] eh be no coarser than usual ; if with your superiors, no liner. Be whal you Bay; and, within the rules of prudence, say what you are. 585. Avoid all oddity of expression. No one ever v. gainer by singularity in words, or in pronunciation. The truly wise man will so speak, thai no one may observe how lie speaks. A man may show greal knowledge of chemistry by carrying about bladders of Btrange gases to breathe ; bui he will enjoy better health, ami find more time for business, who lives on the common air. When l hear a person use a queer expression, or pronounce a name in reading differently from his neighbours, the habil alwi goes down, in my estimate of him, -with a minus tign re it ; Btands on the Bide of deficit, not of credit. 6. Avoid likewise all along words. There is no greater nuisance in Bociety than a talker of slang. It is only tit (when innocent, which it Beldom is) for raw Bchoolbo and one-term freshmen, to astonish their Bisters with. Talk as sensible men talk : use the easiest words in their commonesl meaning. Let thi 1. nol the vehicle in which it is conveyed, he your object of atten- tion. 7. Avoid in conversation all singularity <•! accuracy. One of the bores of society is the talker who is alwi bting you right; who, when yon report from the paper that 10,000 men fell in Borne battle, t< lis you it was 9,9/0; who, when you describe your walk as two miles out anil back, assures you it wanted half a furlong of it. Truth does not consist in minute accuracy of detail, bui in con- ring a right impression; and there are vague ways of aking, that are truer than strict fact would be. When t he Psalmist wrote, " Rivers of waters run down mine ei because men keep not ih\ law," and when the liedeeincr i. • 1 1 i bese beld their | w ould imme- telj i r\ out," it was Dot facts that were Btated, but truths deeper than fact, and truer. IDIOM AND CONSTRUCTION. 207 588. " The talker who is always setting you right." Yes, and there is another, and an even more formidable bore. And that is, the man who is for ever capping your saying with something that may bring credit to himself, or excite wonder, or in some way take the wind out of your sails. You mention some unfortunate mistake which you have made : your friend replies with some wise rule by which he tells you he has always escaped such a misfortune. You have seen some remarkable sight: he, at some friend's, has seen a much more remarkable one of the same kind. I l'cmember hearing a talker of this kind com- plained of, who always adduced, if a thing happened to be praised, a brother of his, as possessing one of the same kind, far grander, or more beautiful, or more costly. I suggested to the complainants to try him with double yellow violets, and wait the result. The capper was capt, and subsided. 589. Talk to please, not yourself, but your neighbour to his edification. What a real pleasure it is to sit by a cheerful, unassuming, sensible talker; one who gives you an even share in the conversation and his attention ; one who leaves on your memory his facts and his opinions, not himself who uttered them, not the words in which they were uttered. 590. All arc not gentlemen by birth ; but all may be gentlemen in openness, ho modesty of language, in attract- ing no man's attention by singularities, and giving no man offence by forwardness; for it is this, in matter of speech and style, which is the sure mark of good taste and good breeding. 591. Conclusion. — These stray notes on spelling ami speaking have been written moi - e as contributions to dis- cussion, than as attempts to decide in doubtful cases. The decision of matters such as those which I have treated is not made by any one man or set of men ; cannot be brought about by strong writing, or vehement assertion: but depends on influences wider than any one man'.- view, and taking longer to operate than the life <>l any one gene- ration. It depends on the directions and deviations of the currents of a nation's thoughts, and the influence exercised on words by events beyond man's control Grammarians THE QUEEN'S ENGLISH. ami rhetoricians may set bounds to language: bni on will breafe over in Bpite of them. And I have ventured to think ih,ii he may do Borne Bervicewho, instead of Btanding ami protesting where this has been the case, observes, and points '»nt t" others, the existing phenomena, and the probable account to be given of Lhom. APPENDIX. On paragraph 31 and following: — I observe that in a now notice, the London, Chatham, and Dover Railway Company announce to their passengers the stations at which Feet-warmers may lie procured. The old notice had Foot-warmers. The change is a step into barbarism. If carried out, it would introduce Hands-cuffs, and Eyes-glasses. Did it never strike the corrector, that foot in composition is generic, as in " foot-stool," "foot-rot"? Fancy a man having lived long enough in a neighbourhood to have gained his '• feeting." On paragraph 288 : — In the "Times" of March 12, 1870, appeared the following letter: " ARCH I EPISCOPAL GRAMMAR. " TO THE EDITOR OF THE ' TIMES.' " Sir, — I have taken the enclosed letter of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York to the Archbishop of Armagh, from the 'Times' of this day. Can any one imagine that two Arch- bishops could write such bad grammar, which any schoolboy should be ashamed of? "The Archbishops begin with a pronoun singular ' my' (' My Dear Lord Archbishop'), and then go on with a plural pronoun 'we' and 'our' throughout the letter, until their Graces come lo the conclusion, when they combine the plural and singular together, by saying, ' We are, my dear Lord Archbishop.' " Surely ' my dear' means dear to me. Who is ' me ' when two persons are writing and signing the letter? "Does not the Editor of the 'Times' think it is quite time that an Education Pill was brought in by the Government? "Yours faithfully, "A SUDSCBIBEB TO THE ' TlMES.' " March 10." P HO APPENDIX. This is just a specimen oftbe knowledge of usage, and of tin- dashing >i\lr, of these censors of those who know better than themselves. Of course I need nol Baj thai M their Graces " were perfectly right, and their Blap-dash censor was in the wroi After I bad t i-i« < 1 te explain tlii> in the " Times," I bad letter, suggesting that the incongruity ought to have been avoided by wording the address " Dear Lord Archbishop" (!). I need hardly remind the reader thai other langui idea our <>\vn have the same habit of regarding w my 1 * >i-« 1 " as term by itself, and invariable. Thus we have**] Blonsignori," desig- nating a class of prelates at Rome. Our own brnls of the privy council designate themselves in their correspondence at " My Lords." And lastly, as another correspondent reminds me, the Archbishops bad high authority for their address: for in Gen. xlii. 10, we read of Joseph's brethren, "And they said unto him, Nay, my lord: but to buy fond arc thy servants come." < >n paragraph 293 and following: — It might have been stated that Chaucer uses a curiously varied form of" it is me," in the " Shiptnan's Tale," about the middle : — " Qui est la (q. he), Peter, it am I." < >n paragraph 474 : — The word " richet™ is frequently the object of a misstatement. In a critique, not long since, it was said as a set off against some defects of an author, M he at leasl appears to be aware that • riches 1 is properly a singular, being derived from the French ' riehetse.' " I Jut begging the critic's pardon, tlii- i> not so. The singular noun in French, "2a richette" i^ abstract, and signifies abundance,- rich-ness (if we had such a word). When the con • rete, riches, " bietu" u pouution*" is signified, the French use "lis rit fn vw s" : from which, and not from the singular, our "/'.A, rived. The usage of a richea " in the English Bible i- plural : " lie heapeth np riches, and cannot tell who shall her them," P . txxix. 6: "Riches make themselves win) PrOT. xxiii. ; and in many other jd:i On paragraph 480 - I omitted to notice, while on this part of my subject, that APPENDIX. 211 epitbetal and predicative possessive pronouns are curiously dis- tinguished. "That is my hat:" but, "That bat is mine." "This is your book : " but, " This book is yours." And so with "her" «aA u hers," "their" and " theirs," " thy " and "thine." The usage is traceable in provincial dialects in the case of "his," which is not varied in good English : He that prigs what isn't fds'n, When he's cotched, is sent to prison. And also in "hcr'n," which we might once have similarly illus- trated, She that prigs what isn't hern, At the treadmill takes a turn. On paragraph 5G4 : — In reference to this paragraph I have received the following letter : " Edinburgh, 3rd April, 1869. "Rev. Sir, " As one of those who read with pleasure at the time, and who has hardly, for a single day since, forgot the lesson of the story you told in 'Good Words ' some years ago about the kind old gentleman and the nursemaid on the hot summer-day, when the conditions of a favour from the former to the latter were so suddenly broken by the escape of ' Georgy-porgy ride in coacby-poacliy ' from the nurse, I take the liberty of sending you the enclosed verses which appeared in to-day's ' Scotsman.' They arc rather pretty, exceedingly Scotch, and an exact picture of what goes on in many a borne here between parent and child." "BONNIE BAIRNIi:."' Am — " Bonnie Scotland, I adore t/tee." Bonnie bairnie, how I love it, None can rob its daddy of it ; Many a one my bairn may covet, Bonnie, honnie bairnie. Wi' its wee hit nosey-posey, Cheeky-peek ies red anil rosy, And its bosey, cosey-osey, Bonnie, bonnie bairnie. 2\2 Ai'i'Esni.x. Wr its bonnio brow brow bronty, Ami its mouthie-pouty dainty, Made for kisaie-wiaaea plenty, B innie, b »nnie bairnio. \\ V it.-, e'enie peeniea glani in', And its leg jie-peggiea dancin', poraey prancin', Bonnie, Bonnie bairnie. Kiitli.-witily my bil puasie, i !n epie-crappy ap the boo Cuddlie-waddiy, my ain minis i U.iiiiiic, bonnie bairnie. Ridie-pidey pownie-owney, Fallie-pally down, down, downy, Mendie-pendy, crackie-crow nie, B innie, bonnie bairnie, , p (sey, feetie-peety, Handie-pandy, goodifi-swi Nicie-picey, eatie peaty, Bonnie, bonnie bairnioi ( ",„ kie-locky, benie-peney, 1 1 ickie pucky, kitty-wrenie, "Cow wow wow-ie — nowie, thenie, B mnie, bonnie bairn e. I , .] . . cosie creep in, Iluahy-buaby, bairnie Bleepin', i urdian angela watches fee< | t (wet my bonnie bail nie. INDEX, The references arc to the pages, not to the paragraphs. "A" or "an" before a vowel, 33, 34. " A " and "aw," words ending in, :;:». "Abarcy,"87. Abel, 46. " Aberuncate," 87. "Abhorred" and"abbored," 22. "Able "for "Abel,"&c., 46. "Abnormal,' 1S3, 1S4. "Al«.lishable,"87. " Above, tlie," 142. Abstract and concrete, confusion of, 1 93. Abstract for concrete, 171. " Abstringe," 87. '• Abstrude," 87. "Abundant," " reluctant, " &c. , 10. Adverbial qualifications, two uses of, I 1 I. "Accord," to, 182. Accusative and nominative cases, 103. Accusative case, dues "than" govern it ! Ill; " them " and the, 142. "Acervate,"87. " Acetosity," 87. Achaicns, 1 1. Acquaintances," or "acqnain 1;i lire," it. Addison referred to, 12, r>0. Adjectives and axU erbs, 144,174. Ad |ective used b :"l rei bs, 1 13. •• Adjugate, ' 87. "Adjustible," 87. " Admetiate," 87. "Adminicle," 87. Admiration, notes of, 70. "Advent," 183, 184. Advertisement, clerical, 102. Advertisements, errors in, 189. Adverb between " to " and tin: infinitive, 133. Adverbs and adjectives, 174. Adverbs, position of, 104 ; super- seded by adjectives, 14.'!. Advice, concluding, 205. "Advolation," 87." "./Esthetic," 183, 184. Affirmative turned to negative, Affirmatives ami negatives, con- tradictory, G3. "Aggravate," 135. '•Ain't," 71. Alexandria, 44. Alford, Dean, bis Greefc Testa- ment, 74, 105 ; his " Queen's English," 82; at Rome, 205 ; and bis critics, viii, 1 10 : other references, 38, 40, 42, 4.!, 47, See also &c. 85, 112, 127, 129 under " ' Jueen's English, •All," "always," &c, •-'::. 'All of tbem," 132. •Allude," to, 182. • Almighty," 23. 'Alms," 39. 'Also," 23. • Abo." w iili commas, 73. Ambiguity, real, and snpj examples of, '.'7 - 101 : how ;n [sing, 101. Ambiguous descriptions of nun, 174 " Alms," pronunciation of, 39. 214 INDEX. American pronunciation, 49. Americanisms, •'.. 85, 163. •• Am, I. and " I be," 149. •• A ng" and "amongst," 53. ■• Amplify," 38. •• Anathematize," ->. •■ Animals "and "insects," 139. Anomalies, 1 17. "Apartment . ' 17:'. " Apostasy " or " apostasy," 1 1. Apostrophe after a plural noun, it. Apostrophe of the genitive sin- gular, 12. Apostrophe, what is the? 13. •• Archiepiscopal < Irammar, " letter on, 2w. Arcturus, 18. Aristobulus, 12, II. 172. " Anil," 71. Arrangement of words in sen i. no j, 93 : rule for, '.'I ; its \ iolation required by empha- -. ibid. \ an I o," 70. • \ and "to," 187. • \ being discovered," 191. •• \ : for " which," 187. Aspirate follow ing " a ami "an," ::i Aspirate in 1 1 1 < - Bible, •'• i Aspirate in " hospital,' A tiii rate, mi u e of, 30. • \ ertor," :t7. • \ i i. .i .,i tho ceremonj , \ , tm .,i dinner, 183, 184. \ ..i •• in-iii. i! II. 1 1 •■ \i .,11 "At lx 131. " At first," &c, 131. '• \' least," or "al the least '-. 131. "Attain" (to) one's - tli war. 91. '• Attornies"or "attorneys,' 16. Attraction, 58, 64, 151, 152. Austen, Mass, 190 Author, the Set under Alford, I lean. Auxiliary verbs, ellipses of, 98, 151 : indifferent ase of, 124. Auxiliary verbs " shall " and '• will,'' 121. '• Avocations," 181, 194 .\\ iiuiii. Prof., 1 16. Bacon, Lord, 62, 66, 72 187, 170. Bailey's I dictionary, s 7. •• Battle," 16. •• Be, I.' and " I am," 149. Beaumont ami Fletcher, 17'.'. " Beautiful music," A <•.. 162. •• Beautiful Bmell, a," 162. •■ Be (I) to," 84. '• Being written, wa. 121. •• Bellpull," 23. •• Belltower,' 23. •• Belong," •• belong I .« i ds/'&e., I', nefitted," or "benefited, Berridge, Mr., an I Johnny Still I.-. •■ Be idem and " except," 159. '• Be i. at," •• ai iln 181. Bible, the, gram mar of, 99 : olhei rel to, 5, 16, 20, 25, 28, !■">. 61, 09, 76, 77, 99, 104, 108, 117. 120, 124, I. 132, 133, 134, I •". 161, l 154, 150, 159, 166, 169, I* 183 204, 206 . s \. \\ Ti tai i. Black iniili. an euphuistic, I Blnii . Dr., his i tiles, 9 1 '• Bit n< I •• I.I. : I'. •■ Blow . • mnie Bairnia (nm ong), '-'I I. Bool makci -. the rival, 17 1. INDEX. 215 Bores, talking, 207. " Both," position of, 105. "Both of them," 132. " Brewery," 26. Bull, Thomas Palmer, 40. " But," use of between epithets, 69. "But that," 128. "Buttery," 26. "By "and "of," 172. " By and by," or " by and bye" ? 78. " By applying," &c, 175. " By doing a thing," &c, 175. " By-end," 78. " By, passing," &c, 78. "By-play," 78. "By the by," or "by the bye"? 78. " Bye-ball," 78. "Ca>sar,"27. " Calcined," 1S6. " Calm," 39. " Calves' head " or " calf 's head , " 16. Cambridge, Johnny St it tie of, 43. " Came into flower," 134. " Came to pieces," 134. " Cameleopard," 23, 38. Campbell, Dr.. his " Philosophy of Rhetoric," quoted, 108. "Capping" in conversation, 207. Caprice of idiom, 56. Case, nominative and accusa- tive, 103. "Castle," 46. "Cattle "or "chattel," 46. " Cauterize" or "cauterbe"?25. •Caviller," "cavilling," 22. Censors, grammatical, 210. "Centre, 77. " Centre-line," &c, 77. "Cemetery," 27. " Cincture," 67. "Chattel"and "cattle," I I Chattel-ton's imposture, 4. ( ihaucer, 210. "Chemistry," 27. " Cherubim," 28. " Chickens " or " chicken," 19. Children, talking nonsense to, 196, 211. Children's names, 196. "Choose," 24. "Chose," 24. "( !hough," pronunciation of, 41. Churchwarden, story of an edu- cated, 110. Classification of both sexes to- getber, 72. Clauses, the arrangement of, in sentences, !iti. Clerical advertisement, a, 102. "Clergy," 171. Clergy, anecdotes of the, 17'J : their bad reading, 53, 79, 89; errors of, 192; their ignorance, 41, 45, 47; pronunciation of "ed"hv, 48. "Close," 24 "Clue "and "clew," 28. "Coal, to," 87. Coleridge, 83. "Coleridge," pronunciation of, 40. Collects, the, 194. Colloquial contractions, 71. Colon and semicolon, 76. ( lolosBe, 43. " Come to grief," 134. " Come to the gallows," 134. "Coming" and "going," 133, 134. Commas, excess of, 73; after '• now," 74 ; between two ad jectives, ibid. ; too few, 7~>. " Commence," 180. Common Prayer. See Prayer Book. Common sense wanted, 193. Common sense and the pedant, mi. Comparatives and superlatives, 81, 146. Compositors and punctuation, 73. Concrete and abstract, con fusion of, 1 93. " Confectioner} . -7. 216 INDEX. infusion" and " diffusion," 1G4. Confusion of abstract and con- crete, 193. i !onfusion of idea-, 192. " ( kmgregation was," ox " oon- gregation were " ! 170. Conjunctional particles, use of oertain, 168. Conjunctions, 10, 89, 128. " ( lonspicuous voice, a," 102. " Construe! " and " construe, " 142. Construction, careless, 188 [cau- tion against rash assertion about, ill ; and idiom, 64 | and usage, ibid, " ( !ontemporary with," " a con temporary of," 138. ('nil trad inns ("ain't," &0.), 71. " < lontrasl to," or " contrai I with," 187. "Control," or "runtn.nl," 0. " Controller," or "■comptroller," 9. ( Sonversation, '-'<»(;. ( lore, or Koran, 43. < rorrections, ingenious, 51. Correspondents and censors, xiii.s.'t, 127. > s '" B&o"Queen's English," &c 1 ough," pronunciation of, 41. "Could, used to," 166. " Covetous," 45. Cowley, 92, 115. "< iiw pci . pronunciation of, i () . 1 pin and Hoby, the rival Iwiot makers, 17 1. "Ci iticwe,"or"ci iti.i e,"&c < Iriticism, in a new npaper, "i ; "i Mi 1 ..l,i. i Hamh t." 102. i 'i ii i "i Engli di, the I mall, 102, 1 10. Crudcn " < loncord 84 1 Itil high, fifty." I up. cubits bi I, " i !ucumbei ," pronunciatioi iu " < !npboard and "cubboard," "Curator," 36. "Cursed," Ac., 19. "Cutlery," 26. " Cutting, wants," 17.~>. Daniel, the Book of, 89. " Dare," "dared,"and" dan 23. 1 1 li, the, in punctuation, 77. " Deanery," 26. ■• Dear me I" " Dear, dear : " &c, derivation of, 205. '■ I leath (the) is announced of," 162 " Decanal," &&, 'M. •• Decided (a) weak point, 1 1 17. " I ^ependi ut," or " dependant," 11. •• I tependent on " "independent ..I." 137. I >erby usage, 165. I derivations, ingenious, 51. D< rideratum, a," 193, " Desirability," 182. Deterioration <>t • w ," pronunciation, 36. I tialecl ut our journals, 177. Dialects. See under names of . under Mid lam! . \\ eel country, &c, Dickens, (hail.-. 22,32. I fictional \ word English, 87. •• Did [t..| me a favour," 160. •• Didn't use." &c, 165. I liflbrence of utterance in sing 19. " Different," &c. " I ni!. ..nl to 136. ■• I '11,11 imi " and " confusion," Mil. •• THo mio '" and "d< ai n • i . i •• dioci I lipbllionj . "7 ; hall we f, 195. " Endeavour ourselves," 79. " Endorse " or " indorse," 11. English, the best, 104 ; deteri- oration of, 186 ; the dictionary writers' and "the Queens English," 2; interlarded with French, &c, 198 ; Latin in, 87 ; Saxon in, 176 ; spoken and written, 57. " English for the English," 197. English Grammar. See Gram- mar, &c. English language, 3, 54. See also " Queen's English," Lan- guage, c\;c. English style, the best, and Karnes' rules for, &c, 97, 101 . " Enough," pronunciation of, 41. " Enquire" or " ini endearment, 195. " Extasy," or " Kcstasy," 11. I'. W. , a correspondent, 83. Fad an. I truth, 200. 218 INDEX. •• Tall on," to, &c, 129, 130. I Fallacy in the axiom, that of two waya one most be wrong, 68. Farmyard, placard in a, 173. •• Favor," or " favour." »'.. •■ i - Hamlet, criticism of, 102. I , et-warmi or " foot- warmers," 200. "Felicity," 104 • i . male, for " ;i woman,** 178. Feminine substantives, 72. •• Fifty cubita high," &&, 132. Figurative use of words, 7 s . Fine Language, the inroads of, 168. " Firs! " and " former," 81. •■ First," the, "the last," &c., 186. " First foundation," &&, 204. •• Fishery," 28. " I Lssun . 67. I itted and "fited," 22 ■• I lies " (carriages), or " Bys," L2. I lya "' (carriages), or " Hi 12 Folk "and "folks," 171. I ..i warmi or " feet- warmers," 200. 1 eign w ords, use of, in Eng- lish composition, 107. I ormer" and "first," 81. I sundry,' •• i i. it. i ii i ..-," or " fraterni I ench, vocabulary and -| oken, B7. French, &« . interlardii I lish with, 108. "Froi and "on," 137. i i. >mi hence, " from thence," I ii!-. .in.-.' I ,ni.i...l.' i fjallnut, - " ( Saa holderand Boiler maki 174 '• < ieneais, the l k." or " the book of Gem -i- '": 90. ( lenitive, the double, 168. Genitive singular, the ap tropl f the, 12. ■• Georgj porgy," &c, 197, Ml. -• Get, could not," 86. "Gifted men," "gifted pens," •• t ;i\ ing I/. - ., opening] on the yard" 201. "Go tossed," 134 ■• Going" and "coming," 133, 134. " ( Suing, where arc you " ! and '• going to," 1 18. •■ Good looking," or "well-look- ing" 1 80. "Good Words," 1863, this work originally published there, I s . 42, 131,211. •• Goose," 24 • < rospels, the first three," or •• the three first "'.' 105. •■ Governess," 72 ■• t irammar, Axcbiepiscopal," Letter on, 200. ( irammar, of the Bible, w ; I li-.li books of, some, i ii. 88, 04, 106 ; rulea of, \ ii. 83 : and idiom, 1 ; and usagi .64. alto Rule v. usage, &c. ( Irammarian, the sti Let, 66. t irammarians, " pennj n no. i i niinatir.il anomalies, 1 17. "Grcatei and " great ( Ireek langv 184 Grovelling, 22 ll after "• " and "an, 1 dropping, 36 ; miss e of, 30, Set alto Aspirate. • Had ... Lief," 71. •• Had ai Boon," 71. •• Had rathi r, 71. •• liadn'l M ed," &c, Halfpenny," 37. Hallo I and " Halloopl 51 INDEX. 219 "Hamlet," Mr. Fechter's, criti- cism of, 102. " Handrailing," noun, 88. Hare, Archdeacon, on "honor," &a, 6. Hasty writing, excuse for, 1S9. " Have [there] heen more ap- jilications than one," ami "there has heen more than one application," 154. " Hawk and a hand-saw," i.e., " herneshew," 50. "He" and "it," confused use of, 10S. "He, it is," or "it is him"? 114. " Head, to," 87. "Heart 1 ' for "art," 130. "Hell fire," 23. " Hen[n], only one in Venice," 35. " Hence, from," 204. "Henceforth, from," 204. "Her'n," "his'n," &c, 211. Herbalist, an "Indigenous Kentish," 174. " Heritor," 36. "Heme Hill," "Heme Bay," &c., 50. " Herneshew," 50. " Heron," pronunciation of, 50. '• Heronry, 26. Higginson's (E.), English Gram- mar, viii, 86. Hill, Rowland, and Johnny Stittle, 43. "Him, it is," "it is her," 114. "His," "his'n," and "her'n," 211. "His," "one," joined to, 164. " History," a, "an historian," 34. "Holding on to," 120. •• Holy" and "wholly," 45. Home talk, 195. '• Homoeopathy," 27. •• Honor " or " honour,' 6. Hose,"24. " Hospital," the aspirate in, :;::. " Hough " and '• ough," pro- nunciation, 41. Houghton, Lord, pronunciation of his name, 41. " How dye do? "56. " However," with commas, 73. " Humble," " umhle," &c, 31. "I am," and "I be," 149. " I be," and " I am," rule as to, 149. "I, it is," or "it is me"? 112, 210. " I need not have troubled my- self," 140. "I shall," 122. "1 take it," 166. "I, than," or " than me"? 111. " I will," 122. "Idear,"^c, 35. Ideas, confusion of, 192. Idiom, 54 ; caprice of, 56 ; ex- ample of from the Greek 57. Idiom and Construction, 54; and grammar, 1. Idiomatic address, 55. Idiomatic expressions, 162. "If "for " whether," 269. "If I be,"&c, 149. Ignorance of the clergy, 48. Si e also ( Slergy. " I know nothing by myself " explained, 42, 172. "-H" or "-el" terminations, 46. "HI "and "well," 174. " 111 turn, an,"&C, 174. "Illustrated London News," 24, 180. " Immergency," 67. "In "and "on," 129. "In "and "with," 136. "In" or "en " in " inquiry," &c, 11. " In our midst," &c, 186. "In reaped (or regard) of," &c, 136. '• I nclose," or " enclo: e," 1 1. Incongruity, 194 •■ Indeed : 205. " independent of," " dependent on," 137. 220 INDEX. Indicative moods in conditional sentences, 1 19. " linlivi.lu.il," 177. " Indorse " oi " endorse," 11. •• [nferior," "superior," 82. Infinitive and " to," 133. Inflated langnageinprayers, L9 1. '* Ingoldsby Legends," 114. " Inimical, pronunciation of, 16. " Initiative, lake the," 181. Innovations in talk, letters .■'.!! cerning, 183. " Insects " and "animals," 139. Instincl in language, 122. "Insurance" or ''assurance," 11. Into" and "on to," 129. '• Inversely a-." 137. Invitations, mistakes in accept- ing and answering, 167, l5o. '• 1 1 1 x it*- " for "invitation," 168. Irish correspondent mi " .-hall " ami '• WlD," 127. Irish misuse of "shall " and ••will," 122, 126; and of •• which?" for " what !" 62. Iii-li use of '• that," " tho &c, .v.i. " Irregular," 184 •• It " and " he," confused n e of, 108. " It " and " it-," •". 167. ■• It i- him,' •• it i her,' 1 1 1 •■ Irrespective of,' 137. Italian talk, 206. Italic t\ pe, Be and (i- in, 27. •• Ivanhoe," 176. " Ise"or"ise" (in atilise, &c), " Jacl wa •• r< pectful t.> Tom, and alw .. j took In lis i oil when he met." &c, 19.1 mole " t".i t' 'i Jame I, i Jeweller, notice bj a, l 90. ••J. .in, fiiljiin," 1 18 Johiuo :-ti!ilr. .s., Mini,.. Johnson, I>r., 169, 170, 197 ; his 1 tictiomvn . t',7. Journals, dialect <>f our, 177. n a also Newspapers, &c. "Jovially," 23. "Juvenile, a," ITS. Karnes, Lord, liis rule, 07. Keating'e Insect destroying powder, advertisement of, 139. " Kindnesses, many," or "much kindness," 16. '• Ring's" includes " Queen's," 72, '• King's English, the," 17.">. " Know (lj nothing of myst It " (St. Paul's) explained, 12, 172. " Know no harm |, v him," 172. "Know-ledge "and "knolled •in. Korah, or Core, i". Lin "alms,""psalms ""calm," 39. Language, our, deterioration <»f, 176 ; sourc I, Set "Is:, I nglish, "Queen's English," Languages, analogy of, \ii. •• Last " a. ,.1 "latt< r,' Bl. Latham, Dr., ill ; \m English Grammar, \ iii ; hi- History m the English Langu 113, 126, I W, l 19; In- opinion on " It i ." I 13 :mi " OW How," 26 ; Lia account " hall "and "will," i nil,' in subjunctive mon 1 19 : h al t " rill,, i yon or I," 15 i : ..■, the toniii- on "t . on "which,"! I. .itin in Engli li. B7. i •■• i .i more than < I\ two, Bl. i ' I ami '■ lie," II. "l to," ah lolute, ! i. •I. INDEX. 221 Lecky's "History of European Morals," 188. Leeds Mercury, extract from on the importation of foreign Avoids, 197. Leioestershire usage, 51. "Lesser" and "less," 64 "Lie "and "lav," 11. "Light on," to, &c., 129. " Like " and the nominative, 117. " Like " as an adverb, 1G9. "Like, and the," 203. "Like lie was," 109. " Like I do," 109. " Like we are," 109. " Livy writes, "or" Li vy wrote"? 120. "Locality," 179. "London, the city," or " the city of," 88. " Long" and "short," anomalies in the usage of, 147. Longley, Archbishop, 48. "Looking sadly," &c, 245. "Loose "and '"'lose," 23. "Lord, my," " Our Lord," &c, 110, 210. Lord's Prayer, the, 195. "Lose "and "loose," 23. "Loved "and "lov'd,"&c., 48. " Lovey," "dearey," &c, in home talk, 195. M , Sir J., and the tired nurse, 197. "Mabel," 40. Macaulay, 101. Magazine writing for the " best society," 198. "Manifold,"or"many-fold"?37. Manning, Mr. Sergeant, on the " Possessive Augment in Eng- lish," &c., 13. "Me," "ye," and "von," 114. "Me, it is," and "it is I," 112, 210. " Me, than," ox "than I"? 111. "Means," 17. "Medicine," 38. "Mentioned," 1S3. " Mercies," or "mercy," 17. " Meseems," 03. " Messrs. Jackson, "or "Messrs. Jacksons"? 13. " Messrs. Jackson's works," or "Messrs. Jacksons' works"? 13. Metaphorical adjectives, 103. " Methinks," 05. "Mewses" and "mews," 18. Midlands, use of "by" in the, 172; other Midland usages, 5, 118, 148, 105. ".Midst, in our," ISO. "Military." 171. Milldam, 23. Miller, Joe, 172. "Millstone," 23. " Millstream," 23. Milton, 5, 83, 80, 88, 111. "Mine" and "my," 33, 211. " Minister," 37. Mispronunciation of Scripture names, 41. "Misses Brown, the," or "the Miss Browns"? 15. Mis-spelling in newspapers, 24. " Mistaken," ambiguous Bense of, 79. Mistakes, in accepting invita- tions, 157; of one word for another, 139. Misuse of the aspirate, 30. "Mole" and "mouldy-warp," 50. Mole, toasted by Jacobites, 50. " Moneys," or " monies," 10. " Moneyed," or "mound, " man, 84,88. Moods, rule as to, 149. "More than probable," 65. Morning Chronicle, quoted, 187. "Most Highest," &c, 204. Mouldy-warp, 50. "Mowing, wants," 175. "Much," "this much," &c Gl. " Music as before," 17.".. Murray's Bandbooks, 101. Murray, Lindley, balanced with Shakespeare, 105. "Mutual friend, a," 159. ..).) INDEX. • M . I ... . the address " Our I ord," &c., 110, -'10. Mystify," 3a \ in \ enici Naabis "=(?) " oawys, H 7. Names, compound, their plurals, 16. N;iijm~, pronunciation of, 10. Napoleon III., Iii> " Life of Julius ( ':i~.ir," 51. Nationalities," 184. \.l\w " and "navigator," 8. • Need " and " Deeds, 1 20. ative, affirmative turned to, 93. Negative and affirmatives, <'<>n- tradictorj , ii.'!. •• Neglecl to," &c., 119. •■ Neighbour " and "neighbor/ 1 •■ Neighbour to," and " ;i neigh- bour of," 138. • Net," or "net! "?22. •■ New," comma after, 7 1. Nen Testament, the, references to, ■"». :<•"•. 71. 92, 95, 99, 104, 106, 109, 111, III. I 15, I 17. 120, 125, 132, 133, 134, 137, 138, 141,149, 150, 151, 159,203, 204,206. Set also under Bible. New \N liig Guide," 84. •• News, 18. Newspaper criticism, 46 ; news- paper English, 84, 101, 130, 1 39, 159, 162, 165, 177. 201. Newspapers, excuse for slipshod « ritiiiur in, 188 ; mis spelling in. -J i. "Nevei o," or "evei o 62. ■• Nicknames," II "No and "y< Nominative and accusative • ti . talking, t<> children, 196. \ , .. Northern count i< e in the, • '• Noi and " oi In :t negative 91. 24. •• Not," redundant, 192 : \.n\ ing use of, 192. •■ Nob - "t admiration ' 1 129]. Noun-, abstract and concrete, 171 : collecth '■. 170; made into verba, 87 : of number, 1 7<>. Novi Is, modern, iV«'.. um of foreign phrases in, 198. Novels, popular, mistakes in, 139. • Now, just," 148. Nureerj talk, 196,211. "Oasis," 46, Objective and subjective words, 90 i of adverbs, 1 n. "Objector," :<7. "Obnoxious," 91. ( Iddity of expression, avoid it, 206. "Oddly.il would read," 145. " < >f," unproper use of, 1 17. •• i If, preposition, 89 "Of," "on," and "from," 187. " Of" and "to," 136 138, •( If" in "allof them,"&c, 139, " Of " in " iM' lift) cubits high," &c., 132. " Oftener," "oftenest," 1 16. "Old and NV« Bookseller," 174. '• Oldest " and "eldest," 99 " Oldest inmate," 64. < Imicron, 15 ( iini--i(ui of " n" in word* in "our," 6 •■ On" and "upon," 129. "On, "of," and "1 ." 187. " < in to," 128 ; compared with •• into," 129. " i »n the chairman ii- ing I &c ! II 1 ine," " ;i one, n " an out :t:.. "One" joined to "his," 164. •• < Ine another," ins. < Inesimus, 1 1 ■• i »nls ," position of, 104, •• Open out." t<>. 131. " Upen up, to, 131. •■ i optative,' INDEX. 223 '• ( »;■ " and " nor" in a negative sentence, 91. ( >ral and vocal sounds, 39. "Orator," 37. "Orion," is. " -Ough," pronunciation of, 41. " Ought to" and "ought not to," 119. " ( tur," terminations in, 6. " Our Father which," or " who art " ? G9. " Overflown "for " overflowed," 2G. Oxford, Declaration of the Clergy, 103. Pagliardini, Sig. , vii. Pall Mall Gazette, quoted, 190. " Palmistry," 27. Parenthesis, definition and re- quirements of, 94, 96. Parish clerk, a, 172. Parliament, speakers in, 36. "Partake "for "eat," 179. Participles, 175 ; and veil is, 191. Particles, conjunctional, 158; "if," "whether," &c, 149 ; superfluous, use of, 128. "Party, a," 178; technical sense of, ibid. ; examples of the use of, IT'.!. " Pass a few days with," 200. " PasBhook," 23. " Password," 23. " Pastime," 23. Patrohas, 44. Pedant, the, and common sense, 104. " Pendent from," 137. Pendent participial clauses, ab- Burdity of, 191. " Penny-a-liners," English, 199. Sift also Newspaper English, &c. " People" and " persons," 170. " Peoples," 183, 184. " Person," 177. " Person, a young," 17s. " Persons" and " people," 170. " Persuasion," 181. " Pewed," a church, 87. " Phantasy," 38. "Pharaoh,"not "Pharoah,"24 Phenomenon to l>e observed in usage of subjunctive and in- dicative. 151. " Philadelphia," 44. Philemon, 4.'!. Phonetic News, the, 9. Phonetic spelling, 9. " Piety," 17.'!. " Piggery," 26. " Pflgrimess," &c, 72. "Pillbox," 23. " Pinery," 26. " I'lain" for "plainly," 143. "Pleiades," 48. " Plough," pronunciation of, 41. Plural and singular of nouns of number, 170. Plurals, the apostrophe and, 14; of compound names, 15; and singulars, 152. Pope, 9, 59, 117. •• Portress," 72. '• Pose," 24. Possessive, marking the, 1(>7. " Possessive Augment in Eng- lish," &C, Mr. sergeant Man- ning's work on, 13. Possessive case, " On the chair- man rising to," &C. '.' Pis ; "one" joined to "his," 164. See also Apostrophe, ^e. Possessive pronouns, 21 1. "'Poys,' the three," 172. Praj er Book, the, references to, II, 25, 28, 32, HI, 72, 70, 93, 151, 152, 172, 195, 204. Prayer, the Lord's, (ill. Prayers, inflated language in, mi. " Predicate "for "predict," 100. Preposition "of," 89. Prepositions, 117, 128 ; at the end Of sentence-, I IS. Present tense, use of the, to signify fixed design, 140. Present, past, and perfect tense-, I I'.l ; confusion of, 120 ; caution respecting, 140. 224 INDEX. •■ Present imenl " for " pr< Bent- men t," 139. " Prei ions," "i •■ pre\ ions! • i US. •• l'i [nc< -." or " pi i ii<-«- — . 52. Printere, their likingfor commas, 7.'! ; their coi rections, i 180. Prior, 111, 169. " Proceed," 179. ■• Proclivities," what ! 163. Professions, collective names of the, 171. •• iv to, 86. •• Projector," 37. •• Prophecj ," or " prophesy," 3a Pronouns, idiomatic, 66 : and iihiiiis, ins ; possessive, 21 1 ; " w bom," &c, 135. Pronunciation, .'!<> ; <>f names, 10 : in Somersetshire, 38 ; Bticklera f<>r, :<7. •• Psalms," 39. Punch, the barher in, his mis- use of li, 31. Punctuation, 73-77 ; standard of, 77. " Qualify,'; 38. "Queens" included in " Kings," 7'-'. English," what I vii, 2 ; this work, I, 17">, 207 ; the tin of 1 1 j i -» work, 1 10, 129. St I , Oori pon- denl " Quitted," or "quited "?•_>•_>. " Rack " and "wrack," 61. Iway it it • I other public no- tices, 187. •• Head oddly, ii would," 1 16. A'""/- r, '/'/m , quoted, 1 16. Heading, emphatic, 62 ; on stilts, " Rebelled" and "reheled," 22. •■ Record,' 36. I ', The, quoted, 163. 37. '■ Reliable," I 12. " Religion in the arm chair," 173. Religion in the We of Skye •• Ri mains " and " remainder," is. •• Replace,"66. " Respect, in," <>r " in regard " of, 136. "Revelation," no1 " Revela- tions " of St John, 15. " Revenue," pronunciation of, 40. '• Reverend " and ' 'it," 90. " Re viler" and "caviller," 22. Rhetoricians, their rules destruc- tive "t the besl English -t\ 1--, 97. " Riches," a plural, 210. •• Ride," "road," &c, 166. " Riding/' or "driving"1 166. iii : That which sounds right is right, as ;i rule, 166. " Right man in the right place, the," 173. " Rising generation, the," 178. rs, I >r. < loddard, i<>. Romans in the Thames, 51. " Rose," 24, " Rough," pronunciation, 1 1. " Round man in (lie square hole," &&, 173. " Royally," 23. Rule versus usage, vii, 1,41, 97, L43, 1 17. 161, 208. Set also I B ••. Rules of constructing senten i called, 93 : bei | n a] "t proceeding in regard of sucb rule . ' •■ Rule Britannia," lie. •• Ruri decanal, Ru jian, a, on the rules of Engli li < irammar, B8. S in " loo '•." " I ." •' 24. s or i in " i e. &c., •• Bacrament," 49. si. I >.i\ id i, Bii bop "f, 7.'t. IXDEX. 225 " St. George, the parish of," and "the parish of St. George's," 89. St. John, the Revelation of, 46. St. Paul, his " I know nothing by myself," 42, 43, 172 ; his list of salutations, 47. St. Peter, detection of, by his Bjpeech, 5. " Samaria," 44. "Sanitary "and "sanatory," 24. " Savior/' or " Saviour," 6. " Scotch," or " Scottish," 26. Scott, Sir Walter, 117. Scotticisms, 131. See also under Scottish. " Scottish " and " Scotch," 26. Scottish, misuse of " shall" and "will," 122, 126; nursery song, "Bonnie Baimie,"211; usages, 133, 175 ; use of "that," " those," &c., 59. Scripture names, mispronuncia- tion of, 41. "Sr.-retion "for" secreting," 139. "Seething," 186. " Seldom, or never," "seldom, if ever," 169. "Seldomer," 146. Selucia, 44. Semicolon and colon, 75. ■• Senator,"' 37. Sennacherib, 44. "Sent [to] me a letter," 160. Sentences, construction of, 54 ; elliptical, 93 : arrangement of words in, ibid. ; wrongly sup- posed elliptic, 141. "Seraphim," "seraphin," "se- raphs,'' &c, 28. "Set," or "sett "? 22. "Setteth not by himself, He that," 172. '• Shadrach, Meshach,andAbed- nego," 17'-'. Shakspeare balanced against Lindley .Murray, 105 : his grammar, 99, i, it, 20, 26, 29, 52, 59, 85, 86, L54, 166, 178, 183, 185, 204. Shakspeare, the Cambridge edition of, 154. "Shall "and "should," 158. " Shall " and " will," confusion of, 121-126 ; rules for the use of, 127. " Shall I," 122. " Shall you," 123. "She, it is," or "it is her"? 114. "Shew "and "show," 25. "Shines bright" for "shines brightly," &c, 143. "Short" and "shortly," 147. "Should "and "shall," L58. "Should," "would," &c, 125. "Should have been happy to," 158. " Should seem," or " would seem " ? 125. "Show "and "shew," 25. " Shrubbery," 26. "Shutting to," or "shutting too"? 22. "Shut up," to, 131. Sidney, Sir Philip, 9, 159. Simeon, Rev. Charles, and Johnny Stittle, 43. Singing, difference of utterance in, 49. Singular and plural of nouns of number, 170. Singulars and plurals, cases of not understood, 152, 153; ac- count of usage, 154. Skye, Isle of, religion there. 39. Slang words, avoid, 206. •• Slippers, his wrong," 173. Shipshod writing in newspapi excuse for, 1 89. "So "and "as," 7". "Society, the best,"writing for, L98. "Soft "for "softly," 143. Somersetshire, dialect, (It!; pro- nunciation. .'Is. Sophsenetus and Ephtenetus, 17. " Sough," pronunciation of, 1 1. South Kensington Museum, 24. Spelling, • > ; phonetic, '.'. INDEX. r, l.'*7. S| the indicative, ibid. Subjective :ilnl <>hjeeti\ e ll • "I adverbs, 111. Subjective and objective words, "Such .'in one," or "such a 01 I " Summons," 19. pi rior," '• inferior," 82. Superlative and comparative • . I Hi. to, 181. Sweel for "sweetly," 148. Swin. Dean, ill. Syntactical perfection im sible, 193. " Take heed bow (boo) ye hear," • rake it. I," M'.t;. • I ike your choice," in pro- nunciation, Hi lented,' . borne, 196 ; Innovation* in. is:t ; nursery, 196. Talking bor< 206. ing noneenM to children, 196. « '.invent Life in Italy, 186. " Teddington," instance of in- genious derivation, 61. "Tend ii b," 168 "Tenor," ox " tenonr," 9, Ten- -. I in : perfed and past, i in. m," what is a? 189. Term in nominative and accusa- tive cases, In:;. ninations " ery " ami " i 26. Thackeray, 192. " Thames, the river," net •• the river nf Thami Thames, the, 61. "Than, 188 : and the aOCU the case, 1 12 ; does it _"\ rn an accusative ! Ill : twowj of constructing, ibid. "Than I. or "than me"! 111. "Thanks," for " thank you," 183. " That," triple mi aning of, 60. " Tli.it," verb after, without auxiliary, 151. "Thai " and "this,' Tli.it " and '• those, ■"•'.'. That " fur "which," &c, 68 "That Ul"="BO ill." 62, "Thee,as,"in" Rule Britannia," I hi. " Thence, from," 204. "'I hej ." " j -|>«l-.' or " firsl thr in'.. 108 " Tl • | " i mentioned, tie-.' 172. •■ Dirou ii. pronunciation ii. 68. I on, H»7. "I INDEX. 227 Times, The, quoted, 20, 24, 117, 135, 139, 14.1, 161, 182, 188,191. Timotheus, 44. Tithe dinner, note after a, 102. "To "and "as," 137. "To "and "of," 130,137, 138. "To "and "too," 20, 78. "To "and "with," 137. "To" followed by an adverb, 133. "To-day," "to-night," 60. " To-vear "=" this year," 60. "To, on," or "on"? 128. "To scientifically illustrate," &c, 133. "Too "and "to," 20, 78. " Too," with commas, 73. "Trafalgar," pronunciation of, 40. "Travelling," 22. "Treachery," 27. " Treat of," to, or to " treat " ? 88. Trench, Archbishop, 34. "Troubled myself, I need not have," 140. " Trough," pronunciation of, 41. Truth and fact, 206. "Tuesday," pronunciation, 36. "Twice one is [not are] two," 153. "Two and two are four," or '• two and two is four"? 152. U, omitting, in terminations '•our," 6. U pronounced as "oo," 36. " Umble," &c, 31. "Unless," "except" used for, 159. Unmeaning exclamations, 205. I pon" and "on to," L29. Urbane and Urban, 45. Usage, 46, 90 ; freaks of, 168 ; must prevail, 53 ; wo must wait upon, 28, 37. lit : and construction, 54 : and rule, 1, 41, 80, 1 1.5, 147, 151, 156, 208. See also Kale. I 'sages, elliptic, ."16. • I Be" and "used," 165. Use of expletives, 201. " Use, didn't," "hadn't used," &C., 1 <>•">. " Usedn't," 166. Ussher, 178. Usage, indifferent, of auxiliary verbs, 124. " Utilise or utilbe"? 25. "Utmost end," &c, 204. " Venery," 27. Venice, only one hen[n] in, 35. " Venison,'' 38. " Venite exidU mus" 44. Verb, after "that," without auxiliary, 151 ; made from noun, 87; neuter-substantive, 145 ; with a singular nomina- tive coupled to a plural, L56 ; and participle, 191. " Very," and " very much," SO. '■ Very pleased," &c, 80. " Victual," 37. " Vinery," 26. "Vinyard" and "vineyard," 37. ' Vocal and oral sounds, 39. Vulgarisms, ISO. W , Mr. F., M.P.,85. Walker's " Pronouncing Dic- tionary " at fault, 46. "Wallflower," 23. "Wants cutting," 175. "Warn't," 71. " Was being written," 121. "Was, used to," 165. " Washhouse," 2:;. " Watchhouse," 23. "Welcome," 23. '• Well." 202. " W,ll "and ••ill." 174. " Well," •'welfare," vV,-., 23. "Well-looking," <>r "good-look- ing"? 80. " Went to pieces," 134. West-country talk. 1 18. " What ?"=•• which "■.' 63. " What was . . . ! " " what WSS not . . . !" 03. "Whether I anV'&c, 149. ■2-2* INDEX. " Whether," "if" for, ll •' Which, and," 161. " Which," "as" used fur. 1st. •• Which," English, Scotch, and Irish, 3 •• Which," pronunciation of, 33. •• w hi i, •• what?" »;:;. •• Which," •' who," 68. »Whilk,"68. •• Who and " which," 68. •' Who" ami •■ whom," ."'.'. •• Wholly" and " holy," US. •• Whom," misuse of, 135. •• Whomsoever ' ami " whoso- ever," L35. • Why." 202. •■ Wicklow, the county," do! ■• the county of Wicklow," 90. Wighill, Yorkshire, 85. '• Will," ambiguity in. L25. "Will " and ••-hall," 121 L28 : nil<'- for 'lir use of, 127. "Will, M "would,"and "should," i •.'.-.. •• Will, I. 122. ••\\ ill. yen," 123. •• Witchery," 27. •• With" and "in," 136. Witli " and "of," 138. •• With " and " to," 137. •• Withhold,' oi " withold, '• Without " for •• unless," 159. ■• \\ nlf, woll ' crj of, 51. \\ ord, one ased for another, 139, I'D. \\ ord ii. •• . ame in diffi can it be used in an elliptic senteni Words, division .if, betwi lines, 21 ; terminating in "-erj "..!••• .ry," 28, 27; tortur- ing, KiM; unmeaning, 205; use Bimple, 205. Words, superabundant Expletives. Words which oughl to stand to- iler, 162. Words and phrases, foreign, 197. " Would " ami •• should/' IS •■ Would seem," oi '• ahould M'CIII ll'.".. "Wreck, ■•■■wr;ii-k,"jintl' , ra. -k ' .v_>. •■ Write you, we will," for " we will write to you," 160. Writing, hasty, excuse for. 189. Written ami spoken langus " Ye," "you," ami '• nir." 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