GIFT OF Charles L, Camp SCIENCES LH3RARY '.. i M^^^&i^fK m - .. . -..,., - L e THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. WITH A STUDY OF THE RELATIONS OF LIVING AND EXTINCT FAUNAS AS ELUCIDATING THE PAST CHANGES OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE. BY ALFRED RUSSEL WALLACE, AUTHOR OF THE "MALAY ARCHIPELAGO," ETC. TWO VOL. II. WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. NEW YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE. 1876. I*' EARTH GIFT OF EARTH SCIENCES LMBRAXY CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. PART III. (continued). ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY: A REVIEW OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEVERAL REGIONS AND SUB-REGIONS, WITH THE INDICATIONS THEY AFFORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL MU- TATIONS. CHAPTER XIV. THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. General Zoological Features of the Neotropical Region (p. 5) Distinctive Charac- ters of Neotropical Mammalia (p. 6) Of Neotropical Birds (p. 7) Neotropical Reptiles (p. 9) Fresh- water Fishes (p. 12) Insects (p. 13) Coleoptera (p. 15) Land Shells (p. 19) Marine Shells (p. 20) Brazilian Sub-region (p. 21) Its Mammalia (p. 23) Its Birds (p. 24) Islands of Tropical South America, Galapagos (p. 29) Chilian Sub-region (p. 36) Birds (p. 38) Reptiles and Amphibia (p. 40) Fresh-water Fishes (p. 42) Lepidoptera (p. 42) Coleoptera (p. 44) Islands of South Temperate America (p. 49) Mexican Sub-region (p. 51) Mammalia and Birds (p. 52) Reptiles and Fishes (p. 54) Insects (p. 55) Relations of the Mexican Sub-region to the North and South American Continents (p. 57) Islands of the Mexican Sub-region (p. 59) The Antillean Sub-region (p. 60) Its Mammalia (p. 62) Its Birds (p. 64) Table of the Resident Land Birds of the Antilles (p. 68) Reptiles (p. 72) Insects (p. 73) Land Shells (p. 75) Past History of the Antilles (p. 78) Summary of the Past History of the Neotropical Region (p. 80) Table I. Families of Animals inhabiting the Neotropical Region (p. 85) Table II. Genera of Terrestrial Mammalia and Birds of the Neotropical Region (p. 91) . '. . 1113 951160 vi CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. CHAPTER XV. THE NEARCTIC REGION. Zoological Characteristics of the Nearctic Region (p. 115) List of Typical Ne- arctic Genera of Land Birds (p 118) Summary of Nearctic Vertebrata (p. 120) Insects (p. 122) Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca (p. 124) The Calif or- nian Sub-region (p. 127) The Rocky Mountain Sub-region (p. 129) The Alleghany Sub-region (p. 131) -The Bermudas (p. 134) The Canadian Sub- regiou (p. 135) Greenland (p. 138; Table I. Families of Animals inhabiting the Nearctic Region (p. 140) Table II. Genera of Terrestrial Mammalia and Birds of the Nearctic Region (p. 145) 114153 CHAPTER XVI. SUMMARY OF THE PAST CHANGES AND GENERAL RELATIONS OF THE SEVERAL REGIONS 154164 PART IV. GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY: A SYSTEMATIC SKETCH OF THE CHIEF FAMILIES OF LAND ANIMALS IN THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL RELA- TIONS. INTRODUCTION 167169 CHAPTER XVII. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF MAMMALIA. Primates (p. 170) General Remarks on the Distribution of Primates (p. 179) Chiroptera (p. 181) Remarks on the Distribution of Chiroptera (p. 185) Insectivora (p. 186) General Remarks on the Distribution of Insectivora (p. 191) Carnivore, (p. 192) General Remarks on the Distribution of the Carnivora (p. 204) Cetacea (p. 207) Sirenia (p. 210) Ungulata (p. 211) General Remarks on the Distribution of the Ungulata (p. 226) Proboscidea (p. 227) Hyracoidea (p. 228) Rodentia (p. 229) General Remarks on the Distribution of the Rodentia (p. 243) Edentata (p. 244) General Remarks on the Distribution of the Edentata (p. 247) Marsupialia (p. 248) - General Remarks on the Distribution of Marsupialia (p. 253) Monotremata (p. 253) 170-254 CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. vii CHAPTER XVIII. THE DISTRIBUTION OP THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF BIRDS. Passeres (p. 255) General Remarks on the Distribution of the Passeres (p. 299} Picarise (p. 302) General Remarks on the Distribution of the Picarise (p. 322) Psittaci {p. 324) General Remarks on the Distribution of the Psittaci (p. 329) Columbse (p. 331) General Remarks on the Distribution of the Columbse (p. 335) Gallinae (p. 337) General Remarks on the Distribution of Gallinse (p. 344) Opisthocomi (p. 345) Accipitres (p. 345) General Re- marks on the Distribution of the Accipitres (p. 351) Grallae (p. 351) General Remarks on the Distribution of the Grallae (p. 362) Anseres (p. 363) General Remarks on the Distribution of the Anseres (p. 367) Struthiones (p. 368) Struthious Birds recently Extinct (p. 369) General Remarks on the Distri- bution of the Struthiones (p. 370) 255371 CHAPTER XIX. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA. Ophidia(p. 372) General Remarks on the Distribution of Ophidia (p. 386) Lacertilia (p. 388) General Remarks on the Distribution of Lacertilia (p. 403) Rhyncocephalina (p. 405) Crocodilia (p. 405) General Remarks on the Distribution of Crocodilia (p. 406) Chelonia (p. 407) Remarks on the Dis- tribution of Chelonia (p. 410) Amphibia, Pseudophidia (p. 411) Urodela (p. 411) Anura(p. 414) General Remarks on the Distribution of Amphibia (p. 422) 372423 CHAPTER XX. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES OF FISHES, WITH THE RANGE OF SUCH GENERA AS INHABIT FRESH WATER. Acanthopterygii (p. 424) Acanthopterygii Pharyngognathi (p. 437) Anacaii- thini (p. 439) Physostomi (p. 441) Lophobranchii (p. 456) Plectognathi (p. 457) Sirenoidei (p. 458) Ganoidei (p. 458) Chondropterygii (p. 460) Cyclostomata (p. 463) Leptocardii (p. 464) Remarks on the Distribution of Fishes (p. 464) 424467 \ viii CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. CHAPTER XXI. THE DISTRIBUTION OP SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT FAMILIES AND GENERA Of INSECTS. Lepidoptera (p. 470) General Remarks oil the Distribution of the Diurnal Lepi- doptera and Sphingidea (p. 483) Coleoptera (p. 486) Cicindelidse (p. 486) Carabidae (p. 488) Lucanidse (p. 492) Cetoniidse (p. 494) Buprestidae (p. 495) Longicornia (p. 498) General Observations on the Distribution of Coleoptera (p. 502) 468503 CHAPTER XXII. AN OUTLINE OP THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSC A. Cephalopoda (p. 505) Gasteropoda (p. 507) Pulmonifera (p. 512) General Observations on the Distribution of Land Mollusca (p. 522) Pteropoda (p. 531) Brachiopoda (p. 532) Conchifera (p. 533) General Remarks on the Distribution of Marine Mollusca (p. 537) 504539 CHAPTER XXIII. SUMMARY OF THE DISTRIBUTION AND LINES OF MIGRATION OF THE SEVERAL CLASSES OF ANIMALS. Mammalia (p. 540) Lines of Migration of the Mammalia (p. 544) Birds (p. 545) Reptiles (p. 547) Amphibia (p. 548) Fresh-water Fishes (p. 549) Insects (p. 550) Terrestrial Mollusca (p. 551) Conclusion (p. 552) . 540553 GENERAL INDEX .... 557 MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOL. II. To face page 1. Map of the Neotropical Region 3 2. Plate XIV. A Brazilian Forest with Characteristic Mammalia . . 24 3. Plate XV. A Scene on the Upper Amazon, with some Characteristic Birds . .28 4. Plate XVI. The Chilian Andes, -with Characteristic Animals . . 40 5. Plate XVII. A Scene in Cuba, with Characteristic Animals . . 67 6. Map of the Kearctic Region 115 7. Plate XVIII. Scene in California with some Characteristic Birds . . 128 8. Plate XIX. The North American Prairies with Characteristic Mammalia 130 9. Plate XX. A Canadian Forest with Characteristic Mammalia . 136 THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS. PAET ITT. (continued.) ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY: A REVIEW OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SEVERAL REGIONS AND SUB-REGIONS, WITH THE INDICA- TIONS THEY AFFORD OF GEOGRAPHICAL MUTATIONS. NEOTROPICAL REGION Scale 1 inch -L(XX) miles Tropic, of ^ Capricorn EXPLANATION Terrestrial Contours From Sea level to 1,000 feet White . IjOOO feet to 2.500 , . 2,500 , .5.0OO . r- -i \Ouloel . 5.000 . .10,000 . . 10.000 . . Above 20.000 feet. MM: & The, Marine Contour of 1,000 feet is shewn by a dotted line Pasture lands shewn, thu.v Forest . . . MB Detert The boundaries and reference, numbers of the Sub regions are. sham. in. Red \ \ Long. 80 West 7O of 6O Green. SO 4O 3O 2O 2O 110 100 eographical. E.vtab. Z Cfndon. New York: Harper & Brothers. CHAPTER XIV. THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. THIS region, comprehending not only South America but Tropical North America and the Antilles, may be compared as to extent with the Ethiopian region ; but it is distinguished from all the other great zoological divisions of the globe, by the small pro- portion of its surface occupied by deserts, by the large proportion of its lowlands, and by the altogether unequalled extent and luxuriance of its tropical forests. It further possesses a grand mountain range, rivalling the Himalayas in altitude and far surpassing them in extent, and which, being wholly situated within the region and running through eighty degrees of latitude, offers a variety of conditions and an extent of mountain slopes, of lofty plateaus, and of deep valleys, which no other tropical re- gion can approach. It has a further advantage in a southward prolongation far into the temperate zone, equivalent to a still greater extension of its- lofty plateaus ; and this has, no doubt, aided the development of the peculiar alpine forms of life which abound in the southern Andes. The climate of this region is exceptionally favourable. Owing to the lofty mountain range situated along its western margin, the moisture-laden trade winds from the Atlantic have free access to the interior. A sufficient proportion of this moisture reaches the higher slopes of the Andes, where its condensation gives rise to innumerable streams, which cut deep ravines and carry down such an amount of sediment, that they have formed the vast plains of the Amazon, of Para- .-I-.- : . . : ^GOCOGICAL GEOQRAPH Y. [PART in. guay, and of the Orinooko out of what were once, no doubt, arms of the sea, separating the large islands of Guiana, Brazil, and the Andes. From these concurrent favourable conditions, there has resulted that inexhaustible variety of generic and specific forms with a somewhat limited range of family and ordinal types, which characterise neotropical zoology to a degree nowhere else to be met with. Together with this variety and richness, there is a remarkable uniformity of animal life over all the tropical continental portions of the region, so that its division into sub-regions is a matter of some difficulty. There is, however, no doubt about separating the West Indian islands as forming a well-marked subdivision ; characterised, not only by that poverty of forms which is a general feature of ancient insular groups, but also by a number of peculiar generic types, some of which are quite foreign to the remainder of the region. We must exclude, however, the islands of Trinidad, Tobago, and a few other small islands near the coast, which zoologically form a part of the main land. Again, the South Temperate portion of the continent, together with the high plateaus of the Andes to near the equator, form a well-marked subdivision, characterised by a peculiar fauna, very distinct both positively and negatively from that of the tropical lowland dis- tricts. The rest of Tropical South America is so homogeneous in its forms of life that it cannot be conveniently subdivided for the purposes of a work like the present. There are, no doubt, con- siderable differences in various parts of its vast area, due partly to its having been once separated into three or more islands, in part to existing diversities of physical conditions ; and more exact knowledge may enable us to form several provinces or perhaps additional sub-regions. A large proportion of the genera, how- ever, when sufficiently numerous in species, range over almost the whole extent of this sub-region wherever the conditions are favourable. Even the Andes do not seem to form such a barrier as has been supposed. North of the equator, where its western slopes are moist and forest-clad, most of the genera are found on both sides. To the south of this line its western valleys are arid and its lower plains almost deserts ; and thus the absence of a CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 6 number of groups to which verdant forests are essential, can be traced to the unsuitable conditions rather than to the existence of the mountain barrier. All Tropical South America, therefore, is here considered to form but one sub-region. The portion of North America that lies within the tropics, closely resembles the last sub-region in general zoological features. It possesses hardly any positive distinctions; but there are several of a negative character, many important groups being wholly confined to South America. On the other hand many genera range into Mexico and Guatemala from the north, which never reach South America; so that it is convenient to separate this district as a sub-region, which forms, to some extent, a transition to the Nearctic region. General Zoological Features of the Neotropical Eegion. Eich- ness combined with isolation is the predominant feature of Neotropical zoology, and no other region can approach it in the number of its peculiar family and generic types. It has eight families of Mammalia absolutely confined to it, besides several others which are rare elsewhere. These consist of two families of monkeys, Cebidae and Hapalidae, both abounding in genera and species ; the Phyllostomidse, or blood-sucking bats ; Chinchillidae and Caviidae among rodents ; besides the greater part of the Octodontidae, Echimyidae, and Cercolabidae. Among cdentata, it has Bradypodidse, or sloths, Dasypodidae, or armadillos, and Myrmecophagidse, or anteaters, constituting nearly the entire order ; while Procyonidae, belonging to the carnivora, and Didel- phyidae, a family of marsupials, only extend into the Nearctic region. It has also many peculiar groups of carnivora and of Muridae, making a total of full a hundred genera confined to the region. Hardly less remarkable is the absence of many wide- spread groups. With the exception of one genus in the West Indian islands and a Sorex which reaches Guatemala and Costa Rica, the Insectivora are wholly wanting ; as is also the extensive and wide-spread family of the Viverridae. It has no oxen or sheep, and indeed no form of ruminant except deer and llamas ; neither do its vast forests and grassy plains support a single form of non-ruminant ungulate, except the tapir and the peccary. 6 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. Birds. In birds, the Neotropical region is even richer and more isolated. It possesses no less than 23 ] families wholly confined within its limits, with 7 others which only extend into the Nearc- tic region. The names of the peculiar families are : Qserebidse, or sugar-birds ; Phytotoinidae, or plant-cutters ; Pipridae, or inana- kins ; Cotingidae, or chatterers ; Formicariidae, or ant-thrushes ; Dendrocolaptidae, or tree-creepers ; Pteroptochidae ; Bhamphas- tidae, or toucans ; Bucconidae, or puff-birds ; Galbulidae, or jaca- mas; Todidae, or todies; Momotidse, or motmots; Steatornithidae. the guacharo, or oil-bird; Cracidae, or curassows; Tinamidae, or tinamous ; Opisthocomidae, the hoazin j Thinocoridae ; Cariamidae ; Aramidae; Psophiidae, or trumpeters ; Eurypygidae, or sun-bitterns; and Palamedeidae, or horned-screamers. The seven which it possesses in common with North America are: Vireonidae, or greenlets ; Mniotiltidae, or wood-warblers ; Tanagridae, or tana- gers; Icteridae, or hang-nests; Tyrannidae, or tyrant-shrikes; Trochilidae, or humming-birds ; and Cgnuridse, or macaws. Most of these families abound in genera and species, and many are of immense extent ; such as Trbchilidae, with 11 fr^genera, and nearly 400 species ; Tyrannidae, with more than 60 genera and nearly 300 species ; Tanagridae, with 43 genera and 300 species ; Den- drocolaptidae with 43 genera and more than 200 species ; and many other very large groups. There are nearly 600 genera peculiar to the Neotropical region ; but in using this number as a basis of comparison with other regions we must remember, that owing to several ornithologists having made the birds of South America a special study, they have perhaps been more minutely subdivided than in the case of other entire tropical regions. Distinctive Characters of Neotropical Mammalia. It is im- portant also to consider the kind and amount of difference between the various animal forms of this region and of the Old World. To begin with the Quadrumana, all the larger American monkeys (Cebidae) differ from every Old World group in the possession of an additional molar tooth in each jaw ; and it is in this group alone that the tail is developed into a prehen- sile organ of wonderful power, adapting the animals to a purely arboreal life. Four of the genera, comprising more than half the CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 7 species, -have the prehensile tail, the remainder having this organ either short, or lax as in the Old World monkeys. Other dif- ferences from Old World apes, are the possession of a broad nasal septum, and a less opposable thumb ; and the absence of cheek- pouches, ischial callosities, and a bony ear-tube. The Hapalidae, or marmosets, agree with the Cebidse in all these characters, but have others in addition which still more widely separate them from the Simiidae ; such as an additional premolar tooth, acute claws, and thumb not at all opposable ; so that the whole group of American monkeys are radically different from the remainder of the order. The Procyonidse are a distinct family of Carnivora, which make up for the scarcity of Mustelidae in South America. The Suidae are represented by the very distinct genus Dicotyles (Peccary) form- ing a separate sub-family, and differing from all other genera in their dentition, the absence of tail and of one of the toes of the hind feet, the possession of a dorsal gland, and only two mammae. The rodents are represented by the Chinchillidae and Caviidae, the latter comprising the largest animals in the order. The Edentata are almost wholly confined to this region ; and the three families of the sloths (Bradypodidae), armadillos (Dasypodidae), and ant-eaters (Myrmecophagidae), are widely separated in struc- ture from any Old World animals. Lastly, we have the opossums (Didelphyidse), a family of marsupials, but having no close affi- nity to any of the numerous Australian forms of that order! We have already arrived at the conclusion that the presence of marsupials in South America is not due to any direct transfer- ence from Australia, but that their introduction is comparatively recent, and that they cam.e from the Old World by way of North America (vol. i., p. 155). But the numerous and deep-seated peculiarities of many other of its mammalia, would indicate a very remote origin ; and a long-continued isolation of South America from the rest of the world is required, in order to account for the preservation and development of so many distinct groups of comparatively low-type quadrupeds. Distinctive Characters of Neotropical Birds. The birds which are especially characteristic of this region, present similar distinctive features. In the enormous group of Passerine VOL. II. 2 8 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. birds which, though comprising nearly three-fourths ' of the entire class, yet presents hardly any well-marked differences of structure by which it can be subdivided the families confined to America are, for the most part, more closely related to each other than to the Old World groups. The ten families forming the group of "Formicarpid Passeres," in our arrangement (vol. i., p. 94), are characterised by the absence of singing muscles in the larynx, and also by an unusual development of the first primary quill ; and seven of this series of families (which are considered to be less perfectly developed than the great mass of Old World passeres) are exclusively American, the three belonging to the Eastern hemisphere being of small extent. Another group of ten families our " Tanagroid Passeres/' are characterised by the abortion or very rudimentary condition of the first quill ; and of these, five are exclusively American, and have numerous genera and species, while only two are non- American, and these are of small extent. On the other hand the " Turdoid Passeres," con- sisting of 23 families and comprising all the true " singing-birds," is poorly represented in America ; no family being exclusively Neotropical, and only three being at all fully represented in South America, though they comprise the great mass of the Old World passeres. These peculiarities, which group together whole series of families of American birds, point to early separation and long isolation, no less surely than the more remarkable structural divergences presented by the Neotropical mammalia. In the Picariae, we have first, the toucans (Rhamphastidse) ; an extraordinary and beautiful family, whose enormous gaily- coloured bills and long feathered tongues, separate them widely from all other birds. The Galbulidse or jacamars, the motmots (Momotidse), and the curious little todies (Todidse) of the Antilles, are also isolated groups. But most remarkable of all is the wonderful family of the humming-birds, which ranges over all America from Tierra del Fuego to Sitka, and from the level plains of the Amazon to above the snow -line on the Andes ; which abounds both in genera, species, and individuals, and is yet strictly confined to this continent alone ! How vast must have been the time required to develop those beautiful and CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 9 highly specialized forms out of some ancestral swift-like type . how complete and long continued the isolation of their birth- place to have allowed of their modification and adaptation to such divergent climates and conditions, yet never to have per- mitted them to establish themselves in the other continents. No naturalist can study in detail this single family of birds, without being profoundly impressed with the vast antiquity ot the South American continent, its long isolation from the rest of the land surface of the globe, and the persistence through countless ages of all the conditions requisite for the development and increase of varied, forms of animal life. Passing on to the parrot tribe, we find the peculiar family of the Conuridae, of which the macaws are the highest development, very largely represented. It is in the gallinaceous birds however that we again meet with wholly isolated groups. The Cracidge, in- cluding the curassows and guans, have no immediate relations with any of the Old World families. Professor Huxley considers them to approach nearest to (though still very remote from) the Australian megapodes ; and here, as in the case of the marsu- pials, we probably have divergent modifications of an ancient type once widely distributed, not a direct communication between the southern continents. The Tinamidae or tinamous, point to a still more remote antiquity, since their nearest allies are believed to be the Struthiones or ostrich tribe, of which a few repre- sentatives are scattered widely over the globe. The hoazin of Guiana (Opisthocornus) is another isolated form, not only the type of a family, but perhaps of an extinct order of birds. Pass- ing on to the waders, we have a number of peculiar family types, all indicative of antiquity and isolation. The Cariama of the plains of Brazil, a bird somewhat intermediate between a bustard and a hawk, is one of these ; the elegant Psopliia or trumpeter of the Amazonian forests ; the beautiful little sun-bittern of the river banks (Eurypyga) ; and the horned screamers (Palamedea), all form distinct and isolated families of birds, to which the Old World offers nothing directly comparable. Reptiles. The Neotropical region is very rich in varied forms of reptile life, and the species are very abundant. It has six 10 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGKAPHY. [PART m. altogether peculiar families, and several others which only range into the Nearctic region, as well as a very large number of pecu- liar or characteristic genera. As the orders of reptiles differ considerably in their distributional features, they must be con- sidered separately. The snakes (Ophidia) differ from all other reptiles, and from most other orders of vertebrates, in the wide average distribution of the families ; so that such an isolated region as the Neotrop- ical possesses no peculiar family, nor even one confined to the American continent. The families of most restricted range are the Scytalidse, only found elsewhere in the Philippine islands ; the Amblycephalidae, common to the Oriental and Neotropical regions ; and the Tortricidse, most abundant in the Oriental region, but found also in the Austro-Malay islands and Tropical South America.' Sixteen of the families of snakes occur in the region, the Colubridse, Amblycephalidse, and Pythonidse, being those which are best represented by peculiar forms. There are 25*pecu- liar or characteristic genera, the most important Itemg Dromicus (Colubridse) ; Boa, Epicrates, and Unyalia (Pythonidae) ; Maps (Elapidae) ; and Craspedocephahis (Crotalidse). The lizards (Lacertilia) are generally more restricted in their range ; hence we find that out of 15 families which inhabit the region, 5 are altogether peculiar, and 4 more extend only to N. America. The peculiar families are Helodermidse, Anadiadse, Chirocolidae, Iphisjadse, and Cercosauridae ; but it must be noted that these all possess but a single genus each, and only two of them (Chirocolidse and Cercosauridse) have more than a single species. The families which range over both South and North America are Chirotidse, Chalcidse, Teidse, and Iguanidae~; the first and second are of small extent, but the other two are very large groups, the Teidse possessing 12 genera and near 80 species; the Iguanidae 40 'genera and near 150 l species ; the greater part of which are Neotropical. There are more than 50 peculiar or highly characteristic genera of lizards, about 40 of which belong to the Teidse and Iguanidse, which thus especially characterize the region. The most important and characteristic genera are the following : Ameiva (Teidae) ; Gymnopihalmus (Gynmopthalmidae) ; CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 11 Celestics and Diploglossus (Scincidae) ; Sphcerodactylus (Gecko- tidae) ; iffocepkalus, Liolcemus, Proctotretus, and many smaller genera (Iguanidae). The three extensive Old World families Varanidae, Lacertidae, and Agamidae, are absent from the entire American continent. In the order Crocodilia, America has the peculiar family of the alligators (Alligatoridse), as well as several species of true crocodiles (Crocodilidse). The Chelonia (tortoises) are repre- sented by the families Testudinidae and Chelydidae, both of wide range ; but there are six peculiar genera, Dermatemys and Stau- rotypus belonging to the former family, Peltocephalus, Podo- cnemis, Hydromedusa, and Chelys, to the latter. Some of the Amazon river-turtles of the genus Podocnern/ys rival in size the largest species of true marine turtles (Cheloniidse), and are equally good for food. Amphibia. The Neotropical region possesses representatives of sixteea families of Amphibia of which four are peculiar ; all belonging to Anoura or tail-less Batrachians. The Caeciliadae or snake-like amphibia, are represented by two peculiar genera, Siphonopsis and Rhinatrema. Tailed Batrachians are almost unknown, only a few species of Spelerpes (Salamandridae) enter- ing Central America, and one extending as far south as the Andes of Bogota in South America. Tail-less Batrachians on the other hand, are abundant ; there being 14 families repre- sented, of Which 4, Khinophryriflae, Hylaplesidae, Plectroman- tidse, and Pipidae are peculiar. None of these families contain more than a single genus, and only the second more than a single species ; so that % it is not these which give a character to the South American Amphibia-fauna. The most important and best represented families are, Kanidae (true frogs), with eleven' genera and more than 50 species ; Polypedatidae (tree-frogs) with seven 1 genera and about 40 species ; Hylidae (tree-frogs) with eight genera and nearly 30 species ; Engystomidae (toads), (5 1 genera), Bombinatoridae (frogs), (4 genera), Phryniscidae and Bufonidse (toads), (each with 2 genera), 1 are also fairly represen- ted. All these families are widely distributed, but the Neotropi- cal genera are, in almost every case, peculiar. 12 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART HI. Fresh-water fishes. The great rivers of Tropical America abound in fish of many strange forms and peculiar types. Three fami- lies, and three sub-family groups are peculiar, while the number of peculiar genera is about 120. The peculiar families are Poly- centridee, with two genera ; Gymnotidse, a family which includes the electric eels, (5 genera) ; and Trygonidse, the rays, which are every where marine except in the great rivers of South America, where many species are found, belonging to two genera. Of the extensive family Siluridse, three sub-families Siluridae anomalo- pterse, S. fcjisthopterae, and S. branchiate, are confined to this region. The larger and more important of the peculiar genera are the following : Percilia, inhabiting Chilian, and PercicUhys, South Temperate rivers, belong to the Perch family (Percidse) ; Acharnes, found only in Guiana, belongs to the Nandidee, a family of wide range in the tropics ; the Chromidae, a family of exclusively fresh-water fishes found in the tropics of the Ethio- pian, Oriental, and Neotropical regions, are here represented by 15 genera, the more important being Acara (17 sp.), Hews (26 sp.), Crenicichla (9 sp.), Satanoperca (7 sp.). Many of these fishes are beautifully marked and coloured. The Siluridse proterop- terse are represented by 14 1 genera, of which Pimdodus (42 sp.), and Platystoma (11 sp.), are the most important; the Siluridse stenobranchise by 11 genera, the chief being Doras (13 sp.), Auchenipterus (9 sp.), and Oxydoras (7 sp.). The Siluridse pro- teropodes are represented by 16 genera, many of them being among the most singular of fresh- water fishes, clothed in coats of mail, and armed with hooks and serrated spines. The following are the most important, Chcetostomus (25 sp.), Loricaria (17 sp.), Plecosto$us (15 sp.) and Callichthys (11 sp.). The Characinidse are divided between Tropical America and Tropical Africa, the former possessing about 40 genera and 200 species. The Hap- lochitonidse are confined to South America and Australia ; the American genus being Haplochiton. The Cyprinodontidse are represented by 18 genera, the most important being, P'cecilia (16 sp.), Girardinus (10 sp.), and Gambusia (8 sp.) The Osteoglos- sidse, found in Australian and African rivers, are represented in South America by the peculiar Arapaima, the " piraructi " of the of en, /";/ JV. CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 13 Amazon. The ancient Sirenoidei, also found in Australia and Africa, have the Lepidosiren as their American representative. Lastly, Ellijfaurus is a genus of rays peculiar to the fresh waters of South America. We may expect these numbers to be largely increased and many new genera to be added, when the extensive collections made by Agassi z in Brazil are described. Summary of Neotropical Vertebrates. Summarizing the pre- ceding facts, we find that the Neotropical region possesses no less than 4$' 'families and more than 900 genera of Vertebrata which are altogether peculiar to it ; while it has representatives of 168 families out of a total of 330, showing that 162 families are altogether absent. It has also representatives of 131 genera of Mammalia of which 103 are peculiar to it, a proportion of ; while of 683 genera of land-birds no less than 576 are peculiar, being almost exactly -jj- of the whole. 1 These numbers and pro- portions are far higher than in the case of any other region. Insects. The Neotropical region is so excessively rich in insect life, it so abounds in peculiar groups, in forms of exquisite beauty, and in an endless profusion of species, that no adequate idea of this branch of its fauna can be conveyed by the mere enumera- tion of peculiar and characteristic groups, to which we are here compelled to limit ourselves. Our facts and figures will, how- ever, furnish data for comparison; and will thus enable those who have some knowledge of the entomology of any other country, to form a better notion of the vast wealth of insect life in this region, than a more general and picturesque description could afford them. Lepidoptera. The Butterflies of South America surpass those of all other regions in numbers, variety, and beauty; and we find here, not only more peculiar genera and families than else- where, but, what is very remarkable, a fuller representation of the whole series of families. Out of the 16 families of butter- flies in all parts of the world, 1^'are found here, and 3 of these are wholly peculiar Brassolidae, Heliconidae, and Eurygonidae, with a fourth, Erycinidse, which only extends into the Nearctic a/xtt 14 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. region ; so that there are 4 families peculiar to America. These four families comprise 68 genera and more than 800 species; alone constituting a very important feature in the entomology of the region. But in almost all the other families there are numbers of peculiar genera, amounting in all to about 200, or not far short of half the total number of genera in the world (431). We must briefly notice some of the peculiarities of the several families, as represented in this region. The Danaidse consist of 15 genera, all peculiar, and differing widely from the generally sombre-tinted forms of the rest of the world. The delicate transparent- winged Ithomias of which 160 species are described, are the most remarkable. Melincea, Napeogenes, Ceratina, and Dircenna are more gaily coloured, and are among the chief ornaments of the forests. The Satyrida3 are repre- sented by 25 peculiar genera, many of great beauty ; the most remarkable and elegant being the genus Hcetera and its allies, whose transparent wings are delicately marked with patches of orange, pink, or violet. The genus Morpho is perhaps the grandest development of the butterfly type, being of immense size and adorned with the most brilliant azure tints, which in some species attain a splendour of metallic lustre unsurpassed in nature. The Brassolidee are even larger, but are crepuscular insects, with rich though sober colouring. The true Heliconii are magnificent insects, most elegantly marked with brilliant and strongly contrasted tints. The Nymphalidse are represented by such a variety of gorgeous insects that it is difficult to select examples. Prominent are the genera Catagramma and Callithea, whose exquisite colours and symmetrical markings are unique and indescribable ; and these are in some cases rivalled by Agrias and Prepona, which reproduce their style of coloration although not closely allied to them. The Erycinidse, consisting of 59 genera and 560 species, comprise the most varied and beautiful of small butterflies ; and it would be useless to attempt to indicate the unimaginable combinations of form and colour they present. It must be sufficient to say that nothing elsewhere on the globe at all resembles them. In Lycaenidae the world- wide genus Thecla is wonderfully developed, and the South CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 15 American species not only surpass all others in size and beauty, but some of them are so gorgeous on the under surface of their wings, as to exceed almost all the combinations of metallic tints we meet with in nature. The last family, Hesperidae, is also wonderfully developed here, the species being excessively nu- merous, while some of them redeem the character of this generally sober family, by their rich and elegant coloration. In the only other group of Lepidoptera we can here notice, the Sphingina, the Neotropical region possesses some peculiar forms. The magnificent diurnal butterfly-like moths, Urania, are the most remarkable ; and they are rendered more interesting by the occurrence of a species closely resembling them in Madagascar. Another family of day-flying moths, the Castniidse, is almost equally divided between the Neotropical and Australian regions, although the genera are more numerous in the latter. The American Castnias are large, thick-bodied insects, with a coarse scaly surface and rich dull colours ; differing widely from the glossy and gaily coloured Agaristas, which are typical of the family in the East. Coleoptera. This is so vast a subject that, as in the case of the regions already treated, we must confine our attention to a few of the more important and best known families as representatives of the entire order. Cicindelidae. We find here examples of 15 out of the 35 genera of these insects ; and 10 of these genera are peculiar. The most important are Oxychila (11 sp.), Hiresia (14 sp.), and Ctenostoma (26 sp.). Odontochila (57 sp.) is the most abundant and cha- racteristic of all, but is not wholly peculiar, there being # species in the Malay archipelago. Tetracka, another large genus, has species in Australia and a few in North America and Europe. The small genus Peridexia is divided between Brazil and Mada- gascar, a somewhat similar distribution to that of Urania noticed above. One genus, Agrius, is confined to the southern extremity of the continent. Carabidse. Besides a considerable number of cosmopolitan or wide- spread genera, this family is represented by more than 100 genera which are peculiar to the Neotropical region. The 16 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. most important of these are Agra (150 sp.), Ardistoftus (44 sp.), Scliizogenins (25 sp.), Pelecium (24 sp.), Calophena (22 sp.), As- pidoglossa (21 sp.), and Lia, Camptodonotus, Stenocrepis, and Lachnophorus, with each more than 12 species. These are all tropical ; but there are also a number of genera (26) peculiar to Chili and South Temperate America. The most important of these are Antarctica (29 sp.), all except two or three confined to South Temperate America ; Scelodontis (10 sp.), mostly Chilian ; Feronomorpha (6 sp.) all Chilian ; and Tropidopterus (4 sp.), all Chilian. Helluomorpha (18 sp.), is confined to North and South America ; Galerita, Callida, and Tetragonoderus, are large genera which are chiefly South American but with a few species scat- tered over the other tropical regions. Casnonia and Lebia are cosmopolite, but most abundant in South America. Pachyteles is mostly South American but with a few species in West Africa ; while Lobodonotus has one species in South America and two in Africa. Lucanidse. The Neotropical species of this family almost all belong to peculiar genera. Those common to other regions are Syndesus, confined to Tropical South America and Australia, and Platycerus which is Palcearctic and Nearctic, with one species in Brazil. The most remarkable genus is undoubtedly. Chiasogna- thus, confined to Chili. These are large insects of metallic green colours, and armed with enormous serrated mandibles. The allied genera, Pholidotiis and SpJienognatlms, inhabit Tropical South America. Streptocerus confined to Chili, is interesting, as being allied to the Australian Lamprima. The other genera present no remarkable features ; but Sclerognathus and Leptino- ptera are the most extensive. Cetoniidse. These magnificent insects are but poorly repre- sented in America ; the species being mostly of sombre colours. There are 14 genera, 1 2 of which are peculiar. The most exten- sive genus is Gymnetis, which, with its allies Cotinis and Allor- hina, form a group which comprehends two-thirds of the Neotro- pical species of the family. The only other genera of importance are, Inca (7 sp.), remarkable for their large size, and being the only American group in which horns are developed on the head ; CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 17 and Trigonopeltastes (6 sp.), allied to the European Trichius. The non-peculiar genera are, Stethodesma, of which half the species are African and half tropical American ; and Euphoria, confined to America both North and South. Buprestidee. In this fine group the Neotropical region is tolerably rich, having examples of 39 genera, 18 of which are peculiar to it. Of these, the most extensive are Oonognatha and Halecia, which have a wide range over most parts of the region ; and Dactylozodes, confined to the south temperate zone. Of im- portant genera which range beyond the region, Dicerca is mainly Nearctic and Palsearctic ; Cinyra has a species in North America and one in Australia ; Curis is divided between Chili and Australia ; the Australian genus Siigmodera has a species in Chili ; Polycesta, has a species in Madagascar, two in the Mediterranean region, and a few in North America ; Acherusia is divided between Australia and Brazil ; Ptosima has one species in south tempe- rate America, the rest widely scattered from North America to the Philippines ; Actenodes has a single species in North Ame- rica and another in West Africa ; Colobogaster has two in West Africa, one in Java, and one in the Moluccas. The relations of South America and Australia as indicated by these insects has already been sufficiently noticed under the latter region. Longicornia. The Neotropical Longicorn Coleoptera are over- whelming in their numbers and variety, their singularity and their beauty. In the recent Catalogue of Gemminger and Harold, it is credited with 516 genera, 489 of which are peculiar to it ; while it has only 5 genera in common (exclusively) with the Nearctic, and 4 (in^the same way) with the Australian region. Only the more important genera can be here referred to, under the three great families into which these insects are divided. The Prionidse are excessively numerous, being grouped in 64 genera, more than double the number possessed by any other region ; and 61 of these are peculiar. The three, common to other regions, are, Parandra and Mallodon, which are widely distributed ; and Ergates, found also in California and Europe. The most remarkable genera are, the magnificently-coloured Psalidognathus and Pyrodes ; the large and strangely marked 18 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART. in. Macrodontia; and Titanus, the largest insect of the entire family. Of the Cerambycidse there are 233 genera, exceeding by one- half, the number in any other region; and 225 of these are peculiar. Only 2 are common to the Neotropical and Nearctic regions exclusively, and 3 to the Neotropical and Australian. The most extensive genera are the elegant Ilidion (80 sp.) ; the richly-coloured Chrysoprasis (47 sp.) ; the prettily-marked Trachyderes (53 sp.) ; with Odontocera (25 sp.); Criodon (22 sp.) ; and a host of others of less extent, but often of surpassing interest and beauty. The noteworthy genera of wide range are, Oeme and Cyrtomerus, which have each a species in West Africa, and Hammatocerus, which has one in Australia. The Lamiidas have 219 genera, and this is the only tropical region in which they do not exceed the Cerambycidae. This number is almost exactly the same as that of the Oriental genera, but here there are more peculiar groups, 203 against 160 in the other region. The most extensive genera are Hemilophus (80 sp.), Coloboihea (70 sp.), Acanthoderes (56 sp.), Oncoderes (48 sp.), Lepturgus (40 sp.), Hypsioma (32 sp.), and Tceniotes (20 sp.). Macropus longimanus, commonly called the harlequin beetle, is one of the largest and most singularly-marked insects in the whole family. Leptostylus has a single species in New Zealand ; Acanthoderes has one species in Europe, W. Africa, and Australia, respectively; Spalacopsis has a species in W. Africa; Pachypeza is common to S. America and the Philip- pines ; Mesosa is Oriental and Palsearctic, but has one species on the Amazon ; Apomccyna ranges through the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere, but has two species in S. America ; Acan- thocinus has one species in Tasmania, and the rest in South America, North America, and Europe; Phcea is wholly Neo- tropical, except two species in the Philippine Islands. General Conclusions as to the Neotropical Insect-fauna. Looking at the insects of the Neotropical region as a whole, we are struck with the vast amount of specialty they present ; and, considering how many causes there are which must lead to the dispersal of insects, the number of its groups which are scattered CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTKOPICAL REGION. 19 over the globe is not nearly so great as we might expect. This points to a long period of isolation, during which the various forms of life have acted and reacted on each other, leading to such a complex yet harmoniously-balanced result as to defy the com- petition of the chance immigrants that from time to time must have arrived. This is quite in accordance with the very high antiquity we have shown most insect-forms to possess ; and it is no doubt owing to this antiquity, that such a complete diversity of generic forms has been here brought about, without any important deviation from the great family types which pre- vail over the rest of the globe. Land Shells. The Neotropical region is probably the richest on the globe in Terrestrial Mollusca, but this is owing, not to any extreme productiveness of the equatorial parts of the continent, where almost all other forms of life are so largely developed, but to the altogether exceptional riches of the West India Islands. The most recent estimates show that the Antilles contain more species of land shells than all the rest of the region, and almost exactly as many as all continental America, north and south. Mr. Thomas Bland, who has long studied American land shells, points out a remarkable difference in the distribution of the Operculated and Inoperculated groups, the former being pre- dominant on the islands, the latter on the continent. The Antilles possess over 600 species of Operculata, to about 150 on the whole American continent, the genera being as 22 to 14. Of Inoperculata the Antilles have 740, the Continent 1,250, the genera being 18 and 22. The proportions of the two groups in each country are, therefore : West India Islands. American Continent. Operculata Gen. 22 Sp. 608 14 151 Inoperculata 18 ,,737 22 1251 The extensive family of the Helicidse is represented by 22 genera, of which 6 are peculiar. Spiraxis is confined to Central America and the Antilles ; Stenopus and Sagda are Antillean only ; Ortlialicus, Macroceramus, and Bulimulus have a wider range, the last two extending into the southern United 20 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in States. Important and characteristic genera are, Glandina, in all the tropical parts of the region; Cylindrella, in Central America and the Antilles ; Bulimus, containing many large and handsome species in South America ; Stenogyra, widely spread in the tropics ; and Streptaods, in Tropical South America. Among the Operculata, the Aciculidse are mostly Antillean, two genera being peculiar there, and one, Truncatella, of wide distribution, but most abundant in the West Indian Islands. The Cyclostornidse are represented by 15 genera, 9 being peculiar to the region, and 5 of these (belonging to the sub- family Licinidse) to the Antilles only. Of these peculiar genera Cistula and Chpndropoma are the most important, ranging over all the tropical parts of the region. Other important genera are Cyclotus and Megalomastoma ; while Cycloplwrus also occurs all over the region. The Helicinidse are mostly Neotropical, six out of the seven genera being found here, and four are peculiar. Stoastoma, is one of the largest genera; and, with Trochatella and Alcadia, is confined to the Antilles, while the wide-spread Helicina is most abundant there. The Limacidse, or Old World slugs, are absent from the region, their place being taken by the allied family, Oncidiadse. Marine- Shells. We go out of our usual course to say a few words about the marine shells of this region, because their distribution on the two sides of the continent is important, as an indication of the former separation of North and South America, and the connection of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. It was once thought that no species of shells were common to the two sides of the Central American Isthmus, and Dr. Morch still holds that opinion; but Dr. Philip Carpenter, who has paid special attention to the subject, considers that there are at least 35 species absolutely identical, while as many others are so close that they may be only varieties. Nearly 70 others are distinct but representative species. The genera of marine mol- lusca are very largely common to the east and west coasts, more than 40 being' so named in the lists published by Mr. Woodward. The West Indian Islands being a rich shell dis- trict, produce a number of peculiar forms, and the west coast of CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTKOPICAL KEGION. 21 South America is, to some extent, peopled by Oriental and Pacific genera of shells. On the west coast there is hardly any coral, while on the east it is abundant, showing a difference of physical conditions that must have greatly influenced the development of mollusca. When these various counteracting influences are taken into consideration, the identity or close affinity of about 140 species and 40 genera on the two sides of the Isthmus of Panama becomes very important; and, combined with the fact of 48 species of fish (or 30 per cent, of those known) being identical on the adjacent coasts of the two oceans (as determined by Dr. Gunther), render it probable that Central America has been partially submerged up to comparatively re- cent geological times. Yet another proof of this former union of two oceans is to be found in the fossil corals of the Antilles of the Miocene age, which Dr. Duncan finds to be more allied to existing Pacific forms, than to those of the Atlantic or even of the Caribbean Sea. NEOTEOPICAL SUB-REGIONS. In the concluding part of this work devoted to geographical zoology, the sub-regions are arranged in the order best adapted to exhibit them in a tabular form, and to show the affinities of the several regions ; but for our present purpose it will be best to take first in order that which is the most important and most extensive, and which exhibits all the peculiar characteristics of the region in their fullest development. We begin therefore with our second division. II. Tropical South-America, or the Brazilian Sub-region. This extensive district may be defined as consisting of all the tropical forest-region, of South America, including all the open plains and pasture lands, surrounded by, or intimately associated with, the forests. Its central mass consists of the great forest- plain of the Amazons, extending from Paranaiba on the north coast of Brazil (long. 42 W.) to Zamora, in the province of Loja (lat. 4 S., long. 79 W.), high up in the Andes, on the west ; a distance in a straight line of more than 2,500 English miles, 22 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. along the whole of which there is (almost certainly) one con- tinuous virgin forest. Its greatest extent from north to south, is from the mouths of the Orinooko to the eastern slopes of the Andes near La Paz in Bolivia and a little north of Sta, Cruz de la Sierra (lat. 18 S.), a distance of about 1,900 miles. Within this area of continuous forests, are included some open " campos," or patches of pasture lands, the most important being, the Campos of the Upper Kio Branco on the northern boundary of Brazil; a tract in the interior of British Guiana ; and another on the northern bank of the Amazon near its mouth, and extending some little distance on its south bank at Santarem. On the northern bank of the Orinooko are the Llanos, or flat open plains, partly flooded in the rainy season ; but much of the interior of Venezuela appears to be forest country. The forest again pre- vails from Panama to Maracaybo, and southwards in the Magda- lena valley ; and on all the western side of the Andes to about 100 miles south of Guayaquil. On the N.E. coast of Brazil is a tract of open country, in some parts of which (as near Ceara) rain does not fall for years together ; but south of Cape St. Eoque the coast-forests of Brazil commence, extending to lat. 30 S., clothing all the valleys and hill sides as far inland as the higher mountain ranges, and even penetrating up the great valleys far into the interior. To the south-west the forest country re- appears in Paraguay, and extends in patches and partially wooded country, till it almost reaches the southern extension of the Amazonian forests. The interior of Brazil is thus in the position of a great island-plateau, rising out of, and surrounded by, a lowland region of ever- verdant forest. The Brazilian sub- region comprises all this forest-country and its included open tracts, and so far beyond it as there exists sufficient woody vegetation to support its peculiar forms of life. It thus ex- tends considerably beyond the tropic in Paraguay and south Brazil ; while the great desert of Chaco, extending from 25 to 30 S., lat. between the Parana and the Andes, as well as the high plateaus of the Andean range, with the strip of sandy desert on the Pacific coast as far as to about 5 of south latitude, belong to south temperate America, or the sub-region of the Andes. CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 23 Having already given a sketch of the zoological features of the Neotropical region as a whole, the greater part of which will apply to this sub-region, we must here confine ourselves to an indication of the more important groups which, on the one hand, are confined to it, and on the other are absent ; together with a notice of its special relations to other regions. Mammalia. Many of the most remarkable of the American monkeys are limited to this sub-region ; as Lagothrix, Pithecia, and Brackyurus, limited to the great Amazonian forests ; Eriodes to south-east Brazil ; and Callithrix to tropical South America, All the marmosets (Hapalidse) are also confined to this sub-region, one only being found at Panama, and perhaps extending a little beyond it. Among other peculiar forms, are 8 genera of bats; 3 peculiar forms of wild dog ; Pteronura, a genus of otters ; Inia, a peculiar form of dolphin inhabiting the upper waters of the Amazon ; tapirs of the genus Tapirus (a distinct genus being found north of Panama) ; 4 genera of Muridae ; Ctenomys, a genus of Octodontidse ; r the whole family of Echimyidse, or spiny rats, (as far as the American continent is concerned) consisting of 8 genera and 28 species f CKcetomys, a genus of Cercolabidse ; the capybara (Hydrochcerus) the largest known rodent, belonging to the Caviidaa ; the larger ant-eaters (Myrmecophaga) ; sloths of the genus Bradypus ; 2 genera of armadillos (Dasypodidae) ; and two peculiar forms of the opossum family (Didelphyidse). No group that is typically Neotropical is absent from this sub-region, except such as are peculiar to other single sub-regions and which will be noticed accordingly. The occurrence of a solitary species of hare (Lepus Iraziliejisis) in central Brazil and the Andes, is remarkable, as it is cut off from all its allies, the genus not being known to occur elsewhere on the continent further south than Costa Eica. The only important external relation indicated by the Mammalia of this sub-region is towards the Ethiopian region, 2 genera of Echimyidae, Aulacodes and Petromys, occurring in South and South-east Africa. Plate IV. Characteristic Neotropical Mammalia. Our illustra- tion represents a mountainous forest in Brazil, the part of South America where the Neotropical Mammalia are perhaps best VOL. II 3 1 24 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in developed. The central and most conspicuous figure is the collared ant-eater, (Tamandua tetradactyla) , one of the handsomest of the family, in its conspicuous livery of black and white. To the left are a pair of sloths (Arctopitliecus flaccidus) showing the curious black spot on the back with which many of the species are marked, and which looks like a hole in the trunk of a tree ; but this mark seems to be only found on the male animal. The fur of many of the sloths has a greenish tinge, and Dr. Seemann remarked its resemblance to the Tillandsia usneoides, or " vegetable horsehair," which clothes many of the trees in Central America ; and this probably conceals them from their enemies, the harpy-eagles. On the right are a pair of opossums (Didelphys azarce), one of them swinging by its prehensile tail Overhead in the foreground are a group of howling monkeys (Mycctes ursinus) the largest of the American Quadrumana, and the noisiest of monkeys. The large hollow vessel into which the hyoid bone is transformed, and which assists in producing their tremendous howling, is alto- gether unique in the animal kingdom. Below them, in the dis- tance, are a group of Sapajou monkeys (Cebus sp.) ; while gaudy screaming macaws complete the picture of Brazilian forest life. Birds. A very large number of genera of birds, and some entire families, are confined to this sub-region, as will be seen by looking over the list of genera at the end of this chapter. We can here only notice the more important, and summarize the results. More than 120 genera of Passeres are thus limited, belonging to the following 12 families: Sylviidae (1), Troglo- dytidas (2), Coerebidae (4), Tanagridae (26), Fringillidae (8), Ic- teridae (5), Pteroptochida3 (3), Dendrocolaptidae (12), Formi- cariidse (16), Tyrannidae (22), Cotingidee (16), Pipridse (10). Of the Picarise there are 76 peculiar genera belonging to 9 families, viz., Picidae (2), Bhamphastidae (1), Cuculidae (1), Bucconidae (2), Galbulidae (5), Momotidse (2), Podargidae (1), Caprimalgidae (4), Trochilidae (58). There are 3 peculiar genera of Psittaci, 8 of Gallinae, the only genus of Opisthocomidae, 3 of Accipitres, I of Ballidae, Psophia and Eurypyga types of distinct families, and 1 genus of Ardeidae, Palamedeidae, and Anatidae respectively. The preceding enumeration shows how very rich this sub-region CHAP. xiv.J THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 25 is in peculiar types of all the most characteristic American families, such as the Tanagridae, Tyrannidse, Cotingidse, Formi- cariidae, Trochilidae, and Galbulidae. A considerable proportion of the genera of the Chilian and Mexican sub-regions also occur here, so that out of about 680 genera of Neotropical land- birds more than 500 are represented in this sub-region. Without entering minutely into the distribution of species it is difficult to sub-divide this extensive territory with any satis- factory result. 1 The upland tract between the Amazon and Orinooko, which may be termed Guiana, was evidently once an island, yet it possesses few marked distinctive features. Brazil, which must have formed another great island, has more speciality, but the intermediate Amazonian forests form a perfect transition between them. The northern portion of the continent west of the Orinooko haa more character ; and there are indications that this has received many forms from Central and North America, and thus blended two faunas once more distinct than they are now. The family of wood-warblers (Mniotiltidse) seems to have belonged to this more northern fauna ; for out of 18 genera only 5 extend south of the equator, while 6 range from Mexico or the Antilles into Columbia, some of these being only winter immigrants and no genus being exclusively South American. The eastern slopes of the Andes constitute, however, the richest and best marked province of this sub-region. At least 12 genera of tanagers (Tanagridse) are found here only, with an immense number of Fringillidse, the former confined to the forests/the latter ranging to the upland plains. The ant-thrushes (Formi- cariidae) on the other hand seem more abundant in the lowlands, many genera being peculiar to the Amazonian forests. The su- perb chatterers (Cotingidse) also seem to have their head-quarters in the forests of Brazil and Guiana, and to have thence spread 1 Messrs. Sclater and Salvin, aiid Professor Newton, divide the Neotropical Region into six sub-regions, of which our " Brazilian sub-region " comprises three the " Brazilian," the " Amazonian," and the " Columbian ; " but, after due consideration, it does not seem advisable to adopt this subdivision in a general work which treats of all the classes of terrestrial animals. (See p. 27.) 26 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in into the Amazonian valley. Guiana still boasts such remarkable forms as the cardinal chatterer (Phcenicocercus), the military chatterer (Hcematoderus), as well as Querula, Gymnoderus, and Gymnocephalus ; but the first three pass to the south side of the Lower Amazon. Here also belong the cock of the rock (Rupicola), which ranges from Guiana to the Andes, and the marvellous umbrella-birds of the Eio Nigro and Upper Amazon (Cepha- lopterus), which extends across the Ecuadorean Andes and into Costa Eica. Brazil has Ptilochloris, Casiornis, Tijuca, Phibalura, and Calyptura ; while not a single genus of this family, except perhaps Heliochcera, is confined to the extensive range of the Andes. Almost the same phenomena are presented by the allied Pipridse or manakins, the greater part of the genera and species occurring in Eastern South America, that is in Brazil, Guiana, and the surrounding lowlands rather than in the Andean valleys. The same may be said of the jacamars (Galbulidse) and puff-birds (Bucconidse) ; but the humming-birds (Trochi- lidae) have their greatest development in the Andean district. Brazil and Guiana have each a peculiar genus of parrots ; Guiana has three peculiar genera of Cracidse, while the Andes north of the equator have two. The Tinamidse on the other hand have their metropolis in Brazil, which has two or three peculiar genera, while two others seem confined to the Andes south of the equator. The elegant trumpeters (Psophiidse) are almost restricted to the Amazonian valley. Somewhat similar facts occur among the Mammalia. At least 3 genera of monkeys are confined to the great lowland equa- torial forests and 1 to Brazil ; Icticyon (Canidse) and Pteronura (Mustelidse) belong to Guiana and Brazil; and most of the Echimyidae are found in the same districts. The sloths, ant- eaters, and armadillos all seem more characteristic of the eastern districts than of the Andean; while the opossums are perhaps equally plentiful in the Andes. The preceding facts of distribution lead us to conclude that the highlands of Brazil and of Guiana represent very ancient lands, dating back to a period long anterior to the elevation of the Andean range (which is by no means of great geological anti- CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 27 quity) and perhaps even to the elevation of the continuous land which forms the base of the mountains. It was, no doubt, during their slow elevation and the consequent loosening of the surface, that the vast masses of debris were carried down which filled up the sea separating the Andean chain from the great islands of Brazil and Guiana, and formed that enormous extent of fertile lowland forest, which has created a great continent ; given space for the free interaction of the distinct faunas which here met together; and thus greatly assisted in the marvellous development of animal and vegetable life, which no other continent can match. But this development, and the fusion of the various faunas into one homogeneous assemblage, must have been a work of time ; and it is probable that most of the existing continent was dry land before the Andes had acquired their present altitude. The blending of the originally distinct sub-faunas has been no doubt assisted by elevations and depressions of the land or of the ocean, which have alternately diminished and increased the land-area. This would lead to a crowding together at one time, and a dis- persion at others, which would evidently afford opportunity for many previously restricted forms to enter fresh areas and become adapted to new modes of life. From the preceding sketch it will appear, that the great sub- region of Tropical South America as here defined, is really formed of three originally distinct lands, fused together by the vast lowland Amazonian forests. In the class of birds sufficient mate- rials exist for separating these districts ; and that of the Andes contains a larger series of peculiar genera than either of the other sub-regions here adopted. But there are many objections to making such a sub-division here. It is absolutely impossible to define even approximate limits to these divisions to say for example where the " Andes " ends and where " Brazil " or " Amazonia " or " Guiana " begins ; ancl the unknown border lands separating these are so vast, that many groups, now appar- ently limited in their distribution, may prove to have a very much wider range. In mammalia, reptiles, and insects, it is even more difficult to maintain ' such divisions,, so that on the whole it seems better to treat the entire area as one sub-region, 2 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PAET m. although recogniziug the fact of its zoological and geographical diversity, as well as its vast superiority over every other sub- region in the number and variety of its animal forms. The reptiles, fishes, mollusca, and insects of this sub-region have been sufficiently discussed in treating of the entire region, as by far the larger proportion of them, except in the case of land-shells, are found here. Plate XV. Characteristic Neotropical Birds. To illustrate the ornithology of South America we place our scene on one of the tributaries of the Upper Amazon, a district where this class of animals is the most prominent zoological feature, and where a number of the most remarkable and interesting birds are to be found. On the left we have the umbrella-bird (Cephalopterus ornatus), so called from its wonderful crest, which, when ex- panded, completely overshadows its head like an umbrella. It is also adorned with a long tassel of plumes hanging from its breast, which is formed by a slender fleshy tube clothed with broad feathers. The bird is as large as a crow, of a glossy blue-black colour, and belongs to the same family as the exquisitely tinted blue-and-purple chatterers. Flying towards us are a pair of curl- crested toucans (Pteroglossus beauharnaisii), distinguished among all other toucans by a crest composed of small black and shining barbless plumes, resembling curled whalebone. The general plumage is green above, yellow and red beneath, like many of its allies. To the right are two of the exquisite little whiskered hummers, or " frill-necked coquettes," as they are called by Mr. Gould, (Lophornis gouldi). These diminutive birds are adorned with green-tipped plumes springing from each side of the throat, as well as with beautiful crests, and are among the most elegant of the great American family of humming-birds, now numbering about 400 known species. Overhead are perched a pair of curassows (Crax globulosa), which represent in America the pheasants of the Old World. There are about a dozen species of these fine birds, most of which are adorned with handsome curled crests. That figured, is distinguished by the yellow car- uncular swellings at the base of the bill. The tall crane-like bird near the water is one of the trumpeters, (Psophia leucopterd),elegan.t CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 29 birds with silky plumage peculiar to the Amazon valley. They are often kept in houses, where they get very tame and affec- tionate ; and they are useful in catching flies and other house insects, which they do with great perseverance and dexterity. Islands of Tropical South America. These are few in number, and, with one exception, not of much interest. Such islands as Trinidad and Sta. Catherina form parts of South America, and have no peculiar groups of animals. The small islands of Fernando Noronha, Trinidad, and Martin Yaz, off the coast of Brazil, are the only Atlantic islands somewhat remote from land ; while the Galapagos Archi- pelago in the Pacific is the only group whose productions have been carefully examined, or which present features of special interest. Galapagos Islands. These are situated on the equator, about 500 miles from the coast of Ecuador. They consist of the large Albemarle island, 70 miles long ; four much smaller (18 to 25 miles long), named Narborough, James, Indefatigable, and Chat- ham Islands; four smaller still (9 to 12 miles long), named Abingdon, Bindloe's, Hood's, and Charles Islands. All are vol- canic, and consist of fields of black basaltic lava, with great numbers of extinct craters, a few which are still active. The islands vary in height from 1,700 to 5,000 feet, and they all rise sufficiently high to enter the region of moist currents of air, so that while the lower parts are parched and excessively sterile, above 800 or 1,000 feet there is a belt of comparatively green and fertile country. These islands are known to support 58 species of Vertebrates, 1 quadruped, 5^" *birds, and N 5' reptiles, the greater part of which are found nowhere else, while a considerable number belong to peculiar and very remarkable genera. We must therefore notice them in some detail. Mammalia. This class is represented by a mouse belonging to the American genus Hesperomys, but slightly different from any found on the continent. A true rat (Mus), slightly dif- fering from any European species, also occurs ; and as there can be little doubt that this is an escape from a ship, somewhat 30 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. changed under its new conditions of life (the genus Mus not being indigenous to the American continent), it is not improbable, as Mr. Darwin remarks, that the American mouse may also have been imported by man, and have become similarly changed. Birds. 1 Eecent researches in the islands have increased the number of land-birds to thirty-two, and of wading and aquatic birds to twenty-three. All the land birds but two or three are peculiar to the islands, and eighteen, or considerably more than half, belong to peculiar genera. Of the waders 4 are peculiar, and of the swimmers 2. These are a rail (Porzana spilonota); two herons (Butorides 1 plurtibea and Nycticorax pauper) ; a flamingo (Phcenicopterus glyphorhynchus) ; while the new aquatics are a gull (Larus fuliginosus), and a penguin (Spheniscus mendi- culus). The land-birds are much more interesting. All except the birds of prey belong to American genera which abound on the opposite coast or on that of Chili a little further south, or to peculiar genera allied to South American forms. The only species not peculiar are, Dolichonyx oryzivorus, a bird of very wide range in America and of migratory habits, which often visits the Ber- mudas 600 miles from North America, and Asia accipitrinus, an owl which is found almost all over the world. The only s genera not exclusively American are Buteo and Strix, of each of which a peculiar species occurs in the Galapagos, although very closely allied to South American species. There remain 10 genera, all either American or peculiar to the Galapagos ; and on these we will remark in systematic order. 1. Mimus, the group of American mocking-thrushes, is re- presented by three distinct and well-marked species. 2. Den- drceca, an extensive and wide-spread genus of the wood-warblers (Mniotiltidse), is represented by one species, which ranges over the greater part of the archipelago. The genus is especially abundant in Mexico, the Antilles, and the northern parts of 1 Mr. Salvin, who has critically examined the ornithological fauna of these islands, has kindly corrected my MS. List of the Birds, his valuable paper in the Transactions of the Zoological Society not having been published in time for me to make use of it. 1 a CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 31 tropical America, only one species extending south as far as Chili. 3. Certliidea, a peculiar genus originally classed among the finches, but which Mr. Sclater, who has made South American birds his special study, considers to belong to the Ccerebidce, or sugar-birds, a family which is wholly tropical. Two species of this genus inhabit separate islands. 4. Prague, the American martins (Hirundinidae), is represented by a peculiar species. 5. Geospiza, a peculiar genus of finches, of which no less than eight species occur in the archipelago, but not more than four in any one island. 6. CamarTiynchus (6 sp.) and 7. Cactornis (4 sp.) are two other peculiar genera of finches ; some of the species of which are confined to single islands, while others inhabit several. 8. Pyrocephalus, a genus of the American family of tyrant-flycatchers (Tyrannidse), has one peculiar species closely allied to T. rubineus, which has a wide range in South America, 9. Myiarchus, another genus of the same family which does not range further south than western Ecuador, has also a representative species found in several of the islands. 10. Zenaida, an American genus of pigeons, has a species in James Island and probably in some of the others, closely allied to a species from the west coast of America. It has been already stated that some of the islands possess peculiar species of birds distinct from the allied forms in other islands, but unfortunately our knowledge of the different islands is so unequal and of some so imperfect, that we can form, no useful generalizations as to the distribution of birds among the islands themselves. The largest island is the least known ; only one bird being recorded from it, one of the mocking-thrushes found nowhere else. Combining the observations of Mr. Darwin with those of Dr. Habel and Prof. Sundevall, we have species recorded as occurring in seven of the islands. Albemarle island has but one definitely known species ; Chatham and Bindloe islands have 11 each ; Abingdon and Charles islands 12 each; Indefatigable island and James island have each 18 species. This shows that birds are very fairly distributed over all the islands, one of the smallest and most remote (Abingdon) furnishing as many as the much larger Chatham Island, which is also the nearest 32 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. to the mainland. Taking the six islands which seem tolerably explored, we find that two of the species (Dendroeca aureola and Geospiza fortis) occur in all of them; two others (Geospiza strenua and Myiarchus magnirostris) in five ; four (Mimus melanotis, Geospiza fuliginosa, G. parvula, and Camarhynchus ^prosthemelas) in four islands; five (Certhidea olivacea, Cactornis scandens, Pyrocephalus nanus), and two of the birds of prey, in three islands ; nine (Certhidea fusca, Progne concolor, Geospiza nebulosa, G. magnirostris, Camarhynchus psittaculus, G. variegatus, C. habelipnd Asio accipitrinus) in two islands; while the remaining ten species are confined to one island each. These peculiar species are distributed among the islands as follows. James, Charles,and Abingdon islands, have 2 each ; Bindloes, Chatham, and Indefatigable, 1 each. The amount of speciality of James Island is perhaps only apparent, owing to our ignorance of the fauna of the adjacent large Albemarle island ; the most remote islands north and south, Abingdon and Charles, have no doubt in reality most peculiar species, as they appear to have. The scarcity of peculiar species in Chatham Island is remarkable, it being large, very isolated, and the nearest to the mainland. There is still room for exploration in these islands, especially in Albemarle, Narborough, and Hood's islands of which we know nothing. Reptiles. The few reptiles found in these islands are very interesting. There are two snakes, a species of the American genus Herpetodryas, and another which was at first thought to be a Chilian species (Psammophis Tcmminckii), but which is now considered to be distinct. Of lizards there are four at least, belonging to as many genera. One is a species of Phyllodactylus, a wide-spread genus of Geckotidae: the rest belong to the American family of the Iguanas, one being a species of the Neo- tropical genus Leiocephalus, the other two very remarkable forms, Trachycephalus and Oreocephalus (formerly united in the genus Amblyrhynchus). The first is a land, the second a marine, lizard ; both are of large size and very abundant on all the islands ; and they are quite distinct from any of the very numerous genera of Iguanidoe, spread all over the American continent. The last CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 33 reptile is a land tortoise ( Testudo nigra) of immense size, and also abundant in all the islands. Its nearest ally is the equally large species of the Mascarene Islands ; an unusual development due, in both cases, to the absence of enemies permitting these slow but continually growing animals to attain an immense age. It is believed that each island has a distinct variety or species of tortoise. Insects. Almost the only insects known from these islands are some Coleoptera, chiefly collected by Mr. Darwin. They consist of a few peculiar species of American or wide ranging genera, the most important being, a Calosoma, Pcecilus, Solen- ophorus, and Notaphus, among the Carabidse ; an Oryctes among the Lamellicornes : two new genera of obscure Heteromera ; two Curculionidae of wide-spread genera ; a Longicorn of the South American genus Eburia ; and two small Phy tophaga, a set of species highly suggestive of accidental immigrations at rare and distant intervals. Land- Shells. These consist of small and obscure species, forming two peculiar sub-genera of Bulimulus, a genus greatly developed on the whole West coast of America ; and a single species of Buliminus, a genus which ranges over all the world except America. As in the case of the birds, most of the islands have two or three peculiar species. General Conclusions. These islands are wholly volcanic and surrounded by very deep sea; and Mr. Darwin is of opinion, not only that the islands have never been more nearly con- nected with the mainland than at present, but that they have never been connected among themselves. They are situated on the Equator, in a sea where gales and storms are almost unknown. The main currents are from the south-west, an ex- tension of the Peruvian drift along the west coast of South America. From their great extent, and their volcanoes being now almost extinct, we may assume that they are of consider- able antiquity. These facts exactly harmonize with the theory, that they have been peopled by rare accidental immigrations at very remote intervals. The only peculiar genera consist of birds and lizards, which must therefore have been the earliest 34 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. immigrants. We know that small Passerine birds annually reach the Bermudas from America, and the Azores from Europe, the former travelling over 600, the latter over 1000 miles of ocean. These groups of islands are both situated in stormy seas, and the immigrants are so numerous that hardly any specific change in the resident birds has taken place. The Galapagos receive no such annual visitants ; hence, when by some rare accident a few indi- viduals of a species did arrive, they remained isolated, probably for thousands of generations, and became gradually modified through natural selection under completely new conditions of existence. Less rare and violent storms would suffice to carry some of these to other islands, and thus the archipelago would in time become stocked. It would appear probable, that those which have undergone most change were the earliest to arrive ; so that we might look upon the three peculiar genera of finches, and Certhidea, the peculiar form of Coerebidae, as among the most ancient inhabitants of the islands, since they have become so modified as to have apparently no near allies on the mainland. But other birds may have arrived nearly at the same time, and yet not have been much changed. A species of very wide range, already adapted to live under very varied conditions and to compete with varied forms of life, might not need to become modified so much as a bird of more restricted range, and more specialized constitution. And if, before any considerable change had been effected, a second immigration of the same species occurred, crossing the breed would tend to bring back the original type of form. While, therefore, we may be sure that birds like the finches, which are profoundly modified and adapted to the special conditions of the climate and vegetation, are among the most ancient of the colonists ; we cannot be sure that the less modified form of tyrant-flycatcher or mocking-thrush, or even the unchanged but cosmopolitan owl, were not of coeval date ; since even if the parent form on the continent has been changed, successive immigrations may have communicated the same change to the colonists. The reptiles are somewhat more difficult to account for. We know, however, that lizards have some means of dispersal over CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 35 the sea, because we find existing species with an enormous range. The ancestors of the AmblyrJiyndii must have come as early, probably, as the earliest birds ; and the same powers of dispersal have spread them over every island. The two American genera of lizards, and the tortoises, are perhaps later immigrants. Latest of all were the snakes, which hardly differ from continental forms ; but it is not at all improbable that these latter, as well as the peculiar American mouse, have been early human importa- tions. Snakes are continually found on board native canoes whose cabins are thatched with palm leaves ; and a few cen- turies would probably suffice to produce some modification of a species completely isolated, under conditions widely different from those of its native country. Land-shells, being so few and small, and almost all modifications of one type, are a clear indi- cation of how rare are the conditions which lead to their dispersal over a wide extent of ocean , since two or three individuals, ar- riving on two or three occasions only during the whole period of the existence of the islands, would suffice to account for the present fauna. Insects have arrived much more frequently ; and this is in accordance with their habits, their lower specific gravity, their power of flight, and theis capacity for resisting for some time the effects of salt water. We learn, then, from the fauna of these islands, some very im- portant facts. We are taught that tropical land-birds, unless blown out of their usual course by storms, rarely or never venture out to sea, or if they do so, can seldom pass 'safely over a distance of 500 miles. The immigrants to the Galapagos can hardly have averaged a bird in' a thousand years. We learn, that of all reptiles lizards alone have some tolerably effective mode of transmission across the sea ; and this is probably by means of currents, and in connection with floating vegetation. Yet their transmission is a far rarer event than that of land-birds ; for, whereas three female immigrants will account for the lizard population, at least eight or ten ancestors are required for the birds. Land serpents can pass over still more rarely, as two such transmissions would have sufficed to stock the islands with their snakes ; and it is not certain that either of these occurred without the aid of man. 36 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. It is doubtful whether mammals or batrachians have any means of passing, independently of man's assistance ; the former having but one doubtfully indigenous representative, the latter none at all. The remarkable absence of all gay or conspicuous flowers in these tropical islands, though possessing a zone of fairly luxuriant shrubby vegetation, and the dependence of this phe- nomenon on the extreme scarcity of insects, has been already noticed at Vol. I. p. 461" when treating of a somewhat similar peculiarity of the New Zealand fauna and flora. /. South Temperate America, or the Chilian Sub-region. This sub-region may be generally defined as the temperate portion of South America. On the south, it commences with the cold damp forests of Tierra del Fuego, and their continuation up the west coast to Chiloe and northward to near Santiago. To the east we have the barren plains of Patagonia, gradually changing towards the north into the more fertile, but still treeless, pampas of La Plata. Whether this sub-region should be continued across the Eio de la Plata into Uruguay and Entre-rios, is somewhat doubtful. To the west of the Parana it extends northward over the Chaco desert, till we approach the border of the great forests near St. Cruz de la Sierra. On the plateau of the Andes, how- ever, it must be continued still further north, along the " paramos " or alpine pastures, till we reach 5 of South latitude. Beyond this the Andes are very narrow, having no double range with an inter- vening plateau; and although some of the peculiar forms of the tem- perate zone pass on to the equator or even beyond it, these are not sufficiently numerous to warrant our extending the sub-region to include them. Along with the high Andes it seems necessary to in- clude the western strip of arid country, which is mostly peopled by forms derived from Chili and the south temperate regions. Mammalia. This sub-region is well characterised by the pos- session of an entire family of mammalia having Neotropical affinities the Chinchillidse. It consists of 3 genera Chinchilla (2 sp.), inhabiting the Andes of Chili and Peru as far as 9 south latitude, and at from 8,000 to 12,000 feet altitude ; Lagidium (3 sp.), ranging over the Andes of Chili, Peru, and South Ecuador, CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 37 from 11,000 to 16,000 feet altitude; and Layostomus (1 sp.), the <; viscacha," confined to the pampas between the Uruguay and Rio Negro. Many important genera are also confined to this sub- region. Auchenia (4 sp.), including the domesticated llamas and alpacas, the vicugna which inhabits the Andes of Peru and Chili, and the guanaco which ranges over the plains of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. Although this genus is allied to the Old World camels, it is a very distinct form, and its introduction from North America, where the family appear to have originated, may date back to a remote epoch. Ursus ornatus, the " spectacled bear " of the Chilian Andes, is a remarkable form, supposed to be most allied to the Malay bear, and probably forming a distinct genus, which has been named Tremarctos. Four genera of Octo- dontidoe are also peculiar to this sub-region, or almost so; Habro- comus (1 sp.) is Chilian ; Spalacopus (2 sp.) is found in Chili and on the east side of the southern Andes ; Octodon (3 sp.) ranges from Chili into Peru and Bolivia ; Ctenomys (6 sp.) from the Straits of Magellan to Bolivia, with one species in South Brazil. Dolichotis, one of the Cavies, ranges from Patagonia to Mendoza, and on the east coast to 37^ S. latitude. Myopotamus (1 sp.), the coypu (Echimyidse), ranges from 33 to 48 S. latitude on the west side of the Andes, and from the frontiers of Peru to 42 S. on the east side. Reithrodon and Acodon, genera of Muridse, are also confined to Temperate South America; Toly- peutes and Chlamydophorus, two genera of armadillos, the latter very peculiar in its organization and sometimes placed in a dis- tinct family, are found only in La Plata and the highlands of Bolivia, and so belong to this sub- region. Otaria, one of the " eared seals " (Otariidae), is confined to the coasts of this sub- region and the antarctic islands. Deer of American groups ex- tend as far as Chiloe on the west, and the Straits of Magellan on the east coast. Mice of the South American genera Hesperomys and Reithrodon, are abundant down to the Straits of Magellan and into Tierra del Fuego, Mr. Darwin having collected more than 20 distinct species. The following are the genera of Mammalia which have been observed on the shores of the Straits of Magel- lan, those marked * extending into Tierra del Fuego : 38 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. *Pseudalopex (two wolf-like foxes), Felis (the puma), Mephitis (skunks), Cervns (deer), *Auchenia (guanaco), *Ctenomys (tucu- tucu), *Reithrodon and *Hespcromys (American mice). Birds. Three families of Birds are confined to this sub-region, Phytotomidae (1 genus, 3 sp.), inhabiting Chili, La Plata, and Bolivia; Chionididae (1 genus, 2 sp.) the "sheath-bills," found only at the southern extremity of the continent and in Kerguelen's Island, which with the other antarctic lands perhaps comes best here ; Thinocoridae (2 genera, 6 species) an isolated family of waders, ranging over the whole sub-region and extending north- ward to the equatorial Andes. Many genera are also peculiar : 3 of Fringillidae, and 1 of Icteridae ; 9 of Dendrocolaptidse, 6 of Tyrannidae, 3 of Trochilidae, and 4 of Pteroptochidae, the last four South American families. There is also a peculiar genus of par- rots (Henicognathus) in Chili ; two of pigeons (Metriopelia and Gymnopelia) confined to the Andes and west coast from Peru to Chili; two of Tinamous, Tinamot^s in the Andes, and Calo- dromm in La Plata; three of Charadriidae, Phcegornis, Pluvia- nellus, and Oreophilus-, and Rhea, the American ostriches, inhabiting all Patagonia and the pampas. Perhaps the Caria- midae have almost as much right here as in the last sub-region, inhabiting as they do, the " pampas " of La Plata and the up- land " campos " of Brazil ; and even among the wide-ranging aquatic birds, we have a peculiar genus, Merganettd,one of the duck family, which is confined to the temperate plateau of the Andes. Against this extensive series of characteristic groups, all either of American type or very distinct forms of Old World families, and therefore implying great antiquity, we find, in mammalia and birds, very scanty evidence of that direct affinity with the north temperate zone, on which some naturalists lay so much stress. We cannot point to a single terrestrial genus, which is characteristic of the north and reappears in this south temperate region without also occurring over much of the intervening land. Mustela seems only to have reached Peru ; Lepus is iso- lated in Brazil ; true Ursus does not pass south of Mexico. In birds, the northern groups rarely go further south than Mexico or the Columbian Andes ; and the only case of discontinuous CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTKOPICAL REGION. 39 distribution we can find recorded is that of the genus of ducks, Camptolcemus, which has a species on the east side of North Ame- rica and another in Chili and the Falkland Islands, but these, Professor Newton assures me, do not properly belong to the same genus. Out of 30 genera of land-birds collected on the Eio Negro in Patagonia, by Mr. Hudson, only four extend beyond the American continent, and the same exclusively American character applies equally to its southern extremity. No list appears to have been yet published of the land-birds of the Straits of Magellan and Tierra del Fuego. The following is compiled from the observations of Mr. Darwin, the recent voyage of Professor Cunningham, and other sources ; and will be useful for com- parison. TURDID^E. 1. Turdus falklandicus. TROGLODYTID^E. 2. Troglodytes magellanicus. 3. Chrysomitris barbata. *4. Phrygilus gayi. *5. aldunatii. 6. ,j fruticeti. *7. xanthogrammus. 8. Zonotrichia pileata. ICTERID.E. 9. Sturnella militaris. 10. Curseus aterrimus. HlRUNDINIDJE. 11. Hirundo meyeni. TYRANNIDJS. 12. Teenioptera pyrope. 13. Myiotheretes rufiventris. 14. Muscisaxicola mentalis. 15. Centrites niger. 16. Anseretes parulus. 17. Elainea griseogularis. DENDROCOLAPTID^E. 18. Upucerthia dumetoria. *19. Cinclodes patagonicus. PlCID^L *23. Campephilus magellanicus. 24. Picus lignarius. ALCEDINID.E. 25. Ceryle stellata. TROCHILID^E. 26. Eustephanus galeritus. CONURIDJE. 27. Conurus patagonus. 28. Cathartes'aura. 29. Sarcorhamphus gryphus. FALCONID^. 30. Circus macropterus. 31. Buteo erythronotus. 32. Geranoaetus melanoleHcus. 33. Accipiter chilensis. 34. Cerchneis sparverius. 35. Milvago albogularis. 36. Polyborus tharus. *20. fuscus. *21. Oxyurus spinicauda. PTEROPTOCHID^E. *22. Scytalopus magellanicus. VOL. II- 37. Asio accipitrinus. 38. Bubo magellanicus. 39. Pholeoptynx cunicularia. 40. Glaucidium nana. 41. Syrnium rufipes. STRUTHIONID^E. 42. Khea darwinii. 40 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. In the above list the species marked * extend to Tierra del Fuego. It is a remarkable fact that so many of the species belong to genera which are wholly Neotropical, and that the specially South American families of Icteridse, Tyrannidse, Den- drocolaptidae, Pteroptochidae, Trochilidae, and Conuridse, should supply more than one-third of the species ; while the purely South American genus Phrygilus, should be represented by four species, three of which abound in Tierra del Fuego. Plate XVI. A Scene in the Andes of Chili, with characteristic Animals. The fauna of South Temperate America being most fully developed in Chili, we place the scene of our illustration in that country. In the foreground we have a pair of the beautiful little chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera), belonging to a family of animals peculiar to the sub-region. There are only two species of this group, both confined to the higher Andes, at about 8000 feet elevation. Coming round a projecting ridge of the mountain, are a herd of vicunas (Auchenia vicugna}, one of that peculiar form of the camel tribe found in South America and confined to its temperate and alpine regions. The upper bird is a plant-cutter (Phytotoma rara), of sober plumage but allied to the beautiful chatterers, though forming a separate family. Below, standing on a rock, is a plover-like bird, the Thinocorus orli- gnianus, which is considered to belong to a separate family, though allied to the plovers and sheath-bills. Its habits are, however, more those of the quails or partridges, living inland in dry and desert places, and feeding on plants, roots, and insects. Above is a condor, the most characteristic bird of the high Andes. Reptiles and Amphibia. These groups show, for the most part, similar modifications of American and Neotropical forms, as those we have seen to prevail among the birds. Snakes do not seem to go very far south, but several South American genera of Colu- bridse arid Dendrophidae occur in Chili ; while Enophrys is pecu- liar to La Plata, and Call^rhinus to Patagonia, both belonging to the Colubridae. The Elapidse do not extend into the tem- perate zone ; but Craspedbcephalus, one of the Crotalidae, occurs at Bahia Blanca in Patagonia (Lat. 40 S.) PLATE XVI. THE CHILIAN ANDES, WITH CHARACTERISTIC AMMALS. CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 41 Lizards are much more numerous, and there are several pecu- liar and interesting forms. Three families are represented ; Teidae by two genera Callopistes peculiar to Chili, and Ameiva which ranges over almost the whole American continent and is found in Patagonia ; Gecko tidas by four genera, two of which, Caudiverbera and Homonota are peculiar to Chili, while Sphce- rodactylus and Cubina are Neotropical, the formet ranging to Patagonia, the latter to Chili ; and lastly the American family Iguanidse represented by eight genera, no less than six being- peculiar, (or almost so,) to the South temperate region. These are Leiodera, Diplolcemus and Proctfotretus, ranging from Chili to Patagonia ; Leiolcemus, from Peru to Patagonia ; Phrymaturus, confined to Chili, and Ptygoderus, peculiar, to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. The other two genera, Oplurus and Leiosaurm, are common to Chili and tropical South America. Tortoises appear to be scarce, a species of Hydromedusa only being recorded. Of the Amphibia, batrachia (frogs and toads) alone are represented, and appear to be tolerably abundant, seventeen species having been collected by Mr. Darwin in this sub-region. Species of the South American genera Phryniscm, Hylaplesia, Telmatobius, Cacotus, Hylodes, Cyclorhamphus, Pleu- rodema, Cystignathus, and Leiuperus, are found in various locali- ties, some extending even to the Straits of Magellan, the extreme southern limit of both Eeptilia and Amphibia, except one lizard (Ptygoderus] found by Professor Cunningham in Tierra del Fuego. There are also four peculiar genera, RJiinoderma belonging to the Engystomidae ; Alsodes and NannopTiryne to the Bombinatoridae ; Opisthodelphys to the Hylidae ; and Calyptoce- phalus to the Discoglossidse. It thus appears, that in the Reptiles all the groups are typically American, and that most of the peculiar genera belong to families which are exclusively American. The Amphibia, on the other hand, present some interesting external relations, but these are as much with Australia as with the North temperate regions. The Bombinatoridae are indeed Palsearctic, but a larger proportion are Neotropical, and one genus inhabits New Zealand. The Chilian genus Calyptocephalus is allied to Australian tropical genera. 42 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGEAPHY. [PARTIII. The Neotropical genera of Eanidae, five of which extend to Chili and Patagonia, belong to a division which is Australian and Neotropical, and which has species in the Oriental and Ethiopian regions. Fresh-water Fishes. These present some peculiar forms, and some very interesting phenomena of distribution. The genus Percilia has been found only in the Eio de Maypu in Chili ; and Percichthys, also belonging to the perch family, has five species confined to the fresh waters of South Temperate America, and one far away in Java. Nematogenys (1 sp.) is peculiar to Chili ; Trichomycterus reaches 15,000 feet elevation in the Andes, both belonging to the Siluridse ; Chirodon (2 sp.), belonging to the Characinidse, is peculiar to Chili ; and several other genera of the same family extend into this sub-region from Brazil. The family Haplochitonidse has a remarkable distribution ; one of its genera, Haplochiton (2 sp.), inhabiting Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands, while the other, Prototroctes, is found only in South Australia and New Zealand. Still more remarkable is Galaxias (forming the family Galaxidse), the species of which are divided between Temperate South America, and Australia, Tas- mania, and New Zealand; and there is even one species (Galaxias attenuatus) which is found in the Chatham Islands, New Zealand, and Tasmania, as well as in the Falkland Islands and Patagonia. Fitzroya (1 sp.) is found only at Montevideo ; Orestias (6 sp.) is peculiar to Lake Titicaca in the high Andes of Bolivia; Jenynsid (1 sp.) in the Eio de la Plata all belonging to the characteristic South American family of the CyprinodontidaB. Insects. It is in insects more than in any other class of animals, that we find clear indications of a not very remote migration of northern forms, along the great mountain range to South Tem- perate America, where they have established themselves as a prominent feature in the entomology of the country. The several orders and families, however, differ greatly in this respect ; and there are some groups which are only represented by modifications of tropical forms, as we have seen to be almost entirely the case in birds and reptiles. CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 43 Lepidoptera. The butterflies of the South Temperate Sub- region are not numerous, only about 29 genera and 80 species being recorded. Most of these are from Chili, which is suffi- ciently accounted for by the general absence of wood on the east side of the Andes from Buenos Ayres to South Patagonia. The families represented are as follows : Satyridae, with 11 genera and 27 species, are the most abundant ; Nymphalidaa, 2 genera and 8 species ; Lemoniidae, 1 genus, 1 species ; Lycae- nidae, 3 genera, 8 species ; Pieridae, 6 genera, 14 species ; Papi- lionidae, 2 genera, 8 species; Hesperidae, 4 genera, 13 species. One genus of Satyridae (Elina) and 2 of Pieridae (Eroessa and Phulia) are peculiar to Chili. The following are the genera whose derivation must be traced to the north temperate zone : Te.tr aphlybia, Neosatyrus, and 3 allied genera of 1 species each, were formerly included under Erebia, a northern and arctic form, yet having a few species in South Africa ; Argyrophorus, allied to ^Jneis, a northern genus ; Hipparchia, a northern genus yet having a species in Brazil ; all Satyridae. The Nymphalidae are represented by the typical north temperate genus Argynnis, with 7 species in Chili ; Colias, among the Pieridae, is usually con- sidered to be a northern genus, but it possesses representatives in South Africa, the Sandwich Islands, Malabar, New Grenada, and Peru, as well as Chili, and must rather be classed as cosmopolitan. These form a sufficiently remarkable group of northern forms, but they are accompanied by others of a wholly Neotropical origin. Such are Stibomorpha with 6 species, rang- ing through South America to Guatemala, and Eteona, common to Chili .and Brazil (Satyridse) ; Apodemia (Lemoniidae) confined to Tropical America and Chili. Hesperocharis and Callidryas (Pieridae), both tropical ; and Thracides (Hesperidae) confined to Tropical America and Chili. Other genera are widely scattered; as, Epinephile found also in Mexico and Australia; Cupido, widely spread in the tropics ; Euryades, found only in La Plata and Paraguay, allied to South American forms of Papilio, to the Australian Eurycus, and the northern Parnassius ; and Heterop- terus, scattered in Chili, North America, and Tropical Africa. We find then, among butterflies, a large north-temperate element, 44 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. intermingled in nearly equal proportions with forms derived from Tropical America ; and the varying degrees of resemblances of the Chilian to the northern species, seem# to indicate successive immigrations at remote intervals. Colenptera. It is among the beetles of South Temperate America that we find some of the most curious examples of remote affinities, and traces of ancient migrations. The Carabidae are very well represented, and having been more extensively col- lected than most other families, offer us perhaps the most com- plete materials. Including the Cicindelidse, about 50 genera are known from the South Temperate Sub-region, the greater part from Chili, but a good number also from Patagonia and the Straits of Magellan. Of these more than 30 are peculiar, and most of them are so isolated that it is impossible to determine with precision their nearest allies. The only remarkable form of Cicindelidae is Agrius, a genus allied to the Amblych&ila and Omus of N.W. America. Two genera of Carabidse, Cascellius and Bcdfapus, are closely allied to Promecoderus, an Australian genus; and another, Lecanomerus, has one species in Chili and the other in Australia. Five or six of the peculiar genera are undoubtedly allied to characteristic Palsearctic forms ; and such northern genera as Carabus, Pristo- nychus, Anchomenus, Pterostichus, Pereus, Brady cellus, Trechus, and Bemowiium, all absent from Tropical America, give great support to the view that there is a close relation be- tween the insects, of the northern regions and South Temperate America. A decided tropical element is, however, present. Tropppterus is near Colpodes, a Tropical and South American genus ; Mimodromius and Plagiotelium are near Call^ida, a South American genus; while Pachyteles, Pericompsus, Vario- palpus, and Calltida are widely spread American groups. The preponderance of northern forms seems, however, to be undoubted. Six Carabidse are known from Juan Fernandez, 3 being identical with Chilian species and 3 peculiar. As the island is 350 miles from the mainland, we have here a proof of how readily insects may be transported great distances. CHAP, xiv.] . THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 45 The Palsearctic affinity of the South Temperate Carabid^e inay be readily understood, if we bear in mind the great antiquity of the group, and the known long persistence of generic and specific forms of Coleoptera ; the facility with which they may be trans- ported to great distances by gales and hurricanes, either on land or over the sea; and, therefore, the probability that suitable stations would be rapidly occupied by species already adapted to them, to the exclusion of those of the adjacent tracts which had been specialised under different conditions. If, for example, we carry ourselves back to the time when the Andes had only risen to half their present altitude, and Patagonia had not emerged from the ocean (an epoch not very remote geologically), we should find nearly all the Carabidse of South America^ adapted to a warm, and probably forest- covered country. If, then, a further considerable elevation of the laud took place, a large temperate and cold area would be formed, without any suitable insect inhabitants. During the necessarily slow pro- cess of elevation, many of the tropical Carabidse would spread upwards, and some would become adapted to the new conditions ; while the majority would probably only maintain themselves by continued fresh immigrations. But, as the mountains rose, another set of organisms would make their way along the highest ridges. The abundance and variety of the North Temperate Carabidae, and their complete adaptation to a life on barren plains and rock-strewn mountains, would enable them rapidly to extend into any newly-raised land suitable to them; and -thus the whole range of the Eocky Mountains and Andes would obtain a population of northern forms, which would over- flow into Patagonia, and there, finding no competitors, would develope into a variety of modified groups. This migration was no doubt effected mainly, during successive glacial epochs, when the mountain-range of the Isthmus of Panama, if moderately increased in height, might become adapted for the passage of northern forms, while storms would often carry insects from peak to peak over intervening forest lowlands or narrow straits of sea. If this is the true explanation, we ought to find no such preponderant northern element in groups which 46 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. are proportionally less developed in cold and temperate climates. Our further examination will show how far this is the case. Lucanidse. Only four genera are known in the sub-region. Two are peculiar, Chiasognathus and Streptocerus, the former allied to Tropical American, the latter to Australian genera ; the other two genera are exclusively South American. Cetoniidse. These seem very scarce, only a few species of the Neotropical genus Gymnetis reaching Patagonia. Buprestidse. These are rather numerous, many very beautiful species being found in Chili. Nineteen genera are represented in South Temperate America, and 5 of these are peculiar to it ; 3 others are South American genera ; 2 are Australian, and the remainder are wide-spread, but all are found also in Tropical America. The only north-temperate genus is Dicerca, and even this occurs also in the Antilles, Brazil, and Peru. Of the peculiar genera, the largest, Dactylozodes (26 sp.), has one species in South Brazil, and is closely allied to Hyperantha, a genus of Tropical America ; JSpistomcntis is allied to Nascis, an Austra- lian genus ; Tyndaris is close to Acmfgodera, a genus of wide range and preferring desert or dry countries. The other two are single species of cosmopolitan affinities. On the whole, therefore, the Buprestidse are unmistakeably Neotropical in character. Longicorns. Almost the whole of the South Temperate Longi- corns inhabit Chili, which is very rich in this beautiful tribe. About 75 genera and 160 species are known, and nearly half of the genera are peculiar. Many of the species are large and handsome, rivalling in beauty those of the most favoured tropical lands. Of the 8 genera of Prionidae 6 are peculiar, but all are allied to Tropical American forms except Microplophorus, which belongs to a group of genera spread over Australia, Europe, and Mexico. The Cerambycidse are much more abundant, and their affinities more interesting. Two (Syllitus and Pscudoce- phalus) are common to Australia and Chili. Twenty- three are Neotropical ; and among these Ibidion, Compsocerus, Callideriphiis, Trachyderes, and Xylocharis, are best represented. Twenty are CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 47 altogether peculiar, but most of them are more or less closely allied to genera inhabiting Tropical America. Some, as the hand- some Cheloderus and Oxypeltus, have no close allies in any part of the world. Holopterus, though very peculiar, shows most re- semblance to a New Zealand insect. Sibylla, Adalbus, and Phantagoderus, have Australian affinities ; while Calydon alone shows an affinity for north-temperate forms. One species of the northern genus, Leptura, is said to have been found at Buenos Ayres. The Lamiidae are less abundant. Nine of the genera are Neo- tropical. Two (Apomecyna and Exocentrus) are spread over all tropical regions. Ten genera are peculiar; and most of these are related to Neotropical groups or are of doubtful affinities. Only one, Aconopterus, is decidedly allied to a northern genus, Pogonochcerus. It thus appears, that none of the Lamiidse ex- hibit Australian affinities, although these are a prominent fea- ture in the relations of the Cerambycidse. It is evident, from the foregoing outline, that the insects of South Temperate America, more than any other class of animals, exhibit a connection with the north temperate regions, yet this connection is only seen in certain groups. In Diurnal Lepidop- tera and in Carabidse, the northern element is fully equal to the tropical, or even preponderates over it. We have already sug- gested an explanation of this fact in the case of the Carabidae, and with the butterflies it is not more difficult. The great mass of Neotropical butterflies are forest species, and have been de^ veloped for countless ages in a forest-clad tropical country. The north temperate butterflies, on the other hand, are very largely open-country species, frequenting pastures, mountains, and open plains, and often wandering over an extensive area. These would find, on the higher slopes of mountains, a vegetation and conditions suited to them, and would occupy such stations in less time than would be required to adapt and modify the forest- haunting groups of the American lowlands. In those groups of insects, however, in which the conditions of life are nearly the same as regards both temperate and tropical species, the superior 48 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. number and variety of the tropical forms has given them the ad- vantage. Thus we find that among the Lucanidae, Buprestidse, and Longicorns, the northern element is hardly perceptible. Most of these are either purely Neotropical, or allied to Neotropical genera, with the admixture, however, of a decided Australian element. As in the case of the Amphibia and fresh- water fishes, the Aus- tralian affinity, as shown by insects, is of two kinds, near and remote. We have a few genera common to the two countries ; but more commonly the genera are very distinct, and the affinity is shown by the genera of both countries belonging to a group peculiar to them, but which may be of very great age. In the former case, we must impute some of the resemblance of the two faunas to an actual interchange of forms within the epoch of existing genera a period of vast and unknown duration in the class of insects ; while in the latter case, and perhaps also in many of the former, it seems more in accordance with the whole of the phenomena, to . look upon most of the instances as survivals, in the two southern temperate areas, of the relics of groups which had once a much wider distribution. That this is the true explanation, is suggested by the numerous cases of dis- continuous and scattered distribution we have had to notice, in which every part of the globe, without exception, is implicated ; and there is a reason why these survivals should be rather more frequent in Australia and temperate South America, inasmuch as these two areas agree in the absence of a considerable number of otherwise cosmopolitan vertebrate types, and are also in many respects very similar in climatic and other physical conditions. The preponderating influence of the organic over the physical environment, as taught by Mr. Darwin, leads us to give most weight to the first of the above-mentioned causes ; to which we may also impute such undoubted cases of survival of ancient types as the Centetidae of the Antilles and Madagascar both areas strikingly deficient in the higher vertebrate forms. The probable mode and time of the cross migration between Australia and South America, has been sufficiently discussed in our chapter on the Australian -region, when treating of the origin and affinities of the New Zealand fauna. CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 49 Islands of the Smith Temperate Suit-region. These are few, and of not much zoological interest. Tierra del Fuego, although really an island, is divided from the main- land by so narrow a channel that it may be considered as forming part of the continent. The guanaco (Auchenia huanaco) ranges over it, and even to small islands further south. The Falkland Islands. These are more important, being situated about 350 miles to the east of Southern Patagonia; but the intervening sea is shallow, the 100 fathom line of sound- ings passing outside the islands. We have therefore reason to believe that they have been connected with South America at a not distant epoch ; and in agreement with this view we find most of their productions identical, while the few that are peculiar are closely allied to the forms of the mainland. The only indigenous Mammals are a wolf-like fox (Pseu- dalopex antarcticus) said to be found nowhere else, but allied to two other species inhabiting Southern Patagonia ; and a species of mouse, probably one of the American genera Hesperomys or Eeithrodon. Sixty- seven species of Birds have been obtained in these islands, but only 18 are land-birds ; and even of these 7 are birds of prey, leaving only 11 Passeres. The former are all common South American forms, but one species, Milvago australis, seems peculiar. The 11 Passeres belong to 9 genera, all found on the adjacent mainland. Three, or perhaps four, of the species are however peculiar. These are Phrygihis melanoderus, P. xanthogrammus, Cinclodes antarcticus, and Muscisaxicola maclo- viana. The wading and swimming birds are of little interest, except the penguins, which a,re greatly developed ; no less than eight species being found, five as residents and three as acci- dental visitors. No reptiles are known to inhabit these islands. Juan Fernandez. This island is situated in the Pacific Ocean, about 400 miles west of Valparaiso in Chili. It is only a few miles in extent, yet it possesses four land-birds, excluding the powerful Accipitres. These are Turdus falklandicus ; Anceretes 50 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. fernandensis, one of the Tyrannidae ; and two humming-birds, Eustephanus fernandensis and E. galeritus. The first is a wide- spread South Temperate species, the two next are peculiar to the island, while the last is a Chilian species which ranges south to Tierra del Fuego. But ninety miles beyond this island lies another, called "Mas-a-fuefo," very much smaller; yet this, too, contains four species of similar birds ; one, Oxyurus mas-a-fuerce, allied to the wide-spread South Temperate 0. spinicauda, and Cinclodes fusfys, a South Temperate species both Dendrocolaptidae ; with a humming-bird, Eustephanus ley- boldi, allied to the species in the larger island. The preceding facts are taken from papers by Mr. Sclater in the His for 1871, and a later one in the same journal by Mr. Salvin (1875). The former author has some interesting remarks on the three species of humming-birds of the genus Eustephanus, above referred to. The Chilian species, E. galeritus, is green in both sexes. E. fernandensis has the male of a fine red colour and the female green, though differently marked from the female of E. galeritus. E. leyboldi (of Mas-a-fuera) has the male also red and the female green, but the female is more like that of E. galeritus, than it is like the female of its nearer ally in Juan Fernandez. Mr. Sclater supposes, that the ancient parent form of these three birds had the sexes alike, as in the present Chilian bird ; that a pair (or a female having fertilised ova) reached Juan Fernandez and colonised it. Under the action of sexual selection (unchecked by some conditions which had impaired its efficacy on the con- tinent) the male gradually assumed a brilliant plumage, and the female also slightly changed its markings. Before this change was completed the bird had established an isolated colony on Mas-a-fuera ; and here the process of change was continued in the male, but from some unknown cause checked in the female, which thus remains nearer the parent form. Lastly the slightly modified Chilian bird again reached Juan Fer- nandez and exists there side by side with its strangely altered cousin. All the phenomena can thus be accounted for by known laws, on the theory of very rare accidental immigrations from the CHAP. xiv.J THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 51 mainland. The species are here so very few, that the greatest advocate for continental extensions would hardly call such vast causes into action, to account for the presence of these three birds on so small and so remote an island, especially as the union must have continued down to the time of existing species. But if accidental immigration has sufficed here, it will also assuredly have sufficed where the islands are larger, and the chances of reaching them proportionately greater; and it is because an important principle is here illustrated on so small a scale, and in so simple a manner as to be almost undeniable, that we have devoted a paragraph to, its elucidation. A few Coleoptera from Juan Fernandez present analogous phenomena. All belong to Chilian genera, while a portion of them constitute peculiar species. Land-shells are rather plentiful, there being about twenty species belonging to seven genera, all found in the adjacent parts of South America; but all the species are peculiar, as well as four others found on the island of Mas-a-fuera. ///. Tropical North America, or the Mexican Sub-region. This sub-region is of comparatively small extent, consisting of the irregular neck of land, about 1,800 miles long, which connects the North and South American continents. Almost the whole of its area is mountainous, being in fact a con- tinuation of the great range of the Eocky Mountains. In Mexico it forms an extensive table-land, from 6,000 to 9,000 feet above the sea, with numerous volcanic peaks from 12,000 to 18,000 feet high ; but in Yucatan and Honduras, the country is less elevated, though still mountainous. On the shores of the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico, there is a margin of low land from 50 to 100 miles wide, beyond which the mountains rise abruptly ; but on the Pacific side this is almost entirely wanting, the mountains rising almost immediately from the sea shore. With the exception of the elevated plateaus of Mexico and Guatemala, and the extremity of the peninsula of Yucatan, the whole of Central America is clothed with forests ; and as its surface is much broken up into hill and valley, and the volcanic 52 . ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. soil of a large portion of it is very fertile, it is altogether well adapted to support a varied fauna, as it does a most luxuriant vegetation. Although many peculiar Neotropical types are absent, it yet possesses an ample supply of generic and specific forms ; and, as far as concerns birds and insects, is not perhaps inferior to the richest portions of South America in the number of species to be found in equal areas. Owing to the fact that the former Republic of Mexico comprised much territory that belongs to the Nearctic region, and that many Nearctic groups extend along the high-lands to the capital city of Mexico itself, and even considerably further south, there is much difficulty in determining what animals really belong to this sub-region. On the low-lands, tropical forms predominate as far as 28 N. latitude ; while on the Cordilleras, temperate forms prevail down to 20, and are found even much farther within the tropics. Mammalia. Very few peculiar forms of Mammalia are re- stricted to tropical North America ; which is not to be wondered at when we consider the small extent of the country, and the facility of communication with adjacent sub-regions. A peculiar form of tapir (ElasmognatJms bairdi) inhabits Central America, from Panama to Guatemala, and, with Myxomys, a genus of Muridse, are all at present discovered. Bassiris, a remarkable form of Procyonidse, has been included in the Nearctic region, but it extends to the high-lands of Guatemala. Heteromys, a peculiar genus of Saccomyidae or pouched rats, inhabits Mexico, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Trinidad. Five genera of monkeys extend here, Ateles, Mycetes, Cebus, Nyctipithecus, and Saimiris ; the two former alone reaching Mexico, the last only going as far as Costa Rica. Other typical Neotropical forms are Galera, the tayra, belonging to the weasel family ; Nasua, the coatimundi ; Dicotyles, the peccary ; Cercolabes, the tree porcupine ; Dasyprocta, the agouti ; Ccelogenys, the paca ; Cliolwpus, and Arctopithecus, sloths ; Cyclotliurus, an ant-eater ; Tatusia, an armadillo ; and D'idelphi/s, oppossum. Of Northern forms, Sorex, Vulpes, Lepus, B,ndpiirumi/s reach Guatemala. Birds. The productiveness of this district in bird life, may CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 53 be estimated from the fact, that Messrs. Salvin and Sclater have catalogued more than 600 species from the comparatively small territory of Guatemala, or the portion of Central America between Mexico and Honduras. The great mass of the birds of this sub-region are of Neotropical families and genera, but these are intermingled with a number of migrants from temperate North America, which pass the winter here ; with some northern forms on the high-lands ; and with a considerable number of peculiar genera, mostly of Neotropical affinities. The genera of birds peculiar to this sub-region belong to the following families : Turdidse (2 genera) ; Troglodytidae (1 gen.) ; Vireonidae (1 gen.) ; Corvidae (2 gen.) ; Ampelidae (1 gen.) ; Tanagridae (1 gen.) ; Fringillidse (2 gen.) ; Icteridss (1 gen.) ; Formicariidae (2 gen.) ; Tyrannidae (2 gen.) ; Cotingidas (1 gen.) ; Momotidae (1 gen.) ; Trogonidse (1 gen.); Trochilidae (14 gen.); Conuridae (1 gen.) ; Cracidae (2 gen.) ; Strigidae (1 gen.) ; in all 3,7* genera of land-birds. The Neotropical families that do not extend into this sub-region are, Pteroptochidse ; the sub-family Furnariince of the Dendrocolaptidae ; the sub-family ConopJia- gince of the Tyrannidae; the sub-family Rupicolince of the Cotingidae ; Phytotomidae ; Todidae ; Opisthocomidae ; Chioni- didae ; Thinocoridae ; Cariamidae ; Psophiidae ; Eurypygidoe ; Palamedeidae ; and Struthionidae.' On the other hand Paridae, Certhiidae, Ampelidae, and Phasianidae, 2 are northern families repre- sented here, but which do not reach South America ; and there are also several northern genera and species, of Turdidae, Troglo- dytidae, Mniotiltidae, Vireonidae, Fringillidae, Corvidae, Tetra- onidae, and Strigidae, which are similarly restricted. Some of the most remarkable of the Neotropical genera only extend as far as Costa Rica and Veragua, countries which possess a rich and remarkable fauna. Here only are found an umbrella bird, (Cephalopterus glabricollis) ; a bell bird (CliasmorJiynchus tricar- unculatus) ; and species f of Dacnis (Qe^pebidae); Buthraupis, Eucometis, Tachyphonus (Tanagridae); .Xiphorhynchus (Dendro- colaptidae) ; Hypocnemis (Formicariidae) ; Euscarthmus (Tyran- nidae) ; Attila (Cotingidae) ; Piprites (Pipridae) ; Capita, Tetra- gonops (Megalaemidae) ; Selenidera (Ehamphastidae) ; Neomorphus f f ' , ' ' <-/'. 54 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. (Cuculidse) ; Monasa (Bucconidse) ; many genera of Trochilidae ; and Nothocercus (Tinamidae) ; none of which extend further north. A considerable number of the peculiar genera noted above, are also found in this restricted area, which is probably one of the richest ornithological districts on the globe. Reptiles. These are much less known than the preceding classes, but they afford several peculiar and interesting forms. Snakes are perhaps the least remarkable ; yet there are recorded 4 peculiar genera of Calamariidae, 1 of Colubridse, 1 of Homalop- sidse, 3 of Dipsadidse ; while Boa and Elaps are in common with South America. Lizards are much more specially developed. Chirotes, one of the Amphisbaenians, is confined to Mexico and the southern part of the Nearctic region ; Heloderma forming a pecu- liar family, Helodermidae, is Mexican only ; Abronia and Barissia (Zonuridse) are also Mexican, as is Siderolampus belonging to the Scincidee, while Blepharactitis (same family) inhabits Nicara- gua ; Brachydactylus, one of the geckoes, is from Costa Eica ; while Phymatolcpis, L$manctus, Corytheolus, Cachrix, Corytho- phanes and Chamceleopsis, all belonging to the Iguanidse, are con- fined to various parts of the sub-region. In the same family we have also the Antillean, Cy 'dura, and the Nearctic Phrynosoma and Tropidolepis, as well as the wide-spread American genus Anolius. Among the tortoises, Staurotypus, allied to Chelydra, is found in Mexico and Guatemala ; and another genus, Claudius, has been lately described from Mexico. Amphibia. These are chiefly Batrachians ; Rhinophryna (forming a peculiar family) being confined to Mexico ; Triprion, a genus of Hylidae, inhabiting Yucatan; with Leyla and Stra- lomantis (Polypedatidae), found only in Costa Eica and Veragua, are peculiar genera. The Salamandridae, so abundant in the Nearctic region, are represented by a few species of Amllystoma and Spelerpes. Fresh-water fish. Since the British Museum catalogue was published, a valuable paper by Dr. Giinther, in the Transactions of the Zoological Society for 1868, furnishes much additional information on the fishes of Central America. In that part of the region south of Mexico, 106 species of fresh- water fishes are CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 55 enumerated ; and 17 of these are found in streams flowing into both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. On the whole, ll'tamilies are represented among the fresh-water fish, and about 38 genera. Of these, 14 are specially Nearctic, Amiurus f (Silmid&) ; Fundu- lus (Cyprinodontidae) ; Sclerognathus (Cyprinida3) ; and Lepidosteus (Ganoidei). A much larger number are Neotropical ; and several Neotropical genera, as Heros and Poecilia, are more largely developed here than in any other part of the region. There are also a considerable number of peculiar genera; Petenia, Theraps, and Ne$trop$us (Chromides) ; jffllurichthys (Siluridae) ; Chalci- nopsis (Charadriiidae) ; Characodon, Belonesox, Pseudoxiphophorus, Platypcecilus, Mollienesia, and Xiphophorus (CyprinodontidaeX A few peculiar Antillean forms are also present ; as Agonostoma (Mugilidae) ; Qambusia and Girardinutys (Cyprinodontidae). The oibher families represented are Percidae (1 genus) ; Pristopomatidae (2 gen.) ; Gobiidae (1 gen.) ; Clupeidae (2 gen.) ; and Gymnotidae (1 genus). On the whole the fish-fauna is typically Neotropical, but with a small infusion of Nearctic forms. There are a considerable proportion of peculiar genera, and almost all the species are distinct from those of other countries. The predominant family is that of the Cyprinodontidae, represented by 12 genera; and the genus Heros (Chromidae) has here its maximum development, containing between thirty and forty species. Dr. Giinther con- siders that a number of sub-faunas can be distinguished, corre- sponding to some extent, with the islands into which the country would be divided by a subsidence of about 2,000 feet. The most important of these divisions is that separating Honduras from Costa Rica, and as it also divides a very marked ornithological fauna we have every reason to believe that such a division must have existed during the latter portion of the tertiary epoch. We shall find some farther evidence of this division in the next class. Insects. The butterflies of various parts of Central America and Mexico, having been largely collected, offer us some valuable evidence as to the relations of this sub-region. Their general character is wholly Neotropical, about one half of the VOL. II. 5 56 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. South American genera being found here. There are also a few peculiar genera, SiS,Drucina (Satyridse) ; Microtia (Nymphalidse) ; Eumceus (Lycsenidae) ; and Eucheira (Pieridse). Clothilda (Nymphalidae) is confined to this sub-region and the Antilles. The majority of the genera range over the whole sub-region from Panama to Mexico, but there are a considerable number, comprising many of the most characteristic South American forms, which do not pass north of Costa Kica or Nicaragua. Such are Lycorea, Iluna, Thyridia, Callithomia, Oleria,aiLd Ceratina, all characteristic South American groups of Danaidse ; Prono- phila and Dynastor (Satyridae) ; Protogonius, Pycina, Prepona, Nica, Uctima, and Colcenis (Nymphalidae) ; Eurybia and Metho- nella (Nemeobiidae) ; Hades, and Panthemos (Erycinidae). Colcoptera. These present some interesting features, but owing to their vast number only a few of the more important families- can be noticed. Cicindelidse. The only specially Neotropical genera recorded as occurring in this sub-region, are Ctenostoma and Hiresia, both reaching Mexico. Carabidae. Several genera are peculiar. Moldbrus is found in all parts of the sub-region, while Onychopterygia, Phymato- cephalus, and Anisotarsus are Mexican only. There are about 20 South American genera, most of which extend to Mexico, and include such characteristic Neotropical forms as Agra, Callida, Coptodera, Pachyteles, Ardistomus, Aspidoglossa, Stenocrepis, and Pelecium. Lucanidse. Of this important family there is, strange to say, not a single species recorded in Gemminger and Harold's cata- logue up to 1868 ! It is almost impossible that they can be really absent; yet their place seems to be, to some extent, supplied by an unusual development of the allied Passalidae, of which there are five South American and six peculiar genera. Cetoniidse. All the larger South American genera extend to Mexico, which country possesses 3 peculiar forms, Ischnoscelis, Psilocnemis, and Dialit/ius-, while Trigonopeltastes is character- istic, having 4 Mexican, 1 Brazilian, and 1 North American species. CHAP. xiv.J THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 57 Buprestidae. In this family there are no peculiar genera. All the large South American groups are absent, the only im- portant and characteristic genus being Stenogaster. Longicorns. This important group is largely developed, the country being well adapted to them ; and their distribution presents some features of interest. In the Prionidae there are 6 peculiar genera, the largest being Holonotus with 3 species ; two others, Derotrachus and Mallaspis, are characteristic ; 3 more are common to South America, and 1 to Cuba. The Cerambycidae are much more numerous, and there are 24 peculiar genera, the most important being Sphenothecus, Entomosterna, and Cyphosterna ; while Crioprosopus and Metalep- tus are characteristic of the sub-region, although extending into South America ; about 12 Neotropical genera extend to Mexico or Guatemala, while 12 more stop short, as far as yet known, at Nicaragua. Lamiidae have a very similar distribution ; 13 genera are peculiar, the most important being Monilema, Hamatoderus, and Carneades, while Phcea and LagocJiirus are characteristic. About sixteen typical Neotropical genera extend to Mexico, and 15 more only reach Nicaragua, among which are such important genera as Anisopus, Lepturgus, and Callia. The land-shells are not sufficiently known to furnish any corresponding results. They are however mostly of South American genera, and have comparatively little affinity for those of the Antilles. . Eelations of the Mexican sub -region to the North and South American Continents. The sudden appearance of numerous South American forms of Edentata in temperate North America, in Post-Tertiary times, as narrated in Chapter VII,, together with such, facts as the occurrence of a considerable number of identical species of sea fish on the two sides of the Central American isthmus, render it almost certain that the union of North and South America is comparatively a recent occur- rance, and that during the Miocene and Pliocene periods, they were separated by a wide arm of the sea. The low country of Nicaragua was probably the part submerged, leaving the highlands of Mexico and Guatemala still united with the North 53 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. American continent, and forming part of the Tertiary " Nearctic region." This is clearly indicated both by the many Nearctic forms which do not pass south of Nicaragua, of which the turkeys (Meleagris) are a striking example, and by the comparative poverty of this area in typical Neotropical groups. During the Miocene period there was not that marked diversity of climate between North and South America that now prevails ; for when a luxuriant vegetation covered what are now the shores of the Arctic Ocean, the country south of the great lakes must have been almost or quite tropical. At an early Tertiary period, the zoological differences of the Nearctic and Neotropical regions were probably more radical than they are now, South America being a huge island, or group of islands a kind of Australia of the New World, chiefly inhabited by the imperfectly organized Edentata ; while North America abounded in Ungulata and Carnivora, and perhaps formed a part of the great Old World continent. There were also one or more very ancient unions (in Eocene or Miocene times) of 'the two continents, admitting of the entrance of the ancestral types of Quadrumana into South America, and, somewhat later, of the Camelidae ; while the isthmus south of Nicaragua "was at one time united to the southern continent, at another made insular by subsidence near Panama, and thus obtained that rich variety of Neotropical types that still characterises it. When the final union of the two continents took place, the tropical climate of the lower portions of Guatemala and Mexico would invite rapid immigration from the south ; while some northern forms would extend their range into and beyond the newly elevated territory. The Mexican sub-region has therefore a composite character, and we must not endeavour too rigidly to determine its northern limits, nor claim as exclusively Neotro- pical, forms which are perhaps comparatively recent immigrants ; and it would perhaps be a more accurate representation of the facts, if we were to consider all the highlands of Mexico and Guatemala above the limits of the tropical forests, as still belonging to the Nearctic region, of which the whole country so recently formed a part. The long-continued separation of North and South America CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 59 by one or more arms of the sea, as above indicated, is further rendered necessary by the character of the molluscan fauna of the Pacific shores of tropical America, which is much more closely allied to that of the Caribbean sea, and even of West Africa, than to that of the Pacific islands. The families and many of the genera are the same, and a certain proportion of very closely allied or identical species, shows that the union of the two oceans continued into late Tertiary times. When the evidence of both land and sea animals support each other as they do here, the conclusions arrived at are almost as certain as if we had (as we no doubt some day shall have) geological proof of these successive subsidences. Islands of the Mexican Sub-region. The only islands of interest belonging to this sub-region, are Tres Marias and Socorro, recently investigated by Col. Grayson for some of the American Natural History societies. Tres Marias consist of four small islands lying off the coast of north-western Mexico, about 70 miles from San Bias. The largest is about 15 miles long by 10 wide. They are of horizon- tally stratified deposits, of moderate height and flat-topped, and everywhere covered with luxuriant virgin forests. They appear to lie within the 100 fathom line of soundings. Fifty- two species of birds, of which 45 were land-birds, were collected on these islands. They consisted of 19 Passeres; 11 Picarise (7 being humming-birds) ; 10 Accipitres ; 2 parrots; and 3 pigeons. All were Mexican species except 4, which were new, and presumably peculiar to the islands, and one tolerably marked variety. The new species belong to the following genera; Parula and Granatellus (Mniotiltidse) ; Icterus (Icteridse) ; and Amazilia (Trochilidse). A small Psittacula differs somewhat from the same species on the mainland. There are a few mammalia on the islands ; a rabbit (Lepus) supposed to be new; a very small opossum (Didelphys)} and a racoon (Procyon). There are also several tree-snakes, a Boa, and many lizards. The occurrence of so many mammalia and snakes is a proof that these islands have been once joined to the main- land ; but the fact that some of the species of both birds and 60 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. mammals are peculiar, indicates that the separation is not a very recent one. At the same time, as all the species are very closely allied to those of the opposite coasts when not identical, we may he sure that the subsidence which isolated them is not geologi- cally remote. Socorro, the largest of the Revillagigedo Islands, is altogether different from the Tres Marias. It is situated a little further south (19 S. Latitude), and about 300 miles from the coast, in deep water. It is about 2,000 feet high, very rugged and bare, and wholly volcanic. No mammalia were observed, and no reptiles but a small lizard, a new species of a genus (Uta) characteristic of the deserts of N. -Western Mexico. The only observed land-shell (Orthalicus undatus) also inhabits N.-W. Mexico. Only 14 species of birds were obtained, of which 9 were land-birds ; but of these 4 were new species, one a peculiar variety, and another (Parula insular is) a species first found in the Tres Marias. With the exception of this bird and a Buteo, all the land-birds belonged to different genera from any found on the Tres Marias, though all were Mexican forms. The peculiar species belonged to the genera HarporJiynchus (Turdidse) ; Trog- lodytes (Troglodytidse) ; Pipilo (Fringillidae) ; Zenaidura (Colum- bidse) ; and a variety of Conurus holochrous (Psittacidse). The absence of mammals and snakes, the large proportion of peculiar species, the wholly volcanic nature of these islands, and their situation in deep water 300 miles from land, all indicate that they have not formed part of the continent, but have been raised in the ocean; and the close relation of their peculiar species to those living in N.-Western Mexico, renders it pro- bable that their antiquity is not geologically great. The Cocos Islands, about 300 miles S.-W. of the Isthmus of Panama, are known to possess one peculiar bird, a cuckoo of the Coccyzus type, which is considered by some ornithologists to con- stitute a peculiar genus, Nesococcyx. IV. The West Indian Islands, or Antillean Sub-region. The West Indian islands are, in many respects, one of the most interesting of zoological sub-regions. In position they CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 61 form an unbroken chain uniting North and South America, in a line parallel to the great Central American isthmus ; yet instead of exhibiting an intermixture of the productions of Florida and Venezuela, they differ widely from both these countries, possessing in some groups a degree of speciality only to be found elsewhere in islands far removed from any continent. They consist of two very large islands, Cuba and Hayti ; 1 two of moderate size, Jamaica and Portorico ; and a chain of much smaller islands, St. Croix, Anguilla, Barbuda, Antigua, Guadeloupe, Dominica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Barbadoes, and Grenada, with a host of intervening islets. Tobago, Trinidad, Margarita, and CuraQao, are situated in shallow water near the coast of South America, of which they form part zoologically. To the north of Cuba and Hayti are the Bahamas, an extensive group of coral reefs and islands, 700 miles long, and although very poor in animal life, belonging zoologically to the Antilles. All the larger islands, and most of the smaller ones (except those of coral formation) are very mountainous and rocky, the chains rising to about 8,000 feet in Hayti and Jamaica, and to nearly the same height in Cuba. All, except where they have been cleared by man, are covered with a luxuriant forest vegetation ; the temperature is high and uniform ; the rains ample ; the soil, derived from granitic and limestone rocks, exceedingly fertile ; and as the four larger islands together are larger than Great Britain, we might expect an ample and luxuriant fauna. The reverse is however the case ; and there are probably no land areas on the globe, so highly favoured by nature in all the essentials for supporting animal life, and at the same time so poor in all the more highly organised groups of animals. Before entering upon our sketch of the main features of this peculiar but limited fauna, it will be well to note a few peculiarities in the physical structure of the islands, which have an important bearing on their past 1 This name will be used for the whole island of St. Domingo, as being both shorter and more euphonious, and avoiding all confusion with Dominica, one of the Lesser Antilles. It is also better known than " Hispaniola," which is perhaps the most correct name. 62 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. history, and will enable us to account for much that is peculiar in the general character of their natural productions. If we draw a line immediately south of St. Croix and St. Bartholomew, we shall divide the Archipelago into two very different groups. The southern range of islands, or the Lesser Antilles, are, almost without exception, volcanic ; beginning with the small detached volcanoes of Saba and St. Eustatius, and ending with the old volcano of Grenada. Barbuda and Antigua are low islands of Tertiary or recent formation, connected with the volcanic islands by a submerged bank at no great depth. The islands to the north and west are none of them volcanic ; many are very large, and these have all a central nucleus of ancient or granitic rocks. We must also note, that the channels between these islands are not of excessive depth, and that their outlines, as well as the direction of their mountain ranges, point to a former union. Thus, the northern range of Hayti is continued westward in Cuba, and eastward in Portorico ; while the south-western peninsula extends in a direct line towards Jamaica, the depth between them being 600 fathoms. Between Portorico and Hayti there is only 250 fathoms; while close to the south of all these islands the sea is enormously deep, from more than 1,000 fathoms south of Cuba and Jamaica, to 2,000 south of Hayti, and 2,600 fathoms near the south-east extremity of Portorico. The importance of the division here pointed out will be seen, when we state, that indigenous mammalia of pecu- liar genera are found on the western group of islands only; and it is on these that all the chief peculiarities of Antillian zoology are developed. Mammalia. The mammals of the West Indian Islands are exceedingly few, but very interesting. Almost all the orders most characteristic of South America are absent. There are no monkeys, no carnivora, no edentata. Besides bats, which are abundant, only two orders are represented ; rodents, by peculiar forms of a South American family ; and insectivora (an order entirely wanting in South America) by a genus belonging to a family largely developed in Madagascar and found -nowhere else. The early voyagers mention " Coatis " and " Agoutis " as being CHAP. xiv.J THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 63 found in Hayti and the other large islands, and it is not im- probable that species allied to Nasua and Dasypructa did exist, and have been destroyed by the dogs of the invaders ; though, on the other hand, these names may have been applied to the existing species, which do bear some general resemblance to these two forms. The Chiroptera, or bats, are represented by a large number of species and by several peculiar genera. The American, family of Phyllostomidse or vampires, has six genera in the Antilles, of which three, Loncho^ina, Brachyphylla, and Phyllonycteris, are peculiar, the latter being found only in Cuba. The Vesperti- lionidae have four genera, of which one, Nydicellus, is confined to Cuba. There are six genera of Noctilionidse, of which one, Phyllodia, is confined to Jamaica. The Insectivora ' are represented by the genus Solenodon, of which two species are known, t one inhabiting Cuba, the other Hayti. These are small animals about the size of a cat, with long shrew-like snout, bare rat-like tail, and long claws. Their peculiar dentition and other points of their anatomy shows that they belong to the family Centetidse, of which five different genera inhabit Madagascar; while there is nothing closely allied to them in any other part of the world but in these two islands. Seals are said to be found on the shores of some of the islands, but they are very imperfectly known. The rodents belong to the family Octodontidse, or, according to some authors, to the Echimyidse, both characteristic South American groups. They consist of two genera, Capromys, con- taining three or four species inhabiting Cuba and Jamaica; while Plagiodontia (very closely allied) is confined to Hayti. A peculiar mouse, a species of the American genus Hesperomys, is said to inhabit Hayti and Martinique, and probably other islands. A Dasyprocta or agouti, closely allied to, if not identical with, a South American species, inhabits St. Vincent, St. Lucia, and Grenada, and perhaps St. Thomas, and is the only mammal of any size indigenous to the Lesser Antilles. All the islands in which sugar is cultivated are, however, overrun with European rats and mice, and it is not improbable that these may have 64 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGKAPHY. [PART in. starved out and exterminated some of the smaller native rodents. Birds. The birds of the Antilles, although very inferior in number and variety to those of the mainland, are yet suffi- ciently abundant and remarkable, to offer us good materials for elucidating the past history of the country, when aided by such indications as geology and physical geography can afford. The Jotal number of land-birds which are permanent residents in the West India islands is, as nearly as can be ascertained from existing materials, 203. There are, in addition to this number, according to Prof. Baird, 88 migrants from North America, which either spend the winter in some of the islands or pass on to Central or South America. These migrants belong to 55 genera, and it is an interesting fact that so many as 40 of these genera have no resident representatives in the islands. This is important, as showing that this northern migration is probably a recent and superficial phenomenon, and has not produced any (or a very slight) permanent effect on the fauna. The migratory genera which have permanent residents, and almost always representative species, in the islands, are in most cases character- istic rather of the Neotropical than of the Nearctic fauna, as the following list will show; Turdus, Dendrceca, Vireo, Polioptila, Agelceus, Icterus, Contopus, Myiarchm, Tyrannus, Antrostomus, Chordeiles, Coccyzus, Columba. By far the larger part of these birds visit Cuba only ; 81 species being recorded as occurring in that island, while only 31 have been found in Jamacia, 12 in Porto Eico and St. Croix, and 2 in Tobago and Trinidad. Setting aside these migratory birds, as having no bearing on the origin of the true Antillean fauna, we will discuss the residents somewhat in detail. The resident land-birds (203 in number) belong to 95 genera and 26 families. Of these families 15 are cosmopolitan or nearly so Turdidae, Sylviidae, Corvidse, Hirundinidae, Frin- gillidae, Picidae, Cuculidae, Caprimulgidse, Cypselidse, Trogonidse, Psittacidae, Columbidse, Tetraonidae, Falconidse, and Strigidse; 5 are American only Vireonidae, Mniotiltidae, Tcteridae, Tyran- nidae, Trochilidae ; 4 are Netropical only or almost exclusively HAP. xiv. J THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 65 Coerebidae, Tanagridae, Cotingidae, Conuridae ; 1 is Antillean only Todidae ; while 1 Ampelidae is confined (in the western hemisphere) to North America, and almost to the Nearctic region. Of the 95 genera, no less than 31, or almost exactly one-third, are peculiar ; while of the 203 resident species, 177 are peculiar, the other 26 being all inhabitants of South or Central America. Considering how closely the islands approach the continent in several places Florida, Yucatan, and Venezuela this amount of speciality in such locomotive creatures as birds, is probably unexampled in any other part of the globe. The most interesting of these peculiar genera are the following: 4 of Turdidae, or thrushes 1 confined to the large islands, 1 to the whole archipelago, while 2 are limited to the Lesser Antilles ; 2 'genera of Tanagridae, confined to the larger islands ; 2 of Trogonidae, also confined to the larger islands ; 5 of humming- birds, 3 confined to the Greater, 1 to the Lesser Antilles ; 2 of cuckoos, one represented in all the large islands, the other in Jamaica only 1 ; 2 of owls, one peculiar to Jamaica, the other represented in St. Croix, St. Thomas, Portorico, and Cuba ; and lastly, Todus, constituting a peculiar family, and having repre- sentative species in each of the larger islands is especially interesting because it belongs to a group of families which are wholly Neotropical the Momotidae, Galbulidae. and Todidae. The presence of this peculiar form, with 2 trogons; 10 species of parrots, all but one peculiar; 16 peculiar humming-birds belonging to 8 genera ; a genus of Cotingidae ; 10 peculiar tanagers belonging to 3 genera ; 9 Coerebidae of 3 genera : together with species of such exclusively Netropical genera as Ccereba, Certhiola, Sycalis, Phonipara, Elainea, Pitangus, Campe- philus, Chloronerpes, Nyctibius, Stenopsis, Lampornis, Calypte, Ara, GTirysotis, Zenaida, Leptoptila, and Geotrygon, sufficiently demonstrate the predominant affinities of this fauna ; although there are many cases in which it is difficult to say, whether the ancestors of the peculiar genera or species may not have been derived from the Nearctic rather than from the Neotropical region. The several islands differ considerably in their apparent pro- 66 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. ductiveness, but this is, no doubt, partly due to our knowledge of Cuba and Jamaica being much more complete than of Havti. The species of resident land-birds at present known are as follows : Cuba 68 species, of which 40 are peculiar to it. Hayti 40 17 Jamaica 67 41 Portonco 40 15 Lesser Antilles 45 24 If we count the peculiar genera of each island, and reckon as (J) when a genus is common to two islands only, the numbers are as follows : Cuba 7j, Hayti 3J, Jamaica 8J, Portorico 1, Lesser Antilles 3J. These figures show us, that although Jamaica is one of the smaller and the most isolated of the four chief islands, it yet stands in the first rank, both for the number of its species and of its peculiar forms of birds, and although this superiority may be in part due to its having been more investigated, it is probably not wholly so, since Cuba has also been well explored. This fact indicates, that the West Indian islands have undergone great changes, and that they were not peopled by immigration from surrounding countries while in the condition we now see them ; for in that case the smaller and more remote islands would be very much poorer, while Cuba, which is not only the largest, but nearest to the mainland in two directions, would be immensely richer, just as it really is in migratory birds. The number of birds common to the four larger islands is very small probably not more than half a dozen ; between 20 and 30 are common to some two of the islands (counting the Lesser Antilles as one island) and a few to three ; but the great mass of the species (at least 140) are confined each to some one of the five islands or groups we have indicated. This is an amount of isolation and speciality, probably not to be equalled else- where, and which must have required a remarkable series of physical changes to bring about. What those changes probably were, we shall be in a better position to consider when we have completed our survey of the various classes of land animals. . PLATE XVII. A SCENE IN CUBA, WITH CHARACTERISTIC ANIMALS. CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL EEGION. 57 In the preceding enumeration the Bahamas have been included with Cuba, as regards the birds they have in common ; but they possess some half dozen species not found elsewhere, and even one Central American genus of humming-birds (Doricha) not found in any other part of the Antilles. We have thus given Cuba rather more peculiar species than it really possesses, so that the proportionate richness of Jamaica is rather greater than shown by our figures. The destruction of the forests and the increase of population, with, perhaps, the use of firearms, seem to have led to the extermination of some species of birds in the smaller islands. Professor Newton has called attention to the work of M. Ledru, who, in 1796, described the birds of St. Thomas. He mentions a parrot and a parroquet in the island, the latter only being now known, and very scarce ; also a green pigeon and a tody, both now unknown. No less than six species of parrots are said to have been formerly found in Guadeloupe and Martinique, which are now extinct. Plate XVII. Illustrating ike peculiar Mammalia and Birds of the Antilles. The scene of this illustration is Cuba, the largest of the West Indian islands, and one in which all its peculiar zoological features are well developed. In the foreground is the agouta (Solenodon cubanus), a remarkable insectivorous animal which, with another species inhabiting Hayti, lias no allies on the American continent; nor anywhere in the world but in Madagascar, where a group of animals are found constituting the family Centetidse, to which Solenodon is said undoubtedly to belong. Above it are a pair of hutias (Capromys fournieri), rat-like animals belonging to the South American family Octo- dontidse. They live in the forests, and climb trees readily, eating all kinds of vegetable food. Three species of the genus are known, which are found only in Cuba and Jamaica. Just above these animals is a white-breasted trogon (Prionoteles temnurus), confined to Cuba, and the only species of the genus. Near the top of the picture are a pair of todies (Todus multicolor), singular little insectivorous birds allied to the motmots, but forming* a very distinct family which is confined to the islands of the 68 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Greater Antilles. They are beautifully-coloured birds, green above, red and white beneath, and are exceedingly active in their movements. To the right are a pair of small humming-birds (Sporadinus ricordi), not very remarkable in this beautiful family, but introduced here because they belong to a genus which is confined to the Greater Antilles. Table of distribution of West-Indian Birds. As the birds of the West- Indian islands are particularly interesting and their peculiarities comparatively little known, we give here a table of the genera of land-birds, compiled from all available sources of information. * Owing to the numerous independent observations on which it is founded, the discrepancies of nomenclature, and uncertainty in some cases as to the locality of species, it can only be looked upon as an approximative summary of the existing materials on Antillean ornithology. TABLE OF THE RESIDENT LAND-BIRDS OF THE ANTILLES. NOTE. Genera confined to the West Indies are in Italics. An (a) after (1) indicates a species common to two islands : but where there are two or more species in an island, or the localities are doubtful, this indication cannot be given. All species not otherwise noted are peculiar t the Antilles. Number of Species in each Island. 1 Family and Genus. 1 < l| a || Remarks. 1 I 1 I b J 3 j. TURDIDJS. Turdus Mimocichla, .. 2 1 1 1 1 1 5 Five species migrate to Cuba Margarops .. Rhamphocincliw . . Cinclocerthia.. . . la la 3 1 3 4 1 3 Martinique, St. Lucia, Guada. Martinique and St. Lucia Nevis to St. Lucia Mimus 1 1 1 (?) 3 Another species migrates to the Antilles SYLVIID.E. Myiadestes 1 1 1 3 St. Lucia Polioptila 1 1 CHAP. XIV.J THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 69 Family and Genus. lumber of Species in each Island. jf Remarks. 1 j 1 Jamaica. IPortorico & St. Croix. I 1 VIREONID.E. Vireosylvia Vireo ... 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 4 One S. American species Five species migrate to Cuba Laletes 1 1 Phasnicomanes 1 1 CORVIDJS. Corvus 1 la 1 la 3 Cyanocorax 1 1 S. American species MNIOTILTHXE. Perissoglossa Dendroeca 1 2 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 7 N. American species Twelve sp. migrate to W.I. Teretristis 2 2 C03REBID.E. Certhiola 1 1 1 2 2 7 Dominica and Martinique Glossiptila 1 1 Ccereba 1 1 S. American species AMPELID2E. Dulus (?) 1 (?) (?) (?) 2 One species locality unknown HlRUNDINID^!. Progne 1 1 1 1 Pterochelidon 1 1 1 1 Hirundo 1 la la 2 One S. American species TANAGRID.E. Euphonia la la 1 1 1 4 St. Bartholom. & Martinique Spindalis 2 1 1 1 5 Ptysenicophilus 1 1 Saltator 1 1 Guadeloupe and St. Lucia FRINGILLID.E. Loxigilla 1 1 1 3 Martinique and Dominica Melopyrrha 1 1 Sycalis 1 1 S. American species Phonipara 3 3 3 2 4 One S. American species Chrysomitris 1 1 ICTERIC. Icterus 1 1 1 2 2 6 Agelseus 2 1 3 Sturnella 1 1 Mexican species Nesopsar 1 1 Scolecophagus Quiscalus 1 1 1 2 2 1 4 St. Lucia, Martinique, and 1 Barbadoes 70 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART n Family and Genus. Dumber of Species in each Island a 11 3% H Remarks. U 1 I Jamaica. Porto rico | ft St. Croix. sl jf TTRANNID^E. Elainea 2 1 3 Pitangus la la 1 2 Contopus Myiarchus 2 1 1 3 1 1 16 2 7 St. Lucia One S. American species (b) Blaticus la la 1 2 Tyrannus 2 16 16 26 3 One sp. in Cen. America (6) COTINGID.E. Hadrostomus 1 1 PICIDJE. Campephilus 1 1 Xiphidiopicus. 1 1 Melanerpes - 1 1 Chloronerpes 1 ' 1 Centurus 1 1 1 3 Colaptes 2 2 Nesoceleus 1 1 Picumnus 11 1 CUCULID2B. Saurothera 1 1 1 1 4 Hyetornis 1 1 2 Coccygus 1 2 1 1 1 3 Dominica, St. Lucia, all Neo- Crotophaga 1 1 1 1 2 tropical species "N". & Cen. American species TODID.B. Todus 1 1 2 1 5 TROGONID^. Prionoteles 1 1 Temnotrogon 1 1 CAPKIMTTLGID.S:. Nyctibius Chordeiles ' 1 1 1 1 Neotropical species Antrostomus 2 1 1 2 One Neotropical species Siphonorhis . 1 1 Stenopsis 1 1 Martinique (S. America sp.) CYPSEUD.B. Cypselus 1 1 1 Panyptila Hemiprocne 1 1 1 1 1 S. American species Mexican species 4 Cy'pselofdes *- 1 1 CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTKOPICAL KEGION. 71 Number of Species in each Island. -*> . ( 3 Family and Genus. M Jo a < . SI Remarks d c$ :d 3 c sl *& 1 O 1 & I l r 2 TBQCHIIJDA Lampomis la i 2a la 3 Doricha 2 2 Eulampis 1 2 2 St. Croix, Dominica, St. Aithurus i 1 Lucia, Martinique Mellisuga la la 1 Calypte Orthorhynchus 1 1 2 1 3 Domin., Martini., St. Lucia Sporadiniis 1 1 1 3 CONURID2B. Ara . Conurus 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 S. American species St. Thomas Chrysotis I 1 2 1 3 8 COLUMBIA. Columba Chamaepelia 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 One in Honduras Zenaida 1 1 1 1 2 2 Leptoptila Geotrygon 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 5 St. Lucia, Martinique, one StttTnosncis 1 i species Mexican TETRAONID.E. X Ortyx 1 1 FALCONIP.E. Accipiter 2 2 Hypotriorchis Cerchneis 2 1 1 ' 1 1 2 Mexican species Cymindis 1 1 Polyburus 1 - 1 Mexican species STRIGID2B. Nyctalops Pseudoscops 1 1 1 1 S. American species Gymnoglaux Glaucidium 1 1 1 - 2 1 St. Croix and St. Thomas /"Number of fami lies < )f res idenl lane 1-bird i s in the Antilles . 26 TOTALS < genera ,, 95 1 ,, species ,, ,, 203 , VOL. II. 6 72 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Reptiles and Amphibia. These classes not having been systematically collected, and the numerous described genera not having undergone careful revision, little trustworthy information can be derived from them. The following enumeration of the chief groups hitherto noticed or described, will, however, show very similar features to those presented by the birds a general relation to Neotropical forms, a more special relation to those of Central America and Mexico, and a considerable number of peculiar types. Snakes. Arrhyton (Calamariidae) from Cuba, Hypsirhynchus from Barbadoes, Cryptodacus from Cuba, laltris from Hayti, and Coloragia from Cuba (all Colubridse), have been described as genera peculiar to the Antilles. Phylodryas and Dromicus (Colubridse) are Antillean and Neotropical; Ahcetulla (Den- drophidae) has the same distribution but extends to tropical Africa ; Epicrates and Corallus (Pythonidse) are Neotropical and Antillean ; while Chilabothrus from Jamaica and Ungalia from Cuba and Jamaica (both Pythonidaa) are found elsewhere only in Central America and Mexico. There appear to be no Crotalidse except an introduced species of Craspedocephalw in St. Lucia. Lizards are more numerous. Ameiva (Teidse) is found all over America. Gerrhonotus (Zonuridae) is Neotropical and occurs in Cuba ; Gymnopihalmus is South American and Antillean. Of Scincidee seven genera are noted. Celestus (with 9 species) is peculiar to the Antilles ; Camilia (1 species) to Jamaica, Panoplus (1 species) and Embryopus (1 species) to Hayti; Diplogossm is Antillean and South American ; while Plestiodon and Malouya are cosmopolite. Of Geckotidae there are four genera ; Phyllo- dactylus and Hemidactyhis which are cosmopolite ; Sphcerodactylus which is wholly American ; and Cubina found only in Martinique and Brazil. Of Iguanidae there are six genera ; Anolis, which ranges all over America ; Polychrus, which is Neotropical ; Iguana and iocephalus which are South American ; Tropedurus found in Cuba and Brazil; and Cyclura only known from Jamaica, Cuba, and Central America. Amphibia. The genus Trachycephalus, belonging to the CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 73 Hylidse or tropical tree-frogs, is almost peculiar to the Antilles ; Cuba, Hayti, and Jamaica possessing seven species, while only one is recorded from South America. Other genera are, Pelta- phryne (Bufonidse) from Portorico ; Phyllobates (Polypedatidie) from Cuba ; Leiuperus (Eanidae) from Hayti, all Neotropical. Of the Urodela, or tailed batrachians, no representative occurs, although they are so characteristic a feature of the Nearctic region. Fresh-water fish. The same general remarks apply to these as to the reptiles. Only one peculiar genus is noted Lebistes, a form of Cyprinodontid from Barbadoes ; other genera of the same family being, Haplochilus, Rivulus, and Girardinus, widely spread in the Neotropical region ; while Gambusia is confined to Central America, Mexico, and the Antilles. Four other families are represented; Siluridse by Chcetostomus, found in Portorico and South America ; Chromidse by the South American A car a ; Mugillidse by the Central American Agonostoma ; and Percidse by the North American Centrarchus, of which a species is recorded from Cuba. Insects. The various West Indian islands have not been well explored entomologically ; one reason no doubt being, that their comparative poverty renders them little attractive to the pro- fessional collector, while the abounding riches of Central and South America lie so near at hand. "We can, therefore, hardly tell whether the comparative poverty, or even total absence of some families while others seem fairly represented, is a real phenomenon of distribution, or only dependent on imperfect knowledge. Bearing this in mind, we proceed to give a sketch of what is known of the chief groups of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera. Lepidoptera. -The Neotropical butterfly-fauna is but poorly represented, the majority of the most remarkable types being entirely wanting ; yet there are a few p'eculiar and very charac- teristic forms which show great isolation, while the majority of the species are peculiar. Four genera are exclusively or charac- teristically Antillean, Oalisto belonging to the Satyridae, with four species, of which one ranges to South Carolina; Clothilda 74 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [I-ART IIL (Nymphalidee) a fine genus which has 4 Antillean species and 2 in Central America ; Lucinia (Nymphalidae) 2 species, confined to Jamaica and Hayti ; and Kricogonia belonging to the Pieridae, which has 2 West Indian species, while 1 inhabits Mexico and Florida. Genera which show a special relation to Central America are Uuptoieta, Eumcem, and Nathalis. Almost all the other genera are South American, the total number recorded in each family as occurring in the West Indian islands, being, 3 of Danaidse ; 1 of Heliconiidae ; 2 of Satyridae ; 18 of Nymphalidse ; 1 of Erycinidae ; 4 of Lycaenidae ; 6 of Pieridse ; 1 of Papilio- nidae, and 10 of Hesperidae. The genus* Papilio is represented by about 20 species, 2 of which are North American, 4 South American, while the rest form little characteristic groups allied to those of Central America. The most marked feature seems to be the scarcity of Satyridae and the almost total absence of Erycinidee, with a great deficiency in characteristic Neotropical forms of Danaidae and Nymphalidae. Coleoptera. Cicindelidse and Carabida? are very poorly repre- sented, by a few species of wide-spread groups, and hardly any peculiar genera. No Lucanidae are recorded. Of Cetoniidae, Gymnetis only appears to be represented. Buprestidae seem to be more numerous ; 15 genera being recorded, but almost all of wide distribution. One only is peculiar Tetragonoschoma, found in Hayti ; Halecia is the only exclusively South American genus ; Chculcophora is widely scattered over the tropical regions but is absent from South America, yet it occurs in the Nearctic region and extends to Jamaica and Guadeloupe. We now come to the Longicorns, the only group of Coleoptera which seems to be well represented, or which has been carefully collected. No less than 40 genera are known from the West Indian islands, and 15 of these are peculiar. Prionidae are proportionately very numerous, there being 10 genera, 2 of which are widely dis- tributed in both South and North America, 1 is North American, and 1 South American, while the following are peculiar, Stenodontes (Hayti and Cuba) ; Dendroblaptus (Cuba) ; Mono- desmus (Cuba and Jamaica) ; Prosternodes (Cuba) ; Solenoptera and Elateropsis, the two largest genera, found in most of the CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 75 islands. Of Cerambycidse there are 16 genera, 2 of which range all over America, 4 are Neotropical, 1 South American only, while the following are confined to the islands, Merostenus, Pentomacrus, and Eburiola (Jamaica) ; Bromiades (Cuba) ; Trichrous, Heterops, and Pceciloderma (Antilles). One genus, Smodicum, is widely spread, having a species in Carolina, 1 in South America, 1 in Hayti, and 1 in West Africa. Of Lamiidse there are 14 genera, 8 of which are Neotropical, 1 common to Central America and Mexico, 1 to the United States and Cuba, while 2, Proecha and Phidola, are confined to Cuba. Several of the genera are curiously distributed \-Spalacopsis is South American, with 4 species in Cuba and Tropical Africa ; Lago- cheirus is Neotropical, with a species in Australia ; while Lepto- st^lus is characteristic of the Antilles and North America, with a few species in South America, and one in New Zealand. These cases of erratic distribution, so opposed to the general series of phenomena among which they occur, must be held to be sufficiently explained by the great antiquity of these groups and their former wide distribution. They may be supposed to be the remnants of types, now dying out, which were once, like Callichroma, Clytus, and many others, almost universally dis- tributed. All the peculiar Antillean genera of Cerambycidse and La- miidae are allied to Neotropical forms. The peculiar Prionidae, however, are mostly allied to Mexican and North American groups, and one, Monodesmus, belongs to a group all the other genera of which inhabit the East Indies and South Africa. Land-shells. This subject has already been generally treated under the Region, of which, in this class of animals, the Antilles form so important a part. We must therefore now confine our- selves mainly to the internal distribution of the genera, and to a few remarks on the general bearing of the facts. The excessive and altogether unexampled productiveness of the West Indian islands in land-shells, may be traced to two main sets of causes. The first and least known, consist of the peculiar influences and conditions which render islands always more productive than continents. Whatever these conditions 76 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGEAPHY. [PART in. are, they will be more effective where the islands have been long separated from the mainland, as is here undoubtedly the case. It seems most probable that the great development of land- shells in islands, is due to the absence or deficiency of the verte- brata, which on continents supply a variety of species adapted to prey upon these molluscs. This view is supported by the fact, that in such islands as have been united to a continent at no very distant epoch, and still maintain a continental variety of vertebrata, no such special development of land-shells has taken place. If we compare the Philippine islands with the Sunda group, we find the development of vertebrata and land-molluscs in inverse ratio to each other. The same thing occurs if we compare New Zealand and Tasmania ; and we have a still more striking example in the Antillean group itself, continental Trinidad having only 20 genera and 38 species, while the highly insular Jamaica has about 30 genera and more than 500 species. The other causes favourable to the increase and development of land- shells are of a physical nature. A great extent of lime- stone-rock is one ; and in the larger West Indian islands we have a considerable proportion of the surface consisting of this rock. But perhaps equally or more important, is the character of the land surface, and the texture of the exposed rock itself. A much broken surface, with numerous deep ravines, cutting up the whole country into isolated valleys and ridges, seems' very favourable to the specialization of forms in this very sedentary class of animals. Equally favourable is a honeycombed and highly-fissured rock-surface, affording everywhere cracks and crannies for concealment. Now, taking Jamaica as an example of the archipelago, we find all these conditions in a wonderful degree. Over a large part of this island, a yard of level ground can hardly be found ; but ridges, precipices, ravines, and rock- bound valleys, succeed each other over the whole country. At least five-sixths of the entire surface is limestone, and under the influence of tropical rains this rock is worn, fissured, and honey- combed, so as to afford ample shelter and concealment for land- shells. CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL KEGION. 77 It is probable that the three chief islands, Cuba, Jamaica, and Hayti, are nearly equally rich in land-shells; but the last is very much less known, and therefore, perhaps, appears to be much poorer. Cuba has rather more species than Jamaica ; but while the former has only 1 peculiar genus (Diplopoma), the latter has 3 (Geomelania, Chittya, and Jamaicea), as well as two others only represented in the other islands by single species. From Hayti, only about one-third as many species are known as from the two former islands. It has no peculiar genera, but it has some forms in common with Cuba and others with Jamaica, which show that those islands have more connec- tion with it, than witji each other ; just as we found to be the case in birds. Portorico and the Virgin islands have still fewer species than Hayti ; and, as many of the genera common to the other three islands are wanting, there is, no doubt, here a real deficiency. In the islands farther south (Barbuda to Martinique) more Antillean genera disappear or become very rare, while some continental forms take their place. The islands from St. Lucia to Trinidad have a still more continental character ; the genus Bulimus, so largely developed on the continent, only reaching St. Lucia. The Bahamas contain about 80 species of land-shells, of which 25 are Antillean, the rest peculiar ; all the genera being Antillean. The affinity is chiefly with Hayti and Cuba, but closest with the latter island. In the West Indian islands as a whole, there are 11 peculiar genera ; 9 operculate (Geomelania, Chittya, Jamaicea, Licina, Choanopoma, Ctenopoma, Diplopoma, Stoastoma, Lucidella) ; and 2 inoperculate (Sagda and Stenopus), besides Cyclostomus, which belongs to the Old World and is not found . on the American continent. Mr. Bland considers, that many of the Antillean land-shells exhibit decided African and Asiatic, rather than South American affinities. A species of the Asiatic genus Diplommatina has been found in Trinidad, and an Indian species of Ennea occurs in Grenada and St. Thomas ; a clear indication that land-shells are liable to be accidentally imported, and to become established in the less productive islands. Although these islands are so wonderfully rich even now, 78 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. there is good reason to believe that many species have become extinct since the European occupation of them. When small islands are much cultivated, many of these molluscs which can only live under the shade of forests, are soon extirpated. In St. Croix many species have become extinct at a comparatively recent period, from the burning of forests ; and as we know that in all the islands many of the species are excessively local, being often confined to single valleys or ridges, we may be sure that wherever the native forests have disappeared before the hand of man, numbers of land -shells have disappeared with them. As some of the smaller islands have been almost denuded of their wood, and in the larger ones extensive tracts have been cleared for sugar cultivation, a very considerable number of species have almost certainly been exterminated. General Conclusions as to the, Past History of the West Indian Islands. The preceding sketch of the peculiarities of the animal life of these islands, enables us to state, that it represents the remains of an ancient fauna of decided Neotropical type, having on the whole most resemblance to that which now inhabits the Mexican sub-region. The number of peculiar genera in all classes of animals is so great in proportion to those in common with the adjacent mainland, as to lead us to conclude that, subsequent to the original separation from the Mexican area, a very large tract of land existed, calculated to support a rich and varied fauna, and, by the interaction of competing types, give rise to peculiar and specially modified organisms. We have already shown that the outline of the present islands and the depths of the surrounding seas, give indications of the position and extent of this ancient land ; which not improbably occupied the space enclosed by uniting Western Cuba with Yucatan, and Jamaica with the Mosquito Coast. This land must have stretched eastward to include Anguilla, and probably northward to include the whole of the Bahamas. At one time it perhaps extended southward so as to unite Hayti with northern Venezuela, while Panama and Costa Eica were sunk beneath the Pacific. At this time the Lesser Antilles had no existence. The only large island of whose geology we have any detailed CHAP. xiv.J THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 79 account, is Jamaica ; and taking this as a type of what will probably be found in Cuba and Hayti, we must place the continental period as having occurred after the close of the Miocene, or during some part of the Pliocene epoch, since a large portion of the surface of the former island consists of beds of marine limestone from 2,000 to 3,000 thick, believed to be of Pliocene age. After some time, the land between Hayti and South America subsided, and still later that between Central America and Cuba with Jamaica; but a large tract of land remained insulated, and no doubt supported a very much richer and more varied fauna than now. We have evidence of this in extinct Mammalia of large size, belonging to the peculiar South American family of the chinchillas, which have been found in caves in the small islands of Anguilla, and which, from the character of the land-shells associated with them, are believed to be of Pliocene or Post-pliocene age. This discovery is most interesting, and gives promise of very valuable results from the exploration of the numerous caverns that undoubtedly exist in the abundant limestone strata of the larger islands. This extensive Antillean land, after long continuing undivided, was at length broken up by subsidence into several islands; but as this alone would not account for the almost complete annihilation of the mammalian fauna, it seems probable that the subsidence was continued much farther, so as greatly to reduce the size and increase the number of the islands. This is indicated, by the extensive alluvial plains in Cuba and Hayti, and to a less extent in Jamaica ; and by elevated beds of Post-pliocene marls in the latter island. The series of changes now suggested, will account for all the main features of the Antillean fauna in its relations to that of the American continent. There remains the affinity with Madagascar, indicated by Sofmodon, and a few cases of African and Asiatic affinity in insects and land-shells ; but these are far too scanty to call for any attempt at special explanation. Such cases of remote affinity and discontinuous distribution, occur in all the regions, and in almost every group of animals ; and we look upon them almost all, as cases of survival, under favourable 80 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. conditions, of once wide-spread groups. If no wild species of the genus Equus were now to be found, except in South Africa (where they are still most abundant), and in South Temperate America, where their fossil remains show us they did exist not very long ago, what a strong fact it would have appeared for the advocates of continental extensions ! Yet it would have been due to no former union of the great southern continents, but to the former extensive range of the family or the genus to which the two isolated remnants belonged. And if such an explanation will apply to the higher vertebrata, it is still more likely to be applicable to similar cases occurring among insects or mollusca, the genera of which we have every reason to believe to be usually much older than those of vertebrates. It is in these classes that examples of widely scattered allied species most frequently occur ; and the facility with which they are diffused under favourable conditions, renders any other explanation than that here given altogether superfluous. The Solenodon is a member of an order of Mammalia of low type (Insectivora) once very extensive and wide-spread, but which has begun to die out, and which has left a number of curious and isolated forms thinly scattered over three-fourths of the globe. The occurrence, therefore, of an isolated remnant of this order in the Antilles is not in itself remarkable ; and the fact that the remainder of the family to which the Antillean species belong has found a refuge in Madagascar, where it has developed into several distinct types, does not afford the least shred of argument on which to found a supposed independent land connection between these two sets of islands. Summary of the Past History of the Neotropical Region. We have already discussed this subject, both in our account of extinct animals, and in various parts of the present chapter. It is therefore only necessary here, briefly to review and sum- marise the conclusions we have arrived at. The whole character of Neotropical zoology, whether as regards its deficiencies or its specialities, points to a long continuance of isolation from the rest of the world, with a few very distant CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 81 periods of union with the northern continent. The latest important separation took place by the submergence of parts of Nicaragua and Honduras, and this separation probably con- tinued throughout much of the Miocene and Pliocene periods ; but some time previous to the coming on of the glacial epoch, the union between the two continents took place which has con- tinued to our day. Earlier submergences of the isthmus of Panama probably occurred, isolating Costa Kica and Veragua, which then may have had a greater extension, and have thus been able to develope their rich and peculiar fauna. The isthmus of Tehuantepec, at the south of Mexico, may, probably, also have been submerged ; thus isolating Guatemala and Yucatan, and leading to the specialization of some of the peculiar forms that now characterise those countries and Mexico. The West Indian Islands have been long isolated and have varied much in extent. Originally, they probably formed part of Central America, and may have been united with Yucatan and Honduras in one extensive tropical land. But their sepa- ration from the continent took place at a remote period, and they have since been broken up into numerous islands, which have probably undergone much submergence in recent times. This has led to that poverty of the higher forms of life, com- bined with the remarkable speciality, which now characterises them ; while their fauna still preserves a sufficient resemblance to that of Central America to indicate its origin. The great continent of South America, as far as we can judge from the remarkable characteristics of its fauna and the vast depths of the oceans east and west of it, has not during Tertiary, and probably not even during Secondary times, been united with any other continent, except through the intervention of North America. During some part of the Secondary epoch it probably received the ancestral forms of its Edentates and Kodents, at a time when these were among the highest types of Mammalia on the globe. It appears to have remained long isolated, and to have already greatly developed these groups of animals, before it received, in early Tertiary times, the ancestors of its marmosets and monkeys, and, perhaps also, some of its peculiar forms of 82 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Carnivora. Later, it received its Camelidae, peccaries, mastodons, and large Carnivora ; and later still, just before the Glacial epoch, its deer, tapir, opossums, antelopes, and horses, the two latter having since become extinct. All this time its surface was undergoing important physical changes. What its earlier condition was we cannot conjecture, but there are clear indica- tions that it has been broken up into at least three large masses, and probably a number of smaller ones ; and these have no doubt undergone successive elevations and subsidences, so as at one time to reduce their area and separate them still more widely from each other, and at another period to unite them into continental masses. The richness and varied development of the old fauna of South America, as still existing, proves, how- ever, that the country has always maintained an extensive area ; and" there is reason to believe that the last great change has been a long continued and steady increase of its surface, resulting in the formation of the vast alluvial plains of the Amazon, Oriripko, and La Plata, and thus greatly favouring the production of that wealth of specific forms, which dis- tinguishes South America above all other parts of our globe. The southern temperate portion of the continent, has probably had a considerable southward extension in late Tertiary times ; and this, as well as the comparatively recent elevation of the Andes, has given rise to. some degree of intermixture of two distinct faunas, with that proper to South Temperate America itself. The most important of these, is the considerable Austra- lian element that appears in the insects, and even in the reptiles and fresh-water fishes, of South Temperate America. These may be traced to several causes. Icebergs and icefloes, and even solid fields of ice, may, during the Glacial epoch, have afforded many opportunities for the passage of the more cold-enduring groups; while the greater extension of southern lands and islands during the warm periods which there is reason to believe prevailed in the southern as well as in the northern regions in Miocene times would afford facilities for the passage of the reptiles and insects of more temperate zones. That no actual land-connection occurred, is proved by the total absence CHAP, xiv.] THE NEOTKOPICAL REGION. 83 of interchange of the mammals or land-birds of the two countries, no less than by the very fragmentary nature of the resemblances that do exist. The northern element consists almost wholly of insects ; and is evidently due to the migration of arctic and north temperate forms along the ridges and plateaus of the Andes ; and most likely occurred when these organisms were driven southward at successive cold or Glacial periods. A curious parallel exists between the past history and actual zoological condition of South America and Africa. In both we see a very ancient land-area extending into the South Temperate zone, isolated at a very early period, and developing only a low grade of Mammalian life ; chiefly Edentates and Kodents on the one, Lemurs and Insectivora in the other. Later we find an irruption into both of higher forms, including Quadrumana, which soon acquired a large and special develop- ment in the tropical portions of each country. Still later we have an irruption into both of northern forms, which spread widely over the two regions, and having become extinct in the land from whence they came, have been long held to be the original denizens of their adopted country. Such are the various forms of antelopes, the giraffe, the elephant, rhinoceros, and lion in Africa ; while in America we have deer and peccaries, the tapir, opossums, and the puma. On the whole, we cannot but consider that the broad outlines of the zoological history of the Neotropical region can be traced with some degree of certainty ; but, owing to the absence of information as to the most important of the geological periods the Miocene and Eocene we have no clue to the character of its early fauna, or to the land connections with other countries, which may possibly have occurred in early Tertiary times. 84 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. TABLES OF DISTRIBUTION. In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of the various classes of animals in the Neotropical region, the following sources of information have been relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and catalogues used in the com- pilation of the Fourth Part of this work. Mammalia. D'Orbigny, and Burmeister, for Brazil and La Plata; Darwin, and Cunningham, for Temperate S. America; Tschudi, for Peru ; Frazer, for Ecuador ; Salvin, for Guatemala ; Frantzius, for Costa Rica; Sclater, for Quadrumana N. of Panama ; Gundlach, for Cuba ; and papers by Dr. J. E. Gray, and Mr. Tomes. Birds. Sclater and Salvin's Nomenclator ; Notes by Darwin, and Cunningham ; Gundlach, March, Bryant, Baird, Elliot, Newton, Semper, and Sundevall, for various islands of the Antilles; and papers by Hudson, Lawrence, Grayson, Abbott, Sclater, and Salvin. CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 85 TABLE I. FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. EXPLANATION. Names in italics show the families which are peculiar to the region. Names enclosed thus ( ) indicate families which barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it. Numbers correspond with those of the series of families in Part IV. Order and Family. MAMMALIA. PRIMATES. 4. Cebidce 5. Hapalidce CHIROPTERA. 10. Phyllostomidce 12. Vespertilionidae 13. Noctilionidae... INSECTIVOKA. ""Centetidae CARNIVORA. 23. Felidaj 28. Canidae 29. Mustelidse ... 30. Procyonidae ... 32. Ursidae 33. Otariidse 35. Phocidse CETACEA. 36 to 41 SlRENIA. 42. Manatidse UNGULATA. 44. Tapiiidae 47. S-iidffl ; 48. Camelidas ... 50. Cervidae... Sub-regions. Range beyond the Region. California Cosmopolite All tropical regions Madagascar All regions but Australian All regions but Australian All regions but Australian N. America All regions but Ethiopian and Australian S. temperate zone. N. and S. temperate zones Oceanic Tropical shores . Indo-Malaya Cosmopolite, excl. Australia Palaearctic All regions but Ethiopian and Australian 86 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order and Family. Sub-regions. Range beyond the Region. 1 T3 1 S Antilles. RODENTIA. 55. Muridae 59. Saccomyidae . Cosmopolite. Cccfmn Nearctic 61. Sciuridae All regions but Australian 63. Chinchillidce ... 64. Octodontidae ... Africa 65. Echimyidae ... 66. Cercolabidae ... ~ _ Ethiopian Nearctic 68. Caviidce 70. Leporidae All regions but Australian EDENTATA. 71. Bradypodida .. 73. Dasypodidce ... 75. Myrmecophagidce MARSUPIALIA. 76. Didelphyidae.... Temperate N. America BIRDS. PASSE RES. 1. Turdidae 2. Sylviidae 5. Cinclidae Almost cosmopolite Almost cosmopolite Nearctic, Palaearctic, Oriental 6. Troglodytidae... 8. Certhiidae Nearctic, Palaearctic, Oriental. Nearctic, Palaearctic, Oriental. 9. Sittidae* ... 10. (Paridae All regions, excl. Africa Nearctic, Palaearctic, Oriental, 20. Corvidae Cosmopolite 26. Ccerebidce __ 27. Mniotiltida ... Nearctic 28. Vireonidae Nearctic 29. Ampelidae 30. Hirundinidae ... Nearctic, Palaearctic Cosmopolite 31. Icteridae Nearctic 32. Tanagridae 33. Fringillidae ... 38. Motacillidae ... ~~~~ ~~ Nearctic All regions bat Australian Cosmopolite 3 Set. Oxyrhaniph'idce 39. Tyranriidae ... Nearctic 40. Pipridce 41. Cotingidce _ 42. Phytotomidce ... 44. Dendrocolaptidce 45. Formicariidce... 46. Pteroptochidce... PlCARI.fi. 51. Picidae All regions but Australian 54. Megalaemidae ... i Ethiopian, Oriental 55. Rhamphastidce CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 87 Order and Family. Sub-regions. Range beyond the Region. 1 1 Mexico. | e < 58. Cuculidre ... j _ _ _ Cosmopolite (o,. , f ^j 60. JBucconidce ... 61. Galbulidce ... 64. Todidce 65. Momotidce 66. Trogonidse ... _ Ethiopian, Oriental 67. Alcedinidse ... . Cosmopolite 72. Steatornithida? 73. Caprimulgidse 74. Cypselidse ... 75. Trochilidse ... Cosmopolite ,^// c. ) Almost cosmopolite Nearctic PSITTACI. 80. Conuridse S. United States 81. Psittacidse ... Ethiopian COLUMBA:. 84. Columbidse ... Cosmopolite GALLINJE. 87. Tetraonidse ... Almost cosmopolite- 88. Phasianidse All regions, but Australian 91. Craddce 92. Tinamidce ... OPISTHOCOMI. 93. Opisthocomidce ACCIPITRES. 94. Vulturidse .. All regions but Australian 96. Falconidse ... ; . Cosmopolite 97. Pandionidee ... _ Cosmopolite 98. Strigidse Cosmopolite GRALUE. 99. Rallid Cosmopolite 100. Scolopacidfe... 10J. Chionididce ... Cosmopolite 102. Thinocoridce... 103. Parrida; 105. Charadriidae . . . _ Tropical regions Cosmopolite 108. CariamidcB ... i 109. Aramidce 110. Psophiidce ... 111. Eurypygidoe . . . 113. Ardeidse Cosmopolite 114. Plataleidae ... 115. Ciconiidae Almost cosmopolite Nearly cosmopolite 116. Palamedeidce 117. Phoenicopteridas Ethiopian, Indian. VOL. II. 7 88 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order and Family. Sub-regions. Range beyond the Region. 1 1 Mexico. Antilles. ANSERES. 118. Anatidse Cosmopolite 119. Laridse Cosmopolite 120. Procellariidae Cosmopolite 121. Pelecanidse ... Cosmopolite 122. Spheniscidae... S. temperate zone 124. Podicipidae ... Cosmopolite STRUTHIONES. 126. Struthionidse Ethiopian REPTILIA. OPHIDIA. 1. Typhlopidse ... 2. Tortricidae Tropical regions and S. Palaearctic Oriental, N.-W. America, 5. Calamariidae... All warm countries 6. Oligodontidse Oriental, Japan, "he an.. 7. Colubridae ... 8. Homalopsidae /A 1 - Almost cosmopolite All the regions 11. Dendrophidae 12. Dryiophidae ... 13. Dipsadidse ... All tropical regions Oriental, Ethiopian. All tropical regions 14. Scytalidae ... 1 6 . Ambly cephalidae 17. Pythonidae ... Philippine Islands Oriental. < All tropical regions, California 20. Elapidae 23. Hydrophidae... 24. Crotalidae ... Tropical regions, Japan, S. Carolina Oriental, Australian, Madagascar Nearctic, Palaearctic, Oriental LACERTILIA. 27. Chirotidae ... Missouri 28. Amphisbaenidae 29. Lepidosternidae Ethiopian, S. Palaearctic Ethiopian 31. Helodermidce 32 Teidae . ... Nearctic 34. Zonuridae Nearctic, Ethiopian, S. Europe, and N. India 35. Chalcidce Nearctic 36. Anadiadce ... 37. Ohirocolidce ... 38. Iphisadce 39. Cercosauridce 41. Gymnopthal- ) midae ... j Australian, Ethiopian, Palaearctic 45. Scincidae 49. Geckotidae ... 50. Iguanidae Almost cosmopolite Almost cosmopolite Nearctic, < CROCODILIA. 55. Crocodilidae ... 56. Alligatoridse... - Ethiopian, Oriental, K Australian 1 Nearctic (.HAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 89 Order and Family. Suli-regions. Range beyond the Region. & 5 H Mexico. d < CHELONIA. 57. Testudinidse ... _ All continents but Australian 58. . Chelydidae ... Ethiopian, Australian 60. Cheloniidae Marine AMPHIBIA. PSETJDOPHIDIA. 1. Cj&iliadae Oriental, Ethiopian URODELA. 6. (Salamandridae) Nearctic, Palsearctic ANOURA. 7. JRhinophrynidce 8. Phryniscidae ... Ethiopian, Australian, Java 9. Hylaplesidce ... 10. Bufonidse All continents but Australia 12. Engystomidser.. 13. Bombinatoridse All regions but Palsearctic Palaearctic, New Zealand 14. Plectromantidce 15. Alytidse All regions but Oriental 16. Pelodryadae ... 17. Hylidse 18. Polypedatidee . . . Australia All regions but Ethiopian All the regions 19. Ranidae Almost cosmopolite All regions but Nearctic 20. Discoglossidae 21. Pipidce FISHES. (FRESHWATER). ACANTHOPTERYGII. 3. Percidae _ All regions but Australian 11. (Trachinidae) ... Australia 12. Scienidse fl (?) All regions but Australian 33. Nandidae Oriental 34. Polycentridat ... 38. Mugillidse 52. Chromidse (?) Australian, Ethiopian Ethiopian, Oriental PHYSOSTOMI. 59. Siluridse All warm regions 60. Characinidaa ... ^V Ethiopian 61. Haplochitonidae S. Australia. 67. GalaxidaEs Tasmania and New Zealand. 73. Cyprinodontidse Absent from Australia 78. Osteoglossidae... All tropical regions 84. Gymnotidce 85. Symbranchidae Oriental, Australian^ (? marine) ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order and Family. Sub-regions. 1 Antilles. Range beyond the Region. 1 1 I DIPNOI. 92. Sirenoidei _ Ethiopian, Australian TLAGIOSTOMATA. 112. Trygonidce ... INSECTS. 1 LEPIDOPTERA (PART). DIURNI (BUTTERFLIES). 1 . Danaidae All warm regions, and to Canada 2. Satyridae Cosmopolite 4. Morphidae Australian, Oriental 5 . Brassolidce 6. Acrseidae All tropical regions 7. Heliconiidce . . . 8. Nymphalidae ... 9. Libytheidae ... Cosmopolite Absent from Australia 10. Nemeobiidae ... Not in Australia or Nearctie regions 11. Eurygonidce ... 12. Erycinidae Nearctic 13. Lycaenidae 14. Pieridae z ~ Cosmopolite Cosmopolite 15. Papilionidse ... Cosmopolite 16. Hesperidse Cosmopolite SPHINGIDEA. 17. Zygaenidae Cosmopolite 18. Castniidae Australian. )/t-at. 20. Uraniidae All tropical regions 21. Stygiidae... Palaearctic 22. ^Egeriidae Not in Australia 23. Sphingidae ... Cosmopolite tf $ . CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 91 TABLE 11. GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. EXPLANATION. Names in italics show the genera peculiar to the region. Names enclosed thus ( ) indicate genera which barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it. Genera undoubtedly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively. MAMMALIA. Order, Family, and Genus. ss 4 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. PRIMATES. CEBIIXE. 1. Cebus ... , 18 Costa Rica to Paraguay 2. Lagothrix 5 Upper Amazon and E. Andes 3. Eriodes . . .. 3 East Brazil, S. of Equator 4. Ateles . . .. 14 Almost all tropical America 5. Mycetes 10 E. Guatemala to Paraguay 6. Pithecia 7 Equatorial Forests 7. Brachiurus 5 Equatorial Forests 8. Nyctipithecus ... 5 Nicaragua to Amazonia 9. Saimiris 3 Costa Rica to Brazil and Bolivia 10. Callithrix 11 Panama to Paraguay HAPALID.E. 11. ffapale 9 Brazil and Upper Amazon 12. Midas 24 Equatorial America to Panama CHIROPTERA. PHYLLOSTOMIDJE. 13. Lonchofyna 1 West Indian Islands 14. Macrophyllum... 1 Brazil 1 5. Vampynis ) 16. Lophostoma > 25 Tropical America and Chili 17. Phyllostoma } 18. Macrotus 1 Antilles and Mexico California 19. Schizostoma 5 South America 20. Brachyphylla ... 1 Antilles 21. Qlossophaga ... 8 Tropical America 22. Phyllonycteris . . . 2 Cuba - 23.' Artibeus 4 S. America & Antilles, Costa Rica 24. Stenoderma 7 The whole region 25. Sturnira, 3 Chili to Guatemala 26. Desmodus 3 Chili to Mexico 27. Saccopteryx 1 Ecuador 92 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order, Family, and Genus. 88 o'l *% Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 28. Diphylla 1 Brazil 29. Centurio 3 Brazil to Mexico VESPERTILIONID^I. 30. Lasiurus 2 Tropical America Nearctic 31. Scotophilus ... 7 Antilles, Mexiro to S. America Nearc., Austral., Orien. - 32. Vespertilio 33. Nycticejus 12 3 The whole region S. Temperate America Cosmopolite . Nearctic, India, Tropical Africa 34. Natalus 1 S. America and Antilles 35. Furipterus 2 S. America 36. Thyroptera 2 S. America 37. Nycticellus 1 Cuba 38. Taphozous 5 S. America Ethiopian, Oriental, Aus- tro-Malayan 39. Diclidurus 1 Brazil NOCTILIONID.E. 40. Noctilio 2 Paraguay to W . Indies 41. Mormops 1 Antilles and Mexico 42. Phyllodia 1 Jamaica 43. Chilonycteris ...- 5 Brazil and West Indies 44. Pteronotus 1 Trinidad 45. Nyctinomus ... 2 La Plata to Antilles & Costa Rica S. Nearc., Orien., Madag., 46. Molossus 16 Paraguay and Chili to Antilles Ethiopian, S. Palsearc., Australian INSECTIVORA. CENTETIDJE. 47. Solenod&n 2 Cuba and Hayti SORICID^:. (Sorex 1 Guatemala and Costa Rica) All other reg. but Austrl. CARNIVORA. FELIOE. 48. Felis 13 The whole region, excl. Antilles All regions but Austral. CANID.E. 49. Icticyon 1 Brazil 50. Chrysocyon 1 S. America (Lupus 2 Mexico to Costa Rica) Northern genus 51. Lycalopex 2 S. America ^ f..- 52. Pseudalopex ... 5 S. America, Falkland Islands, & Tierra del Fuego 53. Thous 2 S. America to Chili MUSTELID^E. . 54. Mustek 2 Andes of Peru All other reg. but Austrl. 55. Galictis 2 S. America to Chili & Patagonia 56. Lontra 3 Central and S. America to Chonos Archipelago 57. Nutria 1 W. coast of America to Chiloe W. coast of N. America CHAP. XIV.J THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 93 Order, Family, and Genus. "3 S d o> Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 58. Pteronura 1 Surinam and Brazil 59. Mephitis . 3 Mexico to Sts. of Magellan Nearctic to Canada PROCYONIDJ;. 60. Procyon 61. Nasua 1 5 Tropical America Mexico to Paraguay & La Plata Nearctic to Canada 62. Cercoleptes 63. Bassaris 1 2 Mexico to Peru and N. Brazil Mexico and Guatemala California and Texas URSIDJ3. 64. Tremarctos 1 Andes of Peru and Chili OTARIID^B. 65. Otaria 66. Arctocephalus . . . 1 1 Chili, La Plata, and Patagonia Falkland Islands & Cape Horn New Zealand. PHOCID.E. 67. Stenorhynchus 68. Lobodon 1 1 Falkland Islands Antarctic shores New Zealand, r 69. Leptonyx 70. Ommatophoca... 1 1 Antarctic shores, E. Patagonia Antarctic shores S. Australia 71. Morunga 1 Falkland Islands California, S. temp, zone 72. Cystophora 1 Antilles N. Atlantic CETACEA. DELPHINID^:. 73. Inia 1 Upper Amazon SIRENIA. MANATID^. 74. Manatus 1 Gulf of Mexico to N. Brazil, W. Africa Amazon R. UNGULATA. TAPIRIP^:. 75. Tapirus 76. Elasmognathus 2 1 Equatorial S. America Panama to Guatemala Indo-Malaya Sums:. 77. Dicotyles 2 Mexico to Paraguay Texas CAMELID^;. 78. Auchenia 4 Temp. S. America, from Cape Horn to Andes of Peru CERVUXSJ. 79. Cervus 12 'Mexico to Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego All regions but Ethiopian and Australian RODENTIA. MURID.S. 80. Reithrodon 4 South Temp. America to Tierra United States del Fuego 94 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order, Family, and Genus. It Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region 81. Acodon 82. Myxomys 83. Hesperomys ... 84. Holochilus 85. Oxymycterus .. 86. Drymomys 87. Neotomys (Fiber 1 1 76 4 3 1 2 1 Peru, 14,000ft. elevation Guatemala The whole region S. America Brazil and La Plata Peru S. America Mexico) Nearctic Nearctic genus SACCOMYID^E. 88. Ifeteromys 6 Mexico, Honduras, Costa Rica,& Trinidad SCIURIDJB. 89. Sciurus 30 Mexico to Paraguay All reg. but Australian CHINCHILLIDJB. 90. Chinchilla 91. Lagidium 92. Lagostomus 2 3 1 Andes of Chili and Peru Chili to Ecuador (11,000 to 16,000 ft.) Uruguay to Rio Negro of Patagonia OCTOUONTID-dE. A 93. Habrocomus ... 94. Capromys 95. Pligiodontia ... 96. Spalacopus 97. Octodon 98. Ctenomys ... ... 2 3 1 2 3 6 Chili Cuba and Jamaica Hayti Chili and E. of Andes Chili, Peru, and Bolivia S. Brazil to Tierra del Fuego ECHIMYID.E. 99. Dactylomys ... 100. Cerco-.nys 101. Lasiuromys ... 102. Myopotamus ... 103. Carterodon ... 104. Mesomys 105. Echimys 106. Loncheres 2 1 1 1 1 1 11 10 Guiana and Brazil Central Brazil St. Paulo, Brazil S. half of tropi'ca! v America Central Brazil Upper Amazon Equatorial America to Paraguay New Granada to Brazil CERCOLABID^;. 107. Cercoldbes 108. Chcetomys 12 1 Mexico to Paraguay N. Brazil 109. Dasyprocta ... 110. Ccdogenys 111. Hydrochosrus 112. Cavia 113 Kerodon 9 2 1 9 6 Paraguay to Mexico and Lesser Antilles Guatemala to Paraguay Guiana to La Plata Brazil and Peru to Magellan Sts. Brazil and Peru to Magellan Sts. 114. Dofichotis "1 S tf . 1 The Pampas and Patagonia /Ob CHAP. X1V.J THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 95 Order, Family, and Genus. sj 4 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. LEPORID.E. 115. Lepus 1+ Central Brazil and Andes, Costa All regions but Austral. Rica to Mexico EDENTATA. BRADYPODID^E. 116. Cholcepus 2 Costa Rica to Brazil 117. Bradypus 2 Amazon to Rio de Janeiro 118. A rctopithecus . . . 8 Costa Rica to Brazil and Bolivia DASYPODID^E. 119. Tatusia 5 Rio Grande, Texas, to Patagonia 120. Prionodontes ... ] Surinam to Paraguay 121. Dasypus 4 Brazil to Chili and La Plata, Costa Rica ? 122. Xenurus 3 Guiana to Paraguay, Costa Rica ? 123. Tolypeutes ... 2 Bolivia and La Plata 124. Chlamydophorus 2 La Plata and Bolivia MYRMECOPHAGIDJS. 125. Myrmecophaga 126. Tamandua ... 1 2 Costa Rica ?, & N. Braz.,to Parag. Guatemala to Paraguay 127. Cyclothurus ... 2 Honduras and Costa Rica to Paraguay MARSUPIALIA. DlDELPHYID^!. 128. Didelphys ... 129. Chironectes ... 20 1 Mexico to Uruguay and S. Chili Guiana and Brazil, Costa Rica Temperate N . America 130. Hyracodon ... 1 Ecuador PASSERES. 1. Turdus 32 2. RhodinocicJila . . . 1 3. Melanoptila ... 1 4. Catharus 10 5. Margarops 4 6. Mimus 16 7 . Melanotis 2 8. Galeoscoptes ... 1 9. Mimocichla 4 (Harporhynchus 10. Cinclocerthia ... 3 3 11. Ramphocindus 1 SYLVIIDJE 12. Myiadestes ... 8 BIRDS. The whole reg. to Tierra del Fuego Mexico to Venezuela Honduras Mexico to Ecuador and Columbia Hayti and Lesser Antilles Nearly the whole region Mexico and Guatemala Mexico to Panama Cuba to Porto Rico Mexico) Lesser Antilles Martinique and St. Lucia Mexico arid Antilles to Peru and Bolivia Almost cosmopolite Nearctic Nearctic Nearctic genus N. & W. of N. America ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order, Family, and Genus. 1 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 13. Cichlopsis 1 Brazil (Sialia 2 Mexico and Guatemala) United States & Canada 14. Regulus 2 Mexico and Guatemala Nearctic, Palsearctic 15. Polioptila 6 Mexico and Cuba to Bolivia and Cen. and S. U. States La Plata CINCLIDJ2. 16. Cinclus 4 Mexico to Venezuela and Peru Nearctic, Palsearctic, (N. TROGLODYTID^I.. 17. Troglodytes ... 5 Mexico to Straits of Magellan Nearctic, Palsearctic, 18. Thryophilus ... 13 Mexico to Central Brazil N.-W. America 19. ThryothoruG ... 12 Mexico to S. Brazil N. America 20. Cistothorus ... 3 Mexico to Chili and Patagonia N. America 21. Donacobius 2 Columbia to Brazil and Bolivia 22. Campylorhynchus 18 Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia New Mexico 23. Cyphorhinus ... 5 Costa Rica to Peru 24. Microcerculus ... 5 Mexico to Peru 25. Henicorhina ... 2 Mexico to Peru (Salpinctes 1 Mexico and Guatemala) Nearctic genus (Catherpes 1 Mexico) Gila and Colorado 26. Cinnicerthia ... 2 Columbia and Eeuad >r 27. Uropsila 1 Mexico CERTHIHXE (Certhia 1 Mexico and Guatemala) North temperate genus SITTID.E. (Sitta 2 Mexico) North temperate genus PARID2B. (Parus 1 Mexico) Nearc., Palsearc., Orient., (Lophophanes... (Psaltriparus ... 2 1 Mexico) Mexico and Guatemala) North temperate genus Nearctic CORVIDJS. 28. Cyanocitta 16 Mexico to Peru and Bolivia Nearctic 29. Cyanocorax 12 Mexico to Paraguay, Jamaica 30. Calocitta 2 Mexico to Guatemala 31. Psilorhinus ... 3 Mexico to Costa Rica 32. Corvus 4 Mexico to Guatemala, Cuba to Cosmop., excl. S. Amer, Porto Rico COSREBID^!. 33. Diglossa 14 Mexico to Guiana, Peru, and Bolivia 34. Diglossopis 1 Venezuela to Ecuador 35. Oreomanes 1 Ecuador 36. Conirostrum ... 6 Columbia to Bolivia 37. Uemidacnis ... 1 Columbia and Upper Amazon 38. Dacnis 13 Costa Rica to Guiana & S. Brazil 39. Certhidea 2 Galapagos Islands CHAP. XIV. j THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 97 Order, Family, and Genus. o .22 o & Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 40. Chlorophanes ... 2 Brazil to Central America, Cuba 41. Cosreba 4 Mexico and Cuba to Guiana and Brazil 42. Certhiola 10 Antilles to Ecuador and Brazil Florida 43. Qlossiptila 1 Jamaica MNIOTILTID.E. 44. Siurus 3 Mexico to Columbia, Antilles S. & E. States & Canada 45. Mniotilta 1 Columbia to Mexico and Antilles Eastern United States 46. Parula 5 Brazil and Ecuador to Mexico Eastern U. S. & Canada 47. Protonotaria ... 1 Venezuela to Central America Florida to Ohio and W. India 48. Helminthophaga 5 Mexico to Columbia North America 49. Helmintherus . . . 1 Mexico to Veragua U. States to Canada 50. Perissoglossa ... 1 Cuba, Hayti, and Porto Rico E. United States 51. Dendrceca 25 Mexico & W. Indies to Ecuador All N. America and Chili 52. Oporornis 1 Guatemala to Panama 53. Geothlypis 10 Brazil to Mexico All N. America 54. Setophaga 12 Mexico to Brazil E. U. States & Canada 55. Cardellina, 1 Gautemala and Mexico 56. Ergaticus 2 Guatemala and Mexico 57. Myioodioctes ... 3 Columbia to Mexico U. States and Canada 58. Basileuterus ... 22 Mexico to Brazil 59. Icteria 1 Costa Rica to Mexico E. and Central United States to Canada 60. Granatellus ... 3 Amazon to Mexico 61. Teretristis 2 Cuba VlREONIDA 62. Vireosylvia 9 Venezuela to Mexico & Antilles All N. America 63. Vireo 10 Mexico to Costa Rica & Antilles All United States 64. Neochloe 1 Mexico 65. Hylophilus 16 Brazil to Mexico 66. Laletes 1 Jamaica 67. Phcenicomanes . . . 1 Jamaica 6 8 . Vireolanius . . . 4 Mexico to Amazon 69. Cychloris 9 Mexico to Paraguay AMPELID.E. 70. Dulus 2 Hayti (Ampelis 71. Ptilogonys 1 2 Mexico and Guatemala) Mexico to Costa Rica N. temperate genus (Ph'ainopepla ... 1 Mexico) Gila and Lower Colorado HlRUNDINIDjE. 72. Hirundo 9 Mexico and Antilles to Chili and Almost cosmopolite La Plata 73. Petrochelidon . . . 74. Atticora 3 6 Mexico and Antilles to Paraguay Guatemala tc Peru and Brazu Nearctic 75. Cotyle 76. Stelgidopteryx 2 4 Central America to La Plata Mexico to Brazil All regions but Austral. S. United States 77. Progne ... .. 4 The whole region Nearctic 98 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order, Family, and Genus. "5 Brazil and Guiana 120. Lamprotes 2 Brazil and Columbia 121. Phcenicolhraupis 7 Mexico to Paraguay and Bolivia CKAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. Order, Family, and Genus. y Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 122. Lanio 4 Mexico to Bolivia 123. Eucojnetis 5 Costa Rica to Bolivia 124. Trichothraupis 1 S. Brazil and Paraguay 125. Creurgops 1 West Ecuador 126. Tachyphonus 11 Nicaragua to Paraguay 127. Cypsnagra ... 1 S. Brazil and Bolivia 128. Nemosia 11 Venezuela, W. Ecuador, to Bra- zil and Bolivia 129. Pyrrhocoma ... 130. Chlorospingus 1 18 S. Brazil and Paraguay Mexico to Peru and Bolivia 131. Buarremon ... 20 Mexico to S. Brazil and Bolivia 132. Phcenicophilus 1 Hayti 133. Arremon 12 Mexico to S. Brazil 134. Oreothraupis ... 1 East Ecuador 135. Cissopis 3 Columbia to Peru and Bolivia 136. Lamprospiz a... 1 Guiana 137. Psittospiza ... 2 Columbia to Peru 1 38. Saltator 17 Mexico to La Plata and Bolivia 139. Diucopis 2 Upper Amazon and S. Brazil 140. Orchesiicus ... 3 Tropical S. America 141. Pitylus 8 Mexico to Brazil and Ecuador FRINGILLIDJE. 1 42. Chry somitris . . . 12 Mexico to Brazil, Chili and Nearctic, Palaearctic Patagonia 143. Sy calis 9 Mexico to Chili and La Plata, Jamaica 144. Coccothraustes 2 Mexico and Guatemala Nearctic, Palaearctic 145. Geospiza 7 Galapagos Islands 146. Camarhynchus 5 Galapagos Islands 147. Cactornis 4 Galapagos Islands 148. Phrygilus ... 10 Columbia to Fuegia and Falk- land Islands 149. Xenospingw ... 1 Peru 150. Diuca 3 Peru, Chili, and Patagonia 151. Emberizoides... 152. Donacospiza ... 3 1 Venezuela to Paraguay S. Brazil and La Plata 153. Chamceospiza 1 Mexico 154. Embernagra ... 9 Mexico to La Plata Rocky Mountains 155. Hcemophila ... 6 Mexico to Costa Rica 156. Atlapetes ... 1 Mexico Nearctic ? 157. Pyrgisoma ... 158. Pipilo 5 4 Mexico to Costa Rica Mexico to Guatemala All Nearctic region 159. Junco 2 Mexico and Guatemala United States 160. Zonotrichia ... 5 Mexico to Straits of Magellan Nearctic (Melospiza ... 2 Mexico and Guatemala) Nearctic genus (Spizella 3 Mexico and Guatemala) Nearctic genus (Passerculus ... 1 Mexico and Guatemala) Nearctic genus (Pocecetes 161. Ammodramus 1 1 Mexico) Guatemala Nearctic genus Nearctic 162. Coturniculus... 4 Mexico to Bolivia, Jamaica E. & N. of N. America 163. Peucsea 4 Mexico S. E. States & California 164. Tiaris 1 Brazil 165. Volatinia ... 1 Mexico to Brazil 100 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order, Family, and Genus. U Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. (Cyanospiza ... 4 Mexico and Central America) Nearctic 166. Paroaria 6 Trop. S. America, E. of Andes 167. Coryphospingus 4 Tropical S. America 168. Porphyrospiza 1 Brazil 169. Haplospiza ... 2 Mexico and Brazil 170. Phonipara ... 5 Mexico to Columbia, Greater Antilles 171. Poospiza 12 Mexico to Bolivia and La Plata W. & Central U. States 172. Spodiornis 1 Ecuador (Carpodacus ... 2 Mexico) Nearctic, Palsearctic 173. Cardinalis ... 2 Mexico to Venezuela S. & S. Cent. U. States 174. Guiraca 6 Mexico to Brazil and La Plata Southern U. States 175. Amaurospiza 2 Costa Rica and Brazil 176. Hedymeles ... 2 Mexico to Columbia Nearctic 177. Pheucticus ... 5 Mexico to Peru and Bolivia 178. Oryzoborus ... 6 Mexico to Ecuador and S. Brazil 179. Melopyrrha ... 1 Cuba 180. Loxigilla 4 Antilles 181. Spermophila ... 44 Mexico to Bolivia and Uruguay Texas 182. Catamenia ... 4 Columbia to Bolivia 183. Neorhynchus... 1 W. Peru 184. Catambly- ) rhynchus \ " 1 Columbia (Loxia 1 Mexico) North temperate genus (Calamospiza 1 Mexico) Arizona and Texas \(Chondestes ... 1 Mexico) W. and Cent. U. States ( (Euspiza 1 Mexico to Columbia) S.-E.U. States, Palsearc.. 185. Gubernatrix ... 1 Paraguay and La Plata 1 (Plectrophanes 1 Mexico) N. temp. & Arctic genus ALA.UDID2E. 186. Otocorys 1 Mexico, Andes of Columbia Nearc. & Palsearc. genus MOTACILLIDJE. 187. Anthus 4 Mexico to Patagonia and Falk- Cosmopolite^//^; land Islands OXYRHAMPHID-E. 187a. Oxyrhamplivis 2 Brazil to Costa Rica TYR4.NNID.ffll. 188. Conophaga ... 11 Columbia to Bolivia and Brazil 189. Corythopis 2 Brazil and Guiana 190. Agriornis 191. Myiotheretes ... 5 3 Ecuador, Peru, and Chili Columbia to Ecuador, Patagonia 192. Tcenioptep'a ... 8 S. Brazil and Bolivia to Patago. 193. Ochthodiceta ... 1 Columbian Andes 194. Ochthaxa 17 Andes, Bolivia to Columbia and Venezuela 195. Sayornis 4 Mexico to Ecuador E. United Sts. to Canada 196. Fluvicola 4 Guiana & W. Ecuador to Brazil, and Bolivia 197. Arundinicola 1 Tropical S. America 198. Alectorurus ... 2 S. Brazil and La Plata CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION, Order, Family, and Genus. g II ;'> J ~J J > J-J Range beyond the Region. 199. Oybernetes 1 Brazil 200. Sysopygis 1 S. Brazil and La Plata 201. Cnipolcgus ... 9 Amazonia to Patagonia 202. Lichenops 1 Brazil and La Plata 203. Muscipipra ... 1 S. Brazil 204. Copurus 3 Costa Rica to S. Brazil 205. Machetornis ... 1 Venezuela to Brazil 206. Muscisaxicola 11 Andes of Ecuador to Chili and Patagonia 207. Centrites 2 Bolivia to Patagonia 208. Musdgralla ... 1 W. Ecuador 209. Platyrhynchiis 7 Mexico to Brazil 210. Todirostrum ... 11 Tropical N. and S. America 211. Oncosotma ... 2 Tropical N. America 212. Euscarthmus . . . 12 Costa Rica to W. Ecuador, Brazil, and Bolivia 213. Orchilus 2 Costa Rica to Brazil and Bolivia 214. Colopterus 2 Veragua to Columbia and Guiana 215. Hemitriccus ... 1 Brazil 216. Phylloscartes ... 1 Columbia to Brazil 217. Hapalocercus... 3 Brazil to Chili and La Plata 218. Habrura 1 Uruguay 219. Pogonoiriccus... 2 Brazil and Columbia 220. Leptotriccus ... 2 Brazil and Veragua 221. Stigmatura ... 2 Upper Amazon to La Plata 222. Serphophaga ... 7 Columbia to Chili and La Plata 223. Anceretes 4 Columbia to Chili and La Plata, Magell. Sts. & Juan Fernand. 224. Cyanotis 1 "W. Peru to La Plata 225. Mionectes 4 Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia 226. Leptopogon ... 6 Mexico to Peru and Brazil 227. Capsiempis ... 1 Chiriqui to Brazil 228. Phyllomyias ... 5 Columbia to Brazil 229. Ornithion 4 Mexico to Brazil 230. Tyrannulus ... 3 Guatemala to Amazonia 231. Tyranniscus ... 9 Guatemala to E. Peru 232. Elainea, 18 Mexico to Tierra del Fuego, An- tilles 233. Empidagra ... 1 Bolivia and La Plata 234. Legate 2 Mexico to Brazil 235. Sublegatus ... 2 Venezuela and Lower Amazon 236. Myiozetetes ... 8 Mexico to W. Peru and Brazil 237. Rhynchocydus 10 Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil 238. Conopias 3 Venezuela to Peru and Brazil 239. Pitangus 7 Mexico to La Plata, Antilles 240. Sirystes 2 Panama to Brazil 241. Myiodynastes .. 6 Mexico to Bolivia and Paraguay 242. Megarhynchus 1 Mexico to Brazil 243. Muscivora 5 Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil 244. Hirundinea, ... 3 Columbia & Guiana to Paraguay 245. Cnipodectes . . . 1 Panama to "W.Ecuador & Amazon 246. Myiobius 13 Mexico to W. Peru, Bolivia, and La Plata 247. Pyrocephalus... 3 Tropical N. and S. America and Gila and Eio Grande Galapagos Islands ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. C-e-CT-p f*t* r * i r~ Order, Family, and Genus. jf Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 248, Empidochanes 4 Venezuela to S. Brazil. 249. Mttrephorus ... 250. Empidonax ... 2 12 Mexico to Costa Rica Mexico to Columbia & Ecuador All N. America 251. Contopus 10 Mexico to Amazonia, Antilles N. & E. of Rocky Mtns. 252. Myiochanes ... 1 Amazonia and Brazil 253. Myiarchus ... 12 Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil, East and West Coasts to Galapagos and Antilles Canada 254. Blacicus 2 Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica (Empidias 1 Mexico) Eastern United States, ft 255. Empidonomus 1 Guiana and Brazil 256. Tyrannns 11 All tropical sub-regions All U. States to Canada 257. Milvulus 2 Tropical N. and S. America Texas PlPRIDJB. 258. Piprites 4 Costa Rica to Brazil 259. Masius 2 Columbia and Ecuador 260. Ohloropipo ... 1 Columbia 261. Xenopipo 1 Guiana and Columbia 262. Pipra 19 Trop. N. and S. America 263. Neopipo 1 Upper Amazon 264. Machceropterus 4 Columbia to Brazil 265. llicura 1 Brazil 266. Chiroxiphia ... 5 Guatemala to Brazil 267. Metopia 1 Brazil 268. Metopothrix ... 269. Chiromach$ris 1 6 Upper Amazon Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil 270. Hetoropelma ... 10 Mexico to Guiana and Brazil 271. Heterocercus ... 2 Guiana and Upper Amazon 272. Schiffornis ... 2 Upper Amazon and Brazil COTINGIDvB. 273. Tityra 6 Tropical N. and S. America 274. Hadrostomus... 5 Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil, Jamaica 275. Pachyhamphus 11 Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil 276. Lathria 5 Mexico to Brazil 277. Aulia 3 Veragua to Brazil 278. Lipaugus 3 Guatemala to Brazil and Guiana 279. Ptilochloris ... 2 Brazil 280. Attila 8 Costa Rica to Brazil and Guiana 231. Casiomis 2 S. Brazil to Paraguay 282. Rupicola 3 Guiana to W. Ecuador & Bolivia 233. Phoenicocercus 2 Guiana and Amazonia 234. T^'wca 1 Brazil 235. Phibalura ... 1 Brazil 236. Pipreola 7 Venezuela to Ecuador and Peru 287. Ampelio 4 Columbia to Peru and Brazil 288. Carpodectes ... 1 Nicaragua and Costa Rica 289. Heliochcera ... 2 Columbia to Peru and Bolivia 290. Cotinga 6 Guatemala to Peru and Brazil 291. Xipholena ... 3 Guiana to Brazil 292. lodopleura ... 3 Guiana to Brazil 293. Calyptura ... 1 Brazil 294. Qwrula 1 Panama to Amazonia CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 103 Order, Family, and Genus. -s| l ^ Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 295. Hcematoderus i Guiana and Lower Amazon 296. Chasmorhynck'us 4 Costa Rica to Guiana and Brazil 297. Gymnocephalus 1 Guiana and Rio Negro 298. Gymnoderus ... 1 Guiana and Upper Amazon 299. Pyroderus 3 Venezuela to Brazil 300. Cephalopterus 3 Costa Rica to W. Ecuador & Upr. Amazon PHYTOTOMID^B. 301. Phytotoma 3 Bolivia, Chili, and La Plata DENDROCOLAPTIDJS. 302. Geobates 1 South Brazil 303. Geositta, 6 Peru to Chili and Patagonia 304. Furnarius ... 9 Guiana & W. Ecuador to La Plata 305. Glibanornis ... 1 S. Brazil 306. Upucerthia ... 4 Andes of Ecuador to Chili and Patagonia 307. Cinclodes 5 Ecuador to Chili, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego 308. Henicornis ... 2 Patagonia 309. Lochmias 2 Venezuela and Brazil 310. Sderurus 6 Mexico to Brazil 311. Oxyurus 2 Chili to Tierra del Fuego, anc Masafuera Islands 312. Sylviorthor- hynchus 1 Chili 313. Phlceocryptes ... 1 W. Peru to La Plata 314. Leptasthenura 5 Andes of Ecuador to Brazil anc Patagonia 315. Synallaxis ... 55 The whole region (excl. Antilles] 316. Coryphistera ... 1 La Plata 317. Anumbius ... 1 Paraguay and La Plata 318. Limnornis ... 1 Uruguay and La Plata 319. Placellodomus 4 Venezuela to Peru and La Plata 320. Thripophaga... 3 Brazil and Columbia 321. Pseudocolaptes 1 Columbia to Peru 322. Homorus 3 Brazil, Bolivia, and La Plata 323. Thripadedes ... 1 Columbia 324. Ancistrops 1 Upper Amazon 325. Automolus 9 Mexico to Amazonia 326. Philydor 14 Tropical South America 327. Heliobletus .. 1 Brazil 328. Anabatoides ... 1 Brazil 329. Anabazenops . . . 5 Mexico to Brazil 330. Xenops 3 Trop. North and South America 331. Sittasomus ... 3 Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil 332. Margarornis . . . 4 Costa Rica to Peru and Bolivia 333. Glyphorhynchus 1 Trop. North and South America 334. Pygarrhicus ... 1 Chili 335. Dendrocinda... 10 Mexico to Venezuela and Brazil 336. Dendrocolaptes 7 Guatemala to Peru and Brazil 337. Nasica * 1 Guiana 338. Drymornis ... 1 La Plata 339. Xiphocolaptes 5 Mexico to Bolivia and Paraguay VOL. II. 8 104 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order, Family, and Genus. "o.2 1- ^OQ Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 340. Dendrexetastes 2 Guiana 341. Dendrornis ... 14 Mexico, W. Ecuador, and Brazil 342. Dendroplex ... 2 Columbia & Venezuela to Brazil 343. Picolaptes 14 Mexico to Bolivia and La Plata 344. Xiphorhijnchus 4 Veragua to Brazil FORMICARIIDJ!. 345. Cymbilanius . . . 1 Amazonia and Guiana 346. Batara 1 S. Brazil 347. Thamnophilus 47 Trop. North and South America 348. Biotas 1 Brazil 349. Thamnistes ... 2 Central America and Ecuador 350. Pygoptila 2 Amazonia 351. Neoctantes ... 1 Amazonia 352. Clytoctantes ... 1 Eastern Ecuador 353. Dysithamnus... 12 Mexico to Bolivia and Brazil 354. Thamnotnanes 2 Ecuador, Guiana, and Brazil 355. Herpsilochmus 4 Venezuela to Brazil and Bolivia 356. Myrmotherula 21 Tropical S. America 357. Formicivora ... 14 Trop. North and South America 358. Terenura 3 Veragua to W. Ecuador & Brazil 359. Psilorhamphus 1 Central Brazil 360. Microbates ... 1 Dayenne 361. Rhamphoccenus 4 Guatemala to Brazil 362. Cercomacra ... 9 Cen. America to W. Equador & i S. Brazil 363. Pyriglena 4 Ecuador to Peru and Brazil 364. Gymnodchla ... 2 Honduras to Panama 365. Percnostola ... 3 Guiana and Upper Amazon 366. Heterocnemis . . . 3 Guiana and Upper Amazon 367. Myrmeciza ... 11 Veragua to AV. Ecuador, Bolivia, and Brazil 368. Hypocnemis ... 15 Costa Rica to W.Ecuador & Brazil 369. Pi%* 5 Nicaragua to Amazonia 370. Rhopoterpe ... 1 Guiana 371. Phlogopsis ... 4 Nicaragua to Guiana and Bolivia 372. Formicarius ..." 9 Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia 373. Pittasoma 374. Chamceza 1 4 Panama and Veragua Columbia to Brazil 375. Grallaria 20 Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil 376. Grallaricula ... 5 Costa Rica to Ecuador PTEROPTOCHID^:. 377. Scytodopus 8 Columbia & Brazil to Chili anc Tierra del Fuego 378. Merulaxis 1 Central Brazil 379. Rhinocrypta ... 2 La Plata and Patagonia 380. Liosceles 1 Madeira Valley 381. Pteroptochus ... 2 Chili and Chiloe 382. Hylactes 3 Chili 383. Acropternis .. 1 Columbia and Ecuador 384. Triptorhinus... 1 Chili CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 105 Order, Family, and Genus. "0.2 Si Rang within the Region. Range beyond the Region. PICARI^E. PICID2E. 385. Picumnus 14 Honduras to Brazil and Bolivia 386. Picus 6 Mexico, Chili, La Plata, and All reg. but Austral. & S. Patagonia Ethiopian (Sphyrapicus... 87. Canipephilus... 1 12 Mexico and Guatemala) Mexico to Patagonia, Cuba Nearctic genus Nearctic 388. Dryocopus 4 Mexico to S. Brazil Palsearctic 389 Celeus 15 Mexico and S. Brazil 390. Nesoceleus 1 Cuba 391. Chrysoptilus ... 6 Tropical S. America 392. Centurus 10 Mexico to Venezuela, Antilles Nearctic 393. Chloronerpes ... 35 Tropical America, Hayti 394. Xiphidiopicus 1 Cuba 395. Melanerpes ... 9 Mexico to Brazil, Porto Rico Nearctic 396. Leuconerpes ... 1 Brazil, Bolivia 397. Colaptes 7 Open country of trop. America, Nearctio Greater Antilles 398. Hypoxanthus... 1 Venezuela and Ecuador MEGAL^MIDJS. 399. Capita 10 Costa Rica to Peru and Guiana 400. Tetragonops .. 2 Costa Rica and Ecuador RHAMPHASTID.E. 401. Rhamphastos... 12 All tropical America 402. Pteroglossus ... 16 Mexico to Guiana and Brazil 403. Seknidera ... 7 Veragua to Brazil 404. Andigena 6 Columbia to "W. Ecuador, Bolivia and Brazil 405. Aulacorhamphus 10 Mexico to Venezuela and Bolivia CUCULID2E. 406. Crotophaga ... 407. Ouira 3 1 Tropical America and Antilles Brazil and Paraguay Nearctic to Pennsylvania 408. Neomorphus ... 4 Nicaragua to Brazil [and Upper Amazon 409. Geococcyx 1 Guatemala Texas to Caftbniia * 410. Dromococcyx .. 2 Mexico to Brazil 411. Diplopterus .. 1 Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil 412. Saurothera 4 Greater Antilles 413. Hyetornis 2 Jamaica and Hayti 414. Piaya 3 Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil 415. Morococcyx .. 1 Mexico to Costa Rica 416. Coccyj^us 10 Tropical America and Antilles, Nearctic Cocos Islands BUCCONID.E. 417. Bucco 21 Guatemala to Guiana, Paraguay, and Bolivia 418. Malacoptila ... 10 Guatemala to Guiana, W. Ecua- dor and Bolivia 419. Nonnula 5 Columbia and Amazonia 106 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order, Family, and Genus. 3 s il 02 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 420. Monasa 7 Costa Rica to Brazil 421. Chelidoptera ... 2 Columbia to Guiana and Brazil T* 422. Galbula 9 Guatemala to Brazil and Bolivia 423. Urogalba 2 Guiana to Lower Amazon 424. Brachygalba ... 4 Columbia to Brazil and Bolivia 425. Jacamaralcyon 1 Brazil 426. Jacamerops ... 2 Columbia to Amazonia 427. Oalbalcyrhyn ) chus ... \ 1 Upper Amazon TODID^E. 428. Todus 5 Greater Antilles MOMOTID.E. 429. Momotus 10 Mexico to "W. Ecuador, Brazil. and Bolivia 430. Urospatka ... 1 Costa Rica to Columbia 431. Baryphthengus 1 Brazil and Paraguay 432. Hylomanes ... 2 Mexico and Guatemala 433. Prionirhynchus 2 Guatemala to Upper Amazon 434. Eumomota ... 1 Honduras to Chiriqui TROGONID.E. 435. Prionoteles ... 1 Cuba 436. Temnotrogon ... 1 Hayti 437. ZV000TO 22 Mexico to W. Ecuador & Parag. 438. Euptilotis ... 1 Mexico 439. Pharomacrus 5 Guatemala to Upper Amazon and Bolivia ALCEDINID^. 440. Ceryle 8 Mexico to Brazil, Patagonia and Nearc., S.Palsearc.,Orien., Chili STEATORNITHID^J. ' 441. Steatornis ... 1 Columb., Venezuela, & Trinidad CAPRIMULGID.E. 442. Nyctibius ... 6 Brazil to Guatemala & Jamaica 443. Hydropsalis ... 8 Columbia & Guiana to La Plata 444. Antrostomus... 10 Mexico and Cuba to Bolivia and All U. States to Canada La Plata 445. Stenopsis 4 Martinique to Columb., "W. Peru and Chili 446. Siphonorhis ... 1 Jamaica 447. Heleothreptus 1 Central Brazil 448. Nyctidromus ... 1 Central America to S. Brazil 449. Podager 1 Tropical S. America 450. Lurocalis 2 Guiana to Brazil 451. Chordeiles ... 7 Mexico to "W. Peru and Brazil, All U. States to Canada Jamaica and Porto Rico 452. Nyctiprogne ... 1 Amazonia CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 107 Order, Family, and Genus. 'S.I . *i Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. CYPSELIDJE. 453. Cypselus 3 Antilles to Guiana and Bolivia The Eastern Hemisphere 454. Panyptila 3 Guatemala and Guiana 455. Chsetura... .;. 9 Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil Almost cosmopolite 456. Hemiprocne ... 3 Mexico to La Plata, Jamaica and Hayti 457. Cypseloides ... 2 Brazil and Peru 458. Nephaxetes ... 1 Jamaica ***** TROCHILIDJ;. 459. Grypus 1 Brazil 460. Androdmi 1 Ecuador 461. Eutoxeres 2 Costa Rica to Ecuador 462. Glaucis 2 Panama to Brazil 463. Phaethornis ... 14 Tropical N. and S. America 464. Pygmornis ... 8 Mexico to Guiana and Brazil 465. Threnetes 4 Costa Rica to Amazonia and W. Ecuador 466. Dolerisca 1 Venezuela 467. Eupetomena ... 1 Guiana to Brazil 468. Sphenoproctus 2 Mexico to Guatemala 469. Campylopterus 9 Mexico to Amazonia 470. Phceochroa ... 2 Guatemala to Columbia 471. Aphantochroa 3 Ecuador and Brazil 472. Urochroa 1 Ecuador 473. Sternodyta ... 1 Venezuela 474. Eugenes 2 Mexico to Costa Rica 475. Codigena 1 Mexico 476. Lamprolcema... 1 Mexico and Guatemala 477. Delattria 2 Guatemala 478. Oreopyra 479. Heliopoedica ... 4 2 Costa Rica to Chiriqui Mexico and Guatemala 480. Topaza , 2 Guiana 481. OreotrocMlus... 6 Ecuador to Peru and Chili 482. Lampornis ... 7 Mexico & W. India to Amazonia 483. Eulampis 2 Lesser Antilles 484. Avocettula ... 1 Guiana 485. Lafresnaya ... 2 Venezuela, and Columbia 486. Doryphora ... 5 Costa Rica to Ecuador 487. Chalybura ... 5 Costa Rica to Columbia 488. Heliodoxa 5 Costa Rica to Venezue. & Boliv. 489. lolwna 2 Ecuador to Peru 490. Phceolcema ... 2 Columbia and Ecuador 491. Eugenia 1 Ecuador 492. Aithurus 1 Jamaica 493. Thalurania ... 10 Costa Rica to Guiana, Ecuador and Brazil 494. Panoplites ... 3 Columbia and Ecuador 495. Florisuga 2 Guatemala to Brazil 496. Microchera ... 497. Lopho^us 2 7 Nicaragua to Veragua Mexico to Brazil, Peru, & Bolivia 498. Polemistria ... 2 Columbia to S. Brazil 499. Discura 2 Brazil 500. Gouldia 4 Costa Rica to Brazil & Bolivia 108 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order, Family, and Genus. | o aj ^ Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 501. Trochiius 2 Mexico to Veragua To Canada and Sitka 502. Mellisuga 1 Jamaica to Hayti 503. Calypte 3 Mexico and Cuba 504. Selasphorus ... 505. Atthis 7 1 Mexico to Veragua Mexico and Guatemala "W. & Cen. United States California and Colorado 50G. Stellula 1 Mexico 507. Calothorax ... 2 Mexico 508. Acestrura 3 Venezuela to Ecuador & Bolivia 509. Chcetocercus ... 3 Venezuela and Ecuador 510. Myrtis 2 Ecuador to Bolivia, "W. of Andes 511. Thaumastura 1 W. Peru 512. Rhodopis 2 W. Peru and Chili 513. Doricha 5 Mexico to Veragua, Bahamas 514. filmatura 1 Guatemala 515. Calliphlox 2 Ecuador and Brazil 516. Loddigesia 1 Peruvian Andes 517. Steganura 6 Venezuela to Ecuador & Bolivia 518. Lesbia 6 Columbia to Peru 519. Cynanthus ... 2 Venezuela to Ecuador 520. Sparganura, ... 4 Columbia to Bolivia & La Plata 521. Pterophanes ... 1 Columbia to Peru 522. Aglceactis 4 Columbia 10 Bolivia 523. Oxypogon 2 Venezuela and Columbia 524. Oreonympka ... 1 Peru 525. Rhampfwmicron 6 Columbia to Bolivia 526. Urosticte 2 Ecuador 527. Metallura ... 6 Columbia to Bolivia 528. Adelomia 4 Venezuela to Peru & Bolivia 529. Avocettimts ... 1 Columbia 530. Anthocephala... 1 Columbia 531. Chrysolampis... 1 Venezuela to Brazil 532. Orthorhynchus 2 Lesser Antilles 533. Cephalolepis ... 3 Brazil 534. Cftm 1 Venezuela and Columbk 535. Baucis 1 Mexico to Veragua 536. Helmctin 1 Brazil 537. Heliothrix ... 3 Guatemala to Ecuador & Brazil 538. Sckistes 2 Columbia and Ecuador 539. Phlogophilus... 1 Ecuador 540. Augastes 2 Brazil 541. Petasophora ... 5 Mexico to Peru and Brazil 542. Chrysobronchus 3 Venezuela to Brazil 543. Patagona 1 Ecuador to Bolivia and Chili 544. Dodinastes 1 Columbia and Ecuador 545. Helianthea, ... 7 Columbk to Bolivia 546. Heliotrypha ... 2 Columbia and Ecuador 547. Heliangelus ... 6 Venezuela to Peru 548. Diphlogcena ... 3 Bolivia 549. Clytolasma 2 E. Ecuador and Brazil 550. ourciei*ia 5 Venezuela to Peru 551. Lampropygia... 4 Venezuela to Bolivia 552. Heliomastes ... 5 Mexico to Ecuador & Venezuela 553. Lepidolarynx... 1 Brazil 554. Calliperidia ... 1 Central Brazil and Paraguay 555. Eustephanus .. 3 Chili, S. Patagonia, and Juan Fernandez Islands CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 109 Order, Family, and Genus. oS 4 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 556. Eriocnemis ... 14 Venezuela to Ecuador 557. Cyanomyia ... 6 Mexico to Peru 558. Hemistilbon ... 1 Mexico 559. Leucippus 2 Peru and Bolivia 560. Thaumatias ... 15 Mexico to Guiana, Upr. Amazon, and Brazil 561. Amazilia 14 Mexico to "W. Ecuador & Peru 562. Saucerottia, ... 7 Costa Rica to Columb. & Venezue. 563. Eupherusa ... 3 Mexico to Veragua 564. Chrysuronia ... 5 Guatemala to Ecuador & La Plata 565. Eucephala, ... 7 Venezuela to Guiana and Brazil 566. Panterpe 1 Costa Rica and Chiriqui 567 Juliamyia 2 Panama to Ecuador 568. Circe 3 Mexico 569. Phceoptila 1 Mexico 570. Damophila ... 1 Costa Rica to Ecuador 571. Hylocharis ... 3 Amazonia and Brazil 572. Sapphironia ... 2 Columbia and Veragua 573. Sporadimts ... 3 Cuba, Bahamas, Hayti, Porto Rico 574. Chlorostilbon... 8 Mexico to Brazil and La Plata 575. Panychlora ... 3 Venezuela and Columbia 576. Smaragdochrysis 1 Brazil PSITTACI. - CONURID2E. 577. ^ra 15 Trop. North and South America Cuba, Jamaica (extinct) 578. Rhyncopsitta ... 1 Mexico 579. Henicognathus 1 Chili 580. Conurus 581. Pyrrhura 30 16 The whole region Costa Rica to Paraguay & Bolivia S. &S.E. United States 582. Bolborhynchus 7 Mexico to Peru, Central Brazil and La Plata 583. Brotogerys ... 9 Trop. North and South America PSITTACID-E. 584. Ctet'ca 9 Mexico to Amazonia 585. Chrysotis 32 All the tropical sub-regions 586. Tridarin 1 Brazil 587. Deroptyus 1 Guiana and Rio Negro 588. Pionus 9 Costa Rica to Bolivia and Brazil 589. Urochroma ... 7 Venezuela to Brazil 590. Psittaculcu ... 6 Mexico to W. Ecuador & Brazil COLUMBUS. 591. Columba 18 Trop. sub-regions with Chili and All regions but Austral. La Plata 592. Zenaidura 2 Mexico to Veragua Nearctic 593. Chamaepelia ... 6 Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia S. Nearctic 594. Columbula 2 Brazil and La Plata to Chili 595. Scardafella ... 2 Guatemala and Brazil 596. Zenaida 10 Antilles and S. America to Chil and La Plata 110 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order Family, and Genus. 6 M Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 597. Melopelia ... 2 Mexico to Chili South & West Nearctic 598. Peristera 4 Mexico to Brazil 599. Metriopelia ... 2 W.America from Ecuador to Chili 600. Gymnopelia ... 1 West Peru and Bolivia 601. Leptoptila 602. Geotrygon 11 14 Tropical sub-regions Tropical sub-regions 603. Stamcenas ... 1 Cuba GALLING. TETUAONID.E. 604. Odontophorus 17 Trop. North and South America 605. Dendrortyx ... 3 Mexico to Costa Rica 606. Cyrtonyx 3 Mexico to Guatemala S. Central United States 607. Ortyx 5 Mexico to Costa Rica, Cuba Nearctic to Canada 608. Eupsychortyx (Callipepla ... 5 2 Mexico to Columbia and Guiana Mexico) California PHASIANHXE. 609. Meleagris 2 Mexico and Honduras Nearctic CRACID.E. 610. Crax 8 Mexico to Venezuela & S. Brazil 611. Notkocrax 612. Pauxi ... 1 1 Guiana and Upper Amazon Guiana and Venezuela 613. Mitua 2 Guiana to Peru 614. Stegnolcema .. 1 Columbia and Ecuador 615. Penelope 13 Trop. North and South America 616. Penelopina 1 Guatemala 617, Pipile 3 Venezuela to Brazil and Peru 618. Aburria 1 Columbia 619. Chamcepetes .. 2 Costa Rica to Peru 620. Ortalida 18 Trop. North and South America New Mexico 621. Oreophasis 1 Guatemala TlNAMIDJS. 622. Tinamits 7 Trop. North and South America 623. Nothocercus .. 3 Costa Rica to Venezue. & Ecuador 624. Crypturus 16 Trop. North and South America 625. Rhynchotus .. 2 Brazil to Bolivia and La Plata 626. Nothoprocta .. 4 Ecuador to Bolivia and Chili 627. Nothura 4 Brazil to Bolivia and La Plata 628. Taoniscus 1 Brazil and Paraguay 629. Calodromas .. 1 La Plata 630. Tinamotis .. 1 Andes of Peru and Bolivia OPISTHOCOMI. OPISTHOCOMID^E. 631. Opisthocomus... 1 Guiana and Lower Amazon CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. Ill Order, Family, and Genus. y Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. ACCIPITRES. VULTURIDJS. (CATHARTIN^E.) 632. Sarcorhamphus 2 The Andes and S. of 41 S. Lat. 633. Cathartes 1 Mexico to 20 S. Lat. 634. Catharista 1 Mexico to 40 S. Lat. S. United States 635. Pseudogryphis 3 Mexico to Falkland Ids., Cuba, United States Jamaica 636. Polyborus ... 2 The whole region California and Florida 637. Ibycter 8 Guatemala to Terra del Fuego 638. Circus 3 Nearly the whole region Almost cosmopolite 639. Micrastur 7 Trop. North and South America 640. Geranospiza ... 2 Trop. North and South America 641. Antenor 2 Mexico to Chili and La Plata California and Texas 642. Astur 2 Trop. N. and S. America Almost cosmopolite 643. Accipiter 9 The whole region Almost cosmopolite 644. Heterospizias . . . . 1 Trop. S. America, E. of Andes 645. Tachytriorchis 2 Mexico to Paraguay California 646. Buteo 9 Mexico to Patagonia Almost cosmopolite 647. Buteola 1 Veragua to Amazonia 648. Asturirfa 7 Mexico to Bolivia and La Plata S.E. United States 649. Busarellus ... 1 Brazil and Guiana 650. Buteogallus ... 1 Columbia and Guiana 651. Urubutinga ... 12 Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia 652. Harpyhaliceetus 1 Veragua to Chili & N. Patagonia 653. Morphnus ... 1 Panama to Amazonia 654. Thrasaetus ... 1 Mexico to Bolivia and Paraguay 655. Lophotriorchis 656. Spiziastur ... 1 1 Bogota Guatemala to Brazil Indo-Malaya 657. Spizaetus 4 Mexico to Paraguay Africa, India, Malaya 658. Herpetotheres... 1 S. Mexico to Bolivia & Paraguay 659. Nauclerus ... 1 Mexico to Brazil S. United States 660. Rostrhamus ... 3 Antilles to Brazil and Peru Florida 661. Leptodon 4 Central America to S. Brazil and Bolivia 662. Elanus 1 Mexico to Chili Califor., Old World trop. 663. Gampsonyx ... 1 Trinidad to Brazil 664. Harpagiis 3 Central America to Brazil & Peru 665. Ictinia 2 Mexico to Brazil South United States 666. Spiziapteryx . . . 667. Falco 1 3 La Plata The whole region Almost cosmopolite 668. Cerchneis 3 The whole region Almost cosmopolite PANDIONID^E. 669. Pandiou 1 The whole region Cosmopolite STRIGID.E. 670. Glaucidium ... 6 The whole region W. United Sts.,PaIaearc. 671. Micrathene ... 1 Mexico Arizona, New Mexico 672. Pholeoptynx... 673. Bubo 1 1 The whole region The whole region N.W. America & Texas All regions but Austral. 112 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order, Family, and Genus. s| 4 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 674. Scops 6 Mexico to Brazil and La Plata Almost cosmopolite 675. Gywnoglaux ... 2 West India Islands 676. Lophostrix ... 2 Guatemala to Lower Amazon 677. Syrnium 678. Ciccaba 3 10 Mexico to Patagonia Mexico to Peru and Paraguay All regions but Austral.- 679. Nyctalatinus ... 1 Columbia 680. Pulsatrix ... 2 Guatemala to Brazil and Peru 681. Asio 682. Nyctalops 2 1 The whole region Cuba and Mexico to Brazil All regions but Austral. 683. Pseudoscops ... 1 Jamaica (Nyctalg 1 Mexico) N. Temperate genus 684. Strix 2 The whole region Almost cosmopolite Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds. GRALLM. RALLID^E. Aramides Heliornis 23 1 The whole region Tropical America SCOLOPACIDJE. Eureunetes ... 3 The whole region CHIONIDID2E. Chionis 2 Sts. of Magellan, Falkland Ids. THINOCORIDJB. Attagis Thinocoris ... 4 2 Andes to Fuegia and Falkland Islands Peru, Chili, and La Plata CHARADRIID.. Phcegornis Oreophilus ... Pluvianellus ... Aphriza 1 1 1 1 Temperate S. America Temperate S. America Temperate S. America W. coast of S. America CARIAMIDJS. Cariama 2 S. Brazil and La Plata ARAMID^:. Aramus 5 Mexico and Cuba to Brazil PSOPHIIDZB. Psophia 6 Equatorial S. America EURYPYGIDJE. Eurypyga 2 Tropical America Nearctic Nearctic Kerguelen's Island . W. coast of N. America CHAP. XIV.] THE NEOTROPICAL REGION. 113 Order, Family, and Genus. SS 4 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. ARDEID-E. Tigrisoma Cancroma 3 1 The whole region TropicalS. America 9t. ( PALAMEDEIDJL Palamedea ... Chauna 1 2 Equatorial America Columbia, Brazil, and La Plata ANSERES. ANATID-E. Cairina Merganetta ... Micropterus ... 1 3 1 Tropical S. America Andes Temperate S. America SPHENISCID-aG. Eudyptes Aptenodytes 6 2 Temperate S. America Falkland Islands Antarctic shores Antarctic shores STRUTHIONES. STETJTH10NID2E. 685. Ehea 3 S. Temperate America CHAPTEE XV. THE NEARCTIC REGION. THIS region consists almost wholly of Temperate North America as denned by physical geographers. In- area it is about equal to the Neotropical region. It possesses a vast mountain range traversing its entire length from north to south, comparable with, and in fact a continuation o the Andes, and a smaller range near the east coast, equally comparable with the mountains of Brazil and Guiana. These mountains supply its great river- system of the Mississippi, second only to that of the Amazon ; and in its vast group of fresh-water lakes or inland seas, it possesses a feature unmatched by any other region, except perhaps by the Ethiopian. It possesses every variety of climate between arctic and tropical ; extensive forests and vast- prairies ; a greatly varied surface and a rich and beautiful flora. But these great advantages are. somewhat neutralized by other physical features. It extends far towards the north, and there it reaches its greatest width ; while in its southern and warmest portion it suddenly narrows. The northern mass of land causes its isothermal lines to bend southwards ; and its winter tempera- ture especially, is far lower than at corresponding latitudes in Europe. This diminishes the available area for supporting animal life ; the amount and character of which must be, to a great extent, determined by the nature of the least favourable part of the year. Again, owing to the position of its mountain ranges and the direction of prevalent winds, a large extent of its interior, east of the Eocky Mountains, is bare and arid, and often almost desert ; while the most favoured districts, those east of NE ARCTIC R K G TON Scale 1 iucli-1,000 jniles EXPLANATION TfiTf.sn-ial Coiilinirs fr'roni .S'm level l.(HK> ii'H t,, 2,->00 . C3ZI1 .1000 . to.ooo . The Marin.- C,,iit.,m- ,.f UKK) teat is shown by a dultttl lini- riixtiiir ttt/itlx ,\-/tt'H'n thiix i /;<:l' lii,- Sub /vv//V//i.v HO Longitude West 1OO of Greenwich no Stanfnrd'f Gnyraphifal K.ttab'. London . York: Hai-per & Brothers. CHAP, xv.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 115 the Mississippi and west of the Sierra Nevada, bear but a small proportion to its whole area. Again, we know that at a very recent period geologically, it was subjected to a very severe Glacial epoch, which wrapped a full half of it in a mantle of ice, and exterminated a large number of animals which previously in- habited it. Taking all this into account, we need not be sur- prised to find the Nearctic region somewhat less rich and varied in its forms of life than the Palaearctic or the Australian regions, with which alone it can fairly be compared. The wonder rather is that it should be so little inferior to them in this respect, and that it should possess such a variety of groups, and such a multitude of forms, in every class of animals. Zoological characteristics of the Nearctic Region. Temperate North America possesses representatives of 26 families of Mam- malia, 48 of Birds, 18 of Keptiles, 11 of Amphibia, and 18 of Fresh-water Fish. 1 The first three numbers are considerably less than the corresponding numbers for the Palaearctic region, while the last two are greater in the case of fishes materially so, a circumstance readily explained by the wonderful group of fresh- water lakes and the noble southward-flowing river system of the Mississippi, to which the Palsearctic region has nothing com- parable. But although somewhat deficient in the total number of its families, this region possesses its full proportion of peculiar and characteristic family and generic forms. No less than 13 families or sub-families of Vertebrata are confined to it, or just enter the adjacent Neotropical region. These are, three of mam- malia, Antilocaprinse, Saccomyidae, and Haploodontidse ; one of birds, Chamseidae ; one of reptiles, Chirotidse ; two of amphibia, Sirenidse and Amphiumidse ; and the remaining six of fresh- water fishes. The number of peculiar or characteristic genera is per- haps more important for our purpose ; and these are very con- siderable, as the following enumeration will show. Mammalia. Of the family of moles (Talpidse) we have 3 peculiar genera : Condylura, Scapanus, and Scalops, as well as the remarkable Urotrichus, found only in California and Japan. In the weasel family (Mustelidse) we have Latax, a peculiar kind of otter; Taxidea, allied to the badgers; and one of the 116 . ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART HI. remarkable and characteristic skunks is separated by Dr. J. E. Gray as a genus Spilogale. In the American family Procyo- nidse, a peculiar genus (Bassaris) is found in California and Texas, extending south along the mountains of Mexico and Guatemala. Eumetopias, and Halicyon, are seals confined to the west coast of North America. The Bovidse, or hollow-horned ruminants, contain three peculiar forms; Antilocapra, the re- markable prong-buck of the Kocky Mountains ; Aplocerus, a goat- like antelope; and Ovibos, the musk-sheep, confined to Arctic America and Greenland. Among the Eodents are many pecu- liar genera: Neotoma, Sigmodon, and Fiber, belong to the Muridse, or rats; Jaculus to the Dipodidae, or jerboas. The very distinct family Saccomyidce, or pouched rats, which have peculiar cheek pouches, or a kind of outer hairy mouth, con- sists of five genera all confined to this region, with one of doubtful affinities in Trinidad and Central America. In the squirrel family (Sciuridae), Cynomys, the prairie-dogs, are pecu- liar; and Tamias, the ground squirrel, is very characteristic, though found also in North Asia. Haploodon, or sewellels, consisting of two species, forms a distinct family ; and Erethizon is a peculiar form of tree porcupine (Cercolabidse) . True mice and rats of the genus Mus are not indigenous to North America, their place being supplied by a distinct genus (Hesperomys), confined to the American continent. Birds. The genera of birds absolutely peculiar to the Nearctic region are not very numerous, because, there being no boundary but one of climate between it and the Neotropical region, most of its characteristic forms enter a short distance within the limits we are obliged to concede to the latter. Owing also to the severe winter-climate of a large part of the region (which we know is a comparatively recent phenomenon), a large pro- portion of its birds migrate southwards, to pass the winter in the West-Indian islands or Mexico, some going as far as Guate- mala, and a few even to Venezuela. In our chapter on extinct animals, we have shown, that there is good reason for believing that the existing union of North and South America is a quite recent occurrence ; and that the CHAP, xv.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 117 separation was effected by an arm of the sea across what is now Nicaragua, with perhaps another at Panama. This would leave Mexico and Guatemala joined to North America, and forming part of the Nearctic region, although no doubt contain- ing many Neotropical forms, which they had received during earlier continental periods ; and these countries might at other times have been made insular by a strait at the isthmus of Tehuantepec, and have then developed some peculiar species. The latest climatal changes have tended to restrict these Neotropical forms to those parts where the climate is really tropical ; and thus Mexico has attained its present strongly marked Neotropical character, although deficient in many of the most important groups of that region. In view of these recent changes, it seems proper not to draw any decided line between the Nearctic and Neotropical regions, but rather to apply, in the case of each genus, a test which will show whether it was probably derived at a comparatively recent date from one region or the other. The test referred to, is the existence of peculiar species of the genus, in what are un- doubtedly portions of ancient North or South America. If, for example, all the species of a genus occur in North America, some, or even all, of them, migrating into the Neotropical region in winter, while there are no peculiar Neotropical species, then we must class that genus as strictly Nearctic; for if it were Neotropical it would certainly have developed some peculiar resident forms. Again, even if there should be one or two resident species peculiar to that part of Central America north of the ancient dividing strait, with an equal or greater number of species ranging over a large part of Temperate North America, the genus must still be considered Nearctic. Examples of the former case, are Helminthophaga and Myiodioctes, belonging to the Mniotiltidse, or wood- warblers, which range over all Tem- perate North America to Canada, where all the species are found, but in each case one of the species is found in South America, probably as a winter migrant. Of the latter, are Ammodr&mus and Junco (genera of finches), which range over the whole United States, but each have one peculiar species in Guatemala. These 118 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. may be claimed as exclusively Nearctic genera, on the ground that Guatemala was recently Nearctic ; and is now really a transition territory, of which the lowlands have been invaded and taken exclusive possession of by a Neotropical fauna, while the highlands are still (in part at least) occupied by Nearctic forms. In his article on " Birds," in the new edition of the " Ency- clopaedia Britannica " (now publishing), Professor Newton points out, that the number of peculiar genera of Nearctic birds is much less than in each of the various sub-divisions of the Neotropical region ; and that the total number of genera is also less, while the bulk of them are common either to the Neo- tropical or Palsearctic regions. This is undoubtedly the case if any fixed geographical boundary is taken ; and it would thus seem that the " Nearctic " should, in birds, form a sub-region only. But, if we define " Nearctic genera " as above indicated, we find a considerable amount of speciality, as the following list will show. The names not italicised are those which are repre- sented in Mexico or Guatemala by peculiar species : LIST OF TYPICAL NEARCTIC GENERA OF LAND BIRDS. 1. Oreoscoptes 17. Phcenopepla 33. Empidias 2. Harporhynchus 18. Xanthocephalus 34. Sphyrapicus 3. Sialia 19. Scolecophagus 35. Hylatomus 4. Chamcea 20. Pipilo 36. Trochilus 5. Catherpes 21. Junco 37. Atthis 6. Salpinctjts 22. Melospiza 38. Ectopistes 7. Psaltriparus 23. Spizella 39. Centrocercus 8. Auriparus 24. Passerculus 40. Pedioccetes 9. GymnokiUa 25. Pocscetes 41. Cupidonia 10. Picicorvus 26. Ammodromus ? Ortyx 11. Mniotilta. 27. Cyanospiza 42. Oreortyx 12. Oporornis 28. Pyrrhuloxia 43. Lophortyx 13. Icteria 29. Calamospiza 44. Callipepla 14. Helmintherus 30. Chondestes 45. Cyrtonyx 15. Helminthophaga 31. Centronyx 46. Meleagris 16. Myiodioctes 32. Neocorys 47. Micrathene The above are all groups which are either wholly Nearctic or typically so, but entering more or less into the debatable ground of the Neotropical region; though none possess any peculiar species in the ancient Neotropical land south of Nicaragua. But we. have, besides these, a number of genera which we are accus- CHAP, xv.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 119 tomed to consider as typically European, or Palsearctic, having representatives in North America ; although in many cases it would be more correct to say that they are Nearctic genera, represented in Europe, since America possesses more species than Europe or North Asia. The following is a list of genera which have as much right to be considered typically Nearctic as Palsearctic : 1. Regulus 9. Corvus 16. Euspiza 2. Certhia 10. Ampelis 17. Plectrophanet 3. Sitta 11. Loxia 18. Tetrao 4. Parus 12. Pinicola 19. Lagopus 5. Lophophanes 13. Linota 20. Nyctala 6. Lanius 14. Passer dla 21. Archibuteo 7. Perisoreus 15. Leucosticte. 22. Haliseetus 8. Pica The seven genera italicized have a decided preponderance of Nearctic species, and have every right to be considered typically Nearctic ; while the remainder are so well represented by peculiar species, that it is quite possible many of them may have origi- nated here, rather than in the Pala3arctic region, all alike being quite foreign to the Neotropical. On the whole, then, we have 47 in the first and 7 in the second table, making 54 genera which we may fkirly class as typically Nearctic, out of a total of 168 genera of land birds, or nearly one-third of the whole. This is an amount of peculiarity which is comparable with that of either of the less isolated regions ; and, combined with the more marked and more exclusively peculiar forms in the other orders of vertebrates, fully establishes Temperate North America as a region, distinct alike from the Neotropical and the Palasarctic. Reptiles. Although temperate climates are always compara- tively poor in reptiles, a considerable number of genera are peculiar to the Nearctic region. Of snakes, there are, Gonophis, Chilomeniscus, Pituophis, and IschnognatJms, belonging to the Colubridse; Farancia, and Dimodes, Homalopsidae ; Lichanotus, one of the Pythonidse; Cenchris, Crotalophorus, Uropsophorus, and Orotalus, belonging to the Crotalidse or rattlesnakes. Of Lizards, Chirotes, forming a peculiar family ; Ophisaurus, VOL. II 9 120 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. the curious glass-snake, belonging to the Zonuridae ; with Pliry- nosoma (commonly called horned toads), Callisaurus, Uta, Euphryne, Uma, and Holbrookia, genera of Iguanidae. Testudinidae, or Tortoises, show a great development of the genus Emys ; with A romochelys and Chelydra as peculiar genera. Amphibia. In this class the Nearctic region is very rich, possessing representatives of nine of the families, of which two are peculiar to the region, and there are no less than fifteen peculiar genera. Siren forms the family Sirenidae ; Menobranchus belongs to the Proteidae ; Amphiuma is the only representative of the Amphiumidae; there are nine peculiar genera of Sala- mandridae. Among the tail-less batrachians (frogs and toads) we have Scapkiopus, belonging to the Alytidae ; Pseudacris to the Hylidae ; and Acris to the Polypedatidae. Fresh-ivater Fishes. The Nearctic region possesses no less than five peculiar family types, 1 and twenby-fouj peculiar genera of this class. The families are Aphredoderidae, consisting of a single species found in the Eastern States ; Percopsidse, founded on a species peculiar to Lake Superior ; Heteropygii, containing two genera peculiar to the Eastern States ; Hyodontidse and Amiidse, each consisting of a single species. The genera are as follows : Paraldbrax, found in California ; Huro, peculiar to Lake Huron ; Pileoma, Boleosoma, Bryttus, and Pomotis in the Eastern States all belonging to the perch family. H$$$ddm and Noturus, belonging to the Siluridse. ThaleichtJiys, one of the Salmonidae, peculiar to the Columbia river. Moxostoma, Pimephales, Hyborhynchus, Rhinichthys, in the Eastern States; Ericymba, Exoglossum, Leucosomus, and Carpiodes, more widely distributed ; Cuchlognaihus, in Texas ; Myliiphorodon and Ortho- don, in California ; Meda, in the river Gila ; and Acrochilus, in the Columbia river all belonging to the Cyprinidae. Scaphi- rhynchus, found only in the Mississippi and its tributaries, belongs to the sturgeon family (Accipenseridae). Summary of Nearctic Vertebrata. The Nearctic region possesses 24 peculiar genera of mammalia, 49 of birds, 21 of reptiles, and 29 of fresh-water fishes, making 123 in all. 2 Of these 7r are mammals and land-birds, out of a total of 242 -jidevTfitJiT . t) CHAP, xv.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 121 genera of these groups, a proportion of about two-sevenths. This is the smallest proportion of peculiar genera we have found in any of the regions; but many of the genera are of such isolated and exceptional forms that they constitute separate families, so that we have no less than 12 families of vertebrata confined to the region. The Paltearctic region has only 3 peculiar families, and even the Oriental region only 12 ; so that, judged by this test, the Nearctic region is remarkably well characterized. We must also remember that, owing to the migration of many of its peculiar forms during the Glacial period, it has recently lost some of its speciality ; and we should therefore give some weight to the many characteristic groups it possesses, which, though not quite peculiar to it, form important features in its fauna, and help to separate it from the other regions with which it has been thought to be closely allied. It is thus well distinguished from the Palasarctic region by its Pro- cyonidae, or racoons, Hesperomys, or vesper mice, and Diddphys, or opossums, among Mammalia ; by its Vireonidae, or greenlets, Mniotiltidas, or wood-warblers, Icteridae, or hang-nests, Tyran- nida3, or tyrant shrikes, and Trochilidee, or humming-birds, among birds, families which, extending to its extreme northern limits must be held to be as truly characteristic of it as of the Neotropical region ; by its Teidae, Iguanidae, and Cinostermim, among reptiles ; and by its Siluridse, and Lepidosteidae, among fishes. From the Neotropical region it is still more clearly separated, by its numerous insectivora; by its bears; its Old World forms of ruminants ; its beaver ; its numerous Arvicolce, or voles ; its Sciuropterus, or flying squirrels ; Tamias, or ground- squirrels ; and Lagomys, or marmots, among mammals ; its numerous Paridae, or tits, and Tetraonidaa, or grouse, among birds ; its Trionychidae among reptiles ; its Proteidae, and Sala- mandridae, among Amphibia ; and its Gasterosteidae, Atherinidae, Esocidae, Umbridae, Accipenseridas, and Polydontidaa, among fishes. These characteristic features, taken in conjunction with the absolutely peculiar groups before enumerated, demonstrate that the Nearctic region cannot with propriety be combined with 122 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. any other. Though not very rich, and having many disadvan- tages of climate and of physical condition, it is yet sufficiently well characterized in its zoological features to rank as one of the well-marked primary divisions of the earth's surface. There is one other consideration bearing on this question which should not be lost sight of. In establishing our regions we have depended wholly upon their now possessing a sufficient number and variety of animal forms, and a fair proportion of peculiar types ; but when the validity of our conclusion on these grounds is disputed, we may supplement the evidence by an appeal to the past history of the region in question. In this case we find a remarkable support to our views. During the whole Tertiary period, North America was, zoologically, far more strongly contrasted with South America than it is now ; while, during the same long series of ages, it was always clearly separated from the Eastern hemisphere or the Palsearctic region by the exclusive possession of important families and numerous genera of Mammalia, as shown by our summary of its extinct fauna in Chapter VII. Not only may we claim North America as now forming one of the great zoological regions, but as having continued to be one ever since the Eocene period. Insects. In describing the Palsearctic and Neotropical regions, many of the peculiarities of the insect-fauna of this region have been incidentally referred to ; and as a tolerably full account of the distribution of the several families is given in the Fourth Part of our work (Chapter XXI.), we shall treat the subject very briefly here. Lepidoptera. The butterflies of the Nearctic region have lately been studied with much assiduity, and we are now able to form some idea of their nature and extent. Nearly 500 species belonging to about 100 genera have been described ; showing that the region, which a few years ago was thought to be very poor in species of butterflies, is really much richer than Europe, and probably about as rich as the more extensive Palse- arctic region. There is, however, very little speciality in the CHAP, xv.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 123 forms. A considerable number of Neotropical types enter the southern States ; but there are hardly any peculiar genera, except one of the Lycsenidse and perhaps a few among the Hesperidae. The most conspicuous feature of the region is its fine group of Papilios, belonging to types (P. turnus and P. troilus) which are characteristically Nearctic. It is also as rich as the Palsearctic region in some genera which we are accustomed to consider as pre-eminently European ; such as Argynnis, Melitcea, Grapta, Chionftbas, and a few others. Still, we must acknowledge, that if we formed our conclusions from the butterflies alone, we could hardly separate the Nearctic from the Palsearctic region. This identity probably dates from the Miocene period ; for when our existing arctic regions supported a luxuriant vegetation, butterflies would have been plentiful ; and as the cold came on, these would move southwards both in America and Europe, and, owing to the long continuance of the generic types of insects, would remain little modified till now. Coleoptera. Only a few indications can be given of the peculiarities of the Nearctic coleoptera. In Cicindelidse the region possesses, besides the cosmopolite Cicindela, four other genera, two of which AmblyckMjt and Omus are peculiar to the West Coast and the Rocky Mountains. Of Carabidae it possesses Diccelus, Pasimachus, JEuryirichus, Sphceroderus, Pina- codera, and a number of smaller genera, altogether peculiar to it; Helluomorpha, Galerita, Callida, and Tetragonoderus, in common with South America; and a large number of characteristic European forms. The Lucanidae are all of European types. The region is poor in Cetoniidae, but has representatives of the South American Euphoria, as well as of four European genera. Of Buprestidse it has the South American Actenodes ; a single species of the Ethiopian and Eastern Belionota, in California ; and about a dozen other genera of European and wide distribution. Among Longicorns it possesses fifty-nine peculiar genera, representatives of five Neotropical, and thirteen Palsearctic genera; as well as many of wider distribution. Prionus is the chief representative of the Prionidae; Leptura and Crossidim of the 124 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. Cerambycidae ; Leptostylus, Liopus, Graphidurus, and Tetraopes, of the Lamiidee, the latter genus being confined to the region. Terrestrial and Fluviatile Mollusca. The land-shells of temperate North America almost all belong to the Inoperculate ,0r Pulmoniferous division ; the Operculata being represented only by a few species of Helicina and Truiicatella, chiefly in the Southern States. According to Mr. Binney's recent "Catalogue of the Terrestrial Air-breathing Mollusks of North America," the fauna consists of the following genera : Glandina (6 sp.) ; Macrocyclis (5 sp.) ; Zonites (37 sp.) ; Vitrina (4 sp.) ; Limax (5 sp.) ; Arion (3 sp.) ; Ariolimax (3 sp.) ; Prophysaon (1 sp.) ; Binneia (1 sp.) ; HemipJiillia, (1 sp.) ; Patula (16 sp.) ; Helix (80) ; Holospira (2 sp.) ; Cylindrella (2 sp.) ; Macroceramus (2 sp.) ; Bulimulus (8 sp.) ; Cionella (2 sp.) ; Steno- gyra (4 sp.) ; Pupa (19 sp.) ; Strophia (1 sp.) ; Vertigo (6 sp.) ; Liguus (1 sp.) ; Orthalicus (2 sp.) ; Punctum (1 sp.) ; Succinea (26 sp.) ; Tebennophorus (1 sp.) ; Pallifera (1 sp.) ; Veronicella (2 sp.). All the larger genera range over the whole region, but the following have a more restricted distribution ; Macrocyclis has only one species in the East, the rest being Calif ornian or Central ; Ariolimax, Prophysaon, Itinneia, and HemipJiillia, are confined to the Western sub-region. Lower California has affinities with Mexico, 18 species being peculiar to it, of which two are true Bulimi, a genus unknown in other parts of the region. The Central or Kocky Mountain sub-region is chiefly characterised by six peculiar species of Patula. The Eastern sub-region is by far the richest, nine-tenths of the whole number of species being found in it. The Alleghany Mountains form the richest portion of this sub-region, possessing nearly half the total number of species, and at least 24 species found nowhere else. The southern States have also several peculiar species, but they are not so productive as the Alleghanies. The Canadian sub-region possesses 32 species, of which nearly half are northern forms more or less common to the v/hole Arctic regions, and several of this character have spread southwards all CHAP, xv.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 125 over the United States. Species of Vitrina, Zonites, Pupa, and Succinea, are found ia Greenland ; and Eastern Palsearctic species of Vitrina, Patula, and Pupa occur in Alaska. More than 30 species of shells living in the Eastern States, are found fossil in the Post-Pliocene deposits of the Ohio and Mississippi. Fresh-water Shells. North America surpasses every other part of the globe in the number and variety of its fresh- water mollusca, both univalve and bivalve. The numbers up to 1866 were as follows : Melaniadse, 380 species ; Paludinidse, 58 species ; Cycladidse, 44 species ; and Unionidae, 552 species. The last family had, however, increased to 832 species in 1874, according to Dr. Isaac Lea, who has made them his special study ; but it is probable that many of these are such as would be considered varieties by most conchologists. Many of the species of Unio are very large, of varied forms, and rich internal colouring, and the group forms a prominent feature of the Nearctic fauna. By far the larger proportion of the fresh- water shells inhabit the Eastern or Alleghany sub-region ; and their great development is a powerful argument against any recent extensive submergence beneath the ocean of the lowlands of North America. The Nearctic Sub-regions. The sub-divisions of the Nearctic region, although pretty- clearly indicated by physical features and peculiarities of climate and vegetation, are by no means so strongly marked out in their zoology as we might expect. The same genera, as a rule, extend over the whole region ; while the species of the several sub-regions are in most cases different. Even the vast range of the Eocky Mountains has not been an effectual barrier against this wide dispersal of the same forms of life ; and although some important groups are limited by it, these are exceptions to the rule. Even now, we find fertile valleys and plateaus of moderate elevation, penetrating the range on either side ; and both to the north and south there are passes which can be freely traversed by most animals during the summer. Previous to the glacial epoch there was probably a warm period, when every part of the range supported an abundant and varied 126 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. fauna, which, when the cold period arrived, would descend to the lowlands, and people the country to the east, west, and south, with similar forms of life. The first, and most important sub-division we can make, consists of the Eastern United States, extending across the Mississippi and the more fertile prairies, to about the 100th. meridian of west longitude, where the arid and almost desert country commences. Southwards, the boundary bends towards the coast, near the line of the Brazos or Colorado rivers. To the north the limits are undefined ; but as a considerable number of species and genera occur in the United States but not in Canada, it will be convenient to draw the line somewhere near the boundary of the two countries, except that the district between lakes Huron and Ontario, and probably Nova Scotia, may be included in the present sub-region. As far west as the Mississippi, this was originally a vast forest country ; and it is still well wooded, and clothed with a varied and luxuriant vegetation. The next, or Central sub-region, consists of the dry, elevated, and often arid district of the Rocky Mountains, with its great plateaus, and the barren plains of its eastern slope ; extending northwards to near the commencement of the great forests north of the Saskatchewan, and southward to the Rio Grande del Norte, the Gulf of California, and to Cape St. Lucas, as shown on our maps. This sub-region is of an essentially desert character, although the higher valleys of the Rocky Mountains are often, well wooded, and in these are found some northern and some western types. The third,or Californian sub-region,is small, but very luxuriant, occupying the comparatively narrow strip of country between the Sierra Nevada and the Pacific. To the north it may include Van- couver's Island and the southern part of British Columbia, while to the south it extends to the head of the Gulf of California. The fourth division, comprises the remainder of North America ; and is a country of pine forests, and of barren wastes towards the Arctic Ocean. It has fewer peculiar species to characterise it than any other, but it possesses several characteristic arctic CHAP, xv.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 127 forms, while many of those peculiar to the south are absent ; so that it is a very convenient, if it should not be considered an altogether natural, sub-region. We will now give an outline of the most important zoological features of each of these divisions, taking them in the order in which they are arranged in the Fourth Part of this work. California comes first, as it has some tropical forms not found elsewhere, and thus forms a transition from the Neotropical region. /. The Western or Californian Sub-region. This small district possesses a fruitful soil and a highly favourable climate, and is, in proportion to its extent, perhaps the richest portion of the continent, both zoologically and botan- ically. Its winters are far milder than those of the Eastern States in corresponding latitudes ; and this, perhaps, has enabled it to support several tropical forms which give a special character to its fauna. It is here only, in the whole region, that bats of the families Phyllostomidse and Noctilionidae, and a serpent of the tropical family, Pythonidae, are found, as well as several Neotropical forms of birds and reptiles. Mammalia. The following genera are not found in any other part. of the Nearctic region. Macrotus (Phyllostomidae), one species in California ; Antrozous (Vespertilionidae), one species on the West Coast ; Urotrichus (Talpidae), one species in British Columbia; sub-genus N&orex (Soricidae), one species in Oregon ; Bassaris (Procyonidae), California ; Enhydry, (Mustelidae), Pacific Coast; Morunga (Phocidae), California; Haploodon (Haploodon- tidae), a rat-like animal, allied to the beavers and marmots, and constituting a peculiar family found only in California and British Columbia. The following characteristic Nearctic forms also extend into this sub-region : Taxidea, Procyon, DidelpJiys, Sciuropterus, Tamias, Spermophilus, Dipodomys, Perognathus, Jaculus. Birds. Few genera of birds are quite peculiar to this sub- region, since most of the Western forms extend into the central district, yet it has a few. Glaucidium a genus of Owls, is confined 128 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. (in the Nearctic region) to California ; Chamcea, a singular form allied to the wrens, and forming a distinct family, is quite pecu- liar; G-eococcyx, a Neotropical form of cuckoo, extends to California and Southern Texas. The following genera are very character- istic of the sub-region, and some of them almost confined to it : Myiadestes (Sylviidafi) ; Psaltriparus (Paridae) ; Cyanocitta, Picicorvus (Corvidse) ; ffesperiphona, Peuccea, Ckondestes (Fringil- lidse) ; Selasphorus, Atthis (Trochilidae) ; Columba, Melopelia (Columbidse) ; Oreortyx (Tetraonidse). Reptiles. The following genera are not found in any other part of the Nearctic region : Charina (Tortricidse) ; Lichanotus (Pythonidae) ; -Gerrhonotus (Zonuridse) ; Phyllodactylus (Gecko- tidae) ; Anolius and Tropidolepis (Iguanidae). Sceloporus (Igu- anidae) is only found elsewhere in Florida. All the larger North American groups of lizards and snakes are also represented here ; but in tortoises it is deficient, owing to the absence of lakes and large rivers. Amphibia. California possesses two genera of Salamandridae, Abides and Heredia, which do not extend to the other sub- regions. Fresh-water Fish. There are two or three peculiar genera of Cyprinidae, but the sub-region is comparatively poor in this group. .. Plate X VIII. Illustrative of the Zoology of California and the Rocky Mountains. We have chosen for the subject of this illus- tration, the peculiar Birds of the Western mountains. The two birds in the foreground are a species of grouse (Pedij&fates Colum- bianus), entirely confined to this sub-region ; while the only other species of the genus is found in the prairies north and west of Wisconsin, so that the group is peculiar to northern and western America. The crested birds in the middle of the picture (Oreortyx picta), are partridges, belonging to the American sub- family Odontophorinae. This is the only species of the genus, which is confined to California and Oregon. The bird at the top is the blue crow (Gymnokitta cyanocephala), confined to the Eocky Mountains and Sierra Nevada from New Mexico and Arizona northwards, and more properly belonging to the Central CHAP, xv.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 129 sub-region. It is allied to the European nutcracker ; but 4p- cording to the American ornithologist, Dr. Coues, has also resem- blances to the jays, and certainly forms a distinct genus. The grizzly bear (Ursus ferox) in the background, is one of the characteristic animals of the Californian highlands. //. The Central, or Rocky Mountain Sub-region. This extensive district is, for the greater part of its extent, from 2,000 to 5,000 feet above the sea, and is excessively arid ; and, except in the immediate vicinity of streams and on some of the higher slopes of the mountains, is almost wholly treeless. Tts zoology is therefore peculiar. Many of the most characteristic genera and families of the Eastern States are absent ; while a number of curious desert and alpine "forms give it a character of its own, and render it very interesting to the naturalist. Mammalia. The remarkable prong-horned antelope (Antilo- capra), the mountain goat (Aplocerus), the mountain sheep or bighorn (Ovis montana), and the prairie-dog (Cynomys), one of the Kodentia, are peculiar to this sub-region ; while the family of the Saccomyidse, or pouched rats, is represented by many forms and is very characteristic. Here is also the chief home of the bison. The glutton (Gulo) and marmot (Lagomys) enter it from the north ; while it has the racoon (Procyori), flying squirrel (Sciu- ropterus), ground squirrel (Tamias), pouched marmot (Spermo- philus\ and jumping mouse (Jaculus) in common with the countries east or west of it. Plate XIX. Illustrative of the, Zoology of the Central Plains or Prairies. We here introduce four of the most characteristic mammalia of the great American plains or prairies, three of them being types confined to North America. The graceful animals on the left are the prong-horned antelopes (Antilocapra americana), whose small horns, though hollow like those of the ante- lopes, are shed annually like those of the deer. To the right we have the prairie-dogs of the trappers (Cynomys ludovi- cianus) which, as will be easily seen, are rodents, and allied to the marmots of the European Alps. Their burrows are numerous on the prairies, and the manner in which they perch 130 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. themselves on little mounds and gaze on intruders, is noticed by all travellers. On the left, in the foreground, is one of the extraordinary pouched rats of America (G-eomys bursarius). These are burrowing animals, feeding on roots; and the mouth is, as it were, double, the outer portion very wide and hairy, behind which is the small inner mouth. Its use may be to keep out the earth from the mouth while the animal is gnawing roots. A mouth so constructed is found in no other animals but in these North American rats. In the distance is a herd of bisons (Bison americanus), the typical beast of the prairies. Birds. This sub-region has many peculiar forms of birds, both residents, and migrants from the south or north. Among the peculiar resident species we may probably reckon a dipper^ (Cinclus) ; Salpinctes, one of the wrens; Poospiza, Calamospiza, genera of finches; Picicorvus, Gymnoldita, genera of the crow family; Centrocercus and Pedif&fates, genera of grouse. As winter migrants from the north it has Leucostide and Plectro- phanes, genera of finches ; Perisoreus, a genus of the crow family ; Picoides, the Arctic woodpecker ; and Lagopus, ptar- migan. Its summer, migrants, many of which may be resident in the warmer districts, are more numerous. Such are, Oreos- coptes, a genus of thrushes ; Campylorhynchus and Catherpes, wrens ; Paroides, one of the tits ; Phcenopepla, allied to the waxwing ; Embernagra and Spermophila, genera of finches ; Pyrocephalus, one of the tyrant shrikes ; Callipepla and Cyrtonyx, American partridges. Besides these, the more widely spread genera, Harporhynchus, Lophophanes, Carpodacus, Spizella, and Cyanocitta, are characteristic of the central district, and two genera of humming-birds Atthis and Selasphorus only occur here and in California. Prof. Baird notes 40 genera of birds which are re- presented by distinct allied species in the western, central, and eastern divisions of the United States, corresponding to our sub-regions. It is a curious fact that the birds of this sub-region should extend across the Gulf of California, and that Cape St. Lucas, at the southern extremity of the peninsula, should be decidedly more " Central " than " Californian " in its ornithology. Prof. PLATE XVIII. SCENE IN CALIFORNIA, WITH SOME CHARACTERISTIC BIRDS. c ',. p CHAP, xv.] THE NE ARCTIC REGION. 131 Baird says, that its fauna is almost identical with that of the Gila Kiver, and has hardly any relation to that of Upper California. It possesses a considerable number (about twenty) of peculiar species of birds, but all belong to genera character- istic of the present sub-region ; and there is no resemblance to the birds of Mazatlan, just across the gulf in the Neotropical region. Reptiles, Amphibia, and Fishes. A large number of snakes and lizards inhabit this sub-region, but they have not yet been classified with sufficient precision to enable us to make much use of them. Among lizards, Iguanidaa, Geckotidse, Scincidse, and Zonuridse, appear to be numerous ; and many new genera of doubtful value have been described. Among snakes, Calamariidse, Colubridae, and Crotalidse are represented. Among Amphibia, Siredon, one of the Proteidae, is peculiar. 1 The rivers and lakes of the Great Central Basin, and the Colorado Eiver, contain many peculiar forms of Cyprinidse. ///. The Eastern or Alleghany Sub-region. This sub-region contains examples of all that is most charac- teristic of Nearctic zoology. It is for the most part an undu- lating or mountainous forest-clad country, with a warm or temperate climate, but somewhat extreme in character, and everywhere abounding in animal and vegetable life. To the west, across the Mississippi, the country becomes more open, gradually rises, becomes much drier, and at length merges into the arid plains of the central sub -region. To the south, in Georgia, Florida, and Louisiana, a sub-tropical climate prevails, and winter is almost unknown. To the north, in Michigan and New England, the winters are very severe, and streams and lakes are frozen for months together. These different climates, however, produce little effect on the forms of animal life ; the species to some extent change as we go from north to south, but the same types everywhere prevail. This portion of the United States, having been longest inhabited by Europeans, has been more thoroughly explored than other parts of North America ; and to this more complete knowledge its superior zoological richness - Yc , a & 132 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. may be to some extent due; but there can be little doubt that it is also positively, and not merely relatively, more productive in varied forms of animal life than either of the other sub-regions. Mammalia. There seems to be only one genus absolutely peculiar to this sub-region the very remarkable Condylura, or star-nosed mole, only found from Pennsylvania to Nova Scotia, and as far as about 94 west longitude. It also has opossums (Didelphys) in common with California, and three out of four species of Scalops, a genus of moles ; as well as the skunk (Mephitis), American badger (Taxidea), racoon (Procyori), pouched rat (Geomys), beaver rat (Fiber), jumping mouse (Jacidus), tree porcupine (Erethizori), and other characteristic Nearctic forms. Birds. The birds of this sub-region have been carefully studied by American naturalists, and many interesting facts ascertained as to their distribution and migrations. About 120 species of birds are peculiar to the east coast of the United States, but only about 30 of these are residents all the year round in any part of it ; the bird population being essentially a migratory one, coming from the north in winter and the south in summer. The largest number of species seems to be congre- gated in the district of the Alleghany mountains. A consider- able proportion of the passerine birds winter in Central America and the West Indian Islands, and go to the Middle States or Canada to breed ; so that even the luxuriant Southern States do not possess many birds which may be called permanent resi- dents. Thus, in East Pennsylvania there are only 52, and in the district of Columbia 54 species, found all the year round, out of about 130 which breed in these localities ; very much below the number which permanently reside in Great Britain. This sub-region is well characterised by its almost exclusive possession of Ectopistes, the celebrated passenger pigeon, whose enormous flocks and breeding places have been so often de- scribed; and Cupidonia, a remarkable genus of grouse. The only Nearctic parrot, Conurus carolinensis, is found in the Southern States ; as well as Crotophaya, a South American genus usually associated with the cuckoos. Helmintherus and CHAP, xv.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 133 Oporornis, genera of wood- warblers, may be considered to be peculiar to this sub-region,, since in each case only one of the two species migrates as far as Central America ; while two other genera of the same family, Siurus and Setophaga, as well as the finch genus, Euspiza, do not extend to either of the western sub-regions. Parus, a genus of tits, comes into the district from the north ; Otocorys, an alpine lark, and Coturniculus, an American finch, from the west ; and such characteristic Nearctic genera as Antrostomus (the whip-poor-will goatsuckers) ; Helminthophaga, Dendri&ca, and Myiodioctes (wood- warblers) ; Vireo (greenlets) ; Dolichonyx (rice-bird) ; Quiscalus (troupial) ; Meleagris (turkey) ; and Ortyx (American partridge), are wide-spread and abundant. In Mr. J. A. Allen's elaborate and interesting paper on the birds of eastern North America, he enumerates 32 species which breed only in the more temperate portions of this province, and may therefore be considered to be especially characteristic of it. These belong to the following genera : Turdus, Galeoscoptes, Harporhynchus, Sialia, Dendr$'ca, Wilsonia, Pyranga, Vireo, Lanivireo, Lophophanes, Coturniculus, Ammodromus, Spizella, Euspiza, Hedymeles, Cyanospiza, Pipilo, Cardinalis, Icterus, Corvus, Centurus, Melanerpes, Antrostomus, Coccyzus, Ortyx, and Cupidonia. Reptiles. In this class the Eastern States are rich, possessing many peculiar forms not found in other parts of the region. Among snakes it has the genera Farancia and Dimodes belong- ing to the fresh-water snakes (Homalopsidse) ; the South Ameri- can genus Elaps ; and 3 genera of rattlesnakes, Cenchris, Crotalophorus, and Crotalus. The following genera of snakes are said to occur in the State of New York : Coluber, Tropido- notus, Leptophis, Calamaria, Heterodon, Trigonocephalus, Crotalus, Psammophis, Helicops, Rhinostoma, Pituophis, and Elaps. Among lizards, Chirotes, forming a peculiar family of Amphis- ti&mans, inhabits Missouri and Mexico; while the remarkable glass-snake, Ophisaurus, belonging to the family Zonuridae, is peculiar to the Southern States; and the South American Sphcerodactylus, one of the gecko family, reaches Florida. Other genera which extend as far north as the State of New 134 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. York are, Scincus, Tropidolepis, Plestiodon, Lygosoma, Ameiva, and Phrynosoma. Tortoises, especially the fresh-water kind, are very abun- dant ; and the genera Aromochelys, Chelydra, Terrapene, and Trionyx, are nearly, if not quite, confined to this division of the region. Amphibia. Almost all the remarkable forms of Urodela, or tailed batrachians, peculiar to the region are found here only; such as Siren and Pseudobranchus, constituting the family Sirenidse ; Mendbranchus, allied to the Proteus of Europe ; Amphiuma, an eel-like creature with four rudimentary feet, constituting the family Amphiumidae ; Notopthalmus, Desmognathus, and Meno- poma, belonging to the Salamandridse ; together with several other genera of wider range. Of Anura, or tail-less batrachians, there are no peculiar genera, but the Neotropical genus of toads, Engystoma, extends as far as South Carolina. Fishes. Owing to its possession of the Mississippi and the great lakes, almost all the peculiar forms of North American fishes are confined to this sub-region. Such are Perca, Pileoma, Huro, Bryttus, and Pomotis (Percidse) ; the families Aphredode- ridse and Percopsidse ; several genera of Cyprinodontidse and Cyprinidse ; and the family Poly^ontidse. Islands of the Alleghany Sub-region. The Bermudas. These islands, situated in the Atlantic, about 700 miles from the coast of Carolina, are chiefly interesting for the proof they afford of the power of a great variety of birds to cross so wide an extent of ocean. There are only 6 or 8 species of birds which are permanent residents on the islands, all com- mon North American species; while no less than 140 species have been recorded as visiting them. Most of these are stragglers, many only noticed once ; others appear frequently and in great numbers, but very few, perhaps not a dozen, come every year, and can be considered regular migrants. The per- manent residents are, a greenlet ( Vireo noveboracensis), the cat- bird (Galeoscoptes carolinensis), the blue bird (Sialia sialis), the cardinal (Cardinalis virginianus), the American crow (Cormis CHAP, xv.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 135 americanus), and the ground dove (Chamcepelia passerina). The most regular visitants are a kingfisher ( Ceryle alcyon\ the wood- wagtail (Siurus noveboracensis), the rice-bird (Dolichonyx oryzivo- rus), and a moorhen (Gallinula galeata). Besides the American species, four European birds have been taken- at the Bermudas : Saxicola cenanthe, Alauda arvensis (perhaps introduced), Orex* pratensis, and Scolopax gallinago. A common American lizard, Plestiodon longirostris, is the only land reptile found on the islands. IV. The Sub- Arctic or Canadian Sub-region. This sub-region serves to connect together the othe'r three, since they all merge gradually into it; while to the north it passes into the circumpolar zone which is common to the Palae- arctic and Nearctic regions. The greater portion of it is an exten- sive forest-district, mostly of coniferae; and where these cease towards the north, barren wastes extend to the polar ocean. It possesses several northern or arctic forms of Mammalia, such as the glutton, lemming, reindeer, and elk, which barely enter the more southern sub-regions ; as well as the polar bear and arctic fox ; but it also has some peculiar forms, and many of the most characteristic Nearctic types. The remarkable rnusk-sheep (Ovibos) is confined to this sub-region, ranging over a con- siderable extent of country north of the forests, as well as Greenland. It has been extinct in Europe and Asia since the Post-pliocene epoch. Such purely ISTearctic genera as Procyon, Latax, Erethizon, Jaculus, Fiber, Thomomys, and Hesperomys, abound, many of them ranging to the shores of Hudson's Bay and the barren wastes of northern Labrador. Others, such as Blarina, Condylura, and Mephitis, are found only in E"ova Scotia and various parts of Canada. About 20 species of Mammalia seem to be peculiar to this sub-region. Plate XX. Illustrating the Zoology of Canada. We have here a group of Mammalia characteristic of Canada and the colder parts of the United States. Conspicuous in the fore- ground is the skunk (Mephitis mephitica), belonging to a genus of the weasel family found only in America. This animal is VOL. II. 10 L' (T'l V et CX. . 136 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. celebrated for its power of ejecting a terribly offensive liquid, the odour of which is almost intolerable. The skunks are nocturnal animals, and are generally marked, as in the species represented, with conspicuous bands and patches of white. This enables them to be easily -seen at night, and thus serves to warn larger animals not to attack them. To the left is the curious little jumping mouse (Jaculus hudsonius), the American representative of the Palsearctic jerboa. Climbing up a tree on the left is the tree porcupine (Erethizon dorsatiis), belonging to the family Cer- colabidaB, which represents, on the American continent, the por- cupines of the Old World. In the background is the elk or moose (Alces americanus) , perhaps identical with the European elk, and the most striking inhabitant of the northern forests of America, as the bison is of the prairies. Birds. Although the Canadian sub-region possesses very few resident birds, the numbers which breed in it are perhaps greater than in the other sub-regions, because a large number of circum- polar species are found here exclusively. From a comparison of Mr. Allen's tables it appears, that more than 200 species are regular migrants to Canada in the breeding season, and nearly half of these are land-birds. Among them are to be found a considerable number of genera of the American families Tyran- nidse and Mniotiltidse, as well as the American genera Sialia, Progne, Vireo, Cistothorus, Junco, Pipilo, Zonotrichia, Spizella, Melospiza, Molothrus, Agelceus, Cyannr$, Sphyrapicus, and many others ; so that the ornithology of these northern regions is still mainly Nearctic in character. Besides these, it has such specially northern forms as Surma (Strigidas) ; Picoides (PicidaB) ; Pinicola (Fringillidse) ; as well as Leucosticte, Plectrophanes, Perisoreus, and Lagopus, which extend further south, especially in the middle sub-region. No less than 212 species of birds have been col- lected in the new United States territory of Alaska (formerly Eussian America), where a humming-bird (Selasphorus rufus) breeds. The great majority of these are typically American, including such forms as Colaptes, HelminthopJiaija, Siurus, Den- drceca, Myiodioctes, Passerculus, Zonotrichia, Junco, Spizella, Melospizga, Passerella, ScoUpphci(jfas, Pedificetes, and Bonasa ; PLATE XX. A CANADIAN FOREST, WITH CHARACTERISTIC MAMMALIA. CHAP. xv.J THE NEARCT1C REGION. 137 together with many northern birds common to both conti- nents. Yet a few Palsearctic forms, not known in other parts of the sub-region, appear here. These are Budytes flava, Phyl- loscopus kennicottii, and Pyrrhula, coccinea, all belonging to genera not occurring elsewhere in North America. Considering the proximity of the district to North-east Asia, and the high probability that there was an actual land connection at, and south of, Behring's Straits, in late Tertiary times, it is somewhat remarkable that the admixture of Palsearctic and Nearctic groups is not greater than it is. The Palsearctic element, however, forms so small a portion of the whole fauna, that it may be satisfactorily accounted for by the establishment of immigrants since the Glacial period. The great interest felt by ornithologists in the discovery of the three genera above-named, with a wren allied to a European species, is an indication that the faunas even of the northern parts of the Nearctic and Palsearctic regions are, as regards birds, radically distinct. It may be mentioned that the birds of the Aleutian Isles are also, so far as known, almost wholly Nearctic. The number of land-birds known from Alaska is 77 ; and from the Aleutian Isles 16 species, all of which, except one, are North American. Reptiles. These are comparatively few and unimportant. There are however five snakes and three tortoises which are limited to Canada proper; while further north there are only Amphibia, represented by frogs and toads, and a salamander of the genus Plethodon. Fishes. Most of the groups of fresh-water fish of the Nearctic region are represented here, especially those of the perch, salmon, and pike families ; but there seem to be few or no peculiar genera. Insects. These are far less numerous than in the more temperate districts, but are still tolerably abundant. In Canada there are 53 species of butterflies, viz., Papilionidse, 4 ; Pieridse, 2 ; Nymphalidse, 21 ; Satyridse, 3 ; Lycsenidse 16; and Hesperidse 7. Most of these are, no doubt, found chiefly in the southern parts of Canada. That Coleoptera are pretty numerous is shown, by more than 800 species having been collected on the 138 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. shores of Lake Superior; 177 being Geodephaga and 39 Longicorns. Greenland. This great arctic island must be considered as belonging to the Nearctic region, since of its six land mammals, three are exclusively American (Myodes torquatus, Lepus glacialis, and 0-vibos moschatus), while the other three (Vulpes lagopus, Ursus maritimus, and Rangifer tarandus) are circumpolar. Only fourteen land -birds are either resident in, or regular migrants to the country ; and of these two are European (Haliceetus albicilla, and Falco peregrinus), while three are American (AntJius ludovi- cianus, Zonotrichia leucophrys, and Lagopus rupestris), the rest being arctic species common to both continents. The waders and aquatics (49 in number) are nearly equally divided between both continents; but the land-birds which visit Greenland as stragglers are mostly American. Yet although the Nearctic element somewhat preponderates, Greenland really belongs to that circumpolar debateable land, which is common to the two North Temperate regions. Concluding remarks. We have already discussed pretty fully, though somewhat incidentally, the status and relations of the Nearctic region ; first in our chapter on Zoological regions, then in our review of extinct faunas, and lastly in the earlier part of this chapter. It will not therefore be necessary to go further into the question here ; but we shall, in our next chapter, give a bri^f summary of the general conclusions we have reached as to the past history and mutual zoological relations of all the great divisions of the earth. CHAP, xv.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 139 TABLES OF DISTEIBUTIOK In drawing up these tables, showing the distribution of various classes of animals in the Nearctic region, the following sources of information have been chiefly relied on, in addition to the general treatises, monographs, and catalogues used in the com- pilation of the 4th Part of this work. Mammalia. Professor Baird's Catalogue ; Allen's List of the Bats ; Mr. Lord's List for British Columbia ; Brown, for Green- land ; Packard for Labrador. Birds. Baird, Cassin, and Allen's Lists for United States; Eichardson's Fauna Boreali Americana; Jones, for Bermudas; and papers by Brown, Coues, Lord, Packard, Dall, and Professor Newton. 140 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGKAPHY. [PART in. TABLE I. FAMILIES OF ANIMALS INHABITING THE NE ARCTIC REGION. EXPLANATION. Names in italics show the families which are peculiar to the region. Names inclosed thus ( ) show families which barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it. Numbers correspond to the series of numbers to the families in Part IV. Order and Family. MAMMALIA. CHIROPTERA. 10. Phyllostomidae 12. Vespertilionidae 13. Noctilionidse... INSECTIVORA. 21. Talpidse ...... 22. Soricidse CARNIVORA. 23. Felidse ... 28. Canidae ... 29. Mustelidae 30. Procyonidae 32. Ursidae .. 33. Otariidae... 34. Trichechidae 35. Phocidae... CETACEA. 36 to 41. UNGULATA. 50. Cervidae ... 52. Bovidae ... KODENTIA, 55. Muridae ... 57. Dipodidae 59. Saccomyidce 60. Castoridae 61. Sciuridse... Sub-regions. Kange beyond the Region. Neotropical Cosmopolite Tropical regions Palaearctic, (f.-ii. The Eastern Hemisphere, excl. Australia All regions but the Australian All regions but the Australian All regions but the Australian Neotropical Palaaarctic, Oriental, N. and S. temperate zones Arctic regions N. and S. temperate zones Oceanic All other continents but Australia All regions but Ethiopian and Australian Palaearctic, Ethiopian, Oriental Almost cosmopolite Palaearctic, Ethiopian Mexican sub-region Palaearctic All regions but Australian CHAP. XV.] THE NEAKCTIC BEGION. 141 Order and Family. 62. Haploodontidce 66. Cercolabidse ... 69. Lagomyidse ... 70. Leporidae MARSTJPIALIA. 76. Didelphyidse... BIRDS. PASSEB.ES. 1. Turdidse ...... 2. Sylviidae ...... 5. Cinclidse 6. Troglodytidae 7. Charnceidce ... 8. Certhiidse 9. Sittidse ...... 10. Paridse ...... 19. Laniidee ...... 20. Corvidse ...... 26. (Ccerebidse) ... 27. Mniotiltidse ... 28. Vireonidse ... 29. Ampelidse 30. Hirundinidse... 31. Icteridse ...... 32. Tanagridse ... 33. Fringillida3 ... 37. Alaudidse 38. Motacillidse ... 39. Tyrannidae .. PICARLE. 51. Picidfe ...... 58. Cuculidse 67. Alcedinidaa ... 73. Caprimulgidas 74. Oypselidse 75. Trochilidse ... PSITTACI. 80. Conuridas COLTJMB.E. 84. Columbidaa ... GALLING. 87. Tetraonidse 88. Phasianidse 91. (Cracidse) Sub-regions. Range beyond the Region. Neotropical Palaearctic All regions but Australian Neotropical Almost cosmopolite Almost cosmopolite Palsearctic, Oriental, Andes All regions but Australian Palsearctic, Oriental, Australian Palsearctic, Oriental, Australian. The Eastern Hemisphere The Eastern Hemisphere Cosmopolite Neotropical family Neotropical Neotropical Palsearctic, Antilles, Guatemala Cosmopolite Neotropical Neotropical All regions but Australian All regions but Neotropical Cosmopolite Neotropical All regions but Australian Almost cosmopolite Cosmopolite Cosmopolite , Almost cosmopolite Neotropical Neotropical Cosmopolite Almost cosmopolite Palsearctic, Oriental, Ethiopian, Hondu., e4e>. Neotropical 142 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART HI. Order and Family. Sub-regions. Range beyond the Region. ij II as i.l ^ J d "O ACCIPITRES. 94. Vulturidse ... 96. Falconidae ... 97. Pandionidse... 98. Strigidae ... All regions but Australia]? Cosmopolite Cosmopolite Cosmopolite GRALKE. 99. Rallidse 100. Scolopacidse... 105. Charadriidse 107. Gruidse 113. Ardeidse 114. Plataleidse ... 115. Ciconiidse ... Cosmopolite Cosmopolite Cosmopolite All regions but Neotropical Cosmopolite Almost cosmopolite All the regions ANSERES. 118. Anatidse 119. Laridse 120. Procellariidae 121. Pelecanidee ... 123. Colymbid* ... 124. Podicipidse .. 125. Alcidse ; Cosmopolite Cosmopolite Cosmopolite Cosmopolite North temperate and arctic zones Cosmopolite North temperate and arctic zones REPT1LIA. OPHIDIA? 5. Calamariidse ... 6. Oligodontidse... 7. Colubridse ... 8. Homalopsidse 17. Pythoiiidae ... 20 Elapidse All the regions Neotropical, Oriental, Japan Almost cosmopolite All the regions All tropical regions All tropical regions, Japan Neotropical. Palsearctic, Oriental 24. Crotalidae LACERTILIA. 27. Chirotidce 32. Teidae ... ... 34. Zonuridse 35. Chalcidae 45. Scincidae 49. Geckotidse ... 50. Iguanidae Mexico Neotropical All regions but Australian Neotropical Almost cosmopolite Almost cosmopolite Neotropical , C'> CROCODILIA. 56. Alligatoridae ... Neotropical CHELONIA. 57. Testudinidse ... 59. Triouychidae... 60. Cheloiiiidae ... All continents but Australian Ethiopian, Oriental, Japan Marine CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 143 Order and Family. 3J AMPHIBIA. URODELA. 2. Sirenidce 3. Proteidae 4. Amphiumidce 5. Menopomidae 6. Salamandridae ANOURA. 10. Bufonidae 12. Engystomidse.. 15. Alytidae 17. Hylidae 18. Polypedatidse 19. Ranidse FISHES (FRESH- WATER). ACANTHOPTERYGII 1. Gasterosteidae 3. Percidae 4. Apkredoderidce 12. Sc$hidse 37. Atherinidae ... PHYSOSTOMI. 59. Siluridse 65. Salmonidse ... 66. Percopsidce ... 70, Esocidae 71. Umbridse 73. Cyprinodontidae 74. Heteropygii ... 75. Cypriuidae 77. Hyodontidce ... GANOIDEI. 93. Amiidce 9 5 . Lepidosteidce . . . 96. Accipenseridae 97. Polydontidae ... INSECTS. LEPI DOPTERA (PART) DIUKNI (BUTTER- FLIES). 1. Danaidae 2. Satyridae 7. (Heliconidae)... Sub-regions. Range beyond the Region. Palaearctic Palaearctic Andes, Palaearctic All continents but Australia All regions but Neurotic All regions but Oriental All regions but Ethiopian All the regions Almost cosmopolite Palaearctic Cosmopolite All regions but Australian Palsearctic, All warm regions Palaearctic, New Zealand Palaearctic Palaearctic All regions but Australian Not in S. America or Australia Palaearctic Palaearctic All warm regions Cosmopolite Neotropical 144 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART, in- Order and Family. Sub- regions. Range beyond the Region. i eS i| ii (3 -- 1 ^^ cS T3 8. Nymphalidse . . . 9. Libytheidse ... 12. Erycinidse ... 13. Lycsenidse 14. Pieridse 15. Papilionidse ... 16. Hesperidse ... - Cosmopolite Not in Australia Neotropical Cosmopolite Cosmopolite Cosmopolite Cosmopolite SPHINGIDEA. 17. Zygsenidae ... 18. Castniidfe 22. ^Egeriidae 23. Sphingidse ... Cosmopolite Neotropical, Australian Not in Australia Cosmopolite CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 145 TABLE II. LIST OF GENERA OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALIA AND BIRDS INHABITING THE NEARCTIC REGION. EXPLANATION. Names in italics show genera peculiar to the region. Names enclosed thus (...) indicate genera which barely enter the region, and are not considered properly to belong to it. Genera properly belonging to the region are numbered consecutively. MAMMALIA. Order, Family, and Genus. ^% Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. CHIROPTERA. PHYLLOSTOMID^I. 1. Macrotus 1 California Mexico, Antilles VESPERTILIONID.E. 2. Scotophilus ... 3. Vespertilio 4. Nycticejus 5. Lasiurus 6. Synotus 7. Aiktrozous 5 6 1 3 2 1 Universal, to Hudson's Bay Universal, to Hudson's Bay South and East Temp. N. Amer. to Nova Scotia S. E. and Central States W. Coast Neotr., Orient., Austral. Cosmopolite India, Tropical Africa, temperate S. America Tropical America NOCTILIONID^E. 8. Nyctinonms ... INSECTIVORA. TALPID.E. 1 Cal. and S. Central Sub-region Neotropical, Oriental. S. Palsearctic, ">Had. . 9. Condylura 10. Scapanus 11. Scalops 12. Urotrichus ... 1 2 3 1 Eastern N. America New York to San Francisco S. of Great Lakes & Brit. Columb. British Columbia Japan 13. Sorex 14. Neosorex 15. Blarina 16 1 7 The who,le region Vancouver's Island (a sub-genus) Canada to Mexico (a sub-genus) Palsearc., Ethiop., Orien. CARNIVORA. FELID.E. 16. Felis : 17. Lynx 5 3 S. of 55 N. Latitude S. of $6 N. Latitude All regs. but Australian Palsearctic, VOL. II. 146 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. TPART in. Order, Family, and Genus. 51 Range within the Region. Eange beyond the Region. CANID2B. 18. Lupus 6 All N. America Palsearctic, Oriental 19. Vulpes 6 N. America to Arctic Ocean and Palsearc ., Ethiop. , Orient. Greenland ^ MUSTELIDJE. 1 20. Martes ... 2 Pennsylvania to Paget's Sound Palsearctic, Oriental 21. Mustela 11 All N. America Peru, Palsearctic, Ethio- pian, Oriental 22. Gulo 1 Rocky Mountains and Canada N. Palsearctic 23. Latax 2 United States and Canada ~L>. ~! 24. Enhydris 1 Pacific coast V W. coast of S. America 25. Taxidea 2 Arkansas to 58 N. Lat. 26. Mephitis 6 United States and Canada Neotropical PROCYONIDJE. 27. Procyon 28. Bassaris 2 1 Texas to Canada, California California and Texas Neotropical Guatemala and Mexico URSIDJ3. 2 29. Ursus 3 N. America and Greenland Palsearctic, Oriental OTARIIDA 30. Callorhinus ... 1 Behring's Straits Kamschatka 31. Zalophus 1 S. California to N. Pacific Japan. , ''. , ._ " Eumetopias 1 California to Behring's Straits TRICHECHIDJB. 32. Trichechus ... 1 Arctic Ocean to 66 N. Lat. in Palsearctic N. America PHOCID^J. 33. CaUocephalus ... 1 Greenland Palsearctic 34. Pagomys 1 N. Atlantic and N. Pacific Japan . 35. Pagophilus 1 N. Atlantic and N. Pacific Palsearctic 36. Halicyon 1 N. W. coast of America 37. Phoca 1 Northern Coast Palsearctic 38. Halichcerus ... 1 Greenland Palstarctic 39! Morunga 1 California S. temperate shores 40. Cystophora I Greenland N. Atlantic, n . UNGULATA. 41. "Dicotyles 1 Texas to Red River, Arkansas Neotropical CERVID^B. 42. Alces 1 N. E. United States & Canada N. Palsearctic 43. Rangifer 2 Maine to Arctic Ocean & Greenl. Arctic zone 44. Cervus 6 N. America to 57 N. Lat. Neotr., Palsearc., Orien. BOVIDJB. 45. Bison 1 Between Missouri & Rocky Mtns. E. Europe 46. Antiloca/pra, ... 1 Central plains from Rio Grande to British Columbia Vort r CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 147 Order, Family, and Genus. 8 Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 47. Aplocerus 48. Capra 49. Ovibos i i i Northern Rocky Mountains Upper Missouri and Rocky Mountains northwards Arctic America and Greenland Palsearctic,'' RODENTIA. Munnxas. 1 50. Reithrodon 51. Hesperomys ... 52. Neotoma 53. Sigmodon... 54. Arvicola 55. Myodes 56. Fiber 5 16 7 2 27 3 1 N. America to Lat. 39 N. Temperate N. America Temperate N. America S. and S. E. States Texas and California to Hudson's Bay N. United States to Arctic Reg. and Greenland All N. America Neotropical Neotropical Palsearctic. <'.*-. N. Palsearctic Mexico DlPODIDJS. 57. Jaculus SACCOMYID.E. 1 Pennsylvania to Canada and Cali- fornia 58. Dipodomys 59. Perognathus ... 60. Thomomys 61 GeoTYiys 5 6 2 5 New Mexico to Columbia River and Carolina New Mexico to British Columbia Upper Missouri to Hudson's Bay New Mexico to Alabama and Ne* 62. Saccomys 1 braska N. America CASTORID^J. 63. Castor 1 N. Mexico to Labrador Palsearctic SCITJRIDJE 64. Sciurus 65. Sciuropterus ... 66. Tamias 18 4 4 N. America to Labrador California & E. States northwds. Mexico and Virginia to Canada All regs. but Australian Palsearctic, Oriental Mexico, N. Asia 67. Spermophilus ... 68. Cynomys 15 2 N., W., & Central N. America Bio Grande, to Missouri (Central) Palsearctic 69. Arctomys 4 Virginia and Nebraska, northws. N. Palsearctic HAPLOODONTID^I. 70. Haploodon 2 California and British Columbia CERCOLABID.E 71. Erethizon LAGOMYID^J. 2 Pennsylvania to Canada, & Paci- fic coast 72. Lagomys LEPORID.E. 1 Rocky Mountains, 42 to 60 N. Lat. Palsearctic 73. Lepus ... ... 15 All N. America to Greenland All regs. but Australian 148 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order, Family, and Genus. || Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. MARSUPIALIA. DlDELPHYID^B. 74. Didelphys 2 From Hudson's River & Lower California, southward Neotropical BIRDS. PASSERES. TURDIDJG. 1. Turdus 2. Mimus 3. Galeoscoptes ... 4. Orcoscoptes 5. Harporhynchus 9 2 1 1 7 The whole region All U. States and to Canada E. of N. America California and Rocky Mountains N. America, chiefly the west Almost cosmopolite Neotropical To Panama Mexico Mexico SYLVIID.E. 6. Myiadestes 7. Sialia 8. Regulus 9. Polioptila 1 3 3 3 W. of Rocky Mountains and to Canada All United States and to Canada All United States & to Labrador Central and Southern U. States Neotropical Mexico and Guatemala Palsearc., Cent. America Neotropical CINCLIDJS. 10. Cinclus TROGLODYTID.E. 1 Rocky Mountains and British America Andes, Palsearctic' 11. Troglodytes ... 12. Thryophilus ... 13. Thryothorus ... 14. Cistothorus ... (Campy lor- \ hynchus j " 15. Salpinctes 16. Catherpes 3 1 3 2 1 1 1 N. America N. W. America All N. America N. America Gil a and Rio Grande) Rocky Mountains to Oregon Gila and Colorado Neotropical, Palsearctic, Neotropical Neotropical Neotropical Neotropical genus CHAM^IIDJE. 17. Chamcea 1 California CERTHIID2E. 18. Certhia 2 All United States and Canada Palsearctic, Guatemala. ( f 19. Sitta 5 All United States and Canada Palaearctic, Mexico PARID.E. 20. Parus 21. Lophophanes ... 22. Psaltripariis ... 23. Auriparus 8 4 3 1 All United States and Canada All United States Central & Western N. America Rio Grande Valley Palsearc., Orien., Mexico. Palsearctic, Mexico Mexico and Guatemala CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 149 Order, Family, and Genus. 55 || Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. LANIIDJE. 24. Lanius 4 All N. America Palsearc., Ethio., Orient. CORVIDJE. 25. Perisoreus 1 Canada and Rocky Mountains Palsearctic 26. Cyanocitta 9 All United States and to Canada Neotropical 27. G-ymnokitta 1 Central and N. W. States 28. Picicorvus 1 Central and Western States to Sitka 29. Pica 2 Central and Western States to Palsearctic Arctic Ocean 30 Corvus 7 All N. America Cosmop., excl. S. Amer. CCE RESIDE. (Certhiola 1 Florida ; summer migrant) Neotropical genus MNIOTILTID^;. 31. Mniotilta 1 Eastern States Antilles, Andes of Co- lumbia (migrant) 32. Parula 1 Eastern States and Canada Neotropical 33. Protonotaria ... 1 Ohio and southwards Neotrop. to Venezuela 34. ffelminthophaga 8 All N. America Mexico to Columbia 35. Helmintherus ... 2 S. and E. States to Canada Mexico to Veragua 36. Perissoglossa 1 Eastern United States Antilles 37. Dendroeca 22 All N. America Mex.. to Ecuador & Chili 38. Oporornis 2 Eastern States Guatemala and Panama 39. Geothlypis 40. Setophaga 41. Myiodioctes 4 2 5 All N. America E. States & Canadian sub -region United States and Canada Neotropical Neotropical Mex. to Columb. (migr. ) 42. Siurus 3 S. and E. States to Canada Mexico to Columbia 43 Icteria 2 E. and Central States to Canada Mexico to Costa Rica VlREONID^:. 44. Vireosylvia 7 All N. America Antilles and Venezuela 45. Vireo 6 All United States Antilles and Costa Rica AMPELID.E. 46. Ampelis 2 All N. America Palsearctie, Guatemala 47. Phcenopepla 1 Gila and Lower Colorado Mexico HlRTJNDINIDjE. 48. Hirundo 3 All N. America Almost cosmopolite 49. Petrochelidon ... 1 All N. America Neotropical, 50. Cotyle 1 All N. America All regs. but Australian 51. Stelgidopteryx 1 Southern States Neotropical 52. Progne 1 All N. America Neotropical 53. Icterus 7 All United States and Canada Neotropical 54. Dolichonyx 55. Molothrus 1 1 Eastern States and Canada All United States and Canada Neotropical Neotropical 56, Agelaeus 3 All United Slates and Canada Neotropical 150 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order, Family, and Genus. 'SS Jl OQ Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. 57. Xanthocephahis 58. Sturnella 1 2 ?he whole region, ill United States and Canada Mexico Neotropical 59. Scolecophagus 2 \11 United States and Canada Vlexico 60. Quiscalus 4 S. and E. States to Labrador Vlexico to Venezuela TANAGRID2E. 61. Pyranga 4 United Stales and Canada Neotropical FRINGILLID.E. 62. Chrysomitris... 63. Coccothraustes 7 1 The whole region W. and N. W. America Neotropical, Palsearctic Palsearctic, Guatemala 64. Embernagra ... 65. Pipilo 1 9 Kocky Mountain district All N. America Neotropical Mexico and Guatemala 66. Jwnco 5 All United States Mexico and Guatemala 67. Zonotrichia ... 5 Che whole region Neotropical 68. Mdospiza 7 All United States to Sitka Mexico and Guatemala 69. Spizella 6 N. America Mexico and Guatemala 70. Passerella 3 The whole region Northern Asia 71. Passerculus ... 6 The whole region Mexico and Guatemala 72. Pocecetes 1 All United States Mexico 73. Ammodromus 3 All United States Mexico and Guatemala 74. Coturniculus... 3 E. and N. of N. America Neotropical 75. Peucsea 3 S. Atlantic States and California Mexico 76, Cyanospiza ... 5 All United States to Canada Central American 77. Poospiza 2 California and S. Central States Neotropical 78. Carpodacus ... 5 The whole region Mexico, Palaearctic 79. Cardinalis -... 1 S. and S. Central States Mexico to Venezuela 80. Pyrrhuloxia .. 1 Texas and Rio Grande 81. Guiraca 1 Southern States Neotropical 82. Hedymeles ... 2 All United States Mexico to Columbia (Spermophila 1 Texas) Neotropical genus 83. Loxia 2 N. of Pennsylvania Palaearctic 84. Pinicola 1 Boreal America Palsearctic, 85. Linota 2 E. and N. of N. America Palsearctic 86. Leucosticte ... 4 Alaska to Utah Palsearctic 87. Calamospiza ... 1 Arizona and Texas to Mexico Mexico 88. Chondestes . . 1 Western, Cen., & Southern States Mexico 89. Euspiza 2 S. Eastern States Palsearc., Columb. (mig.). 90. Plectrophanes 6 Boreal America and E. side of Paleearctic Rocky Mountains 91. Oentronyx ... 1 Mouth of Yellowstone River ALATJDID.E. 92. Otocorys 1 High central plains to E. States Palsearc., Mexico, Andes and Canada of Columbia MOTACILLID^I. 93. Anthus 1 The whole region Cosmopolite 94. Neocorys I Nebraska TYRANNID^B. 95. Sayornis 3 E. States to Canada, California Mexico to Ecuador (Pyrocephalus 96. Empidonax ... 1 7 Gila and Rio Grande) The whole region Neotropical Mexico to Ecuador CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 151 Order, Family, and Genus. y Range within the Region. Bange beyond the Region. 97. Contopus 98. Myiarchus 99. Empidias 100. Tyrannus (Milvulus 3 2 1 4 1 N. and E. of Rocky Mountains E. and W. coasts and Canada Eastern States, CW. All United States to Canada Texas) Mexico to Amazonia Neotropical Mexico Neotropical Neotropical genus PICART.E. 101. Picoides 102. Picus 103. Sphyrapicus ... 104. Campephilus... 105. Hylatomiis ... 106. Centurus 107. Melanerpes ... 108. Colaptes 3 6 6 2 1 3 3 3 Arctic zone and Rocky Mounts. All United States and Canada Brit. Columbia and Pennsylvania southwards United States and Canada E. and W. States and Canada The whole region United States and S. Canada United States and Canada Palsearctic All regs. but Eth. & Aus. Mexico and Guatemala Neotropical Mexico to Venezuela Neotropical Neotropical CUCULID.E. 109. Crotophaga ... 110. Coccyzus 111. Geococcyx ... 2 3 1 E. States from Pennsylvania S. S. E. and Con. States to Canada California to New Mex. & Texas Neotropical Neotropical Guatemala ALCEDINID.fi. 112. Ceryle CAPRIMULGID^;. 2 The whole region Neotropical, S. Palsearc- tic, Oriental, O } < . 113. Chordeiles ... 114. Antrostomus... 3 3 All United States to Canada All United States to Canada Neotropical Neotropical CYPSELID.E. 115. Nephoecetes ... 116. Chsetura 1 2 N. W. America All U. States & British Columbia Jamaica Almost cosmopolite TROCUILID.E. 117. Trochilus 118. Selasphorus ... 119 Atthis 2 2 2 The whole region W. coast and Centre California and Colorado Valley Mexico to Veragua (? mi.) Mexico to Veragua At6Xi.CO to Uctt/GlUtllci PS1TTACI. 120. Conurus 1 S. and S. E. States Neotropical COLUMB.E. COLUMBIDJE. 121. Columba 122. Ectopistes 123. Melopelia ... 124. Zeriaidura 125. Chifeiriepelia .. VOL. H 11 3 1 1 1 1 W. and Central States to Canada E. coast to Cen. plains, Canada and British Columbia W. and S. Central States All United States to Canada California and S. E. States All regs. but Australian Neotropical Mexico to Veragua Neotropical 152 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Order, Family, and Genus. O > Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region. GALLING. TETRAONID^;. 126. Cyrotonyx .. 1 S. Central States Mexico and Guatemala 127. Ortyx 5 All United States and to Canada Mexico to Honduras and Costa Rica 128. Callipepla ... 1 California Mexico 129. Lophortyx ... 2 Arizona and California 130. Oreortyx 1 California and Oregon 131. Tetrao 3 N. and N. W. America Palsearctic 132. Centrocercus ... 1 Rocky Mountains 133. Ped&ftes ... 2 N. and N. W. America 134. Cupidonia 1 E. & N. Cen. States and Canada 135. Bonasa 1 N. United States and Canada Palsearctic 136. Lagopus 4 Arctic zone and to 39 N. Lat. Palsearctic PHASIANID.E in Rocky Mountains 137. Meleagris 2 E. and Central States to Canada Mexico, Honduras CRACIDJE. (Ortalida 1 New Mexico) Neotropical genus ACCIPITRES. VULTURIDJB. Sub-Family (CATHARTINJE. ) 138. Catharista ... 1 United States to 40 N. Lat. Neotropical 139. Psuedogryphis 2 United States to 49 N. Lat. Neotropical FALCONID.E. 140. Polyborus 1 S. States to Florida & California Neotropical 141. Circus 1 All N. America Nearly cosmopolite 142. Antenor 2 California and Texas Neotropical 143. Astur 1 All N. America Almost cosmopolite 144. Accipiter 145. Taehytriorchis 3 1 All temperate N. America New Mexico to California Almost cosmopolite Neotropical 146. Buteo 12 All N. America All regs. but Australian 147. Archibuteo ... 3 All N. America N. Palsearctic 148. Asturina 1 S. E. States Neotropical 149. Aquila 150. Haliseetus 1 2 The whole region All N. America Palsearc., Ethiop., Indian All regs. but Neotropical 151. Nauclerus 1 E. coast to Pennsylvania and Neotropical "Wisconsin (Rostrhamus 1 Florida) Neotropical 152. Elanus 1 Southern and Western States Tropical regions 153. Ictinia 1 Southern States Neotropical 154. Falco 155. Hierofalco 7 2 The whole region N. of N. America Almost cosmopolite N. Palsearctic 156. Cerchneis ... 1 All N. America Almost cosmopolite PANDIONIDJE. 157. Pandion 1 Temperate N. America Cosmopolite CHAP. XV.] THE NEARCTIC REGION. 153 Order, Family, and Genus. o| 6g * Range within the Region. Range beyond the Region STRIGIDJS. 158. Surnia 159. Nyctea 160. Glaucidiura ... 161. Micrakhcne ... 162. Pholeoptyux... 163. Bubo .".. ... 164. Scops 165. Syrnium 166. Asio 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 a Arctic & N. Temperate America S. Carolina to Greenland Oregon and California Arizona and New Mexico N. W. America, Texas All N. America The whole region E. States, California, Canada The whole region N. Palsearctic N. Palsearctic Neotropical, Palsearctic Mexico Neotropical All regs. but Australian Almost cosmopolite All regs. but Australian All regs. but Australian 167. Nyctalt 168. Strix ' 3 1 All N. America Temperate N. America Palsearctic Almost cosmopolite Peculiar or very Characteristic Genera of Wading and Swimming Birds. Andes to Chili West of S. America China Europe, / Europe, Cfjr'ft Arctic Seas North Palsearctic GRALL.E. SCOLOPACID^I. Micropelma . . . PhiloJiela 1 1 N. America Eastern States to Canada CHAKADRIID^. Aphriza 1 "W. coast of America ANSERES. ANATIDJJ. Aix Bucephala (Edemia Harelda Somateria Camptolcemus 1 4 3 1 5 1 N. America N. America N. America Arctic Arctic N. E. America (? extinct) LARID-E. Creagrus 1 California and N. Pacific CHAPTEK XVI. SUMMARY OF THE PAST CHANGES AND GENEEAL RELATIONS OF THE SEVERAL REGIONS. HAVING now closed our survey of the animal life of the whole earth a survey which has necessarily been encumbered with a multiplicity of detail we proceed to summarize the general conclusions at which we have arrived, with regard to the past history and mutual relations of the great regions into which we have divided the land surface of the globe. All the palseontological, no less than the geological and physical evidence, at present available, points to the great land masses of the Northern Hemisphere as being of immense anti- quity, and as the area in which the higher forms of life were developed. In going back through the long series of the Tertiary formations, in Europe, Asia, and North America, we find a continuous succession of vertebrate forms, including all the highest types now existing or that have existed on the earth. These extinct animals comprise ancestors or forerunners of all the chief forms now living in the Northern Hemisphere; and as we go back farther and farther into the past, we meet with ancestral forms of those types also, which are now either confined to, or specially characteristic of, the land masses of the Southern Hemisphere. Not only do we find that elephants, and rhinoceroses, and hippopotami, were once far more abundant in Europe than they are now in the tropics, but we also find that the apes of West Africa and Malaya, the lemurs of Mada- gascar, the Edentata of Africa and South America, and the CHAP, xvi.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 155 Marsupials of America and Australia, were all represented in Europe (and probably also in North America) during the earlier part of the Tertiary epoch. These facts, taken in their entirety, lead us to conclude that, during the whole of the Tertiary and perhaps during much of the Secondary periods, the great land masses of the earth were, as now, situated in the Northern Hemisphere ; and that here alone were developed the successive types of vertebrata from the lowest to the highest. In the Southern Hemisphere there appear to have been three consider- able and very ancient land masses, varying in extent from time to time, but always keeping distinct from each other, and repre- sented, more or less completely, by Australia, South Africa, and South America of our time. Into these flowed successive waves of life, as they each in turn became temporarily united with some part of the northern land. Australia appears to have had but one such union, perhaps during the middle or latter part of the Secondary epoch, when it received the ancestors of its Monotremata and Marsupials, which it has since developed into a great variety of forms. The South African and South American lands, on the other hand, appear each to have had several suc- cessive unions and separations, allowing first of the influx of low forms only (Edentata, Insectivora,and Lemurs) ; subsequently of Eodents and small Carnivora, and, latest of all, of the higher types of Primates, Carnivora, and Ungulata. During the whole of the Tertiary period, at least, the Northern Hemisphere appears to have been divided, as now, into an Eastern and a Western continent ; always approximating and sometimes united towards the north, and then admitting of much interchange of their respective faunas ; but on the whole keeping distinct, and each developing its own special family and generic types, of equally high grade, and generally belonging to the same Orders. During the Eocene and Miocene periods, the distinc- tion of the Palsearctic and Nearctic regions was better marked than it is now ; as is shown by the floras no less than by the faunas of those epochs. Dr. Newberry, in his Eeport on the Cretaceous and Tertiary floras of the Yellowstone and Missouri Eivers, states, that although the Miocene flora of Central North 156 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGJRAPHY. [PART in. America corresponds generally with that of the European Miocene, yet many of the tropical, and especially the Australian types, such as Hakea and Dryandra, are absent. Owing to the recent discovery of a rich Cretaceous flora in North America, pro- bably of the same age as that of Aix-la-Chapelle in Europe, we are able to continue the comparison; and it appears, that at this early period the difference was still more marked. The predominant feature of the European Cretaceous flora seems to have been the abundance of Proteaceae, of which seven genera now living in Australia or the Cape of Good Hope have been recognised, besides others which are extinct. There are also several species of Pandanus, or screw-pine, now confined to the tropics of the Eastern Hemisphere, and along with these, oaks, pines, and other more temperate forms. The North American Cretaceous flora, although far richer than that of Europe, contains no Proteaceae or Pandani, but immense numbers of forest trees of living and extinct genera. Among the former we have oaks, beeches, willows, planes, alders, dog- wood, and cypress ; together with such American forms as magnolias, sassafras, and lirioden- drons. There are also a few not now found in /America, as Araucaria and Cinnamomum, the latter still living in Japan. This remarkable flora has been found over a wide extent of country New Jersey, Alabama, Kansas, and near the sources of the Missouri in the latitude of Quebec so that we can hardly impute its peculiarly temperate character to the great elevation of so large an area. The intervening Eocene flora approximates closely, in North America, to that of the Miocene period ; while in Europe it seems to have been fully as tropical in character as that of the preceding Cretaceous period ; fruits of Nipa, Pandanus, Anona, Acacia, and many Proteaceae, occurring in the London clay at the mouth of the Thames. These facts appear, at first sight, to be inconsistent, unless we suppose the climates of Europe and North America to have been widely different in these early times ; but they may perhaps be harmonised, on the supposition of a more uniform and a some- what milder climate then prevailing over the whole Northern Hemisphere ; the contrast in the vegetation of these countries CHAP, xvi.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 157 being due to a radical difference of type, and therefore not indicative of climate. The early European flora seems to have been a portion of that which now exists only in the tropical and sub-tropical lands of the Eastern Hemisphere ; and, as much of this flora still survives in Australia, Tasmania, Japan, and the Cape of Good Hope, it does not necessarily imply more than a warm and equable temperate climate. The early North Ameri- can flora, on the other hand, seems to have been essentially the same in type as that which now exists there, and which, in the Miocene period, was well represented in Europe ; and it is such as now flourishes best in the warmer parts of the United States. But whatever conclusion we may arrive at on the question of climate, there can be no doubt as to the distinctness of the floras- of the ancient Nearctic and Palaearctic regions ; and the view derived from our study of their existing and extinct faunas that these two regions have, in past times, been more clearly separated than they are now receives strong support from the unexpected evidence now obtained as to the character and muta- tions of their vegetable forms, during so vast an epoch as is comprised in the whole duration of the Tertiary period. The general phenomena of the distribution of living animals, combined with the evidence of extinct forms, lead us to con- clude that the Palaearctic region of early Tertiary times was, for the most part, situated beyond the tropics, although it pro- bably had a greater southward extension than at the present time. It certainly included much of North Africa, and perhaps reached far into what is now the Sahara; while a southward extension of its central mass may have included the Abyssinian highlands, where some truly Palsearctic forms are still found. This is rendered probable by the fossils of Perim Island a little further east, which show that the characteristic Miocene fauna, of South Europe and North India prevailed so far within the tropics. There existed, however, at the extreme eastern and .western limits of the region, two extensive equatorial land-areas, our Indo-Malayan and West African sub-regions both of which must have been united for more or less considerable periods with the northern continent. They would then have received 158 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. from it such of the higher vertebrates as were best adapted for the peculiar climatal and organic conditions which everywhere prevail near the equator ; and these would be preserved, under variously modified forms, when they had ceased to exist in the less favourable and constantly deteriorating climate of the north. At later epochs, both these equatorial lands became united to some part of the great South African continent (then including Madagascar), and we thus have explained many of the similarities presented by the faunas of these distant, and generally very different countries. During the Miocene period, when a subtropical climate pre- vailed over much of Europe and Central Asia, there would be no such marked contrast as now prevails between temperate and tropical zones ; and at this time much of our Oriental region, perhaps, formed a hardly separable portion of the great Palsearctic land. But when, from unknown causes, the climate of Europe became less genial, and when the elevation of the Himalayan chain and the Mongolian plateau caused an abrupt difference of climate on the northern and southern sides of that great moun- tain barrier, a tropical and a temperate region were necessarily formed ; and many of the animals which once roamed over the greater part of the older and more extensive region, now became restricted to its southern or northern divisions respectively. Then came the great change we have already described (vol. i. p. 288), opening the newly-formed plains of Central Africa to the incursions of the higher forms of Europe ; and following on this, a still further deterioration of climate, resulting in that marked contrast between temperate and tropical faunas, which is now one of the most prominent features in the distribution of animal as well as of vegetable forms. It is not necessary to go into any further details here, as we have already, in our discussion of the origin of the fauna of. the several regions, pointed out what changes most probably occurred in each case. These details are, however, to a great extent speculative; and they must remain so till we obtain as much knowledge of the extinct faunas and past geological history of the southern lands, as we have of those of Europe and North CHAP, xvi.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 159 America. But the broad conclusions at which we have now arrived seem to rest on a sufficiently extensive basis of facts j and they lead us to a clearer conception of the mutual relations and comparative importance of the several regions than could be obtained at an earlier stage of our inquiries. If our views of the origin of the several regions are correct, it is clear that no mere binary division into north and south, or into east and west can be altogether satisfactory, since at the dawn of the Tertiary period we still find our six regions, or what may be termed the rudiments of them, already established. The north and south division truly represents the fact, that the great northern continents are the seat and birth-place of all the higher forms of life, while the southern continents have derived the greater part, if not the whole, of their vertebrate fauna from the north ; but it implies the erroneous conclusion, that the chief southern lands Australia and South America are more closely related to each other than to the northern continent. The fact, however, is that the fauna of each has been derived, independently, and perhaps at very different times, from the north, with which they therefore have a true genetic relation ; while any intercommunion between themselves has been com- paratively recent and superficial, and has in no way modified the great features of animal life in each. The east and west divi- sion^ represents according to our views a more fundamental diversity ; since we find the northern continent itself so divided in the earliest Eocene, and even in Cretaceous times ; while we have the strongest proof that South America was peopled from the Nearctic, and Australia and Africa from the Palsearctic region: hence, the Eastern and Western Hemispheres are the two great branches of the tree of life of our globe. But this division, taken by itself, would obscure the facts firstly, of the close relation and parallelism of the Nearctic and Palaearctic regions, not only now but as far back as we can clearly trace them in the past ; and, secondly, of the existing radical diversity of the Australian region from the rest of the Eastern Hemisphere. Owing to the much greater extent of the old Palsearctic region (including our Oriental), and the greater diversity of 160 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART in. Mammalia it appears to have produced, we can have little doubt that here was the earliest seat of the development of the vertebrate type; and probably of the higher forms of insects and land-molluscs. Whether the Nearctic region ever formed one mass with it, or only received successive immigrations from it by northern land-connections both in an easterly and westerly direction, we cannot decide ; but the latter seems the most probable supposition. In any case, we must concede the first rank to the Palsearctic and Oriental regions, as representing the most important part of what seems always to have been the Great Continent of the earth, and the source from which all the other regions were supplied with the higher forms of life. These once formed a single great region, which has been since divided into a temperate and a tropical portion, now sufficiently distinct ; while the Nearctic region has, by deterioration of climate, suffered a considerable diminution of productive area, and has in consequence lost a number of its more remarkable forms. The two temperate regions have thus come to resemble each other more than they once did, while the Oriental retains more of the zoological aspect of the great northern regions of Miocene times. The Ethiopian, from having been once an insular region, where lower types of vertebrates alone prevailed, has been so overrun with higher types from the old Palsearctic and Oriental lands that it now rivals, or even surpasses, the Oriental region in its representation of the ancient fauna of the great northern continent. Both of our tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere possess faunas which are, to some extent, composite, being made up in different proportions of the productions of the northern and southern continents, the former prevailing largely in the Oriental, while the latter constitutes an important feature in the Ethiopian fauna. The Neotropical region has probably undergone great fluctuations in early times ; but it was, undoubtedly, for long periods com- pletely isolated, and then developed the Edentate type of Mammals and the Formicar^oid type of Passerine birds into a variety of forms, comparable with the diversified Marsupials of Australia, and typical Passeres of the Eastern Hemisphere. CHAP, xvi.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 101 It has, however, received successive infusions of higher types from the north, which now mingle in various degrees with its lower forms. At an early period it must have received a low form of Primates, which has been developed into the two peculiar families of American monkeys ; while its llamas, tapirs, deer, and peccaries, came in at a later date, and its opossums and extinct horses probably among the latest. The Australian region alone, after having been united with the great northern continent at a very early date (probably during the Secondary period) has ever since remained more or less completely isolated ; and thus exhibits the development of a primeval type of mammal, almost wholly uninfluenced by any incursions of a later and higher type. In this respect it is unique among all the great regions of the earth. We see, then, that each of our six regions has had a history of its own, the main outlines of which we have been able to trace with tolerable certainty. Each of them is now characterised as it seems to have been in all past time of which we have any tolerably full record by well-marked zoological features ; while all are connected and related in the complex modes we have endeavoured to unravel. To combine any two or more of these regions, on account of existing similarities which are, for the most part, of recent origin, would obscure some of the most important and interesting features of their past history and present condition. And it seems no less impracticable to combine the whole into groups of higher rank ; since it has been shown that there are two opposing modes of doing this, and that each of them represents but one aspect of a problem, which can only be solved by giving equal attention to all its aspects. For reasons which have been already stated, and which are sufficiently obvious, we have relied almost exclusively on the distribution of living and extinct mammalia, in arriving at these conclusions. But we believe they will apply equally to elucidate the phenomena presented by the distribution of all terrestrial organisms, when combined with a careful consideration of the 162 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART m. various means of dispersal of , the different groups, and the comparative longevity of their species and genera. Even insects, which are perhaps of all animals the farthest removed from mammalia in this respect, agree, in the great outlines of their distribution, with the vertebrate orders. The Eegions are admittedly the same, or nearly the same for both ; and the discrepancies that occur are of a nature which can be explained by two undoubted facts the greater antiquity, and the greater facilities for dispersal, of insects. But this principle, if sound, must be carried farther, and be applied to plants also. There are not wanting indications that this may be successfully done; and it seems not improbable, that the reason why botanists have hitherto failed to determine, with any unanimity, which are the most natural phytological regions, and ~to work out any connected theory of the migra- tions of plants, is, because they have not been furnished with the clue to the past changes of the great land masses, which could only be arrived at by such an examination of the past and present distribution of the higher animals as has been here attempted. The difficulties in the way of the study of the distribution of plants, from this point of view, will be undoubtedly very great ; owing to the unusual facilities for distribution many of them possess, and the absence of any group which might take the place of the mammalia among animals, and serve as a guide and standard for the rest. We cannot expect the regions to be so well defined in the case of plants as in that of animals ; and there are sure to be many anomalies and discrepancies, which will require long" study to unravel The Six Great Eegions here adopted, are however, as a whole, very well characterised by their vegetable forms. The floras of tropical America, of Australia, of South Africa, and of Indo-Malaya, stand out with as much individuality as do the faunas; while the plants of the Palsearctic and Nearctic regions, exhibit resemblances and diversities, of a character not unlike those found among the animals. This is not a mere question of applying to the vegetable king- dom a series of arbitrary divisions of the earth which have been CHAP, xvi.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 1$3 found useful to zoologists ; for it really involves a fundamental problem in the theory of evolution. The question we have to answer, is, firstly whether the -distribution of plants is, like that of animals, mainly and primarily dependent on the past revolu- tions of the earth's surface ; or, whether other, and altogether dis- tinct causes, have had a preponderating influence in determining the range and limits of vegetable forms ; and, secondly whether those revolutions have been, in their general outlines, correctly interpreted by means of a study of the distribution and affinities of the higher animals. The first question is one for botanists alone to answer ; but, on the second point, the author ventures to hope for an affirmative reply, from such of his readers as will weigh carefully the facts and arguments he has adduced. The remaining part of this volume, will consist, of a systematic review of the distribution of each family of animals, and an application of the principles already established to elucidate the chief phenomena they present. The present chapter must, therefore, be considered as the conclusion of the argumentative and theoretical part of the present work ; but it must be read in connection with the various discussions in Parts II. and III., in which the conclusions to be drawn from the several groups of facts have been successively given ; and especially in connec- tion with the general observations at the end of each of the six chapters on the Zoological Eegions. The hypothetical view, as to the more recent of the great Geographical changes of the Earth's surface, here set forth, is not the result of any preconceived theory, but has grown out of a careful study of the facts accumulated, and has led to a considerable modification of the author's previous views. It may be described, as an application of the general theory of Evolution, to solve the problem of the distribution of animals ; but it also furnishes some independent support to that theory, both by showing what a great variety of curious facts are ex- plained by its means, and by answering some of ths objections, 164 ZOOLOGICAL GEOGRAPHY. [PART n which have been founded on supposed difficulties in the distri- bution of animals in space and time. It also illustrates and supports the geological doctrine, of the general permanence of our great continents and oceans, by showing how many facts in the distribution of animals can only be explained and understood on such a supposition ; and it exhibits, in a striking manner, the enormous influence of the Glacial epoch, in determining the existing zoological features of the various continents. And, lastly, it furnishes a more consistent and intelligible idea than has yet been reached by any other mode of investiga- tion, of all the more important changes of the earth's surface that have probably occurred during the entire Tertiary period ; and of the influence of these changes, in bringing about the general features, as well as many of the more interesting details and puzzling anomalies, of the Geographical Distribution of Animals. PAET IV. GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY: A SYSTEMATIC SKETCH OF THE CHIEF FAMILIES OF LAND ANIMALS IN THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONS. INTRODUCTION. IN the preceding part of our work, we have discussed the geographical distribution of animals from the point of view of the geographer; taking the different regions of the earth in succession, and giving as full an account as our space would permit of their chief forms of animal life. Now, we proceed from the standpoint of the systematic zoologist ; taking in succession each of the families with which we deal, and giving an account of the distribution, both of the entire family and, as far as practicable, of each of the genera of which it is composed. As in the former part, our mode of treatment led us to speculate on the past changes of the earth's surface; so here we shall endeavour to elucidate the past migrations of animals, and thus, to some extent, account for their actual distribution. The tabular headings, showing the range of the family in each region, will enable the reader to determine at a glance the general distribution of the group, as soon as he has familiarised himself, by a study of our general and regional maps, with the limits of the regions and sub-regions, and the figures (1 to 4) by which the latter are indicated. Much pains have been taken, to give the number of the known genera and species in each family, correctly ; but these numbers must, in most cases, only be looked upon as approximations ; because, owing to constant accessions of fresh material on the one hand, and the discovery that many supposed species are only varieties, on the other, such statistics are in a continual state of fluctuation. In the number of genera there is the greatest uncertainty ; as will be seen by the two sets of numbers sometimes given, which denote the genera according to different modern authorities. VOL. II 12 168 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. There is also a considerable difference in the dependence to be placed on the details given in the different classes of animals. In Mammalia and Birds some degree of accuracy has, it is hoped, been attained; the classification of these groups being much advanced, and the materials for their study ample. In Eeptiles this is not the case, as there is no recently published work dealing with the whole subject, or with either of the larger orders. An immense number of new species and new genera of snakes and lizards, have been described in the last twenty years ; and Dr. Glinther our greatest authority on reptiles in this country has kindly assisted me in incorporating such of these as are most trustworthy, in a general system ; but until entire Orders have been described or catalogued on a uniform plan, nothing more than a general approximation to the truth can be arrived at. Still, so many of the groups are well defined, and have a clearly limited distribution, that some interesting and valuable comparisons may be made. For Fishes, the valuable " Catalogue " of Dr. Giinther was available, and it has rarely been attempted to go beyond it. A large number of new species have since been described, in all parts of the world ; but it is impossible to say how many of these are really new, or what genera they actually belong to. The part devoted to this Class is, therefore, practically a summary of Dr. Giinther's Catalogue ; and it is believed that the dis- coveries since made will not materially invalidate the conclusions to be drawn from such a large number of species, which have been critically examined and classified on a uniform system by one of our most able naturalists. When a supplement to this catalogue is issued, it will be easier to make the necessary altera- tions in distribution, than if a mass of untrustworthy materials had been mixed up with it. For Insects, excellent materials are furnished, in the Catalogue of Mr. Kirby for Butterflies and in that of Drs. Gemminger and Harold for Coleoptera. I have also made use of some recently published memoirs on the Insects of Japan and St. Helena, and a few other recent works ; and have, I believe, elaborated a more extensive series of facts to illustrate the distribution of insects, INTRODUC.] INTRODUCTION. 169 than has been made use of by any previous writer. Several discussions on the bearing of the facts of insect distribution, will also be found under the several Kegions, in the preceding part of this work. Terrestrial Mollusca form a group, as to the treatment of which I have most misgivings ; owing to my almost entire ignorance of Malacology, and the great changes recently made in the classifi- cation of shells. There is also much uncertainty as to genera and sub-genera, which is very puzzling to one who merely wishes to get at general results. Finding it impossible to incorporate the new matter with the old, or to harmonise the different classifications of modern conchologists, I thought it better to confine myself to the standard works of Martens and Pfeiffer, with such additions of new species as I could make without fear of going far wrong. In some cases I have made use of recent monographs especially on the shells of Europe, North America, the West Indian Islands, and the Sandwich Islands ; and have, I venture to, hope, not fallen into much error in the general conclusions at which I have arrived. CHAPTER XVII. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF MAMMALIA. Order L PRIMATES. TAMILS' 1. SIMIID^E. (4 Genera, 12 Species). GENERAL DISTP.IBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEABCTIC I PALSARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL I AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SOB-REGIONS. SUB-HEGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. 3 A. 3.4 THE Simiidse, or Anthropoid Apes, comprehend those forms of the monkey-tribe which, in general organization, approach nearest to man. They inhabit the tropics of the Old World, and are most abundant near the equator ; but they are limited to certain districts, being quite unknown in eastern and southern Africa, and the whole peninsula of Hihdostan. The genus Troglodytes (or Mimetes, as it is sometimes named) comprehends the chimpanzee and gorilla. It is confined to the West African sub-region, being found on the coast about 12 North and South of the equator, from the Gambia to Benguela, and as far inland as the great equatorial forests extend. There are perhaps other species of chimpanzee ; since Livingstone met with what he supposed to be a new species in the forest region west of Lake Tanganyika, while Dr. Schweinfurth found one in the country beyond the western watershed of the Nile. The gorilla is confined within narrower limits on and near the equator. CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 171 We have to pass over more than 70 of longitude before we again meet with Anthropoid Apes, in the northern part of Sumatra where a specimen of the orang-utan (Simia satyrus) now in the Calcutta Museum, was obtained by Dr. Abel, and described by him in the Asiatic Researches, vol. xv. and in Borneo, from which latter island almost all the specimens in European museums have been derived. There are supposed to be two species of Simia in Borneo, a larger and a smaller ; but their distinctness is not ad- mitted by all naturalists. Both appear to be confined to the swampy forests near the north, west, and south coasts. The Gibbons, or long-armed apes, forming the genus Hylobates, (7 species) are found in all the large islands of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, except the Philippines ; and also in Sylhet and Assam south of the Brahmaputra river, eastward to Cambodja and South China to the west of Canton, and in the island of Hainan. The Siamang (Siamanga syndactyla] presents some anatomi- cal peculiarities, and has the second and third toes united to the last joint, but in general form and structure it does not differ from Hyldbates. It is the largest of the long-armed apes, and in- habits Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. FAMILY 2. SEMNOPITHECID.E. (2 Genera, |p Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARGTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. In In o jt The Semnopithecida^ are long-tailed monkeys without cheek- pouches, and with rather rounded faces, the muzzle not being prominent. They have nearly the same distribution as the last family, but are more widely dispersed in both Africa and Asia, one species just entering the Palaearetic region. The Eastern ;enus Prestytes or Semnopithecus (29 species), is spread over almost the whole of the Oriental region wherever the forests are extensive. They extend along the Himalayas to beyond Simla, where a species has been observed at an altitude of 11,000 172 GEOGKAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. feet, playing among fir-trees laden with snow wreaths. On the west side of India they are not found to the north of 14 K latitude. On the east they extend into Arajfiin, and to Borneo and Java, but not apparently into Siam or Cambodja. Along the eastern extension of the Himalayas they again occur in East Thibet ; a remarkable species with a large upturned nose (S. roxellana) having been discovered by Pere David at Moupin (about Lat. 32 N.) in the highest forests, where the winters are severe and last for several months, and where the vegetation, and the other forms of animal life, are wholly those of the Palsearctic region. It is very curious that this species should somewhat resemble the young state of the proboscis monkey (8. nasalis), which in- habits one of the most uniform, damp, and hot climates on the globe the river-swamps of Borneo. Colobus, the African genus (11 species), is very closely allied to the preceding, differing chiefly in the thumb being absent or rudimentary. They are confined to the tropical regions Abys- sinia on the east, and from the Gambia to Angola and the island of Fernando Po, on the west. FAMILY 3. CYNOPITHECID^E. (7 Genera, 6 v l Species). GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEABCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.SARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 2 - 4 1.2.3- 1.2.3.4 I This family comprehends all the monkeys with cheek pouches, and the baboons. Some of these have very long tails, some none ; some are dog-faced, others tolerably round-faced ; but there are so many transitions from one to the other, and such a general agreement in structure, that they are now considered to form a very natural family. Their range is more extensive than any other family of Quadrumana, since they not only occur in every part of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, but enter the Palse- arctic region in the east and west, and the Australian region as far as the islands of Timor and Batchian. The African genera CHAP, xvn.] MAMMALIA. 173 are Myiopithecus, Cercopithecus, Cercocebus, Theropithecus, and Cynocephalus ; the Oriental genera, Macacus, and Cynopithecus. Myiopithecus (1 species), consisting of the talapoin monkey of West Africa, differs from the other African monkeys in the structure of the last molar tooth ; in the large ears, short face, and wide internasal septum ; in this respect, as well as in its grace and gentleness, resembling some of the American monkeys. Cercopithecus (24 species), contains all the more graceful and prettily coloured monkeys of tropical Africa, and comprises the guenons, the white-nosed, and the green monkeys. They range from the Gambia to the Congo, and from Abyssinia to the Zambesi. Cercocebus (5 species), the mangabeys, of West Africa, are very closely allied to the eastern genus Macacus. Theropithecus (2 species), including the gelada of Abyssinia and an allied species, resemble in form the baboons, but have the nostrils placed as in the last genus. Cynocephalus (10 species), the baboons, are found in all parts of Africa. They consist of animals which vary much in ap- pearance, but which agree in having an elongated dog-like muzzle with terminal nostrils, and being of terrestrial habits. Some of the baboons are of very large size, the mandrill (C. maimori) being only inferior to the orang and gorilla. Macacus (25 species), is the commonest form of eastern monkey, and is found in every part of the Oriental region, as well as in North Africa, Gibraltar, Thibet, North China, and Japan ; and one of the commonest species, M. cynomolgus, has extended its range from Java eastward to the extremity of Timor. The tail varies greatly in length, and in the Gibraltar monkey (M. inntts) is quite absent. A remarkable species clothed with very thick fur, has lately been discovered in the snowy mountains of eastern Thibet. Cynopithecus (? 2 sp.). This genus consists of a black baboon- like Ape, inhabiting Celebes, Batchian, and the Philippine Islands ; but perhaps introduced by man into the latter islands and into Batchian. It is doubtful if there is more than one species. The tail of this animal is a fleshy tubercle, the nostrils as in Macacus, but the muzzle is very prominent; and the 174 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. development of the maxillary bones into strong lateral ridges corresponds to the structure of the most typical baboons. This species extends further east than any other quadrumanous animal. FAMILY 4 CEBID^E. (10 Genera, jftf Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^E ARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIOXS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. n t* The Cebidse, which comprehend all the larger American Monkeys, differ from those of the Old World by having an additional molar tooth in each jaw, and a broad nasal septum ; while they have neither cheek-pouches nor ischial callosities, and the thumb is never completely opposable. Some have pre- hensile tails, especially adapting them for an arboreal life. They are divided into four sub-families, Cebinae, Mycetinse, Pithe- ciinse, and Nyctipithecinae. The Cebidse are strictly confined to the forest regions of tropical America, from the southern part of Mexico to about the parallel of 30 South Latitude. The distri- bution of the genera is as follows : Sub-family, Cebinae. Cebus (18 sp.), is the largest genus of American monkeys, and ranges from Costa Eica to Paraguay. They are commonly called sapajous. Lagothrix (5 sp.), the woolly monkeys, are rather larger and less active than the pre- ceding ; they are confined to the forests of the Upper Amazon Valley, and along the slopes of the Andes to Venezuela and Bolivia. Aides (14 sp.), the spider monkeys, have very long limbs and tail. They range over the whole area of the family, and occur on the west side of the Equatorial Andes and on the Pacific coast of Guatemala. Eriodes (3 sp.), are somewhat inter- mediate between the last two genera, and are confined to the eastern parts of Brazil south of the equator. The three last mentioned genera have very powerful prehensile tails, the end being bare beneath ; whereas the species of Cebus have the tail CHAP, xvii.] MAMMALIA. 175 completely covered with hair, although prehensile, and therefore not so perfect a grasping organ. Sub-family, Mycetinse, consists of but a single genus, Mycetes (10 sp.), the howling monkeys, characterized by having a hollow bony vessel in the throat formed by an enlargement of the hyoid bone, which enables them to produce a wonderful howling noise. They are large, heavy animals, with a powerful and perfect prehensile tail. They range from East Guatemala to Paraguay. (Plate XIV., vol. ii., p. 24) Sub-family, Pitheciinse, the sakis, have a non-prehensile bushy tail. Pithecia (7 sp.), has the tail of moderate length ; while Brachiurus (5 sp.) has it very short. Both appear to be restricted to the great equatorial forests of South America. Sub-family, Nyctipithecinse, are small and elegant monkeys, with long, hairy, non-prehensile tails. Nyctipithecus (5 sp.), the night-monkeys or douroucoulis, have large eyes, nocturnal habits, and are somewhat lemurine in their appearance. They range from Nicaragua to the Amazon and eastern Peru. Saimiris or Chrysothrix (3 sp.), the squirrel-monkeys, are beautiful and active little creatures, found in most of the tropical forests from Costa Eica to Brazil and Bolivia. Callitlirix (11 sp.), are some- what intermediate between the last two genera, and are found all over South America from Panama to the southern limits of the great forests. FAMILY 5. HAPALID.E. (2 Genera, 3 V 2 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NKOTBOPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN ( SUB-RKGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The Hapalidse, or marmosets, are very small monkeys, which differ from the true Cebidse in the absence of one premolar tooth, while they possess the additional molar tooth; so that while they have the same number of teeth (thirty-two) as the Old World monkeys, they differ from them even more than do the 176 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Cebidae. The thumb is not at all opposable, and all the fingers are armed with sharp claws. The hallux, or thumb-like great toe, is very small ; the tail is long and not prehensile. The two genera Hapale (9 sp.), and Midas (24 sp.), are of doubtful value, though some naturalists have still further sub-divided them. They are confined to the tropical forests of South America, and are most abundant in the districts near the equator. Sub-order LEMUROIDEA. FAMILY 6. LEMUKIDA (11 Genera, 53 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL | NEAKCTIC I PAL^EARCTIC | ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-HEGIOXS. SUB-REGIOVS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-KEGIONS. tf *& '3 A 1 Q. 1 A. The Lemuridse, comprehending all the animals usually termed Lemurs and many of their allies, are divided by Professor Mivart who has carefully studied the group into four sub-families and eleven genera, as follows : Sub-family Indrisinse, consisting of the genus Indris (5 sp.), is confined to Madagascar. Sub-family Lemurinae, contains five genera, viz. : Lemur, (15 sp.) ; Hapalemur (2 sp.) ; Microcebus (4 sp.) ; Chirogaleus (5 sp.) ; and Lepilemur (2 sp.) ; all confined to Madagascar. Sub-family Nycticebinae, contains four genera, viz. : Nycticebus (3 sp.) small, short-tailed, nocturnal animals, called slow-lemurs, range from East Bengal to South China, and to Borneo and Java; Loris (1 sp.) a very small, tail-less, nocturnal lemur, which inhabits Madras, Malabar, and Ceylon ; Perodicticus (1 sp.) the potto a small lemur with almost rudimentary fore- finger, found at Sierra Leone (Plate V., vol. i., p. 264); Arctocebus (1 S p.) the angwantibo, another extraordinary form in which the forefinger is quite absent and the first toe armed with a long claw, inhabits Old Calabar. CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 177 Sub-family Galaginse, contains only the genus Galago (14 sp.), which is confined to the African continent, ranging from Senegal and Fernando Po to Zanzibar and Natal. FAMILY 7. TAESIID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REQIONS. The curious Tarsius spectrum, which constitutes this family, inhabits Sumatra, Banca, and Borneo^ and is also found in some parts of Celebes, which would bring it into the Australian region ; but this island is altogether so anomalous that we can only consider its productions to have somewhat more affinity with the Australian than the Oriental region, but hardly to belong to either. The Tarsier is a small, long-tailed, nocturnal animal, of curious structure and appearance ; and it forms the only link of connection with the next family, which it resembles in the extraordinary development of the toes, one of which is much larger and more slender than the rest. (Plate VIII., voL i. p. 337.) FAMILY 8. CHIKOMYIMl. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The Aye-aye, (Chiromys), the sole representative of this family, is confined to the island of Madagascar. It was for a long time very imperfectly known, and was supposed to belong to the Eodentia ; but it has now been ascertained to be an ex- ceedingly specialized form of the Lemuroid type, and must be considered to be one of the most extraordinary of the mammalia now inhabiting the globe. (Plate VI., vol. i., p. 278.) 178 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Fossil Quadrumanu. Not much progress has yet been made in tracing back the various forms of Apes and Monkeys to their earliest appearance on the globe ; but there have been some interesting recent discoveries, which lead us to hope that the field is not yet exhausted. The following is a summary of what is known as to the early forms of each family : Simiidce. Two or three species of this family have been found in the Upper Miocene deposits of France and Switzerland. Pliopithecus, of which a species has been found at each locality, was allied to the gibbons (Hylobates), and perhaps to Semno- pithecus. A more remarkable form, named Dryopithecus y as large as a man, and having peculiarities of structure which are thought by Gervais and Lartet to indicate a nearer approach to the human form than any existing Ape, has been found in strata of the same age in France. Semnopithecidce. Species of Semnopithecus have been found in the Upper Miocene of Greece, and others in the Siwalik Hills of N. W. India, also of Upper Miocene age. An allied form also occurs in the Miocene of Wurtemburg. Mesopithecus from Greece is somewhat intermediate between Semnopithecus and Macacus. Kemains supposed to be of Semnopithecus, have also occurred in the Pliocene of Montpellier. Cynopithecidce. Macacus has occurred in Pliocene deposits at Grays, Essex ; and also in the South of France along with Cercopithecus. Cebidm. In the caves of Brazil remains of the genera Cebus, Mycetes, Callithrix, and Hapale, have been found ; as well as an extinct form of larger size Protopithecus. Lemuroidea. A true lemur has recently been discovered in the Eocene of France ; and it is supposed to be most nearly allied to the peculiar West African genera, Perodicticus and Arctocebus. Camopithecus, from the Swiss Jura, is supposed to have affinities both for the Lemuridse and the American Cebidae. In the lower Eocene of North America remains have been CHAP, xvii.] MAMMALIA. 179 discovered, which are believed to belong to this sub-order : but they form two distinct families, Lemuravidse and Limnotheridae. Other remains from the Miocene are believed to be intermediate between these and the Cebidae, a most interesting and suggestive affinity, if well founded. For the genera of these American Lemuroidea, see vol. i., p. 133. General Remarks on the Distribution of Primates. The most striking fact presented by this order, from our present point of view, is the strict limitation of well-marked families to definite areas. The Cebidse and Hapalidae would alone serve to mark out tropical America as the nucleus of one of the great zoological divisions of the earth. In the Eastern Hemisphere, the corresponding fact is the entire absence of the order from the Australian region, with the exception of one or two outlying forms, which have evidently transgressed the normal limits of their group. The separation of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions is, in this order, mainly indicated by the distribution of the genera, no one of which is common to the two' regions. The two highest families, the Simiidse and the Semnopithecidae, are pretty equally distributed about two equatorial foci, one situated in West Africa, the other in the Malay archipelago, in Borneo or the Peninsula of Malacca ; while the third family, Cyno- pithecidse, ranges over the whole of both regions, and somewhat overpasses their limits. The Lemuroid group, on the other hand, offers us one of the most singular phenomena in geo- graphical distribution. It consists of three families, the species of which are grouped into six sub-families and 13. genera. One of these families and two of the sub-families, comprising 7 genera, and no less than 3 x O*out of the total of SO* 1 species, are confined to the one island of Madagascar. Of the remainder, 3 genera, comprising 15 species, are spread over tropical Africa ; while three other genera with 5 species, inhabit certain restricted portions of India and the Malay islands. These curious facts point unmistakably to the former existence of a large tract of land in what is now the Indian Ocean, connecting Madagascar on the one hand with Ceylon, and with the Malay countries on the 180 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. other. About this same time (but perhaps not contempo- raneously) Madagascar must have been connected with some portion of Southern Africa, and the whole of the country would possess no other Primates but Lemuroidea. After the Mada- gascar territory (very much larger than the existing island) had been separated, a connection appears to have been long maintained (probably by a northerly route) between the more equatorial portions of Asia and Africa ; till those higher forms had become developed, which were afterwards differentiated into Simia, Presbytes, and Cynopithecus, on the one hand, and into Troglodytes, Colobus, and Cynocephalus, on the other. In ac- cordance with the principle of competition so well expounded by Mr. Darwin, we can understand how, in the vast Asiatic and African area north of the Equator, with a great variety of physical conditions and the influence of a host of competing forms of life, higher types were developed than in the less extensive and long-isolated countries south of the Equator. In Madagascar, where these less complex conditions prevailed in a considerable land-area, the lowly organized Lemuroids have diverged into many specialized forms of their own peculiar type ; while on the continents they have, to a great extent, become exterminated, or have maintained their existence in a few cases, in islands or in mountain ranges. In Africa the nocturnal and arboreal Galagos are adapted to a special mode of life, in which they probably have few competitors. How and when the ancestors of the Cebidae and Hapalidae entered the South American continent, it is less easy to conceive. The only rays of light we yet have on the subject are, the supposed affinities of the fossil Ccenopithecns of the Swiss, and the Lemuravidae of the North American Eocene, with both Cebidae and Lemuroids, and the fact that in Miocene or Eocene times a mild climate prevailed up to the Arctic circle. The dis- covery of an undoubted Lemuroid in the Eocene of Europe, indicates that the great Northern Continent was probably the birthplace of this low type of mammal, and the source whence Africa and Southern Asia were peopled with them, as it was, at a later period, with the higher forms of monkeys and apes. CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 181 Order ILGHIROPTEEA. FAMILY 9. PTEKOPID^. (9 Genera, 65 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL/EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-RKGIONS. ORIENTAL SCB-REOIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1234 I * The Pteropidse, or fruit-eating Bats, sometimes called flying- foxes, are pretty evenly distributed over the tropical regions of the Old World and Australia. They range over all Africa and the whole of the Oriental Eegion, and northward, to Amoy in China and to the South of Japan. They are also found in the more fertile parts of Australia and Tasmania, and in the Pacific Islands as far east as the Marianne and Samoa Islands ; but not in the Sandwic!i Islands or New Zealand. The genera of bats are exceedingly numerous, but they are in a very unsettled state, and the synonymy is exceedingly con- fused. The details of their distribution cannot therefore be usefully entered into here. The Pteropidse differ so much from all other bats, that they are considered to form a distinct suborder of Chiroptera, and by some naturalists even a distinct order of Mammalia. No fossil Pteropidae have been discovered. FAMILY 10. PHYLLOSTOMID^. (31 Genera, 60 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. N EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. * PAL/EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. In o ^a. The Phyllostomidse, or simple leaf-nosed Bats, are confined to the Neotropical region, from Mexico and the Antilles to the 182 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. |PABT 1V - southern limits of the forest region east of the Andes, and to about lat. 33 S. in Chili. None are found in the Nearctic region, with the exception of one species in California (Macrotus Californicus), closely allied to Mexican and West Indian forms. The celebrated blood-sucking vampyre bats of South America belong to this group. Two genera, Desmodiis and Diphylla, form Dr. Peters' family Desmodidae. Mr. Dobson, in his recently published arrangement, divides the family into five groups : Mormopes, Vainpyri, Glossophagae, Stenodermata, and Desmo- dontes. Numerous remains of extinct species of this family have been found in the bone-caves of Brazil. FAMILY 11. RHINOLOPHIDJE. (f^enera, 70 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEABCTIC I PAL.V 196 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. and Soricictis from the Upper Miocene, the former as large as a panther ; Tylodon, of small size, from the Upper Eocene ; and Palceonyctis from the Lower Eocene, also small and showing a very great antiquity for this family, if really belonging to it. FAMILY 26. PKOTELID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SITE-REGIONS. NEARCTIC S UB-HEGIONS. PAL/E ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SOB-REOIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The curious Proteles or Aard-wolf, a highly-modified form of hysena, approaching the ichneumons, and feeding on white ants and carrion, is peculiar to South Africa. FAMILY 27. HY^NID^E. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEUROTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The Hyaenas are characteristically Ethiopian, to which region two of the species are confined. The third, Hycena striata, ranges over all the open country of India to the foot of the Himalayas, and through Persia, Asia Minor, and North Africa. Its fossil remains have been found in France. Extinct Species. The cave hyaena (H. spelcea) occurs abun- dantly in the caverns of this country and of Central Europe, and is supposed to be most nearly allied to the H. crocuta of South Africa. Another species is found in some parts of France. The earliest known true hyaenas occur in the Pliocene formation in France, in the Eed Crag (Older Pliocene) of England, and in the Upper Miocene of the Siwalik hills. In the Miocene period in Europe, quite distinct genera are found, such as Hycenidis and Lycoena from the Upper Miocene of Greece; CHAP, xvii.] MAMMALTA. 197 Ictitherium, supposed to be intermediate between Viverridse and Hyaenidae ; and Thalassictis, uniting the weasels and hysenas. FAMILY 28. CANID^E. (3 Genera, 17 Sub-Genera, 54 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEAKCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 123 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 1.2.3.4 2? . The Canidse, comprising the animals commonly known as dogs, wolves, and foxes, have an almost universal range over the earth, being only absent from the island sub-regions of Madagascar, the Antilles, Austro-Malaya, New Zealand, and the Paciiic Islands. With the exception of two remarkable forms the hyaena dog (Lycaon picta), and the great-eared fox (Megalotis Lalandei), both from South Africa all the species are usually placed in the genus Canis, the distribution of which will be the same as that of the family. Dr. J. E. Gray, in his arrangement of the family (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1868), subdivides it into fifteen genera, the names and general distribution of which are as follows : Idicyon (1 species), Brazil; Cuon (4 species), Siberia to Java ; Lupus (5 species), North America, Europe, India to Ceylon ; Dieba (1 species), North and West Africa ; Simenia (1 species), Abyssinia j Chrysocyon (2 species), North and South America ; Canis (4 species), India, Australia (indigenous ?); Lycalopex (2 species), South America; Pseudalopex (5 species), South America and Falkland Islands ; Thorn (2 species), South America to Chili ; Vulpes (17 species), all the great continents, except South America and Australia ; Fennecus (4 species), all Africa ; Leucocyon (1 species), Arctic regions ; Urocyon (2 species), North America ; Nydereutes (1 species), Japan, Amoorland to Can- ton (Plate III., vol. i. p. 226). These are all sub-genera according to Professor Carus, except Icticyon. The same author makes Lycaon a sub-genus, while Dr. Gray makes it a sub-family ! Extinct Species. The dog, wolf, and fox, are found fossil in jlJ- y if. , 198 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. caverns in many parts of Europe, and several extinct species have been found in Tertiary deposits in Europe, North India, and South America. Two species have been found so far back as the Eocene of France, but the fragments discovered are not sufficient to determine the characters with any certainty. In North America, several species of Canis occur in the Pliocene of Nebraska and La Plata. The genus Galecynus, of the Pliocene of (Eninghen, and Palceocyon, of the Brazilian caves, are sup- posed to belong to the Canidse. Amphicyon abounded in the Miocene period, both in Europe and North America ; and some of the species were as large as a tiger. Other extinct genera are, Cynodictis, Cyotherium, and Galefhylax, from the Eocene of France; Pseudocyon, Simocyon, and Hemicyon, from the Miocene ; but all these show transition characters to Viverrida3 or Ursidae, and do not perhaps belong to the present family. FAMILY 29. MUSTELIDJE. (21-28 Genera, 92 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SuB-RKGIONa ORIENTAL SUB-REOIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS* 1.2.3 - 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 - 1.2.3.4 The Mustelidse constitute one of those groups which range over the whole of the great continental areas. They may be divided into three sub-families one, the Mustelinse, containing the weasels, gluttons, and allied forms ; a second, the Lutrinse, containing the otters ; and a third, often considered a distinct family, the Melininse, containing the badgers, ratels, skunks, and their allies. In the first group (Mustelinae) the genera Martes and Putorius (13 species), range over all the Palsearctic region, and a considerable part of the Oriental, extending through India to Ceylon, and to Java and Borneo. Two species of Martes (Mustela of Baird) occur in the United States. The weasels, forming the genus Mustela (20 species), have a still wider range, extending into tropical Africa and the Cordilleras of Peru, but CHAP, xvu.] MAMMALIA. 199 not going south of the Himalayas in India. The North American species are placed in the genus Putorius by Professor Baird. An allied genus, Gymnopus (4 species), is confined to the third and fourth Oriental sub-regions. Gulo (1 species), the glutton, is an arctic animal keeping to the cold regions of Europe and Asia, and coming as far south as the great lakes in North America. Galictis (2 species), the grisons, are confined to the Neotropical region. The Otters (Lutrinse) range over the whole area occupied by the family. They have been subdivided into a number of groups, such as Bamngia (1 species), found only in Sumatra ; Lontra, containing 3 South American-species ; Lutra (7 species), ranging over the whole of the Palaearctic and Oriental regions ; Nutria (1 species), a sea-otter confined to the west coast of America; from California to Chiloe; Lutronectes (1 species), from Japan only; Aonyx (5 species), found in West and South Africa, and the third and fourth Oriental sub-regions. Hydrogale (1 species), confined to South Africa; Lataoc (2 species), Florida and California to Canada and British Columbia ; Pteronura (1 species), Brazil and Surinam ; and Enhydris (1 species), the peculiar sea-otter of Cali- fornia, Kamschatka, and Japan. The last two are the only groups of otters, besides Lutra, admitted by Professor Carus as genera. The Badgers and allies (Melininse) have also a wide range, but with one exception are absent from South America. They com- prise the following genera : Arcionyx (1 species), Nepal to Aracan; Meles (4 species), North Europe to Japan, and China as far south as Hongkong (Plate I., vol. i., p. 195) ; Taxidea, (2 species), Central and Western North America to 58 N. Lat. ; Mydaus (1 species), mountains of Java and Sumatra; Melivora (3 species), Tropical and South Africa and India to foot of Himalayas; Mephitis (12 species), America from Canada and British Columbia to the Straits of Ma- gellan (Plate XX., vol. ii., p. 136). Ictonyx (2 species), Tropical Africa to the Cape ; Helictis (4 species), Nepal to Java, Formosa and Shanghai (Plate VII., vol. i. p. 331). Fossil Mustelidce. Species of otter, weasel, badger, and glutton, occur in European bone caves and other Post-tertiary deposits ; and in North America Galictis, now found only in the Neotro- pical region, and, with Mephitis, occurring in Brazilian caves. YOL. II. 14 200 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Species of Mustela have been found in the Pliocene of France and of South America; and Lutra in the Pliocene of North America. In the Miocene deposits of Europe several species of Mustela and Lutra have been found ; with the extinct genera Taxodon, Potamotherium, and Palceomephitis ; as well as Promcphitis in Greece. In the Upper Miocene of the Siwalik Hills species of Lutra, and Mellivora are found, as well as the extinct genera Enhydrion and Ursitaxus. The family appears to have been unknown in North America during the Miocene period. FAMILY 30. PROCYONIDJE. (4 Genera, 8 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. N EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.SARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. a o 10 Jt The Procyonidae are a small, but very curious and interesting family of bear-like quadrupeds, ranging from British Columbia and Canada on the north, to Paraguay and the limits of the tropical forests on the south. The Eacoons, forming the genus Procyon, are common all over North America ; a well-marked variety or distinct species inha- biting the west coast, and another, most parts of South America. The genus Nasua, or the coatis (5 species ?), extends from Mexico and Guatemala to Paraguay. The curious arboreal prehensile- tailed kinkagou (Cercoleptes caHdivolvus) is also found in Mexico and Guatemala, and in all the great forests of Peru and North Brazil. Bassaris (2 species), a small weasel-like animal with a banded tail, has been usually classed with the Viverridae or Mustelidae, but is now found to agree closely in all important points of internal structure with this family. It is found in California, Texas, and the highlands of Mexico, and belongs therefore as much to the Nearctic as to the Neotropical region. A second species has recently been described by Professor Peters CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 201 from Coban in Guatemala, in which country it has also been observed by Mr. Salvin. Fossil Procyonidce. A species of Nasua has been found in the bone caves of Brazil, and a Procyon in the Pliocene or Post- pliocene deposits of Illinois and Carolina. FAMILY 31. MLUEIDM. (2 Genera, 2 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEA.RCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The Panda (dZlurns fulgens), of the forest regions of the Eastern Himalayas and East Thibet, a small cat-like bear, has peculiarities of organization which render it necessary to place it in a family by itself. (Plate VII. vol. i. p. 331). An allied genus, jfflluropus, a remarkable animal of larger size and in colour nearly all white, has recently been described by Professor Milne-Edwards, from the mountains of East Thibet ; so that the family may be said to inhabit the border lands of the Oriental and Palaearctic regions. These animals have their nearest allies in the coatis and bears. FAMILY 32. UKSIDJS. (5 Genera, or Sub-genera, 1$ 'Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC S tTB-RKOIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 - 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Bears have a tolerably wide distribution, although they are entirely absent from the Australian and Ethiopian, and almost so from the Neotropical region, one species only being found in the Andes of Peru and Chili. They comprise the following groups, some of which are doubtfully ranked as genera. Thalassarctos, the polar bear (1 species) inhabiting the Arctic regions ; Ursus, the true bears (12 species), which range over 202 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. all the Nearctic and Palaearctic regions as far as the Atlas Moun- tains, the Indo-Chinese sub-region in the mountains, and to Hainan and Formosa; Helarctos, the Malay or sun-bear (1 species) confined to the Indo -Malayan sub-region ; Melursus or Prochilus, the honey-bear (1 species), confined to the first and second Oriental sub-regions, over which it ranges from the Ganges to Ceylon ; and Tremarctos, the spectacled bear com- monly known as Ursus ornatus which is isolated in the Andes of Peru and Chili, and forms a distinct group. Fossil Urs'idce. Two bears (Ursus spelceus and U. priscus) closely allied to living species, abound in the Post-tertiary de- posits of Europe ; and others of the same age are found in North America, as well as an extinct genus, Arctodus. Ursi< arvernensis is found in the Pliocene formation of France, and the extinct genus Leptarchus in that of North America. Several species of Amphicyon, which appears to be an ances- tral form of this family, are found in the Miocene deposits of Europe and N. India; while Ursus also occurs in the Siwalik Hills and Nerbudda deposits. FAMILY 33. OTARIID^E. (4 5 Genera, 8 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PAL^ARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN 1 i 4 I 3 _ -2.34- The Otariidae, or Eared Seals, comprehending the sea-bears and sea-lions, are confined to the temperate and cold shores of the North Pacific, and to similar climates in the Southern Hemisphere, where the larger proportion of the species are found. They are entirely absent from the North Atlantic shores. Mr. J. A. Allen, in his recent discussion of this family (Bull. Harvard Museum) divides them into the following genera : Otdria (I species), Temperate South America, from Chili to La Plata; Callorkinus (1 species), Behring's Straits and Kams- chatka ; Arctocephalus (3 species), temperate regions of the CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 203 Southern Hemisphere ; ZalopJms (2 species), North Pacific, from California to Japan, and the shores of Australia and New Zea- land ; Eumetopias (1 species), Behring's Straits and California. Fossil Otariidce. Eemains supposed to belong to this family have been found in the Miocene of France. FAMILY 34 TEICHECHID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEAECTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 11 3 | The Morse, or Walrus (Trichecus rosmarus], which alone constitutes this family, is a characteristic animal of the North Polar regions, hardly passing south of the Arctic circle except on the east and west coasts of North America, where it sometimes reaches Lat. 60. It is most abundant on the shores of Spitz- bergen, but is not found on the northern shores of Asia between Long. 80 and 160 E., or on the north shores of America from 100 to 150 west. Its remains have been found fossil in Europe as far south as France, and in America as far as Virginia ; but the small frag- ments discovered may render the identification uncertain. FAMILY 35. PHOCIILE. (13 Genera, 21 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 4? 1 A- 1.2.3.4 -2.0-4- The earless or true Seals are pretty equally divided between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, frequenting almost ex- clusively the temperate and cold regions, except two species said to occur among the West Indian islands. The genus Phoca and its close allies, as well as Halichosrus and Pelagius, are 204 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. northern ; while Stenorhynchus and Morunga, with their allies, are mostly southern. The genera admitted by Dr. Gray in his catalogue are as follows : Callocephalus (3 species), Greenland, North Sea, also the Caspian Sea, and Lakes Aral and Baikal ; Pagomys (2 species), North Sea, North Pacific, and Japan ; Pagophilns (2 species), North Pacific and North Atlantic ; Halicyon (1 species), North West coast of America ; PJioca (2 species), North Atlantic and North Pacific, Japan ; Halichcerus (1 species), Greenland, North Sea, and Baltic ; Pelagius (2 species), Madeira, Mediterranean, Black Sea ; Stenorhynchus (1 species), Antarctic Ocean, Falkland Islands, New Zealand ; Lobodon (1 species), Antarctic Ocean ; Leptonyx (1 species), Antarctic Ocean, South Australia, East Patagonia ; Ommatophoca (1 species), Antarctic Ocean ; Morunga (2 species), California, Falkland Islands, Temperate regions of Southern Ocean ; Cystophora (2 species), North Atlantic, Antilles. Fossil Seals. Eemains of living species of seals have been found in Post-tertiary deposits in many parts of Europe and in Algeria, as well as in New Zealand. Pristiphoca occitana is a fossil seal from the Pliocene of Montpellier, while a species of Phoca is said to have been found in the Miocene deposits of the United States. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Carniwra. Terrestrial Carnivora. For the purposes of geographical dis- tribution, the terrestrial and aquatic Carnivora differ too widely to be considered in one view, their areas being limited by barriers of a very different nature. The terrestrial Carnivora form a very extensive and considerably varied group of animals, having, with the doubtful exception of Australia, a world-wide distribution. Yet the range of modification of form is not very great, and the occurrence of three families consisting of but one species each, is an indication of a great amount of recent extinction. One of the most marked features presented by this group is its com- parative scarcity in the Neotropical region, only four families being represented there (not counting the Ursidse, which has only one Andean species), and both genera and species are few in number. Even the Procyonidae, which are especially South CHAP, xvii.] MAMMALIA. 205 American, have but tw^Tgeneifa and six species in that vast area. We might therefore, from these considerations alone, conclude that Carnivora are a development of the northern hemisphere, and have been introduced into the Neotropical region a,t a com- paratively recent epoch. The claim of the Nearctic region to be kept distinct from the Palsearctic (with which some writers have wished to unite it) is well maintained by its possession of at least six species of Mephitis, or skunk, a group having no close allies in any other region, and the genera Procyon and Bassaris, for the latter, ranging from the high lands of Guate- mala and Mexico to Texas and California, may be considered a Nearctic rather than a Neotropical form.' In the other families, the most marked feature is the total absence of Ursidae from the Ethiopian region. The great mass of the generic forms of Carnivora, however, are found in the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, which possess all the extensive group of Viverridae (except a few species in the /0l>rth Palsearctic sub- region) and a large number of Felidae and Mustelidse. Aquatic Carnivora. The aquatic Carnivora present no very marked features of distribution, except their preference for cold and temperate rather than tropical seas. Their nearest approxi- mation to the terrestrial group, is supposed to be that of the Otariidse to the Ursidse ; but this must be very remote, and the occurrence of both seals and bears in the Miocene period, shows, that until we find some late Secondaiy or early Tertiary formation rich in Mammalian remains, we are not likely to get at the tran- sition forms indicating the steps by which the aquatic Carnivora were developed. The most interesting special fact of distribu- tion to be noticed, is the occurrence of seals, closely allied to those inhabiting the northern seas, in the Caspian, .Lake Aral, and Lake Baikal. In the case of the two first-named localities there is little difficulty, as they are connected with the North Sea by extensive plains of low elevation, so that a depression of less than 500 feet would open a free communication with the ocean. At a comparatively recent epoch, a great gulf of the Arctic ocean must have occupied the valley of the* Irtish, and extended to the Caspian Sea ; till the elevation of the Kirghiz Steppes cut off the 206 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. communication with the ocean, leaving an inland sea with its seals. Lake Baikal, however, offers much greater difficulties ; since it is not only a fresh- water lake, but is situated in a mountain district nearly 2,000 feet above the sea level, and entirely separated from the plains by several hundred miles of high land. It is true that such an amount of submergence and elevation is known to have occurred in Europe so recently as during the Glacial period; but Lake Baikal is so surrounded by mountains, that it must at that time have been filled with ice, if at anything like its present elevation. Its emergence from the sea must therefore have taken place since the cold epoch, and this would imply that an enormous extent of Northern Asia has been very recently under water. We are accustomed to look on Seals as animals which exclu- sively inhabit salt water ; but it is probably from other causes than its saltness that they usually keep to the open sea, and there seems no reason why fresh- water should not suit them quite as well, provided they find in it a sufficiency of food, facilities for rearing their young, and freedom from the attacks of enemies. As already remarked in vol. i. p. 218, Mr, Belt's ingenious hypothesis (founded on personal examination of the Siberian Steppes), that during the Glacial period the northern ice-cap dammed up the waters of the northward flowing Asiatic rivers, and thus formed a vast fresh-water lake which might have risen as high as Lake Baikal, seems to offer the best solution of this curious problem of distribution. Range of Carnivora in Time. Carnivora have been found in all the Tertiary deposits, and comprise a mimber of extinct genera and even families. Several genera of Canidse occur in the Upper Eocene of Europe ; but the most remarkable fact is, that even, in the Lower Eocene are found two well-marked forms, Palceonyctis, one of the Viverridae, and Arctocyon, form- ing a distinct family type of very generalized characters, but unmistakably a carnivore. This last has been found at La Fere, in the north-east of France, in a deposit which, according to M. Gaudry, is the very lowest of the Lower Eocene formation in Europe. Arctocyon is therefore one of the oldest, if not the very oldest, of the higher forms of mammal yet discovered. CHAP. XVIL] MAMMALIA. 207 Order V.CETACEA. FAMILY 36. BAL^ENID^E. (6 Genera, 14 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. Temperate and Cold Seas of both Northern and Southern Hemispheres. This family comprises the whalebone or " right " whales, the best known species being the Greenland whale (Balcena mys- ticetus). Allied species are found in all parts of the southern seas, as far north as the Cape of Good Hope ; while some of the northern species are found off the coast of Spain, and even enter the Mediterranean. As most of the species indicated are im- perfectly known, and their classification by no means well settled, no useful purpose will be served by enumerating the genera or sub-genera. FAMILY 37. BALDEN OPTERID^E. (9 Genera, 22 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. Cold and Temperate Seas of both Hemispheres. This family comprises the finner whales and rorquals, and are characterised by possessing a dorsal fin and having the baleen or whalebone less developed. They are abundant in all northern seas, less so in the southern hemisphere, but they seem occa- sionally to enter the tropical seas. The best known genera are Megaptera (7 species) ; PJiysalus (4 species) ; and Balcenoptera (2 species) ; all of which have species in the North Sea. FAMJLY 38. CATODONTID^. (4 Genera, or Sub-Genera, 6 Species.) GENERAIO DISTRIBUTION. All the Tropical Oceans, extending north and south into Temperate waters. This family, comprising the cachalots or sperm whales, and black-fish, are separated from the true whales by having teeth in the lower jaw and no whalebone. They are pre-eminently a tropical, as distinguished from the two preceding, which are 208 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. arctic and antarctic families. The spermaceti whale (Catodon macrocephalus) abounds in the Pacific Ocean and in the deep Moluccan Sea, and also in the Indian Ocean and the Mozam- bique Channel. In the Atlantic it is scarce, although it occa- sionally comes north as far as our shores. The genera of CatodontidaB as given by Dr. Gray are, Catodon (2 species ?), Warm Eastern Oceans ; Physeter (1 species), " the black fish," North Sea; Cogia (2 species), South Temperate Oceans ; Euphysetes (1 species), Coast of Australia. FAMILY 39. HYPEEOODONTID^E. (9 Genera or Sub-Genera, 12 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, and Southern Ocean. This family consists of the beaked whales, which have no per- manent teeth in the upper jaw. The genera, according to Dr. Gray, are, Hyperoodon (2 species), " bottle-nosed whales," North Sea ; Lagenocetus (1 species), North Sea ; Epiodon (2 species), North and South Atlantic; Petrorhynchus (2 species), Mediterranean Sea and Southern Ocean ; Berardius (1 species), New Zealand ; Xiphius (1 species) North Atlantic ; Dolichodon (1 species), Cape of Good Hope ; Neoziphius (1 species) Mediterranean ; Dioplo- don (1 species), Indian Ocean. FAMILY 40. MONODONTID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) The " Narwhal " (Monodon monoceros) which constitutes this family, is placed by Dr. Gray along with the " white whales," in his family Belugida3. It inhabits the North Sea. FAMILY 41. DELPHINID^. (24 Genera or Sub-Genera, 100; Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. All Oceans, Seas, and Great Rivers of the globe. This family, including the Porpoises, Dolphins, White Whales, &c., may be described as small, fish-shaped whales, having teeth CHAP. xvii. MAMMALIA. 209 in both jaws. According to Dr. Gray they form seven families and 24 genera ; according to Professor Cams, four sub-families and 8 genera, but as these groups appear to be established on quite different principles, and often differ widely from each other, I shall simply enumerate Dr. Gray's genera with their distribu- tion as given in his British Museum Catalogue. Platanista (2 species), long-snouted porpoises, inhabiting the Ganges and Indus ; Inia (1 species), a somewhat similar form, inhabiting the upper waters of the Amazonian rivers : Sleno (8 species), Indian Ocean, Cape of Good Hope, and West Pacific ; Sotalia (1 species), Guiana ; Delphinus (10 species), all the oceans ; Clymenia (14 species), all the oceans ; Delphinapterus (1 species), South Atlantic ; Tursio (7 species), Atlantic and Indian Oceans ; Eutropia (2 species), Chili, and Cape of Good Hope ; Electro, (8 species), all the oceans ; Leucopleurus (1 species), North Sea ; Lagenorhynchus (1 species), North Sea; Pseudorca (2 species), North Sea, Tasmania ; Orc&ella (2 species), Ganges ; Acantho- delphis (1 species), Brazil ; Phoccena (2 species), North Sea ; Neo- meris (1 species), India ; Grampus (3 species), North Sea, Medi- terranean, Cape of Good Hope ; Globiqceplialus (14 species), all the oceans ; Sphcerocephalus (1 species), North Atlantic ; Orca (9 species), Northern and Southern Oceans ; OpJiysia (1 species), North Pacific ; Beluga (6 species), Arctic Seas, Australia ; Pon- toporia (1 species), Monte Video. Fossil Cetacea. Bemains of Cetacea are tolerably abundant in Tertiary deposits, both in Europe and North America. In the Lower Pliocene of England, France, and Germany, extinct species of five or six living genera of whales and dolphins have been found ; and most of these occur also in the Upper Miocene, along with many others, referred to about a dozen extinct genera. In the Post-pliocene deposits of Vermont and South Carolina, several extinct species have been found belonging to living genera; but in the Miocene deposits of the Eastern United States ceta- cean remains are much more abundant, more than 30 species of 210 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. extinct whales and dolphins having been described, most of them belonging to extinct genera. The Zeuglodontidse, an extinct family of carnivorous whales, with double-fanged serrated molar teeth, whose affinities are somewhat doubtful, are found in the older Pliocene of Europe, and in the Miocene and Eocene ot the Eastern United States. Zeuglodon abounds in the United States, and one species reached a length of seventy feet. A species oi this genus is said to have been found in Malta. Squalodon occurs in Europe and North America ; and in the latter country four or five other genera have been described, of which one, Saurocetes y has been found also at Buenos Ayres. Order VI.8IRENIA. , FAMILY 42. MANATID^E. (3 Genera, 5 Species ?) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL NKAECTIC PAL.EARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN j ORIENTAL I AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. 1 - 3 - 1 .2 1 .2-4 The Sea-cows are herbivorous aquatic animals living on the coasts or in the great rivers of several parts of the globe. Ma- natiis (2 species) inhabits both shores of the Atlantic, one species ranging from the Gulf of Mexico to North Brazil, and ascending the Amazon far into the interior of the continent ; while the other is found on the west coast of Africa. Halicore (2 species ?), the Dugong, is peculiar to the Indian Ocean, extending from Mozambique to the Red Sea, thence to Western India and Ceylon, the Malay Archipelago and the north coast of Australia. Eytina (1 species), supposed to be now extinct, inhabited re- cently the North Pacific, between Kamschatka and Behring's Straits. Fossil Sirenia. Extinct species of Manatus have been found in the Post-pliocene deposits of Eastern North America from CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 211 Maryland to Florida ; and an extinct genus, Prorastomus, in some Tertiary deposits in the Island of Jamaica. In Post-pliocene deposits in Siberia, remains of Eytina have been found ; while several species of the extinct genus Hali- therium, perhaps intermediate between Manatus and Halicore. have been found in the older Pliocene and Upper Miocene of France and Germany. Order VILUNGULATA. FAMILY 43. EQUID^E. (1 Genus, 8 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIA* SUB-REGIONS. LIVING SPECIES. -2.3- 1 1 . 2 .,3 - EXTINCT 1.2 ! 1.2.3 - 1 1.2.3.4 I \ SPECIES. 1 3 - The Horses, Asses, and Zebras form a highly specialized group now confined to the Ethiopian and Palsearctic regions, but during the middle and later tertiaries having a very extensive range. The zebras (3 species) inhabit the greater part of the Ethiopian region, while the asses (4 species) are characteristic of the deserts of the Palsearctic region from North Africa and Syria to Western India, Mongolia, and Manchuria. The domestic horse is not known in a wild state, but its remains are found in recent de- posits from Britain to the Altai Mountains, so that its disappear- ance is probably due to human agency. Extinct Equidce. Extinct forms of this family are very numerous. The genus Equus occurs in Post-pliocene and Plio- cene deposits in Europe, North America, and South America. In North America the species are most numerous. An allied genus Hvpparion, having rudimentary lateral toes, is represented 212 GEOGKAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. by several species in the Pliocene of North America, while in Europe it occurs both in the Older Pliocene and Upper Miocene. Various other allied forms, in which the lateral toes are more and more developed, and most of which are now classed in a dis- tinct family, Anchitheridse, range back through the Miocene to the Eocene period. A sufficient account of these has already been given in vol. i. chap. VI. p. 135, to which the reader is referred for the supposed origin and migrations of the horse. FAMILY 44. TAPIPJD^E. (2 Genera ? 6 Species.) GBN T ERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. -fl.3 - A The Tapirs form a small group of animals whose discontinuous distribution plainly indicates their approaching extinction. For a long time only two species were known, the black American, and the white-banded Malay tapir, the former confined to the equatorial forests of South America, the latter to the Malay peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo (Plate VIII. vol. i. p. 337). Lately however another, or perhaps two distinct species (or ac- cording to Dr. J. E. Gray, four !) have been discovered in the Andes of New Granada and Ecuador, at an elevation of from 8,000 to 12,000 feet ; while one or perhaps two more, forming the allied genus Elasmognathus, have been found to inhabit Central America from Panama to Guatemala. Extinct Tapirs. True tapirs inhabited Western Europe, from the latest Pliocene back to the earliest Miocene times ; while they only occur in either North or South America in the Post- pliocene deposits and caves. The singular distribution of the living species is thus explained, since we see that they are an Old World group which only entered the American continent at a comparatively recent epoch. An ancestral form of this group Lophiodon is found in Miocene and Eocene deposits of CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 213 Europe and North America ; while a still more ancient form of large size is found in the Lower Eocene of France and England, indicating an immense antiquity for this group of Mammalia. There are many other extinct forms connecting these with th e Palseotheridse, already noticed in chapter vi. (vol. i. pp. 119-125), FAMILY 45. RHINOCEROTID^E. (1 Genus, 9 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SOB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. LIVING SPECIES. 1.2 .3 .4 1.2 EXTINCT SPECIES. 1 .2.3.4 Living Rhinoceroses are especially characteristic of Africa, with Northern and Malayan India. Four or perhaps five species, all two-horned, are found in Africa, where they range over the whole country south of the desert to the Cape of Good Hope. In the Oriental region there are also four or five species, which range from the forests at the foot of the Himalayas eastwards through Assam, Chittagong, and Siam, to Sumatra, Borneo and Java. Three of these are one-horned, the others found in Sumatra, and northwards to Pegu and Chittagong, two-horned. The Asiatic differ from the African species in some dental characters, but they are in other respects so much alike that they are not gene- rally considered to form distinct genera. In his latest catalogue however (1873), Dr. Gray has four genera, Rhinoceros (4 species), and Ceratorhinus (2 species), Asiatic ; Rhinaster (2 species), and Ceratotherium (2 species), African. Extinct Khinocerotidce. Numerous species of Rhinoceros ranged over Europe and Asia from the Post -pliocene back to the Upper Miocene period, and in North America during the Pliocene period 214 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. only. The hornless Acerotherium is Miocene only, in both countries. Other genera are, Leptodon from Greece, and Hyra- codon from Nebraska, both of Miocene age. More than 20 species of extinct rhinoceroses are known, and one has even been found at an altitude of 16,000 feet in Thibet. FAMILY 46. HIPPOPOTAMID^E. . (1 Genus, 2 Species.) GENEKAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. LIVING SPECIES. 1.2.3 EXTINCT SPECIES. 1.2 The Hippopotamus inhabits all the great rivers of Africa ; a distinct species of a smaller size being found on the west coast, and on some of the rivers flowing into Lake Tchad. Fossil Hippopotami. Eight extinct species of Hippopotamus are known from Europe and India, the former Post-pliocene or Pliocene, the latter of Upper Miocene age. They ranged as far north as the Thames valley. An extinct genus from the Siwalik Hills, Merycopotamus, according to Dr. Falconer connects Hippo- potamus with Anthracotherium, an extinct form from the Miocene of Europe, allied to the swine. FAMILY 47. SUID^. (5 Genera, 22 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REOIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. -2.3- - 2.3- 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1. - The Swine may be divided into three well-marked groups, from peculiarities in their dentition. 1. The Dicotylinse, or CHAP, xvii.] MAMMALIA. 215 peccaries (1 genus, Dicotyles). These offer so many structural differences that they are often classed as a separate family. 2. The true swine (3 genera, SMS, Potamochoerus, and Babirusa) ; and, 3. ThePhacochcerinse, or wart hogs (1 genus, Phacochcerus). These last are also sometimes made into a separate family, but they are hardly so distinct as the Dicotylinse. The Peccaries (2 species), are peculiar to the Neotropical re- gion, extending from Mexico to Paraguay. They also spread northwards into Texas, and as far as the Eed Eiver of Arkansas, thus just entering the- Near ctic region ; but with this exception swine are wholly absent from this region, forming an excellent feature by which to differentiate it from the Palsearctie. >us (14 species), ranges over the Palsearctic and Oriental regions and into the first Australian sub-region as far as New Guinea ; but it is absent from the Ethiopian region, or barely enters it on the north-east. Potamochcerus (3 species?), is wholly Ethiopian (Plate V. vol. i. p. 278). Babirusa (1 species), is confined to two islands, Celebes and Bouru, in the first Australian sub-region. Phacochcerus (2 species), ranges over tropical Africa from Abyssinia to Caffraria. Dr. J. E. Gray divides true swine (Sus) into 7 genera, but it seems far better to keep them as one. Fossil Suidce. These are very numerous. Many extinct species of wild hog (Sus), are found in Europe and North India, ranging back from the Post-pliocene to the Upper Miocene for- mations. In the Miocene of Europe are numerous extinct genera, Bothriodon, Anthracotherium, Palceochoerus, Hyotherium, and some others ; while in the Upper Eocene occur Cebochcerus, Chceropotamus, and Acotherium, these early forms having more resemblance to the peccaries. None of these genera are found in America, where we have the living genus Dicotyles in the Post-pliocene and Pliocene deposits, both of North and South America ; with a number of extinct genera in the Miocene. The chief of these are, Elotherium, Per- chcerus, Leptochcerus, and Nanohyus, all from Dakota, and Thinohyus, from Oregon. One extinct genus, Platygonus, closely allied to Dicotyles, is found in the Post-pliocene of Nebraska. VOL. II. 15 216 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Oregon, and Arkansas. Elofherium is said to be allied to the peccary and hippopotamus. Hyopotamus, from the Miocene of Dakota, is allied to Anthmcotherium, and forms with it (accord- ing to Dr. Leidy) a distinct family of ancestral swine. It thus appears, that the swine were almost equally well re- presented in North America and Europe, during Miocene and Pliocene times, but by entirely distinct forms ; and it is a re- markable fact that these hardy omnivorous animals, should, like the horses, have entirely died out in North America, except a few peccaries which have preserved themselves in the sub-tropical parts and in the southern continent, to which they are compara- tively recent emigrants. We can hardly have a more convincing proof of the vast physical changes that have occurred in the North American continent during the Pliocene and Post-pliocene epochs, than the complete extinction of these, along with so many other remarkable types of Mammalia. According to M. Gaudry, the ancestors of all the swine, with the hippopotami and extinct Anthracotherium, Merycopotamus, and many allied forms, are the Hyracofherium and Pliolophus, both found only in the London clay belonging to the Lower Eocene formation. FAMILY 48. CAMELID^E. (2 Genera, 6 Species). GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB- .REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-BEGIONS. LIVING SPECIES. - 1 1 -2.3.4 EXTINCT SPECIES. -3 3. - The Camels are an exceedingly restricted group, the majority of the species now existing only in a state of domestication. The genus Camelus (2 species), is a highly characteristic desert form CHAP. xvii. J MAMMALIA. 217 of the Palsearctic region, from the Sahara to Mongolia as far as Lake Baikal. Auchenia (4 species), comprehending the Llamas and Alpacas, is equally characteristic of the mountains and deserts of the southern part of South America. Two species entirely domesticated inhabit the Peruvian and Bolivian Andes; and two others are found in a wild state, the vicuna in the Andes of Peru and Chili (Plate XYI. vol. ii. p. 40), and the guanaco over the plains of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego. JZxtinct Camelidce. No fossil remains of camels have been found in Europe, but one occurs in the deposits of the Siwalik Hills, usually classed as Upper Miocene, but which some natu- ralists think are more likely of Older Pliocene a,ge. Meryco- therium, teeth of which have been found in the Siberian drift, is supposed to belong to this family. In North America, where no representative of the family now exists, the camel-tribe were once abundant. In the Post-pliocene deposits of California an Auchenia has been found, and in those of Kansas one of the extinct genus Procamelus. In the Pliocene period, this genus, which was closely allied to the living camels, abounded, six or seven species having been described from Nebraska and Texas, together with an allied form Homocamelus. In the Miocene period different genera appear, P(&brotherium, and Protomeryx, while a Procamelus has been found in de- posits of this age in Virginia. In South America a species of Auchenia has been found in the caves of Brazil, and others in the Pliocene deposits of the pampas, together with two extinct genera, Palceolama and Camelo- therium. We thus find the ancestors of the Camelidae in a region where they do not now exist, but which is situated so that the now widely separated living forms could easily have been derived from it. This case offers a remarkable example of the light thrown by palaeontology on the distribution of living animals ; and it is a warning against the too common practice of assuming the direct land connection of remote continents, in order to ex- plain similar instances of discontinuous distribution to that of the present family. 218 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 49. TEAGULID^. (2 Genera, 6 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-RHGIONS. NEABCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS 2 - 1 .2.3.4 The Tragulidse are a group of small, hornless deer-like animals, with tusks in the upper jaw, and having some structural affinities with the camels. The musk-deer was formerly classed in this family, which it resembles externally ; but a minute examination of its structure by M. Milne-Edwards, has shown it to be more nearly allied to the true deer. The Chevrotains, or mouse-deer, Tragulus (5 species), range over all India to the foot of the Himalayas and Ceylon, and through Assam, Malacca, and Cam- bodja, to Sumatra, Borneo, and Java (Plate VIII., vol. i. p. 337). Hyomoschus (1 species), is found in West Africa. Extinct Tragulidce. A species of Hyomoschus is said to have been found in the Miocene of the South of France, as well as three extinct genera, Dremotherium (also found in Greece), with Lophiomeryx from the Upper Miocene, said to be allied to Tra- gulus ; and Amphitragulus from the Lower Miocene, of more remote affinities, and sometimes placed among the Deer. There seems to be no doubt, however, that this family existed in Europe in Miocene times ; and thus another case of discontinuous dis- tribution is satisfactorily accounted for. FAMILY 50. CEEVID^. (8 Genera, 52 "Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-BBQIONS. NEABCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3 1.2.3.4- 1.2.3.41 1.2.3.4 1 The Cervidse, or deer tribe, are an extensive group of animals squally adapted for inhabiting forests or open plains, the Arctic CHAP, xvii. j MAMMALIA. 219 regions or the Tropics. They range in fact over the whole of the great continents of the globe, with the one striking exception of Africa, where they are only found on the shores of the Mediterra- nean which form part of the Palsearctic region. T]je following is the distribution of the genera. Alces (1 species), the elk or moose, ranges all over Northern Europe and Asia, as far south as East Prussia, the Caucasus, and North China ; and over Arctic America to Maine on the East, and British Columbia on the west. The American species may however be distinct, although very closely allied to that of Europe. Tarandus 1 ^ species), the reindeer, has a similar range to the last, but keeps farther north in Europe, inhabiting Green- land and Spitzbergen ; and in America extends farther south, to New Brunswick and the north shore of Lake Superior. There are several varieties or species of this animal confined to special districts, but they are not yet well determined. Oervus (40 species), the true deer, have been sub-divided into numerous sub- genera characteristic of separate districts. They range over the whole area of the family, except that they do not go beyond 57 N. in America and a little tether in Europe and Asia. In South America they extend over Patagonia and even to Tierra del Fuego. They are found in the north of Africa, and over the whole of the Oriental region, and beyond it as far as the Mo- luccas and Timor, where however they have probably been intro- duced by man at an early period. Dama (1 species), the fallow deer, is a native of the shores of the Mediterranean, from Spain and Barbary to Syria. Capreolus (2 species), the roe-deer, inhabits all Temperate and South Europe to Syria, with a distinct species in N. China. Cervulus (4 species), the muntjacs, are found in all the forest districts of the Oriental region, from India and Ceylon to China as far north as Ningpo and Formosa, also south- ward to the Philippines, Borneo, and Java. Moschus (1 species) the musk-deer, inhabits Central Asia from the Amoor and Pekin, to the Himalayas and the Siamese mountains above 8000 ft. elevation. This is usually classed as a distinct family, but M. Milne-Edwards remarks, that it differs in no important points of organisation from the rest of the Cervidae. Hydropotes r 220 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. (1 species) inhabits China from the Yang-tse Kiang northwards. This new genus has recently been discovered by Mr. Swinhoe, who says its nearest affinities are with Moschus. Other new forms are ophotragus, and Elaplwdus, both inhabiting North China ; the former is hornless, the latter has very small horns about an inch long. Extinct Deer. Numerous extinct species of the genus Cervus are found fossil in many parts of Europe, and in all formations between the Post-pliocene and the Upper Miocene. The Elk and Eeindeer are also found in caves and Post-pliocene deposits, the latter as far south as the South of France. Extinct genera only, occur in the Upper Miocene in various parts of Europe : Micromeryx, Palceomeryx, and Dicrocer^us have been described ; with others referred doubtfully to Moschus, and an allied genus Amphimoschus. In N. America, remains of this family are very scarce, a Cer- vus allied to the existing wapiti deer, being found in Post-plio- cene deposits, and an extinct genus, Leptomeryx, in the Upper Miocene of Dakota and Oregon. Another extinct genus, Mery- codus, from the Pliocene of Oregon, is said to be allied to camels and deer. In South America, several species of Cervus have been found in the Brazilian caves, and in the Pliocene deposits of La Plata. It thus appears, that there are not yet sufficient materials for determining the origin and migrations of the Cervidse. There can be little doubt that they are an Old World group, and a com- paratively recent development ; and that some time during the Miocene period they passed to North America, and subsequently to the Southern continent. They do not however appear to have developed much in North America, owing perhaps to their find- ing the country already amply stocked with numerous forms of indigenous Ungulates. CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 221 FAMILY 51. CAMELOPARDALID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^E ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. LIVING SPECIES. 1 3 EXTINCT SPECIES. The Camelopardalidee, or giraffes, now consist of but a single species which ranges over all the open country of the Ethiopian region, and is therefore almost absent from West Africa, which is more especially a forest district. During the Middle Tertiary period, however, these animals had a wider range, over Southern Europe and Western India as far as the slopes of the Hima- layas. Extinct Species. Species of Cavnelopardalis have been found in Greece, the Siwalik Hills, and Perim Island at the entrance to the Red Sea; and an extinct genus, Helladotherium, more bulky but not so tall as the giraffe, ranged from the south of France to Greece and North-west India. FAMILY 52. BOVID.E. (34 Genera, 149 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARGTIO SUB-REGIONS. PAL^IARCTIC SUB-HEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2-4 1 .2 .3 .4 1.2.3 1.2.3.4 1 This large and important family, includes all the animals com- monly known as oxen, buffaloes, antelopes, sheep, and goats, which have been classed by many naturalists in at least three, and sometimes four or five, distinct families. Zoologically, they 222 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. are briefly and accurately defined as, " hollow-horned ruminants :" and, although they present wide differences in external form, they grade so insensibly into each other, that no satisfactory definition of the smaller family groups can be found. As a whole they are almost confined to the great Old World continent, only a few forms extending along the highlands and prairies of the Nearctic region ; while one peculiar type is found in Celebes, an island which is almost intermediate between the Oriental and Australian regions. In each of the Old World regions there are found a characteristic set of types. Antelopes prevail in the Ethiopian region ; sheep and goats in the Palse- arctic ; while the oxen are perhaps best developed in the Oriental region. Sir Victor Brooke, who has paid special attention to this family, divides them into 13 sub-families, and 1 here adopt the arrangement of the genera and species which he has been so good as to communicate to me in MSS. Sub-family I. BOVINE (6 genera, 13 species). This group is one of the best marked in the family. It comprises the Oxen and Buffaloes with their allies, and has a distribution very nearly the same as that of the entire family. The genera are as follows : Bos (1 sp.), now represented by our domestic cattle, the descendants of the Bos primigenius, which ranged over a large part of Central Europe in the time of the Komans. The Chil- lingham wild cattle are supposed to be the nearest approach to the original species. Bison (2 .sp.), one still wild in Poland and the Caucasus; the other in North America, ranging over the prairies west of the Mississippi, and on the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains (Plate XIX., vol. ii., p. 129). Bibos (3 sp.), the Indian wild cattle, ranging over a large part of the Oriental region, from Southern India to Assam, Burmah, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, and Java. Poephagus (1 sp.), the yak, con- fined to the high plains of Western Thibet. Bubalus (5 sp.), the buffaloes, of which three species are African, ranging over all the continental parts of the Ethiopian region ; one Northern and Central Indian ; and the domesticated animal in South Europe and North Africa. Anoa (1 sp.), the small wild cow of Celebes, CHAP, xvii.] MAMMALIA. 223 a very peculiar form more nearly allied to the buffaloes than to any other type of oxen. Sub-family II. TRAGELAPHIN.E (3 genera, 11 species). The Bovine Antelopes are large and handsome animals, mostly Ethiopian, but extending into the adjacent parts of the Palre- arctic and Oriental regions. The genera are: Oreas (2 sp.), elands, inhabiting all Tropical and South Africa. Tragela- phus (8 sp.), including the bosch-bok, kjao^u, and other large antelopes, ranges over all Tropical and South Africa (Plate IV., vol. i|., P- 261). Portax (1 sp.) India, but rare in Madras and north of the Ganges. Sub-family III. ORYGIN^; (2 genera, 5 species). Oryx (4 sp.) is a desert genus, ranging over all the African deserts to South Arabia and Syria ; Addax (1 sp.) inhabits North Africa, North Arabia, and Syria. Sub-family IV. HIPPOTRAGIN^E (1 genus, 3 species). The Sable Antelopes, Hippotragus, form an isolated group inhabiting the open country of Tropical Africa and south to the Cape. Sub-family V. GAZELLIJSLE (6 genera, 23 species). This is a group of small oj? moderate-sized animals, most abundant in the deserts on the borders of* the Palsearctic, Oriental, and Ethiopian regions. Gazella (17 sp.) is typically a Palaearctic desert group, ranging over the great desert plateaus of North Africa, from Senegal and Abyssinia to Syria, Persia, Beloo- chistan, and the plains of India, with one outlying species in South Africa. Procapra (2 sp.), Western Thibet and Mongolia to about 110 east longitude. Antilope (1 sp.) inhabits all the plains of India. JEpyceros (1 sp.) the pallah, inhabits the open country of South and South-east Africa. Saiga (1 sp.) a singular sheep-faced antelope, which inhabits the steppes of Eastern Europe and Western Asia from Poland to the Irtish Eiver, south of 55 north latitude. (Plate II., vol. i., p. 218.) Pan- th$lops (1 sp.) confined to the highlands of Western Thibet and perhaps Turkestan. Sub-family VI. ANTILO CAPRINE (1 genus, 1 species), Antilo- capra, the prong-horned antelope, inhabit both sides of the Eocky Mountains, extending north to the Saskatchewan and 224 GEOGBAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PAKT iv. Columbia River, west to tlie coast range of California, and east to the Missouri. Its remarkable deciduous horns seem to indi- cate a transition to the Cervidae. (Plate XIX., vol. ii., p. 129.) Sub-family VII. CERVICAPRIN.E (5 genera, 21 species). This group of Antelopes is wholly confined to the continental portion of the Ethiopian region. The genera are: Cermcapra (4 sp.), Africa, south of the equator and Abyssinia ; Kdbus (6 sp.), grassy plains and marshes of Tropical Africa; Pelea (1 sp.), South Africa ; Nanotragus (9 species), Africa, south of the Sahara ; Neotragus (1 sp.) Abyssinia and East Africa. . Sub-family VIII. CEPHALOPHIN.E (2 genera, 24 species), Africa and India; Cephalophus (22 sp.), continental Ethiopian region; Tetraceros (2 sp.) hilly part of all India, but rare north of the Ganges. Sub-family IX. ALCEPHALIN^E (2 genera, 11 species), large African Antelopes, one species just entering the Palaearctic region. The genera are : Alcephalus (9 sp.) all Africa and north-east to Syria; Catoblepas (2 sp.), gnus, Africa, south of the Equator. Sub-region X. BUDORCINJE (1 genus, 2 species) Budorcas in- habits the high Himalayas from Nepal to East Thibet. Sub-family XI. RUPICAPRIN^E (1 genus, 2 species) the Cha- mois, Rupicapra, inhabit the high European Alps from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus. (Plate I., vol. 1, p. 195.) Sub-family XII. NEMORHEDIN^E (2 genera, 10 species). These goat-like Antelopes inhabit portions of the Palaearctic and Oriental regions, as well as the Rocky Mountains in the Nearctic region. Nemorhedus (9 sp.) ranges from the Eastern Hima- layas to N. China and Japan, and south to Formosa, the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. Aplocerus (1 sp.), the mountain goat of the trappers, inhabits the northern parts of California and the Rocky Mountains. Sub-family XIII. CAPRINE (2 genera, 23 species). The Goats and Sheep form an extensive series, highly characteristic of the Palaearctic region, but with an outlying species on the Neilgher- ries in Southern India, and one in the Rocky Mountains and California. The genera are Capra (22 sp.) and Ovibos (1 sp.), CHAP, xvii.] MAMMALIA. 225 The genus Oapra consists of several sub-groups which have been named as genera, but it is unnecessary here to do more than divide them into " Goats and Ibexes " on the one hand and " Sheep ' n on the other each comprising 11 species. The former range over all the South European Alps from Spain to the Cau- casus ; to Abyssinia, Persia, and Scinde ; over the high Himalayas to E. Thibet and K China; with an outlying species in the Neilgherries. The latter are only found in the mountains of Cor- sica, Sardinia, and Crete, in Europe ; in Asia Minor, Persia, and in Central and North-Eastern Asia, with one somewhat isolated species in the Atlas mountains ; while in America a species is found in the Rocky Mountains and the coast range of California. Ovibos (1 sp.), the musk-sheep, inhabits Arctic America north of lat. 60 ; but it occurs fossil in Post-glacial gravels on the Yena and Obi in Siberia, in Germany and France along with the Mammoth and with flint implements, and in caves of the Eeindeer period ; also in the brick earth in the south of England, associated with Rhinoceros megarhinus and Elephas antiquus. Extinct Bovidce. In the caverns and diluviums of Europe, of the Post-Pliocene period, the remains are found of extinct species of Bos, Bison, and Capra; and in the caverns of the south of France Rupicapra, and an antelope near Hippotragus. Bos and Bison also occur in Pliocene deposits. In the Miocene of Europe, the only remains are antelopes closely allied to existing species, and these are especially numerous in Greece, where remains referred to two living and ftnir extinct genera have been discovered. In the Miocene of India numerous extinct species of Bos, and two extinct genera, Hemibos and Amphibos, have been found, one of them at a great elevation in Thibet. Antelopes, allied to living Indian species, are chiefly found in the Nerbudda deposits. In North America, the only bovine remains are those of a Bison, and a sheep or goat, in the Post-pliocene deposits ; and of two species of musk-sheep, sometimes classed in a distinct genus Bootherium, from beds of the same age in Arkansas and Ohio. Casoryx, from the Pliocene of Nebraska, is supposed to be allied to the antelopes and to deer. 226 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. In the caves of Brazil remains of two animals said to be ante- lopes, have been discovered. They are classed by Gervais in' the genera Antilope and Leptotherium, but the presence of true ante- lopes in S. America at this period is so improbable, that there is probably some error of identification. The extinct family Sivatheridae, containing the extraordinary and gigantic four-horned Sivatherium and Bramatlierium, of the Siwalik deposits, are most nearly allied to the antelopes. From the preceding facts we may conclude, that the great existing development of the Bovidse is comparatively recent. The type may have originated early in the Miocene period, the oxen being at first most tropical, while the antelopes inhabited the desert zone a little further north. The sheep and goats seem to be the most recent development of the bovine type, which was probably long confined to the Eastern Hemisphere. General Remarks on the Distribution of the ITngulata. With the exception of the Australian region, from which this order of mammalia is almost entirely wanting, the Ungulata are almost universally distributed over the continental parts of all the other regions. Of the ten families, 7 are Ethiopian, 6 Oriental, 5 Palsearctic, 4 Neotropical, and 3 Nearctic. The Ethiopian region owes its superiority to the exclusive possession of the hippo- potamus and giraffe, both of which inhabited the Palaearctic and Oriental regions in Miocene times. The excessive poverty of the Nearctic region in this order is remarkable ; the swine being represented only by Dicotyles in its extreme southern portion, while the Bovidse are restricted to four isolated species. Deer alone are fairly well represented. But, during the Eocene and Miocene periods, North America was wonderfully rich in varied forms of Ungulates, of which there were at least 8 or 9 families ; while we have reason to believe that during the same periods the Ethiopian region was excessively poor, and that it probably re- ceived the ancestors of all its existing families from Europe or Western Asia in later Miocene or Pliocene times. Many types that once abounded in both Europe and North America are now pre- served only in South America and Central or Tropical Asia, as CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 227 the tapirs and camels ; while others once confined to Europe and Asia have found a refuge in Africa, as the hippopotamus and giraffe ; so that in no other order do we find such striking ex- amples of those radical changes in the distribution of the higher animals which were effected during the latter part of the Tertiary period. The present distribution of this order is, in fact> utterly unintelligible without reference to the numerous extinct forms of existing and allied families ; but as this subject has been suffi- ciently discussed in the Second Part of this work (Chapters VI. and VII.) it is unnecessary to give further details here. Order VIILPROBOSCIDEA. FAMILY 53. ELEPHANTID^. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL StTB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. LIVING SPECIES. 1.2.3 1.2.3.4 EXTINCT SPECIES. 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1 1 -3 - The elephants are now represented by two species, the African, which ranges all over that continent south of the Sahara, and the Indian, which is found over all the wooded parts of the Oriental region, from the slopes of the Himalayas to Cey- lon, and eastward, to the frontiers of China and to Sumatra and Borneo. These, however, are but the feeble remnants of a host of gigantic creatures, which roamed over all the great conti- nents except Australia during the Tertiary period, and several of which were contemporary with man. Extinct Elephants. At least 14 extinct species of Elephas, and a rather greater number of the allied genus Mastodon (dis- tinguished by their less complex grinding teeth), have now been 228 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. discovered. Elephants ranged over all the Palsearctic and Nearctic regions in Post-Pliocene times ; in Europe and Central India they go back to the Pliocene ; and only in India to the Upper Miocene period ; the number of species increasing as we go back to the older formations. In North America two or three species of Mastodon are Post- pliocene and Pliocene ; and a species is found in the caves of Brazil, and in the Pliocene deposits of the pampas of La Plata, of the Bolivian Andes, and of Honduras and the Bahamas. In Europe the genus is Upper Miocene and Pliocene, but is espe- cially abundant in the former period. In the East, it extends from Perim island to Burmah and over all India, and is mostly Miocene, but with perhaps one species Pliocene in Central India. An account of the range of such animals as belong to extinct families of Proboscidea, will be found in Chapters VI. and YIT. ; from which it will be seen that, although the family Elephantidse undoubtedly originated in the Eastern Hemisphere, it is not improbable that the first traces of the order Proboscidea are to be found in N. America. Order IX.HYRACOIDEA. FAMILY 54. HYEACID^E. (1 Genus. 10-12 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEAKCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SCJB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 10 3 The genus Hyrax, which alone constitutes this family, consists of small animals having the appearance of hares or marmots, but which more resemble the genus Rhinoceros in their teeth and skeleton. They range all over the Ethiopian region, except Mada- gascar ; a peculiar species is found in Fernando Po, and they just enter the Palsearctic as far as Syria. They may therefore be considered as an exclusively Ethiopian group. In Dr. Gray's CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 229 last Catalogue (1873) he divides the genus into three Hyrax, JEuhyraXj and Dendrohyrax the latter consisting of two species confined apparently to West and South Africa. No extinct forms of this family have yet been discovered ; the Hyracotherium of the London clay (Lower Eocene) which was supposed to resemble Hyrax, is now believed to be an ancestral type of the Suidae or swine. Order X.EODENTIA. FAMILY 55. MUKHXE. (f f Genera, 330%ecies.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-RKGIONS. ORIENTAL SOB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 -*.2 The Muridae, comprising the rats and mice with their allies, are almost universally distributed over the globe (even not reckon- ing the domestic species which have been introduced almost everywhere by man), the exceptions being the ^thre& insular groups belonging to the Australian region, from f $'M of which have any species yet been obtained. Before enumerating the genera it will be as well to say a few words on the peculiarities of distribution they present. The true mice, forming the genus Jfe*B distributed over the whole of the world except N. and S. America where not a single indigenous species occurs, being replaced by the genus Hesperomys ; five 7 other genera, compre- hendin^all the remaining species found in South America are peculiar to the Neotropical region. Tlfre^e genera are confined to the Palsearctic region, and three others to the Nearctic. No less than twelve genera are exclusively Ethiopian, while only three are exclusively Oriental and tirSS Australian. Mus (100-120 sp.) the Eastern Hemisphere, but absent from the Pacific and Austro-Malayan Islands, except Celebes and Papua ; Lasiomys (I sp.) Guinea; Acanthomys (5-6 sp.) Africa, India,and 230 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. N. Australia ; Cricetomys (I sp.) Tropical Africa ; Saccostomus (2 sp.) Mozambique ; Cricetus (9 sp.) Palsearctic region efcttd Egypt ; Cricetulus (I sp., Milne-Edwards, 1870) Pekin ; Pseudomys (1 sp.) Australia ; Hapalotis (13 sp.) Australia ; Phlceomys (1 sp.) Philip- pines ; Platacanthomys (1 sp., Blyth, 1865) Malabar ; Dendromys (2 sp.) S. Africa; Nesomys (1 sp. Peters, 1870) Madagascar; Steatomys (2 sp.) N?'and S. Africa ; Pelomys (1 sp.) Mozambique ; Eeithrodon (9 sp.) N. America, Lat. $9 to Mexico, and fcutn*f8 A Tierra del Fuego ; Acodon (1 sp.) Peru ; Myxomys (1 sp.) Guate- mala ; Hesperomys (90 sp.) North and South America ; Holochilus (4 sp.) South America ; Oxymycterus (4 sp.) Brazil and La Plata ; Neotoma (6 sp.) U.S., East coast to California ; Sigmodon (2 sp.) Southern United States ; Drymomys (1 sp.) Peru ; Neotomys (2 sp.) S. America ; Otomys (6 sp.) S. and E. Africa ; Meriones = Gerlillus (20-30 sp.) Egypt, Central Asia, India, Africa; Rhomlomys (6 sp.) S. E. Europe, N. Africa, Central Asia ; Malawthrix (2 sp.) South Africa ; Mystromys (1 sp.) South Africa ; Psammomys (1 sp.) Egypt ; Spalacomys (1 sp.) India ; Smintkus (1-3 sp.) East Europe, Tartary, Siberia ; Hydromys (5 sp.) Australia and Tas- mania ; Hypogeomys (1 sp., Grandidier, 1870) Madagascar ; Bra- chytarsomys (1 sp., Gunther, 1874) Madagascar ; Fiber (2 sp.) N. America to Mexico; Arvicola (50 sp.) Europe to Asia Minor, North Asia, Himalayas, Temp. N. America ; Cuniculus (1 sp.) N. E. Europe, Siberia, Greenland, Arctic America ; Myodes\ sp.) Europe, Siberia, Arctic America, and Northern United States ; Myospalax Siphneiis (2 sp.) Altai Mountains and N. China 1 ; LopJiiomys (1 sp.) S. Arabia, and N. E. Africa; Echiothrix (1 sp.) Australia. Extinct Muridce. Species of Mus, Cricetus, Arvicola, and My odes, occur in the Post-Pliocene deposits of Europe ; Arvicola, Meriones, and the extinct genus Cricetodon, with some others, in the Miocene. In North America, Fiber, Arvicola, and Neotoma, occur in caves ; 1 Myospalax has hitherto formed part of the next family, Spalacidse ; but a recent examination of its anatomy by M. Milne-Edwards shows that it belongs to the Muridse, and comes near Arvicola. CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 231 an extinct genus, Eumys, in the Upper Miocene of Dakota, and another, My sops, in the Eocene of Wyoming. In South America Mus, or more probably Hesperomys, is abundant in Brazilian caverns, and Oxymycterus in the Pliocene of La Plata ; while Arvicola is said to have occurred both in the Pliocene and Eocene deposits of the same country. FAMILY 56. SPALACID^E. (7 Genera, 17 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SITE-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALjEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 In 3 In 3 10 A ! " ! The Spalacidae, or mole-rats, have a straggling distribution ovei the Old World continents. They are found over nearly the whole of Africa, but only in the South-east of Europe, and West of Temperate Asia, but appearing again in North India, Malacca, and South China. Elldbius (1 sp.), is found in South Eussia and South-west Siberia ; Spalax (1 sp.), Southern Eussia, West Asia, Hungary, Moldavia, and Greece (Plate II., vol. i. p. 218) ; Ehizomys (6 sp.), Abyssinia, North India, Malacca, South China ; Heterocephalus (1 sp.), Abyssinia ; Bathyerges (= Orycterus 1 sp.), South Africa ; Georychuis (6 sp.), South, Central, and East Africa ; Heliophdbks (1 sp,), Mozambique. FAMILY 57. DIPODKLE. (3 Genera, 22 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEARCTIC I PAL^ARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN SUB-RBGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL I AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-RKC;IONS. | 1.2.3 .4 -2.3.4 1.2.3 - The Jerboas, or jumping mice, are especially characteristic of the regions about the eastern extremity of the Mediterranean, being found in South Eussia, the Caspian district, Arabia, Egypt, YOL. II 16 232 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. and Abyssinia ; but they also extend over a large part of Africa, and eastward to India ; while isolated forms occur in North America, and the Cape of Good Hope. Dipus = Gerbillus (20 sp.), inhabits North and Central Africa, South-East Europe, and across Temperate Asia to North China, also Afghanistan, India, and Ceylon 1 ; Pedetes (1 sp.), South Africa to Mozambique and Angola ; Jaculus = Meriones (1 sp.), North America, from Nova Scotia and Canada, south to Pennsylvania and west to California and British Columbia (Plate XX., vol. ii. p. 135). Extinct Dipodidte. Dipus occurs fossil in the Miocene of the Alps; and an extinct genus, Issiodromys, said to be 'allied to Pedetes of the Cape of Good Hope, is from the Pliocene forma- tions of Auvergne in France. FAMILY 58. MYOXIDJE. (1 Genus, 12 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS* PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-RECIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The Dormice (Myoxus), are small rodents found over all the temperate parts of the Palaearctic region, from Britain to Japan ; and also over most parts of Africa to the Cape, but wanting in India. Some of the African species have been separated under the name of Graphidurus, while those of Europe and Asia form the sub-genera Glis, Muscardinus, and Eliomys. Extinct Myoxidce. Myoxus ranges from the Post-pliocene of the Maltese caverns to the Miocene of Switzerland and the Upper Eocene of France ; and an extinct genus Bracliymys is found in the Miocene of Central Europe. - ^ a CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 233 FAMILY 59. SACCOMYID.E. (6 Genera, 3^&pecies.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The Saccomyidse, or pouched rats, are almost wholly confined to our second Nearctic sub-region, comprising the Eocky Moun- tains and the elevated plains of Central North America. A few species range from this district as far as Hudson's Bay on the north, to South Carolina on the east, and to California on the west, while one genus, doubtfully placed here, goes south as far as Honduras and Trinidad. The group must therefore be consi- dered to be pre-eminently characteristic of the Nearctic region. The genera are, Dipodomys (5 sp.), North Mexico, California, the east slope of the Eocky Mountains to the Columbia Eiver, and one species in South Carolina ; Perognatkus (6 sp.), North Mexico, California, east slope of the Eocky Mountains to British Columbia; Thomomys (2 sp.), Upper Missouri^ and Upper Columbia Eivers to Hudson's Bay ; Geomys (5 sp.), North Mexico, and east slope of Eocky Mountains to Nebraska (Plate XIX., vol. ii. p. 129) ; Saccomys (1 sp.), North America, locality un- known ; Heteromys (6 sp.), Mexico, Honduras, and Trinidad. Geomys and Thomomys constitute a separate family Geomyidse, of Professor Carus ; but I follow Professor Lilljeborg, who has made a special study of the Order, in keeping them with this family. In the Post-Pliocene deposits of Illinois and Nebraska, remains of an existing species of Gtomys have been found. 234 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 60. CASTOKID^E. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL/EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB- REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-RKGIONS. 1004 13 The Beavers, forming the genus Castor, consist of two species, the American (Castor canadensis) ranging over the whole of North America from Labrador to North Mexico ; while the European (Castor fiber) appears to be confined to the temperate regions of Europe and Asia, from France to the Eiver Amoor, over which extensive region it doubtless roamed in prehistoric times, although now becoming rare in many districts. Extinct Castoridce. Extinct species of Castor range back from the Post-pliocene to the Upper Miocene in Europe, and to the Newer Pliocene in North America. Extinct genera in Europe are, Trogoniherium, Post-Pliocene and Pliocene ; Chalicomys, Older Pliocene; and Steneofiber, Upper Miocene. In North America Castoroides is Post-Pliocene, and Palceocastor, Upper Miocene. The family thus first appears on the same geological horizon in both Europe and North America. FAMILY 61. SCIUKIDJE. (8 Genera, 180-200 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEABCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PA L*: ARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-KEGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-BEGIONS. -2.3- 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3- 1.2.3.4 The Squirrel family) comprehending also the marmots and prairie-dogs, are very widely spread over the earth. They are especially abundant in the Nearctic, Palaearctic, and Oriental regions, and rather less frequent in the Ethiopian and Neotro- pical, in which last region they do not extend south of Paraguay. They are absent from the West Indian islands, Madagascar, and Australia, only occurring in Celebes which doubtfully belongs to the Australian region. The genera are as follows ;- CHAP, xvii.] MAMMALIA. 235 Sciurus (100 120 sp., including the sub-genera Spermosciurus, Xerus, Macroxus, Kheithrosciurus, and Ehinosciurus), comprises the true squirrels, and occupies the area of the whole family wherever woods and forests occur. The approximate number of species in each region is as follows : Nearctic 18, Palsearctic 6, Ethiopian 18, Oriental 50, Australian (Celebes) 5, Neotropical 30. Sciuropterus (16 19 sp.), comprises the flat-tailed flying squirrels, which range from Lapland and Finland to North China and Japan, and southward through India and Ceylon, to Malacca and Java, with a species in Formosa ; while in North America they occur from Labrador to British Columbia, and south to Minnesota and Southern California. Pteromys (12 sp.), comprising the round- tailed flying squirrels, is a more southern form, being confined to the wooded regions of India from the Western Himalayas to Java and Borneo, with species in Formosa and Japan. Tamias (5 sp.), the ground squirrels, are chiefly North American, ranging from Mexico to Puget's Sound on the west coast, and from Virginia to Montreal on the Atlantic coast; while one species is found overall northern Asia. Spermophilus (26 sp.), the pouched marmots, are confined to the Nearctic and Palsearctic regions ; in the former ex- tending from the Arctic Ocean to Mexico and the west coast, but not passing east of Lake Michigan and the lower Mississippi; in the latter from Silesia through South Russia to the Amoor and Kams- chatka, most abundant in the desert plains of Tartary and Mon- golia. Arctomys (8 sp.), the marmots, are found in the northern parts of North America as far down as Virginia and Nebraska to the Rocky Mountains and British Columbia, but not in Cali- fornia ; and from the Swiss Alps eastward to Lake Baikal and Kamschatka, and south as far as the Himalayas, above 8,000 feet elevation. Cynomys (2 sp.), the prairie-dogs, inhabit the plains east of the Rocky Mountains from the Upper Missouri to the Red River and Rio Grande (Plate XIX., vol. ii. p. 129). Anoma- lurus (5 sp.), consists of animals which resemble flying-squirrels, but differ from all other members of the family in some points of internal structure. They form a very aberrant portion of the Sciuridae, and, according to some naturalists, a distinct family. They inhabit West Africa and the island of Fernando Po. 236 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Extinct Sciuridce. These are tolerably abundant. The genus Sciurm appears to be a remarkably ancient form, extinct species being found in the Miocene, and even in the Upper Eocene formations of Europe. Spermophilus goes back to the Upper Miocene ; Arctomys to the Newer Pliocene. Extinct genera are, BrachymysJ Liihomys, and Plesiarctomys, from the European Miocene, the latter said to be intermediate between marmots and squirrels. In North America, Sciurus, Tamias, and Arctomys occur in the Post-pliocene deposits only. The extinct genera are Ischyromys, from the Upper Miocene of Nebraska ; Paramys, allied to the marmots, and Sciuravus, near the squirrels, from the Eocene of Wyoming. Here we have unmistakable evidence that the true squirrels (Sdurus) are an Old World type, which has only recently entered North America ; and this is in accordance with the comparative scarcity of this group in South America, a country so well adapted to them, and their great abundance in the Oriental region, which, with the Palaearctic, was probably the coun- try of their origin and early development. The family, how- ever, has been traced equally far back in Europe and North America, so that we have as yet no means of determining where it originated. FAMILY 62. HAPLOODONTILME. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEARCTIC I PAL^ARCTIC ETHIOPIAN < ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-RKGIONS. i SUB-REOIONS. SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN The genus Haploodon or Aplodontia, consists of two curious rat-like animals, inhabiting the west coast of America, from the southern part of British Columbia to the mountains of Califor- nia. They seem to have affinities both with the beavers and marmots, and Professor Lilljeborg constitutes a separate family to receive them. 3 2 . CHAP. XVII.] MAMMALIA. 237 FAMILY 63. CHINCHILLID^E. (3 Genera, 6 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REG i ONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-KEGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 The Chinchillidse, including the chinchillas and viscachas, are confined to the alpine zones of the Andes, from the boundary of Ecuador and Peru to the southern parts of Chili ; and over the Pampas, to the Kio Negro on the south, and the Eiver Uruguay on the east. Chinchilla (2 sp.), the true, chinchillas, are found in the Andes of Chili and Peru, south of 9 S. lat., and from 8,000 to 12,000 feet elevation (Plate XVI. vol. ii. p. 40) ; Lagi- dium (3 sp.), the alpine viscachas, inhabit the loftiest plateaus and mountains from 11,000 to 16,000 feet, and extend furthest north of any of the family ; while Lagostomus (1 sp.), the vis- cacha of the Pampas, has the range above indicated. The family is thus confined within the limits of a single sub-region. Extinct CJiinchillidce. Lagostomus has been found fossil in the caves of Brazil, and in the Pliocene deposits of La Plata. The only known extinct forms of this family are Ambly- rhiza and Loxomylus, found in cavern-deposits in the island of Anguilla, of Post-Pliocene age. These are very interesting, as showing the greater range of this family so recently ; though its absence from North America and Europe indicates that it is a peculiar development of the Neotropical region. FAMILY 64 OCTODONTIDJE. (8 Genera, 19 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^; ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB- REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. In A 1 a 2 238 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. The Octodontidae include a number of curious and obscure rat-like animals, mostly confined to the mountains and open plains of South America, but having a few stragglers in other parts of the world, as will be seen by our notes on the genera. The most remarkable point in their distribution is, that two genera are peculiar to the West Indian islands, while no species of the family inhabits the northern half of South America. The distribution of the genera is as follows : Habrocomus (2 sp.), Chili ; Capromys (3 sp.), two of which inhabit Cuba, the third Jamaica (Plate XVII. vol. ii. p. 67) ; Plagiodontia (1 sp.), only known from Hayti; Spalacopus, including Schizodon, (2 sp.), Chili, and east side of Southern Andes ; Octodon (3 sp.), Peru, Bolivia, and Chili ; Ctenomys (6 sp.), the tuco-tuco of the Pampas, the Campos of Brazil to Bolivia, and Tierra del Fuego ; Ctenodactylus (1 sp.), Tripoli, North Africa ; Pectinator (I sp.), East Africa, Abyssinia, 4,000 to 5,000 feet. Capromys and Plagiodontia , the two West Indian genera, were classed among the Echimyidse by Mr. Waterhouse, but Professor Lilljeborg removes them to this family. Extinct Octodontidce. Species of Ctenomys have been found in the Pliocene of La Plata, and an extinct genus Megamys, said to be allied to Capromys, in the Eocene of the same country. In Europe, Palceomys and Archceomys from the lower Miocene of Germany and France, are also said to be allied to Capromys. FAMILY 65. ECHIMYID^E. (10 Genera, 30 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL. BrB-REGlONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-RKGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 12 ' 10 The Echimyidse, or spiny rats, are a family, chiefly South American, of which the Coypu, a large beaver-like water-rat from Peru and Chili is the best known. Two of the genera are found in South Africa, but all the rest inhabit the continent of South America, East of the Andes, none being yet known north CHAP. XVIL] MAMMALIA. 239 of Panama. The genera are as follows: Dactylomys (2 sp.), Guiana and Brazil ; Cercomys (1 sp.), Central Brazil ; Lasiuromys (1 sp.), San Paulo, Brazil; Petromys (1 sp.), South Africa; Myopo- tamus (1 sp.), the coypu, on the East side of the Andes from Peru to 42 S. lat., on the West side from 33 to 48 S. lat. ; Carterodon (1 sp.), Minaes Geraes, Brazil ; Aulacodes (1. sp.), West and South Africa ; Mesomys (1 sp.), Borba on the Amazon ; EcJiimys (11 sp.), from Guiana and the Ecuadorian Andes to Paraguay ; Loncheres (10 sp.), New Granada to Brazil. Fossil and Extinct Echimyido3. The genus Carterodon was established on bones found in the Brazilian caves, and it was several years afterwards that specimens were obtained showing the animal to be a living species. Extinct species of Myopo- tamus and Loncheres have also been found in these caves, with the extinct genera Lonchophorus and Phyllomys. No remains of this family have been discovered in North America ; but in the Miocene and Upper Eocene deposits of France there are many species of an extinct genus Theridomys, which is said to be allied to this group or to the next (Cercola- bidse). Aulacodon, from the Upper Miocene of Germany, is allied to the West African Aulacodes ; and some other remains from the lower Miocene of Auvergne, are supposed to belong to Echimys. FAMILY 66. OERCOLABTD^. (3 -Genera, 13-15 Specips.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 2 3 1234 The Cercolabidse, or arboreal porcupines, are a group of rodents entirely confined to America, where they range from the northern limit of trees on the Mackenzie Eiver, to the southern limit of forests in Paraguay. There is however an intervening district, the Southern United States, from which they are absent. Ere- tliizon (3 sp.), the Canadian porcupine, is found throughout 240 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Canada and as far south as Northern Pennsylvania, and west to the Mississippi (Plate XX., vol. ii. p. 135); an allied species in- habiting the west coast from California to Alaska, and inland to the head of the Missouri Eiver ; while a third is found in the north-western part of South America ; Cercolabes (12 sp.), ranges from Mexico and Guatemala to Paraguay, on the eastern side of the Andes ; Chcetomys (1 sp.), North Brazil. Extinct Cercoldbidce. A large species of Cercolabes has been found in the Brazilian caves, 'but none have been discovered in North America or Europe. We may conclude therefore that this is probably a South American type, which lias thence spread into North America at a comparatively recent epoch. The peculiar distribution of jlefaolabes may be explained by suppos- ing it to have migrated northwards along the west coast by means of the wooded slopes of the Rocky Mountains. It could then only reach the Eastern States by way of the forest region of the great lakes, and then move southward. This it may be now doing, but it has not yet reached the Southern States of Eastern North America. FAMILY 67. HYSTEICIDJi:. (3 Genera, 12 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL*) Drymodes (2 sp.), Australia ; ( 80 ) Pyroph- thalma (2 sp.), South Europe and Palestine ; ( 801 ) Melizophilus (3 sp.), South-west Europe and North-east Africa; ( 802804 ) Sylvia = Alsecus (8 sp.), Palsearctic region to India and Ceylon, and North-east Africa ; ( 806 m ) Curruca (7 sp.), Central and South Europe, Madeira, Palestine, Central India, North-east Africa, and South Africa. 5. EUTICILLIN^E. ( 827 ) Luscinia (2 sp.), West Asia, Europe, North Africa ; ( 839 ) Cyanecula (3 sp.), Europe, North-east Africa, India, Ceylon, and China; ( 84 ) Calliope (2 sp.), North Asia, Himalayas, Central India, and China; ( 838 ) Erithacus (3 sp.), Europe, North-east Africa, Japan, and North China ; ( 828 83 837 ) Euticilla (20 sp.), Palsearctic and Oriental regions to Senegal and Abyssinia, and east to Timor ; abounds in Himalayas ; ( 829 ) Chcemarrhornis (1 sp.), Himalayas ; ( 831 832 834 ) Larvivora (10 sp.), Oriental region and Japan; ( 833 ) Notodela (3 sp.), Himalayas, Pegu, Formosa, Java; ( 835 ) Tarsiger (2 sp.), Nepal; ( 841 ) Gran- dala (1 sp.), High Himalayas of Nepal. 6. SAXICOLIN^:. ( 975 ) Copsychus (7 sp.), all Oriental region and Madagascar; ( 976 ) Kittacincla, (5 sp.), Oriental region to enumeration of the species which in his view properly belong to them, by the numbers in that work : Phylloscopus. Hypolais. 3032 3026 3033 3028 3048=3038 3029 3039 3054 = 3031 = 3036 3063 = 3047 = 3054 =3061 3042 3048 3043 3049 304 3050 3062=3047 3051 3046=2932 3052 3035 3053 2976 3056=3081 3057 3059 3060 260 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Ceylon, Andaman Islands, Formosa, and Borneo ; ( 794 ~~ 7 ") Tham- nobia (10 sp.), Ethiopian region and India to foot of Himalayas; ( 977 ) Gervasia (2 sp.), Madagascar and Seychelle Islands ; ( 845 847 ) Dromolcea (18 sp.), Africa to South Europe, Palestine, North- west India, and North China ; ( 842843 846 ) Saxicola (36 sp.), Africa, North-west India, whole Palaearctic region, migrating to Alaska and Greenland; ( 848 ^ Oreicola (5 sp.), Timor, Lombok, and Burmah; ( m ) Cercomela (6 sp.), North- east Africa to North-west India ; (s 50 ) Pratincola (15 sp.), Europe, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions to Celebes and Timor ; ( 917 ) Ephthianura (3 sp.), Aus- tralia ; ( 851 856 ) Petrceca (17 sp.), Australian region, Papua to New Zealand, Chatham and Auckland Islands, and Samoa ; ( 857 ) Miro (2 sp.), New Zealand (doubtfully placed here). 7. ACCENTORESLE. ( 771 ) CinclorliampJius (2 sp.'), Australia ; ( 86 ) Origma (1 sp.), East Australia; ( 859 ) Sialia (8 sp.), United States to Guatemala; ( 861 ) Accentor (12 sp.), Palsearctic region to Himalayas and North-west China ; ( 703 ) Orthonyx (4 sp.), East Australia and New Zealand (doubtfully placed here). The following two genera, which have been usually classed as Ampelidae, are arranged by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin in the Sylviidse : ( 1362 ) Myiadestes (8 sp.), Peru and Bolivia, along the Andes to Mexico and California, also the Antilles ; ( 1364 ) Cichlopsis (1 sp.), Brazil. FAMILY 3. TIMALIID.E. (S$ Genera, 24$ Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL SUB-HEGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REOTOVS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REHIONS. 2 4 1 .2 .3.4 1 .2.3 .4 1. The Timaliidse, or babbling thrushes, are a group of small strong-legged active birds, mostly of dull colours, which are especially characteristic of the Oriental region, in every part of which they abound, while they are much less plentiful in CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 261 Australia and Africa. The Indo-Chinese sub-region is the head quarters of the family, whence it diminishes rapidly in all directions in variety of both generic and specific forms. Viscount Walden has kindly assisted me in the determination of the limits of this family, as to which there is still much difference of opinion. The distribution of the genera here admitted is as follows ; and as the genera are widely scattered in the Hand List, reference numbers are prefixed in every case. ^1023 1026 1008^ Pomatorkmus (27sp.), the whole Oriental region (excluding Philippines), Australia and New Guinea ; ( 1027 ) Pterohinus (3 sp.), North China, East Thibet ; ( 1029 103 ) Mala- cofyrcus (9 sp.), Continental India and Ceylon, Arabia, Nubia ; ( 1031 ) Chatarrhcea (5 sp.), Abyssinia, Palestine, India, Nepal, Burmah, and Philippines ; ( 1032 ) Layardia (3 sp.), India and Cey- lon ; ( 1033 ) Acanthoptila (1 sp.), Nepal ; ( 1034 ) Cinclosoma (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; ( 1035 1036 ) Crateropus (18 sp.), all Africa, Persia ; ( 1037 ) Hypergerus (1 sp.), West Africa : ( 1038 ) Cichladusa (3 sp.), Tropical Africa ; ( 1039 ) Qarrulax (23 sp.), the Oriental region (excluding Philippines) ; ( 104 ) Janthodncla (10 sp.), Nepal, to East Thibet, Sumatra, Formosa ; ( 1041 1042 ) Gampsorhynchus (2 sp.), Himalayas ; ( 1049 ) Grammatoptila (1 sp.), North India ; ( 1043 - 1045 ) Trockalopteron (24 sp.), all India to China and Formosa ; ( 1046 ) Actinodura (4 sp.), Nepal to Burmah, 3,000 - 10,000 feet ; ( 1047 ) Pellorneum (4 sp.), Nepal to Ceylon, Tenasserim ; ( 1158 1159 ) Timalia (12 sp.), Malaya j 1 ( 116 ) Dumetia (2 sp.), Central India and Cey- lon ; ( 1162 ) Stachyris (6 sp.), Nepal to Assam, Sumatra, Formosa ; ( 1164 ) Pyctorhis (3 sp.), India to Ceylon and Burmah; ( 1165 ) Mixornis (8 sp.), Himalayas and Malaya ; ( 1167 ) Malacopteron (3 sp.), Ma- laya ; ( 1168 1169 ) Alcippe (15 sp.), Ceylon and South India, Hima- layas to Aracan, Malaya, Formosa, New Guinea ; ( 117 X Macronus (2 sp.), Malaya ; ( 1171 ) Cacopitta (5 sp.), Malaya ; ( 1172 ) Trichastoma (11 sp.), Nepal, Burmah, Malaya, Celebes; ( 1173 ) Napothera (6 sp.), Malaya ; ( 1174 ) Drymocataphus (8 sp.), Burmah, Malaya, Ceylon, 1 The term " Malaya " is used here to include the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, and Java, a district to which many species and genera are confined. " Malay Archipelago " will be used to include both Indo-Malaya and Austro-Malaya. 262 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Timor; ( 1175 ) Turdinus (5 sp.), Kha^a Hills, Malacca, Tenas- serim ; ( 1176 ) Trichixos (1 sp.), Borneo, Malacca ; ( 10(H ) Sibia (6 sp.), Nepal to Assam, Tenasserim, Formosa ; ( 1177 1178 ) Alethe (4 sp.), West Africa; ( 1178a ) Oxylabes (1 sp.), Madagascar; ( 105 ) Pso- phodes (2 sp.), South, East, and West Australia ; ( 1048 ) Turnagra (3 sp.), New Zealand. FAMILY 4. PANUKIDJE. (4 Genera, 1$ Species). GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 " This new family is adopted, at the suggestion of Professor Newton, to include some peculiax groups of Himalayan birds whose position has usually been among the Timaliidse or the Paridse, but which are now found to be allied to our Bearded Eeedling. The supposed affinity of this bird for the Tits has been long known to be erroneous, and the family Panuridse was formed for its reception (Yarrell's British Birds, 4th edit. p. 512). The genera having hitherto been widely scattered in systematic works, are referred to by the numbers of Mr. G. K. Gray's Hand List. (1901) Paradoxornis (3 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet ; ( 1904 ) Conostoma (1 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet ; ( 876 ) Suthora (8 sp.), Himalayas to North-west China, Formosa ; ( 877 ) Chlenasicus (1 sp.), Darjeeling ; (^ Panurus (1 sp.), Central and Southern Europe ; ( 1902 ) Heteromorpha (1 sp.), Nepal, 10,000 feet altitude ; Cholornis (1 sp.), Moupin in East Thibet. FAMILY 5. CINCLID^E. (| Genera, 2$ Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. -2.3- -2-4 1.2.3.4 ?4 1.2.3.4 1 CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 263 The Cinclidse consist of a number of more or less thrush-like ground-birds, of which the most remarkable are the Dippers, forming the genus Cinclus. These are curiously distributed, from the Palsearctic region as a centre, to the alpine districts of North and South America; while the three genera which are here in- cluded as somewhat allied to Cinclus, all inhabit the Oriental region. The genera which I class in this family are the following : ( 978 ) Cinclus (9 sp.), Palsearctic region to West China and For- mosa, Eocky Mountains^ and Mexico in North America, and southward to the Andes of Peru ; ( 916 ) Enicurus (9 sp.), Hima- layas to Java and West China ; ( 979 ) Eupetes (4 sp.), Indo-Malay sub-region and New Guinea ; ( 971 ) Myiophonus (5 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon, Java, South China, and Formosa. ( 981 ) Mesites (1 sp.), Madagascar, is an anomalous bird placed with Eupetes by Mr. G. E. Gray, but of very uncertain affinities. FAMILY 6. TEOGLODYTID.E. (17 Genera, 94 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALSEARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-EEGIONS. 1. 2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 - 3.4 i The Troglodytidse, or Wrens, are small birds, rather abundant and varied in the Neotropical region, with a few species scattered through the Nearctic, Palsearctic, and parts of the Oriental re- gions, and one doubtful genus in Africa. The constitution of the family is by no means well determined. The South American genera are taken from Messrs. Sclater and Salvin's Nomen- clator Avium Neotropicalium. Tesia (2 sp.), Eastern Himalayas ; Pnoepyga (6 sp.), Himalayas to East Thibet, Java; ( 716 "* 723 ) Troglodytes (15 sp.), Neotropical, Nearctic, and Palsearctic regions to the Higher Himalayas ; ( 697 ) Eimator (1 sp.), Darjeeling ; Thryothorus (13 sp.), South Brazil to Mexico, Martinique, and Nearctic region ; Thryophilus (13 sp.), Brazil to Mexico, and North-west America; Cistothorits VOL. IT. 18 264 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv- (5 sp.), Patagonia to Greenland ; Uropsila (1 sp.), Mexico ; Do- nacobius (2 sp.), Tropical America ; Campylorhynchus (18 sp.), Brazil, and Bolivia to Mexico and the Gila valley ; Cyphorhinus (5 sp.), Equatorial South America to Costa Rica ; Microcerculus (5 sp.), Brazil and Peru to Mexico ; Henicorhina (2 sp.), Peru and Guiana to Costa Kica ; Salpinctes (1 sp.), High Plains of Kocky Mountains ; Catherpes (1 sp.), Mexico and Eio Grande ; Cinnicerthia (2 sp.), Ecuador and Columbia. ( 76 ) Sylvietta (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, is placed in this family by Mr. Tristram. FAMILY 7. CHAM^IDJE. (1 Genus, 1 Species). GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARGTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The bird which forms the genus Chamcea inhabits California ; and though allied to the wrens it has certain peculiarities of struc- ture which, in the opinion of many ornithologists, require that it should be placed in a distinct family. FAMILY 8. GERTRUDE. ($ Genera, ijj Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-RKGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 4-. ft. 3.4 1.2.3.4 1-3.4 1.2 The Certhiidse, or Creepers, form a small family whose species are thinly scattered over North America from Mexico, the Palae- arctic region, parts of the Oriental region, and Australia, where they are somewhat more abundant. The distribution of the genera is as follows : Certhia (6 sp.), Nearctic and Palsearctic regions, Nepal, and Sik- hini; Salporn is (1 sp.), Central India; Tichodroma (1 sp.)j South CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 265 Europe to Abyssinia, Nepal, and North China ; Rhdbdornis (1 sp.), Philippine Islands ; Climacteris (8 sp.), Australia and New Guinea. FAMILY 9. SITTID^E. (6 Genera, 31 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3 .4 1.2.3.4 4 1.2.3.4 1.2 4 The Sittidse, or Nuthatches, are another small family of tree- creeping birds, whose distribution is very similar to that of the Certhiidae, but with a more uniform range over the Oriental region, and extending to New Zealand and Madagascar. The genera are as follows : S-itta (17 sp.), Palsearctic and Nearctic regions to South India and Mexico ; Dendrophila (2 sp.), Ceylon and India to Burmah and Malaya ; Hypherpes (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Sittella (6 sp.), Australia and New Guinea. Acanthisitta (1 sp.) and Xenicus (4 sp.), New Zealand, are placed with some doubt in this family. FAMILY 10. PAKIDJE. (14 Genera, 92 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. _ 3 __- 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 - 1.2.3.4 -2-4 The Paridas, or Tits, are very abundant in the Nearctic and Palsearctic regions ; many fine species are found in the Himalayas, but they are sparingly scattered through the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions. The genera usually admitted into this family are the following, but the position of some of them, especially of the Australian forms, is doubtful. (864 - 867 870) p arus ( g p ^ North America, from Mexico, Palaearctic, and Oriental regions, Tropical and Fouth Africa; 266 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. (868 869) Lophophanes (10 sp.), Europe, the Higher Himalayas to Sikhim, North America to Mexico ; Acredula = Orites (6 sp.), Palaearctic region; Melanochlora (2 sp.), Nepal to Sumatra; Psaltria (1 sp.), Java ; Psaltriparus (3 sp.), Guatemala to Cali- fornia, and Kocky Mountains ; Auriparus (1 sp.), Rio Grande ; (88i 882) parisoma (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; (* ^) jfigithalus (6 sp.), South-east Europe to South Africa ; ( m m ) ^githaliscus (6 sp.), Afghanistan and Himalayas to Amoy ; Cephalopyrus (1 sp.), North-west Himalayas ; Syhiparus (1 sp.), Himalayas and Central India ; Certhiparus (2 sp.), New Zealand ; (879 sso) Sphenostoma (2 sp.), East and South Australia. FAMILY 11. LIOTEICHID^E. (ft Genera, $ Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. PAL^IARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 3 4 The Liotrichidae, or Hill-Tits, are small, active, delicately- coloured birds, almost confined to the Himalayas and their ex- tension eastward to China. They are now generally admitted to form a distinct family. The genera are distributed as follows : ( 1146 ) Liothrix (3 sp.), Himalayas to China ; Siva (3 sp.), Hima- layas ; MMa (4 sp.), Himalayas and East Thibet ; Proparus (7 sp.), Nepal to East Thibet and Aracan; ( 1153 ) Pteruthius 1 (Q sp.), Himalayas to Java and West China ; ( 1155 ) Cutia (2 sp.), Nepal ; ( 1019 ) Yuhina (3 sp.), High Himalayas and Moupin ; ( i:>20 ) Ixuhis (3 sp.), Himalayas to Tenasserim ; ( 1021 ) Myzornis (1 sp.), Dar- jeeling. FAMILY 12. PHYLLOENITHIDJE. (3 Genera, 14pecies.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL/EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. CHAP. XVIIL] BIRDS. 267 The Phyllornithidse, or " Green Bulbuls," are a small group of fruit-eating birds, strictly confined to the Oriental region, and ranging over the whole of it, with the one exception of the Philip- pine Islands. The genera are : ( 1022 ) Phyllornis (12 sp.), India to Java, Ceylon, and Hainan ; (n 66 ) 2ora (4 sp.), the whole Oriental region ; ( 1163 ) Erpornis (2 sp.), Himalayas, Hainan, Formosa, and Borneo. FAMILY 13. PYCNONOTID^S. (f Genera, 1$$ Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS PAL/EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 The Pycnonotidse, Bulbuls, or fruit- thrushes, are highly charac- teristic of the Oriental region, in every part of which they abound ; less plentiful in the Ethiopian region, and extending to Palestine and Japan in the Palaearctic, and to the Moluccas in the Aus- tralian region, but absent from the intervening island of Celebes. The genera are : Microscdis (6 sp.), Burmah, the Indo-Malay Islands, and Japan ; Pycnonotus (52 sp., in many sub-genera), Palestine to South Africa, the whole Oriental region, China, and Japan ; Alcurus (1 sp.), Himalayas; Hemixus (2 sp.), Nepal, Bootan, Hainan ; Phyllastrephus (4 sp.), West and South Africa ; Hypsi- petes (20 sp.), the whole Oriental region, Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands ; Tylas (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Criniger (30 sp.), the whole Oriental region (excluding Philippines), West and South Africa, Moluccas; Ixonotus (7 sp.), West Africa; ( 1015 1017 ) Setornis (3 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo; Idle (4 sp.), Aracan and Malaya; Andropadus (9 sp.), Tropical Africa ; ( 1157 ) Lioptilus (1 sp.), South Africa. GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 14 OKIOLIDJE. (5 Genera, 40 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEABCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALJSARCTIC SUB-HEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 ft A, 1234. 1234 1 2 The Orioles, or Golden Thrushes, are a small group charac- teristic of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, migrating into the western Palsearctic region, and with some of the less typical forms in Australia. The genera are : Oriolus (24 sp.), Central Europe, throughout Africa, and the whole Oriental region, northward to Pekin, and eastward to Flores ; ( 1073 ) Analcipus (3 sp.), Himalayas, Formosa, Java and Borneo ; Mimeta (9 sp.), the Moluccas and Australia ; Sphecotheres (3 sp.), Timor and Australia. Artamia (1 sp.), Madagascar, perhaps belongs to the next family or to Laniidse. FAMILY 15. CAMPEPHAGID^E. $ Genera, !($ Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL 1 NEARCTIO SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. PAL/EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONa ORIENTAL SUB-REOIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONa I _ 1.2.3.4 1234 123-4- The Campephagidse, or Cuckoo Shrikes, (Campephaginse of the Hand List, with the addition of Cochoa) are most abundant in the Australian region (especially in the Austro-Malay sub- region) less so in the Oriental, and still less in the Ethiopian region. The genera, for the most part as adopted by Dr. Hart- laub, are (is follows : Pericrocotus (22 sp.),the whole Oriental region, extend ing north to Pekin, and east to Lombok; (1242-1244) Lanicterus (4 sp.), West and South Africa ; ( 1245 1246 ) Graucalus (25 sp.), the whole Oriental region, and eastward to Austro-Malaya, the New CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 2GO Hebrides, and Tasmania; Artamides (1 sp.), Celebes; Pteropo- docys (1 sp.), Australia ; ( 1248 125 1257 1258 ) Campephaga (16 sp.), Austro-Malaya, and New Caledonia, Philippines, the Ethiopian region ; Volvocivora (8 sp.) the Oriental region (excluding Philippines) ; Lalage (18 sp.), the whole Malay Archipelago to New Caledonia and Australia ; Symmorphus (1 sp.), Australia ; Oxynotus (2 sp.), Mauritius and Bourbon ; ( 1204 ) Cochoa (3 sp.), Himalayas, Java. The position of this last genus is doubtful. Jerdon puts it in the Liotrichidse ; Sundeval in the Sturnidse ; Bonaparte in the Dicruridae ; Professor Newton suggests the Pycnonotidse ; but it seems on the whole best placed here. FAMILY 16. DICKUKID^E. (6 Genera, 58 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-RKGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. In t% M The Dicruridae, or Drongo Shrikes (Dicruridae of the Hand List, omitting the genus Melcenornis), have nearly the same distribution as the last family, with which they are sometimes united. They are, however, most abundant and varied in the Oriental region, much less so both in the Australian and Ethio- pian regions. The distribution of the genera is as follows : Dicrurus (46 sp., in several sub-genera), has the range of the whole family, extending east to New Ireland, and one species in Australia ; Chcetorhynchus (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Bhringa (2 sp.), Himalayas to Borneo (Plate IX. vol. i. p. 339) ; ChiUa (2 sp.) Himalayas eastward to North China ; Chaptia (3 sp.), all India to Malacca and Formosa ; frena (4 sp.), Central India, Assam,, and Burmah to Borneo and the Philippine Islands. This last genus is placed by Jerdon among the Pycnonotidae, but seems to come most naturally here or in the last family. 270 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 17. MUSCICAPID^E. (44 Genera, 28^'Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-HEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 .4 The Muscicapidse, or Flycatchers (Muscicapinae and Myiagrinse of the Hand L-ist, omitting Cochoa and including Pogonocichla) form an extensive family of usually small-sized and often bright- coloured birds, very abundant in the warmer regions of the Old World and Australia, but becoming scarce as we approach the temperate and colder regions. They are wholly absent from North and South America. The genera, many of which are not well defined, are distributed as follows : Peltops (1 sp.), Papuan Islands ; Monarcha (28 sp.), Moluccas to the Carolines and Marquesas Islands, Australia and Tas- mania ; Leucophantes (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Butalis (4 sp.), Ethiopian and Palsearctic regions, Moluccas and Formosa ; Mus- cicapa (12 sp.), Europe and Africa; Muscicapula (6 sp.), India to Western China ; Alseonax (1 sp.), South Africa; Erythrosterna (7 sp,), Europe to China and Java ; Newtonia (1 sp.), Madagaacar ; Xanthopygia (2 sp.), Japan, China, Malacca ; Hemipus (1 sp.), India and Ceylon ; Pycnophrys (1 sp.), Java ; Hyliota (2 sp.), West Africa ; Erythrocercus (2 sp.), West Africa and Zambesi ; Micrceca (6 sp.), Australia, Timor, and Papuan Islands ; Artomyias (2 sp.), West Africa; Pseudobias (1 sp.), Madagascar; Hemiche- lidon (3 sp.), the Oriental region and North China ; Smithornis (2 sp.), West and South Africa ; Megdbias (1 sp.), West Africa ; Cassinia (2 sp.), West Africa; Bias, (I sp.), Tropical Africa; Niltava (3 sp.), Himalayas to West China; Cyornis (16 sp.), the whole Oriental region; Cyanoptila (1 sp.), Japan, China, Hainan; Eumyias (7 sp.), India to South China, Ceylon, and Sumatra ; (1213 and 1216) Siphia (8 sp.), North India, Formosa, Timor ; An- thipes (1 sp.), Nepal ; Seisura (5 sp.), Australia and Austro- CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 271 Malaya (excluding Celebes) ; (Myiagra, (16 sp.), Australia and Moluccas to Caroline and Samoa Islands : Hypothymis (2 sp.), Oriental region and Celebes ; Elminia (2 sp.), Tropical Africa; Muscitodus (2 sp.), Fiji Islands ; Machcerirhynchus (4 sp.), Papuan Islands and North Australia ; Platystira (12 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; Rhipidura (45 sp.), the Oriental and Australian regions to the Samoa Islands and Tasmania ; Chelidorynx (1 sp.), North India ; Myialestes* (2 sp.), India to Ceylon, China, Java, and Celebes ; Tchitrea (26 sp.), the entire Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and to North China and Japan ; Philentoma (4 sp.) Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo, and Philippine Islands ; Todopsis (6 sp.), Papuan Islands ; ( 836 ) Pogonocichla (1 sp.), South Africa ; (loci - ^Bradyornis (7 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; ( 146 ) Chasiempis (2 sp.), Sandwich Islands. FAMILY 18. PACHYCEPHALID^E. $ Genera, 62 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. N EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS, PA LJE ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB- REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. A 3>i The Pachycephalidse, or Thick-headed Shrikes (Pachycepha- linae of the Hand List omitting Colluricincla, Cracticus, and Pardalotus) are almost confined to the Australian region, a single species extending to Java and Aracan, and another (?) to Mada- gascar. The family has generally been united with the Laniidse, but most modern ornithologists consider it to be distinct. The distribution of the genera is as follows : Orececa (1 sp.), Australia; Falcunculus (2 sp.), Australia; Pachycepkala (44 sp.), Sula Islands (east of Celebes) to the Fiji Islands, and Australia ; Hylocharis (4 sp.), Timor, Celebes, Indo- Malaya, and Aracan; Calicalicus (1 sp.), Madagascar; Eopsaltria (14 sp.), Australia, New Caledonia, and the New Hebrides ; AT- tamia (4 sp.), Madagascar, may belong to this family, or to Laniidse, Oriolidae, or Artamidae, according to different authors. 2 Ve. 272 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 19. LAflinXE. (f9 Genera, 14^ Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. N EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALiEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAK SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 .4 1.2.3.4 ,1.2.3.4 1.2.3- The Laniidse, or Shrikes (Laniinae and Malaconotinse of the Hand List, and including Colluricincla), are most abundant and varied in Africa, less plentiful in the Oriental, Australian, and Palsearctic regions, with a few species in the Nearctic region as far as Mexico. The constitution of the family is, however, somewhat uncertain. The genera here admitted are : Colluricincla (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Rectes (18 sp.), Papuan Islands, North Australia, to Pelew and Fiji Islands ; (1462 - 1464 1466 1470 1471 - 1473) ^ an i m (5Q S p.), the whole Nearctic, Palsearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, one species reaching Timor, none in Madagascar ; Laniellus (1 sp.), Java ; Hypocolius (1 sp.), Abyssinia and Upper Nile ; Corvinella (1 sp.), South and West Africa ; Urnlestes (1 sp.), South and East Africa ; Tephro- dornis (4 sp.), Oriental region to Hainan and Java ; Hypodes (1 sp.), West Africa ; Fraseria (2 sp.), West Africa ; Cupliopterus (1 sp.), Princes' Island; Nilaus (1 sp.), South and West Africa ; Prionops (9 sp.), Tropical Africa; Eurocephalus (2 sp.), North, East, and South Africa, and Abyssinia ; Chaunonotus (1 sp.), West Africa ; Tanya (4 .sp.), Madagascar (Plate VI. vol. i. p. 278); Laniarius (36 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region; Telephonus (10 sp.), all Africa and South Europe; Meristes (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; Nicator (I sp.), East Africa. FAMILY 20. COKVID^E. (i Genera, X90 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-RfcGIONB. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 .2.3.4 I 1 . .? . 3 . 4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 273 The Corvidae, or Crows, Jays, &c., form an extensive and somewhat heterogeneous group, some members of which inhabit almost every part of the globe, although none of the genera are cosmopolitan. The true crows are found everywhere but in South America ; the magpies, choughs, and nutcrackers are characteristic of the Palaearctic region ; the jays are Palaearetic, Oriental, and American ; while the piping crows are peculiarly Australian. The more detailed distribution of the genera is as follows : Sub-family I. Gymnorhininae (Piping Crows). Strepera (4 sp.), and Gymnorhina^ sp.), are Australian only; Cracticus (9 sp.), ranges from New Guinea to Tasmania (this is usually put with the Shrikes, but it has more affinity with the preceding genera) ; Pityriasis (1 sp.), Borneo (an extraordinary bird of very doubtful affinities) ; Grallina (1 sp.), Australia, is put here by Sundevall, among Motacillidae, by Gould. Sub-family II. Garrulinae (Jays). Platylophus Lophocitta (4 sp.), Malaya ; Garrulus (12 sp.), Palsearctic region, China and Himalayas ; Perisoreus (2 sp.), North of Palaearctic and Nearctic regions; Cyanurus*(22 sp.), American, from Bolivia to Canada, most abundant in Central America, but absent from the Antilles ; Cyanocorax (15 sp.), La Plata to Mexico ; Calocitta, (2 sp.), Gua- temala and Mexico ; Psilorhinus (3 sp.), Costa Rica to Texas; Urocissa (6 sp.), Western Himalayas to China and Formosa ; Cissa (3 sp.), South-eastern Himalayas to Tenasserim, Ceylon, Sumatra, and Java. Sub-family III. Dendrocittinae (Tree Crows). Temnurm (3 .sp.), Cochin China, Malacca to Borneo (not Java) ; Dendro- citta (9 sp.), the Oriental region to Sumatra, Hainan, and For- mosa ; Crypsirhina (3 sp.), Pegu, Siam, and Java ; Ptilostomw (2 sp.), West, East, and South Africa. Sub-family IV. Corvinae (Crows and Magpies). Nucifraga (4 sp.), Palaearctic region to the Himalayas and North China; Pici- corvus (1 sp.), the Rocky Mountains and California ; Gymnokitta, (1 sp.), Rocky Mountains and Arizona (Plate XVIIL, Vol. II., p. 128); Pica (9 sp.), Palaearctic region, Arctic America, and California ; Cyanopica (3 sp.), Spain, North-east Asia, Japan ; ^blxrvvVi'- . @AOH.CK'.' I 274 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Streptocitta (2 sp.), Celebes ; Charitornis (1 sp.), Sula Islands ; Cormis (55 sp.), universally distributed except South America and New Zealand, but found in Guatemala and the Antilles to Porto Eico ; reaches the extreme north of Europe and Asia ; Gymnocorvus (2 sp.), Papuan Islands ; Picathartes (1 sp.), West Africa ; Corvultur (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa. Sub-family V. Fregilinse (Choughs). Fregilus (3 sp.), moun- tains and cliffs of Palaearctic region from West Europe to the Himalayas and North China, Abyssinia (Plate I., Vol. I., p. 195) ; Corcorax (1 sp.), Australia. FAMILY 21. PAEADISEID^. (19 Genera, 34 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALjEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REOIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 10 " The Paradiseidae, or " Birds of Paradise," form one of the most remarkable families of birds, unsurpassed alike for the singularity and the beauty of their plumage. Till recently the family was re- stricted to about eight species of the more typical Paradise birds, but in his splendid monograph of the group, Mr. Elliot has combined together a number of allied forms which had been doubtfully placed in several adjacent families. The various species of true Paradise birds, having ornamental plumes deve- loped from different parts of the body, are almost wholly confined to New Guinea and the adjacent Papuan Islands, one species only being found in the Moluccas and one in North Australia ; while the less typical Bower-birds, having no such developments of plumage, are most characteristic of the north and east of Australia, with a few species in New Guinea. The distribution of the genera according to Mr. Elliot's monograph is as follows : Sub-family I. Paradiseinse. Paradisea (4 sp.), Papuan Is- lands ; Manucodia (3 sp.), Papuan Islands and North Australia ; Astrapia (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Parotid (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Lophorhina (1 sp.), New Guinea; Diphyllodes (3 sp.), Papuan CHAP, xviii.] t BIRDS. 275 Islands; Xanthomelus (1 sp.), New Guinea; Cicinnurus (1 sp.), Papuan Islands ; Paradigalla (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Semioptera (1 sp.), Gilolo and Batchian. Sub-family II. Epimachinse. Epimachus (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Drepanornis (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Seleucides (1 sp.), New Gui- nea (Plate X., Vol. I., p. 414) ; Ptilorhis (4 sp.), New Guinea and North Australia. Sub-family III. Tectonarchinae (Bower-birds). Sericulus (1 sp.), Eastern Australia; Ptiloitorhynclius (1 sp.), Eastern Aus- tralia ; Chlamydodera (4 sp.), North and East Australia ; dZlu- r&dus (3 sp.), Papuan Islands and East Australia ; Amblyornis (1 sp.), New Guinea. FAMILY 22. MELIPHAGID^. (23 Genera, 190;Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-IIEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-RKGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REOIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. In <* A. (As in the Hand List, but omitting Zosterops, and slightly altering the arrangement.) The extensive group of the Meliphagidse, or Honey-suckers, is wholly Australian, for the genus Zosterops, which extends into the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, does not naturally belong to it. Several of the genera #re confined to Australia, others to New Zealand, while a few range over the whole Aus- tralian region. The genera are distributed as follows : Myzomela (18 sp.), has the widest range, extending from Ce- lebes to the Samoa Islands, and to Timor and Eastern Australia ; Entomophila (4 sp.), Australia and New Guinea; Gljtciphila (10 sp.), Australia, Timor, New Guinea, and New Caledonia; Acan- thorhynchus (2 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; Meliphaga, (1 sp.), Australia ; Ptilotis (40 sp.), Gilolo and Lombok to Australia and Tasmania, and to the Samoa and Tonga Islands ; Meliornis (5 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Prosthemadera (1 sp.), Pogonornis (1 sp.), New Zealand ; Anthornis (4 sp.), New Zealand and Chatham Islands ; Anthochcera (4 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; T Xan- - > t d . 276 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. : sp.), Papuan Islands and Australia ; Leptornis l (2 sp.), Samoa Islands and New Caledonia ; Philemon Tropidorhynciis (18 sp.), Moluccas and Lombok to New Guinea, Australia, Tas- mania, and New Caledonia ; Entomiza, (2 sp.), Australia ; Mano- rhina (5 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; Euthyrhynchus (3 sp.), New Guinea ; Mdirrhophetes (2 sp.), New Guinea ; Melidectes (1 sp.), New Guinea ; Melipotes (1 sp-), New Guinea ; Melithrep- tm (8 sp.), New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania ; ( 397 ) Moho (3 sp.), Sandwich Islands ; Chcetoptila (1 sp.), Sandwich Islands. FAMILY 23. NECTAKINIID^E. (11 Genera, GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SOB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL/EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB- REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 1 The Nectariniidse, or Sun-birds, form a rather extensive group of insectivorous honey-suckers, often adorned with brilliant me- tallic plumage, and bearing a superficial resemblance to the American humming-birds, although not in any way related to them. They abound in the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions, as far east as New Ireland, and south to Queensland, while one species inhabits the hot Jordan Valley in the Palae- arctic region. For the Eastern genera I follow Lord Walden's classification (Ibis, 1870) ; the African species not having been so carefully studied are mostly placed in one genus. The genera adopted are as follows : Promerops (1 sp,), South Africa ; Nectarinia (60 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region ; Cinnyricinclus (5 sp.), West Africa ; Neodre- panis (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Arachnecfiira (13 sp.), Palestine, all India to Hainan, the Papuan Islands, and North-east Aus- tralia ; jflthopyga (15 sp,), Himalayas arid Central India to West China, Hainan, Java, and Northern Celebes ; Nectarophila (5 sp.), Central India and Ceylon, Assam and Aracan to Java, Celebes and the Philippines ; Chalcostetka (6 sp.), Malay Peninsula to New Guinea; Anthrepfcs (1 sp.), Siam, Malay Peninsula to i.%HCl. *lHf((l,- '10. / '<- jt 1214. The Icteridse, or American hang-nests, range over the whole continent, from Patagonia and the Falkland Islands to the Arctic Circle. Only about 20 species inhabit the Nearctic region, while, as usual with exclusively American families, the larger proportion of the genera and species are found in the 282 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. tropical parts of South America. The genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin are the following : Clypeicterus (1 sp.), Upper Amazon ; Ocyalus (2 sp.), Upper Amazon to Mexico ; Ostinops (8 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia to Mexico ; Cassiculus (1 sp.), Mexico ; Cassicus (10 sp.), South Brazil and Bolivia to' Costa Eica ; Icterus (34 sp.), La Plata to the Antilles and United States; DolicJionyx (1 sp.), Paraguay to Canada; Molothrus (8 sp.), La Plata to Northern United States ; Agelceus (7 sp.), La Plata and Chili to Northern United States ; Xanthocephalus (1 sp.), Mexico to California and Canada ; Xanthosonms (4 sp.), La Plata to Venezuela; AmblyrhampJius (1 sp.), La Plata and Bolivia ; Gymnomystax (1 sp.), Amazonia and Guiana; Pseudoleistes (2 sp.), La Plata and Brazil; Leistes (3 sp.), La Plata to Venezuela ; Sturnella (5 sp.), Patagonia and Falkland Islands to Middle United States; Curceus (1 sp.), Chili ; Nesopsar (1 sp.), Jamaica ; Scolecopl^^us (2 sp.), Mexico to Arctic Circle ; Jjampropsar (4 sp.), Amazonia and Ecuador to Mexico; Quiscalus (10 sp.), Venezuela and Columbia to South and Central United States; Hypopyrrhus (1 sp.), Columbia; Aphdbus (1 sp.), Brazil and Bolivia ; Cassidix (2 sp.), Brazil to Mexico and Cuba. FAMILY 32. TANAGKIDJE. (43 Genera, 304 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALJEARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. In' o JL A The Tanagers are an extensive family of varied and beautiful fruit-eating birds, almost peculiar to the Neotropical region, only four species of a single genus (Pyranga) extending into the Eastern United States and Eocky Mountains. Southward they range to La Plata. They are especially abundant in the forest regions of South America east of the Andes, where no less than 40 out of the 43 genera occur; 23 of the genera are peculiar to this sub-region, while only 1 (Phlogothmupis) is CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 283 peculiar to Central America and Mexico, and 2 (Spindalis and Phcenicophilus) to the West Indian islands. The genera adopted by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin with their distribution will be found at Vol. II., p. 99* in our account of Neotropical Zoology. FAMILY 33. FKINGILLIDJE. (1 Genera, 509 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEARCTIC I PAL^ARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3,4 1 .2.3 .4 1.2. 3. 411. 2. 3. 411.2. 3. 41 I I The great family of the Fringillidse, or finches, is in a very un- settled state as regards their division into genera, the most di- vergent views being held by ornithologists as to the constitution and affinities of many of the groups. All the Australian finch- like birds appear to belong to the Ploceidse, so that the finches, as here constituted, are found in every region and sub-region, except the Australian region from which they are entirely absent a peculiar distribution hardly to be found in any other family of birds. Many European ornithologists separate the Emberizidse, or bun- tings, as a distinct family, but as the American genera have not been so divided I am obliged to keep them together ; but the genera usually classed as " buntings " are placed last, as a sub- family. In the following arrangement of the genera, I have done what I could to harmonize the views of the best modern writers. For convenience of reference the succession of the genera is that of the Hand List, and the numbers of the sub-genera are given whenever practicable : (1793 1795-j FringiUa (Q S p^ the whole Palaearctic region, includ- ing the Atlantic Islands ; ( 1794 ) Acanthis (3 sp.), Europe to Siberia, Persia, and North- West Himalayas; ( 1796 ) Procarduelis (1 sp.), High Himalayas and East Thibet ; ( 1797 - 1803 ) Chrysomitris (18 sp.), Neotropical and Nearctic regions, Europe, and Siberia; ( 1804 ) Metoponm (1 sp.), East Europe to North West Himalayas ; ( 1805 and 1809) Chlowspiza (9 sp.), Palsearctic region and Africa to the 284 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Cape of Good Hope ; ( 1806 ~ 1809 ) Dryospiza (14 sp.), South Europe, Palestine, Canaries, and all Africa; ( 181 ) Sycalis (18 sp.), the whole Neotropical region ; ( 18n - 1813 1816 - 1819 ) Pyrgita 1 (34 sp.), Pala3arctic and Oriental regions, and all Africa ; ( 1814 ) Montifrin- gilla (4 sp.), Palaearctic region ; ( 1815 ) Fringillauda (2 sp.), North- West Himalayas to East Thibet ; ( 182 - 1822 ) Coccothraustes (6 sp.), Palsearctic region and Nepal, Nearctic region to Mexico ; ( 1823 ) Eophona (2 sp.), China and. Japan ; ( 1824 ) Mycerobas (2 sp.), Cen- tral Asia to Persia, High Himalayas, and East Thibet; ( 1825 ) Chaunoproctus (1 sp.), Bonin Islands, south-east of Japan, (probably Palaearctic) ; ( 1826 ) G-eospiza (7 sp.) ,Galapagos Islands ; f 1827 ) Gamarhynchus (5 sp.), Galapagos Islands ; ( 1828 ) Cactornis (4 sp.), Galapagos Islands ; ( 183 - 1832 ) Phrygilus (10 sp.), Colum- bia to Fuegia and the Falkland Islands ; ( 1833 ) Xenospingus (1 sp.), Peru; ( 1834 ) Diuca (3 sp.), Peru to Chili and Patagonia; ( 1835 and 1837) Emberizoides (3 sp.), Venezuela to Paraguay ; ( 1836 ) Dona- cospiza (1 sp.), South Brazil and La Plata ; ( 1839 ) Chamceospiza (1 sp.), Mexico ; ( 1838 and 184 ) Embernagra (9 sp,), Arizona to La Plata; ( 1841 ) HcemopUla (6 sp.), Mexico to Costa Eica; ( 1842 ) Atlapetes (1 sp.), Mexico; ( 1843 ) Pyrgisoma (5 sp.), Mexico to Costa Rica; ( 1844 "* 1845 ) Pipilo (12 sp.), aU North America to Guatemala ; ( 1846 ) Junco (6 sp.), all the United States to Guate- mala; ( 1847 ) Zonotrichia (9 sp.), the whole Nearctic and Neotro- pical regions ; ( 1848 1849 ) Melospiza (7 sp.), Sitka and United States to Guatemala; ( 185 ) Spizella (7 sp.), Canada to Guatemala ; ( 1851 ) Passerella (4 sp.), the Nearctic region arid Northern Asia ; ( 1852 ) Passerculus (6 sp.), Nearctic region and to Guatemala ; ( 1853 ) Poce- cetes (1 sp.), all United States and Mexico ; ( 1854 ) Ammodromus (4 sp.), all United States to Guatemala ; ( 1855 ) Coturniculus (6 sp.), north and east of North America to Jamaica and Bolivia ; ( 1856 ) Peuccea (6 sp.), South Atlantic States and California to Mexico ; ( 1857 ) Tiaris (1 sp.), Brazil ; ( 1858 ) Volatinia (1 sp.), Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia ; ( 1859 )Cyanospiza (5 sp.), Canada to Guatemala ; (iseo i86i) Paroaria (6 sp.), Tropical South America, east of the Andes; ( 1862 ) Coryphospingus (4 sp.), Tropical South America; ( 1863 ) Haplospiza (2 sp.);. Mexico and Brazil ; ( 1864 1891 ) Phonipara (8 sp.), Mexico to Columbia, the greater Antilles ; ( 1865 ) Poospiza w. CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 285 (^13 sp.), California and South Central States to Bolivia and La Plata ; ( 424 ) Spodiornis (1 sp.), Andes of Quito ; ( 1866 1867 ) Pyrrhula (9 sp.), the whole Palsearctic region to the Azores and High Himalayas ; ( 1868 ) Orithagra (17 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, Mauritius, Syria ; ( 1869 ) Ligurnus (2 sp.), West Africa ; ( 187 1871 ) Carpodacus (18 sp.), Nearctic and Palsearctie regions to Mexico and Central India; ( 1872 - 1874 ) Erythrospiza (6 sp.), Southern parts of Palsearctic region; ( 1875 ) Uragus (2 sp.), Siberia and Japan; ( 1876 ) Cardinalis (2 sp.), South and Central States to Venezuela : ( 1877 ) Pyrrhuloxia (1 sp.), Texas and Eio Grande ; ( i878i879) Gufaaea (Q sp .), Southern United States to La Plata; (isso) Amaurospiza (2 sp.), Costa Eica and Brazil ; ( 1881 ) Hedy- meles (2 sp.), all United States to Columbia ; ( 1882 ) Pheucticus (5 sp.), Mexico to Peru and Bolivia ; ( 1883 ) Oryzoborus (6 sp.), Mexico to Ecuador and South Brazil ; ( 1884 ) Melopyrrha (1 sp.), Cuba; ( 1885 ) Loxigilla (4 sp.), AntiUes ; ( 1886 1887 ) Spermophila (44 sp.), Texas to Bolivia and Uruguay ; ( 1888 ) Catamenia(4 : sp.') ) Columbia to Bolivia; ( 1889 ) Neorhynchus (3 sp.), West Peru; ( 1892 ) Catamblyrhyncus (1 sp.), Columbia; ( 1893 ) Loxia (7 sp.), Europe to North-west India and Japan, Arctic America to Penn- sylvania, Mexico ; ( 1894 ) Pinicola (3 sp.), Arctic America, North- east Europe to the Amoor, Camaroons Mountains, West Africa; ^1895) Propyrrfrula (1 sp.), Darjeeling in the winter, ? Thibet ; ( 1896 ) Pyrrhospiza (1 sp.), Snowy Himalayas ; ( 1897 ) Hcematospiza, (1 sp.), South-east Himalayas, 5,000 - 10,000 feet ; ( 1898 1899 ) Linota (12 sp.), Europe to Central Asia, north and east of North Ame- rica ; ( 190 ) Leucosticte (7 sp.), Siberia and Thibet to Kamschatka, and from Alaska to Utah. Sub-family Einberizinse. ( 1995 ) Calamospiza (1 sp.), Arizona and Texas to Mexico ; ( 1906 ) Chondestes (2 sp.), Western, Central, and Southern States to Mexico and Nicaragua ; ( 1907 ~~ 191 ) Eu- spiza (9 sp.), Palaearctic region, India,' Burmah, and South China, South-east United States to Columbia; (iu->) Emberiza (28 sp.), the whole Palsearctic region (continental), to Central India in winter; ( 1921 ) Crubernatrix (I sp.), Paraguay and La Plata, (according to Messrs. Sclater and Salvin this comes next to Pipild) ; ( 1922 ) Fringillaria, (8 sp.), Africa and South Europe ; 286 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. (1923 1925) PlectropTianes (6 sp.), Arctic Zone to Northern Europe and North China, Arctic America, and east side of Rocky Moun- tains ; ( 1926 ) Centronix (1 sp.), Mouth of Yellowstone Eiver. FAMILY 34. PLOCEID^. (29 Genera, 252 species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-HEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-RJEGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-KEGIONS. .3.41 .2.3. 4 AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3 The Ploceidse, or Weaver-finches, are especially characteristic of the Ethiopian region, where most of the genera and nearly four-fifths of the species are found ; the remainder being pretty equally divided between the Oriental and Australian regions. Like the true finches these have never been properly studied, and it is exceedingly difficult to ascertain what genera are natural and how far those of Australia and Africa are distinct. The fol- lowing enumeration must therefore be taken as altogether ten- tative and provisional. When the genera adopted differ from those of the Hand List they will be referred to by numbers. Textor (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; ( 165 - 1654 1657 ) Hy- phantornis (32 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; ( 1655 1656 ) Sym- plectes (8 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; Malimbus (9 sp.), West Africa; ( 1659 1661 ) Ploceus (6 sp.), West and East Africa, the Orien- tal region (excluding Philippines) ; ( 166 ) Nelicurvius (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Foudia (12 sp.), Madagascar and Mascarene Islands, Tropical Africa ; ( 1663 1664 ) Sporopipes (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; ( 1665 - 1667 ) Pyromelana (14 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, Abyssinia to 10,500 feet ; PTiiletcerus (1 sp.), South Africa ; Nigrita (7 sp.), West Africa to Upper Nile ; Plocepasser (4 sp.), East and South Africa ; ( 1672 - 1674 ) Vidua (7 sp.), Tropical and South Africa (Plate V., Vol. I., p. 264) ; ( 1675 - 1677 ) Coliuspasser (9 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; Cher a (1 sp.), South Africa ; Spermospiza (2 sp.), West Africa ; Pyrenestes (6 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; ( 1682 ~ 1687 1689 1692 1693 1698 ) Estrilda (26 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, India, Burmah, and Java to Australia ; ( 1688 169 CHAP, xvni.] BIRDS. 287 169H695 1696^ Pytdia, (24 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; ( 1694 ) Hypargos (2 sp.), Mozambique and Madagascar ; ( 1697 ) EmUema (1 sp.), North-west Australia ( 1699 1712 - 1717 ) Amadina (15 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, Moluccas to Australia and the Samoa Islands ; ( 170 1701 171 ) Spermestes (8 sp.), Tropical Africa and Mada- gascar ; ( 1702 ) Amauresthes (1 sp.), East and West Africa ; ( 1703 1707 - 1709 ITU) Munia (30 sp.), Oriental region to Timor and New Guinea; ( 1704 ) Donacola(3 sp.), Australia; ( 1705 1706 ) PoepUla (6 sp.), Australia ; ( 1718 - 1721 ) Erythrura (7 sp.), Sumatra to Java, Moluccas, Timor, New Guinea, and Fiji Islands; ( 1722 ) Hypochera (3 sp.), Tropical and South Africa. FAMILY 35. STUKNID^. (29 Genera, 124%pecies.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SITE-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. RAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-RIQIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. In > A In i jt 1 o a A 10 A The Sturnidse, or Starlings, are a highly characteristic Old- World group, extending to every part of the great Eastern con- tinent and its islands, and over the Pacific Ocean to the Samoa Islands and New Zealand, yet wholly ahsent from the mainland of Australia. The family appears to be tolerably well-defined, and the following genera are generally considered to belong to it : (1558 1559 1562) Eulobes (13 sp.), the Oriental region to South-west China, Hainan, and Java, and Flores, New Guinea, arid the Solo- mon Islands in the Australian region ; Ampeliceps (1 sp.), Tenas- serim, Burmah, and Cochin China; Gymnops (1 sp.), Philippine Islands; Basilornis (2 sp.), Celebes and Ceram; Pastor (1 sp.), South-east Europe to India, Ceylon, and Burmah ; Acridotheres (7 sp.), the whole Oriental region and Celebes ; ( 1568 1569 ) Sturnia (12 sp.), the whole Oriental region, North China, Japan, and Siberia, Celebes ; Dilophus (1 sp.) South Africa ; Sturnus (6 sp.), Palsearctic region, to India and South China in winter ; Sturno- pastor (4 sp.), India to Burmah and East Java ; Creation (2 sp.), New Zealand ; Heterolocha (I sp.), New Zealand ; ( 152 ) Callwas 288 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. (2 sp.), New Zealand ; Buphaga (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Euryceros (1 sp.), Madagascar (see Plate VI., Vol. I., p. 278.) This genus and the last should perhaps form distinct families. ( 1577 ) Juida (5 sp.), Central, West, and South Africa ; ( 578 ) Lamprocolius (20 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; Cinny- ricinclus (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; OnychognatJms (2 sp.), West Africa ; ( 1581 ) Spreo (4 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; (1582 - 1586) Amydrus (7 sp.), South and East Africa, Palestine ; Aplonis (9 sp.), New Caledonia to the Tonga Islands ; ( 1587 - 1589 ) Calornis (18 sp.), the whole Malay Archipelago and eastward to the Ladrone and Samoji Islands ; ( 159 ) Enodes (1 sp.), Celebes ; Scissirostrum (1 sp.), Celebes ; ( 1592 ) Saroglossa (1 sp.), Hima- layas ; ( 1593 ) Hartlaubius (1 sp.), Madagascar ; Fregilupus (1 sp.), Bourbon, but it has recently become extinct ; ( 363 ) Falculia (1 sp)/, Madagascar. FAMILY 36. AKTAMID^E. (1 Genus, 17 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEABCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 9 Id 1 A. The Artamidse, or Swallow-shrikes, are a curious group of birds, ranging over the greater part of the Oriental and Austra- lian regions as far east as the Fiji Islands and south to Tasmania. Only a single species. inhabits India, and they are more plentiful in Australia than in any other locality. The only well-marked genus is Artamus. There are a few Madagascar birds belonging to the genus Artamia, which some ornithologists place in this family, others with the Laniidae, but which are here classed with the Oriolidae. CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 289 FAMILY 37.- AL AUDIBLE. (15 Genera, 110 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. IPAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-RKGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REO.IONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 2.3 2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2- The Alaudidse, or Larks, may be considered as exclusively belonging to the great Eastern continent, since the Nearctic, Neotropical, and Australian regions have each only a single species. They abound most in the open plains and deserts of Africa and Asia, and are especially numerous in South Africa. The genera, including those recently established by Mr. Sharpe, are as follows : Otocorys (8 sp.) % the Palaearctic region, North America and south to the Andes of Columbia, North India; ( 1928 1929 ) Alauda (17 sp.), Palsearctic region, all Africa, the Peninsula of India, and Ceylon ; ( 1931 ) Galerita (10 sp.), Central Europe to Senegal and Abyssinia, Persia, India, and North China ; ( 1932 ) Calendula (2 sp.), Abyssinia and South Africa ; ( 1933 1934 ) Calandrella (6 sp.), Europe, North Africa, India, Burmah, North China, and Mon- golia ; ( 1935 1937 ) MelanocorypTia (7 sp.), South Europe to Tartary, Abyssinia, and North-west India ; Pallasia ( 8P< 7781 ), East Asia ; ( 1938 ) Certhilauda (4 sp.), South Europe, South Africa ; Hetewcorys (* 7792 ), South Africa; ( 1939 ) Almmon (3 sp.), South-east Europe to Western India, and South Africa ; ( 194 ) Mirafra (25 sp.), the Oriental and Ethiopian regions to Australia ; ( 1941 ) Ammomanes (10 sp.), South Europe to Palestine and Central India, and to Cape Verd Islands and South Africa ; ( 1942 1943 ) Megalophonus (6 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Tephrocorys (1 sp.), South Africa ; Pyrrhulauda (9 sp.), all Africa, Canary Islands, India and Ceylon. 290 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 38. MOTACILLTD^E. (9 Genera, 80 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Motacillidae, or Wagtails and Pipits, are universally dis- tributed, but are most abundant in the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, to which the true wagtails are almost con- fined. The following genera are usually adopted, but some of them are not very well defined : Motacilla (15 sp.), ranges over the greater part of Europe, Asia, and Africa, and to Alaska in North-west America ; Budytes (10 sp.), Europe, Africa, Asia to Philippines, Moluccas, Timor, and North Australia ; Caldbates (3 sp.), South Palsearctic and Oriental regions to Java ; Nemoricola (1 sp.), Oriental region ; Anthits (30 sp.), all the great continents ; Neocorys (1 sp.), Cen- tral North America ; Coryddlla (14 sp.), South Europe to India, China, the Malay Islands, Australia, New Zealand and the Auck- land Islands ; Macronyx (5 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; Heterura (1 sp.), Himalayas. FAMILY 39. TYRANNIDJE. (71 Genera, 329 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1234 1.2.3.4 The Tyrannidae, or Tyrant Shrikes, form one of the most ex- tensive and truly characteristic American families of birds ; as they extend over the whole continent from Patagonia to the Arctic regions, and are found also in all the chief American islands the Antilles, the Galapagos, the Falkland Islands, and CHAP, xviii.j BIRDS. 291 Juan Fernandez. As the genera are all enumerated in the table, at p. 10J of this volume, I shall here confine myself to the dis- tribution of the sub-families, only referring to such genera as are of special geographical interest. Sub-family I. CONOPHAGIN^E (2 genera, 13 species). Confined to tropical South America, from Brazil and Bolivia to Guiana and Columbia. Sub-family II. T^NIOPTERIN^: (19 genera, 76 species). This group ranges from Patagonia and the Falkland Islands to the northern United States ; yet it is almost wholly South American, only 2 genera and 4 species passing north of Panama, and none inhabiting the West Indian islands. Sayornis has 3 species in North America, while Tcenioptera, Cnipolegus, Muscisaxicola, and Centrites, range south to Patagonia. Sub-family III. PLATYRHYNICHIELE (16 genera, 60 species). This sub-family is wholly Neotropical and mostly South American, only 7 of the genera passing Panama and but 3 reaching Mexico, while there are none in the West Indian islands. Only 3 genera extend south to the temperate sub-region, and one of these, Anceretes, has a species in Juan Fernandez. Sub-family IV. ELAINEIN.E (17 genera, 91 species). This sub- family is more exclusively tropical, only two genera extending south as far as Chili and La Plata, while none enter the Nearctic region. No less than 10 of the genera pass north of Panama, and one of these, Elainea, which ranges from Chili to Costa Rica, has several species in the West Indian islands. About one fourth of the species of this sub-family are found north of Panama. Sub-family V. TYRANNIN.E (17 genera, 89 species). This sub- family is that which is best represented in the Nearctic region, where 6 'genera and 24 species occur. Milvulus reaches Texas ; Tyrannus and Myiarchus range over all the United States ; Empidias, the Eastern States and California ; Contopus extends to Canada; Empidonax ranges all over North America; and Pyrocephalus reaches the Gila Yalley as well as the Galapagos Islands. No less than 5 genera of this sub-family occur in the West Indian islands. 292 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 39a. OXYKHAMPHIDJE. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-RBGIONS. NEAKCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. Q The genus Oxyrhamphus (2 sp.) which ranges from Brazil to Costa Eica, has usually been placed in the Dendrocolaptidae ; but Messrs Sclater and Salvin consider it to be the type of a distinct family group, most allied to the Tyrannidse. FAMILY 40. PIPKID^E. (15 Genera, 60 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEABCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^E ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. n ?0.-l. /. t ,i*tctct>. . 302 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IV. one-third of the total number of Passeres ; a wonderful illus- tration of the Ornithological riches of South America. Order ILPICARIJS. FAMILY 51. PICIDJE. (36 Genera, 320;Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB- REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. i .a .3.4 1.2.3.4 ,1.2.3.3 1.2.3 1 .2.3 .4 1 The Woodpeckers are very widely distributed, being only absent from the Australian region beyond Celebes and Flores. They are most abundant in the Neotropical and Oriental regions, both of which possess a number of peculiar genera ; while the other regions possess few or no peculiar forms, even the Ethiopian region having only three genera not found elsewhere. The soft- tailed 'Picunminse inhabit the tropical regions only, PicumnuS being Neotropical, Vivia and Sasia Oriental, and Verreauxia Ethiopian. Picoides, or Apternus, is an Arctic form peculiar to the Nearctic and Palaearctic regions. Celeus, Chrysoptilus, Chloro- nerpes, and some smaller genera, are Neotropical exclusively, and there are two peculiar forms in Cuba. Yungipicus, Chryso- colaptes, Hemicercus, Mulleripicus, Brachypternus, Tiga, and Micropternus, are the most important of the peculiar Oriental genera. Dendropicus and Geocolaptes are Ethiopian ; but there are no woodpeckers in Madagascar. The Palsearctic woodpeckers belong to the genera Picus which is widely distributed, Gecinus which is an Oriental form, and Dryocopus which is South American. Except Picoides, the Nearctic woodpeckers are mostly of Neotropicalgenera; but Sphyrapicus smdHylatomus arepeculiar. The geological record is, as yet, almost silent as to this family ; but remains doubtfully referred to it have been found in the Miocene of Europe and the Eocene of the United States. Yet the group is evidently one of very high antiquity, as is shown by CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 303 its extreme isolation, its great specialization of structure, its abundant generic forms, and its wide distribution. It originated, probably, in Central Asia, and passed through the Nearctic region to South America, in whose rich and varied forests it found the conditions for rapid development, and for the speciali- zation of the many generic forms now found there. A large number of genera have been established by various authors, but their limitations and affinities are not very well made out. Those which seem best established are the fol- lowing : (2107 - 2ii2) Pi cumnus (22 sp.). Tropical South America to Hon- duras; ( 2113 ) Vwia (1 sp.), Himalayas to East Thibet; ( 21U ) Sasia (2 sp.), Nepal to Java ; ( 2115 ) Vemauxia (1 sp.), West Africa ; Picoides (5 sp.), northern parts of Nearctic and Palse- arctic regions, and Mountains of East Thibet; Picus (42 sp.), the whole Palsearctic, Oriental, Nearctic, and Neotropical regions ; pi23) Hyopicus (2 sp.), Himalayas and North China ; ( 2124 ) Yungi- picus (16 sp.), Oriental region, and to Flores, Celebes, North China, and Japan ; ( 2127 2129 ) Spliyrapicus (7 sp.), Nearctic re- gion, Mexico, andJBBIvia; ( 2130 ~ 2133 2139 ) CampepMus (14 sp.), Neotropical and Nearctic regions ; Hylatomus (1 sp.), Nearctic region; ( 2137 2UO ) Dryocopus (5 sp.), Mexico to South Brazil, Central and Northern Europe ; ( 2134 ) Reinwardtipicus (1 sp.), Penang to Borneo ; ( 2135 2136 ) Venilia (2 sp.), Nepal to Borneo ; Chrysocolaptes (8 sp.), India and Indo-Malaya; Dendropicus (16 sp.), Tropical and South Africa ; Hemicercus (5 sp.), Malabar and Pegu to Malaya ; Gecinus (18 sp.), Palaearctic and Oriental re- gions to Java ; ( 2151 - 2156 ) Dendromus' (15 sp.), West and South Africa, Zanzibar, and Abyssinia ; ( 2167 2159 ) Mulleripicus (6 sp.), Malabar, Pegu, Indo-Malaya, and Celebes; Celeus (17 sp.), Para- guay to Mexico ; Nesoceleus ( S P- 8833 ) Cuba ; ( 2162 ) Chrysoptilus (9 sp.), Chili and South Brazil to Mexico ; Brachypternus (5 sp.), India, Ceylon, and China ; ( 2165 2166 ) Tiga (5 sp.), all India to Malaya ; ( 2167 ) Gecinulus (2 sp.), South-east Himalayas to Bur- mah ; Genturus (13 sp.), Nearctic Eegion to Antilles and Vene- zuela ; Chloronerpes (35 sp.), Tropical America, Hayti ; ( 2171 ) Xiphidiopicus (1 sp.), Cuba; Melanerpes (11 sp.), Brazil to 304 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Canada, Porto Eico ; Leuconerpes (1 sp.), Bolivia to North Brazil ; Colaptes (9 sp.), La Plata and Bolivia to Arctic America, Greater Antilles ; Hypoxanthus (1 sp.), Venezuela and Ecuador ; ( 2187 ) Geocolaptes (1 sp.), South Africa; Miglyptes (3 sp.), Malaya ; Micropternus (8 sp.), India and Ceylon to South China, Sumatra, and Borneo. FAMILY 52. YUNGID^E. (1 Genus, 5 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEARCTIC PAL^ARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN SrB-REGIONS. SUB-BEGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 The Wrynecks (Yunx\ which constitute this family, are small tree-creeping birds characteristic of the Palsearctic region, but extending into North and East Africa, over the greater part of the peninsula of India (but not to Ceylon), and just reaching the lower ranges of the Himalayas. There is also one species isolated in South Africa. FAMILY 53. TNDICATORID^E. (1 Genus, 12 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. N EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-KEGION3. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The Honey-guides (Indicator) constitute a small family of doubtful affinities; perhaps most nearly allied to the wood- peckers and barbets. They catch bees and sometimes kill small birds ; and some of the species are parasitical like the cuckoo. Their distribution is very interesting, as they are found in every part of the Ethiopian region, except Madagascar, and in the Oriental region only in Sikhim and Borneo, being absent from the peninsula of India which is nearest, both geographically and zoologically, to Africa. CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 305 FAMILY 54 MEGAI^EMID^E. (13 Genera, SlfSpecies.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL I AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SuB-RBGioNg. SUB-REGIONS. -2.3- 1.2.3- 1.2.3.4 The Megalaemidse, or Barbets, consist of rather small, fruit- eating birds, of heavy ungraceful shape, but adorned with the most gaudy colours, especially about the head and neck. They form a very isolated family ; their nearest allies being, perhaps, the still more isolated Toucans of South America. Barbets are found in all the tropics except Australia, but are especially characteristic of the great Equatorial forest-zone ; all the most remarkable forms being confined to Equatorial America, West Africa, and the Indo-Malay Islands. They are most abundant in the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, and in the latter are universally distributed. In the beautiful monograph of this family by the Messrs. Marshall, the barbets are divided into three sub -families, as follows : Pogonorhynchinae (3 genera, 15 sp.), which are Ethiopian except the 2 species of Tetragonops, which are Neotropical ; Megalseminse (6 genera, 45;sp.), which are Oriental and Ethio- pian ; and Capitoninae (4 genera, 18 sp.), common to the three regions. The genera are each confined to a single region. Africa possesses the largest number of peculiar forms, while the Oriental region is richest in species. This is probably a very ancient group, and its existing dis- tribution may be due to its former range over the Miocene South Palaearctic land, which we know possessed Trogons, Parrots, Apes, and Tapirs, groups which are now equally abundant in Equatorial countries. 306 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. The following is a tabular view of the genera with their distribution : Genera Ethiopian Region. Oriental Region. Neotropical Region. POGONORHYNCHINJB. Tricholaema 1 ... 1 sp. Pogonorhynchus 12 ,, Tetragonops ... 2 ,, W. Africa AU Trop. & S. Af. Peru & Costa Rica MEGALJEMIN^B. Megalsema . 29 ,, Xantholaema . 4 Xylobucco . 2 ,, Barbatula . 9 ,, Psilopogon . 1 ,, Gynmobucco . 2 ,, W. Africa Trop. & S. Africa W. Africa " The whole region The whole region Sumatra CAPITONIN^:. Trachyphonus... 5 ,, Capito 10 ,, Calorhamphus... 2 ,, Stactolaema ... 1 Trop. & S. Africa W. Africa Malay Pen., Su- matra, Borneo Equatorial Amer. to Costa Rica FAMILY 55. EHAMPHASTID^E. (5 Genera, 51 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PAL.SARCTIC ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL I AOSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-KKGIONS. -2.3- The Toucans form one of the most remarkable and charac- teristic families of the Neotropical region, to which they are strictly confined. They differ from all other birds by their long feathered tongues, their huge yet elegant bills, and the peculiar texture and coloration of their plumage. Being fruit-eaters, and strictly adapted for an arboreal life, they are not found beyond the forest regions ; but they nevertheless range from Mexico to Paraguay, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. One genus, CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 307 Andigena, is confined to the forest slopes of the South American Andes. The genera are : Eliamphastos (12 sp.), Mexico to South Brazil; Pteroglossus (16 sp.), Nicaragua to South Brazil (Plate XV. Vol. II. p. 28) ; Selenidera (7 sp.), Veragua to Brazil, east of the Andes ; Andi- gena (6 sp.), the Andes, from Columbia to Bolivia, and West Brazil ; Aulacorhamphus (10 sp.), Mexico to Peru and Bolivia. FAMILY 56. MUSOPHAGID^E. (2 Genera, 18 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^IARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. In o The Musophagidse, or Plantain-eaters and Turacos, are hand- some birds, somewhat intermediate between Toucans and Cuc- koos. They are confined to the Ethiopian region and are most abundant in West Africa. The Plantain eaters (Musophaga, 2 sp.), are confined to West Africa; the Turacos (Turacus, 16 sp., including the sub-genera Corythaix and Schizorhis) range over all Africa from Abyssinia to the Cape (Plate V. Vol. I. p. 264). FAMILY 57. COLIIDJE. (1 Genus, 7 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-HEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The Colies, consisting of the single genus Colius, are an anomalous group of small finch-like birds, occuping a position between the Picariae and Passeres, but of very doubtful affinities. Their range is nearly identical with that of the Musophagidae, but they are most abundant in South and East Africa. 308 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 58. CUCULID^E. (35 Genera, 180;Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NE ARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. PAL^; ARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 The Cuculidse, of which our well-known Cuckoo is one of the most widely distributed types, are essentially a tropical group of weak insectivorous birds, abounding in varied forms in all the warmer parts of the globe, but very scarce or only appearing as migrants in the temperate and colder zones. Many of the smaller Eastern species are adorned with the most intense golden or violet metallic lustre, while some of the larger forms have gaily-coloured bills or bare patches of bright red on the cheeks. Many of the cuckoos of the Eastern Hemisphere are parasitic, laying their eggs in other birds' nests ; and they are also remarkable for the manner in which they resemble other birds, as hawks, pheasants, or drongo-shrikes. The distribution of the Cuckoo family is rather remarkable. They abound most in the Oriental region, which produces no less than 18 genera, of which 11 are peculiar ; the Australian has 8, most of which are also Ori- ental, but 3 are peculiar, one of these being confined to Celebes and closely allied to an Oriental group ; the Ethiopian region has only 7 genera, all of which are Oriental but three, 2 of these being peculiar to Madagascar, and the other common to Madagascar and Africa. America has 11 genera, all quite distinct from those of the Eastern Hemisphere, and only three enter the Nearctic region, one species extending to Canada. Eemembering our conclusions as to the early history of the several regions, these facts enable us to indicate, with consider- able probability, the origin and mode of dispersal of the cuckoos. They were almost certainly developed in the Oriental and Palse- arctic regions, but reached the Neotropical at a very early date, where they have since been completely isolated. Africa must have long remained without cuckoos, the earliest immigration CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 309 being to Madagascar at the time of the approximation of that sub-region to Ceylon and Malaya. A later infusion of Oriental forms took place probably by way of Arabia and Persia, when those countries were more fertile and perhaps more ex- tensive. Australia has also received its cuckoos at a somewhat late date, a few having reached the Austro-Malay Islands some- what earlier. The classification of the family is somewhat unsettled. For the American genera I follow Messrs. Sclater and Salvin ; and, for those of the Old World, Mr. Sharpe's suggestive paper in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 1873, p. 600. The following is the distribution of the various genera : ( 2195 ) Phcenicophdes (1 sp.), Ceylon ; ( 2196 ) Ehamphococcyx (1 sp.), Celebes; ( 2196 ) Rhinococcyx (1 sp.), Java; ( 2196pt aud2203 ) Ehopodytes (6 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon, Hainan, and Malaya ; (aw*) p ii ococcyx (i gp^ Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo; ( 2197 ) Dasylophus (1 sp.), Philippine Islands ; ( 2198 ) Lepidogrammus (1 sp.), Philippine Islands ; ( 220 ) Zanclostomus (1 sp.), Malaya ; ( 2201 ) Ceuthmochares (2 sp.), Tropical and South Africa and Madagascar ; ( 2202 ) Taccocua (4 sp.), Himalayas to Ceylon and Malacca ; ( 2204 ) Rhinortha (1 sp.), Malacca, Sumatra, Borneo ; ( 2199 ) Carpococcyx (1 sp.), Borneo and Sumatra ; ( 222 ) Neomorphus (4sp.), Brazil to Mexico; ( 2205 2206 ) Coua (10 sp.), Madagascar; ( 2207 ) Cochlothraustes (1 sp.), Madagascar; ( 2221 ) Centropus (35 jp.), Tropical and South Africa, the whole Oriental region, Austro-Malaya and Australia ; ( 2213 ) Crotophaga (3 sp.), Brazil to Antilles and Pennsylvania ; ( 2212 ) Guira (I sp.), Brazil and Paraguay ; ( 2209 ) G-eococcyx (2 sp.), Guatemala to Texas and Cali- fornia; ( 221l )Dromococcyx(2 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; ( 221 ) Diplopterus (1 sp.), Mexico to Ecuador and Brazil ; ( 2208 ) Saurothera (4 sp.), Greater Antilles ; ( 2219 ) Hyetornis (2 sp.), Jamaica and Hayti ; ( 2215 ) Piaya (3 sp.), Mexico to West Ecuador and Brazil; ( 2218 ) Morococcyx (1 sp.), Costa Eica to Mexico ; ( 2214 ) Coccyjjfus (10 sp.), La Plata to Antilles, Mexico and Pennsylvania, Cocos Island ; ( 2227 ) Cuculus (22 sp.), Palsearctic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, to Moluccas and Australia ; ( 2229 ) Caliecthrus (1 sp.), Papuan Islands; (2230-2232) Cacomantis (15 sp.), Oriental and Australian 310 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. regions to Fiji Islands and Tasmania; (2233-223?) Chrysococcyx (16 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, the Oriental and Australian regions to New Zealand and Fiji Islands ; ( 2238 ) Surniculus (2 sp.), India, Ceylon, and Malaya ; ( 223 ?) Hierococcyx (7 sp.),the Oriental region to Amoorland and Celebes; ( 224 mi ) Coccystes (6 sp.), Tropical and South Africa, the Oriental region, excluding Philip- pines; 1 ( 2242 ) Eudynamis (8 sp.), the Oriental and Australian regions, excluding Sandwich Islands ; p 243 ) Scythrops (1 sp.), East Australia to Moluccas and North Celebes. FAMILY 59. LEPTOSOMID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SOB-REOIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The Leptosomus discolor, which constitutes this family, is a bird of very abnormal characters, having some affinities both with Cuckoos and Boilers. It is confined to Madagascar (Plate VI. Vol. T. p. 278). FAMILY 60. BUCCONID^E. (5 Genera, 43 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. XF.OTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-HEGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL 8UB-REOIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. a 3 The Bucconidse, or Puff-birds, are generally of small size and dull colours, with rather thick bodies and dense plumage. They form one of the characteristic Neotropical families, being most abundant in the great Equatorial forest plains, but extending as far north as Guatemala, though absent from the West Indian Islands. The genera are : Bucco (21 sp.), Guatemala to Paraguay, and West of the Andes in Ecuador ; Malacoptila (10 sp.), Guatemala CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 311 to Bolivia and Brazil ; Nonnula (3 sp.), Amazon and Columbia ; Monasa (7 sp.), Costa Eica to Brazil; Chelidoptera (2 sp.), Colum- bia and Guiana to Brazil. FAMILY 61. GALBULID^E. (6 Genera, 19 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. EOTROPICAL JB-REGIONS. NEAKCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS 2, o ETHIOPIAN i ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The Galbulidse, or Jacamars, are small slender birds, of gener- ally . metallic plumage ; somewhat resembling in form the Bee- paters of the Old World but less active. They have the same general Distribution as the last family, but. they do not occur west of the Equatorial Andes. The genera are : Galbula (9 sp.), Guatemala to Brazil and Bolivia; Urogalba (2 sp.), Guiana and the lower Amazon; Brachygalba (4 sp.), Venezuela to Brazil and Bolivia ; Jacamaralcyon (1 sp.), Brazil ; Jacamerops (2 sp.), Panama to the Amazon ; GalbalcyrTiynchus (1 sp.), Upper Amazon. FAMILY 62. COKACIIDJE. (3 Genera, 19 v v Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 .2 . 3. 4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 . 2 - - The Eollers are a family of insectivorous birds allied to the Bee-eaters, and are very charactei istic of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions; but one species (Coracias garrula) spreads over the Palaearctic region as far north as Sweden and the Altai mountains, while the genus Eurystomus reaches the Amoor valley, Australia, and the Solomon Islands. The distribution ot the genera is as follows : Coracias (8 sp.), the whole Ethiopian region, the Oriental VOL. II. 21 312 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. region except Indo-Malaya, the Palsearctic to the above- named limits, and the island of Celebes on the confines of the Australian region ; Eurystomus (8 sp.), West and East Africa and Madagascar, the whole Oriental region except the Peninsula of India, and the Australian as far as Australia and the Solomon Islands; Brachypteracias (possibly allied to Leptosomus .?) (4 sp.), Madagascar only, but these abnormal birds form a distinct sub-family, and according to Mr. Sharpe, three genera, Brachypteracias, Atelornis, and Gedbiastes. A most remarkable feature in the distribution of this family is the occurrence of a true roller (Coracias temminckii) in the island of Celebes, entirely cut off from the rest of the genus, which does not occur again till we reach Siam and Burmah. The curious Pseudochelidon from West Africa may perhaps belong to this family or to the Cypselidae. (Ibis. 1861, p. 321.) FAMILY 63. MEEOPID^E. (5 Genera, 34 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REG ONS. PAL^EARCTIG SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 .fi - 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Meropidae, or Bee-eaters, have nearly the same distribution as the Kollers, but they do not penetrate quite so far either into the Eastern Palsearctic or the Australian regions. The distribu- tion of the genera is as follows : Merops (21 sp.), has the range of the family, extending on the north to South Scandinavia, and east to Australia and New Guinea ; Nyctiornis (3 sp.), the Oriental region, except Ceylon and Java ; Meropogon (1 sp.), Celebes ; Meropiscus (3 sp.), West Africa; Melittophagus (6 sp.), Ethiopian region, except Madagascar. CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 313 FAMILY 64 TODIDJE. (1 Genus, 5 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.*ARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AB6TRALIAX SOB-REGIONS. - The Todies are delicate, bright-coloured, insectivorous birds, of small size, and allied to the Motmots, although externally more resembling flycatchers. They are wholly confined to the greater Antilles, the islands of Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico having each a peculiar species of Todus, while another species, said to be from Jamaica, has been recently described (Plate XVI. Vol. II. p. 67). FAMILY 65. MOMOTIR/E. (6 Genera, 17 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 2 3 The Motmots range from Mexico to Paraguay and to the west coast of Ecuador, but seem to have their head-quarters in Cen- tral America, five of the genera and eleven species occurring from Panama northwards, two of the genera not occurring in South America. The genera are as follows : Momotus (10 sp.), Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia, one species extending to Tobago, and one to Western Ecuador ; Urospatha (1 sp.), Costa Eica to the Amazon ; Baryphthengus (I sp.), Brazil and Paraguay ; Hylomanes (2 sp.), Guatemala ; Prionirhynchus (2 sp.), Guatemala to Fpper Amazon ; Eumomota (1 sp.), Hon- duras to Chiriqui. 314 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 66. TROGONLD/E. (7 Genera, 44 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARGTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-HEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIOXS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-RE(iIONS, Q 1 A. 1O A. 1O O A. The wonderfully varied and beautiful Humming-Birds are confined to the American continent, where they range from Sitka to Cape Horn, while the island of Juan Fernandez has two peculiar species. Only 6 species, belonging to 3 genera, are found in the Nearctic region, and most of these have extended their range from the south. They are excessively abundant in the forest-clad Andes from. Mexico to Chili, some species extend- ing up to the limits of perpetual snow ; but they diminish in number and variety in the plains, however luxuriant the vege- tation. In place of giving here the names and distribution of the numerous genera into which they are now divided (which will be found in the tables of the genera of the Neotropical region), it may be more useful to present a summary of their distribution in the sub-divisions of the American continent, as follows : Sub- Sub- region I. region II. (Patagonia (Tropical & 8. Andes.) S. Amer.) Genera in each Sub-region Peculiar Genera Species in each Sub-region 10 3 15 90 58 275 Sub. Sub- Nearctic region III. region IV. region. (Tropical (Antilles.) (Temp. (N. Amer.) N. Amer.) 41 8 3 14 5 100 15 6 The island of Juan Fernandez has two species, and Masafuera, an island beyond it, one ; the three forming a peculiar genus. The island of Tres Marias, about 60 miles from the west coast of Mexico, possesses a peculiar species of humming-bird, and the Bahamas two species ; but none inhabit either the Falkland Islands or the Galapagos. Like most groups which are very rich in species and in generic forms, the humming-birds are generally very local, small 322 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. generic groups being confined to limited districts ; while single mountains, valleys, or small islands, often possess species found nowhere else. It is now well ascertained that the TrochilidaB are really insectivorous birds, although they also feed largely, but probably never exclusively, on the nectar of flowers. Their nearest allies are undoubtedly the Swifts; but the wide gap that now separates them from these, as well as the wonderful variety of form and of development of plumage, that is found among them, alike point to their origin, at a very remote period, in the forests of the once insular Andes. There is perhaps no more striking contrast of the like nature, to be found, than that between the American kingfishers confined to a few closely allied forms of one Old World genus and the American hum- ming-birds with more than a hundred diversified generic forms unlike everything else upon the globe ; and we can hardly imagine any other cause for this difference, than a (compara- tively) very recent introduction in the one case, and a very high antiquity in the other. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Picarice. The very heterogeneous mass of birds forming the Order Picaria?, contains 25 families, 30 A ?" genera and 1,604' ^species. This gives about 64 species to each family, while in the Passeres the proportion is nearly double, or 111 species per family. There are, in fact, only two very large families in the Order, which happen to be the first and last in the series Picidae and Trochilidae. Two others Cuculidae and Alcedinidae are rather large ; while the rest are all small, se i ve of them consisting only of a single genus and from one to a dozen species. Only one of the families Alcedinidas is absolutely cosmopolitan, but three others are nearly so, Caprimulgidae and Cypselidae being only absent from New Zealand, and CuculidaB from the Canadian sub-region of North America. Eleven families inhabit the Old World only, while seven are confined to the New World, only one of these Trochilidae being common to the Neotropical and Nearctic regions. The Picariae are highly characteristic of tropical faunas, for CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 3*23 while no less than 15 out of the 25 families are exclusively tropical, none* are confined to, or have their chief development in, the temperate regions. They are best represented in the Ethiopian region, which possesses 17 families, 4 of which are peculiar to it; while the Oriental region has only 14 families, none of which are peculiar. The Neotropical region has also 14 families, but 6 of them are peculiar. The Australian region has $ the Palaearctic 9, and the Nearctic 6 families, but none of these are peculiar. We may see a reason for the great specialization of this tropical assemblage of birds in the Ethio- pian and Neotropical regions, in the fact of the large extent of land on both sides of the Equator which these two regions alone possess, and their extreme isolation either by sea or deserts from other regions, an isolation which we know was in both cases much greater in early Tertiary times. It is, perhaps, for a similar reason that we here find hardly any trace of the connection between Australia and South America which other groups exhibit; for that connection has most probably been effected by a former communication between the temperate southern extremities of those two continents. The most interesting and suggestive fact, is that presented by the dis- tribution of the Megalsemidee and Trogonidse over the tropics of America, Africa, and Asia. In the absence of palseonto- logical evidence as to the former history of the Megalsemidae, we are unable to say positively, whether it owes its present distribution to a former closer union between these continents in intertropical latitudes, or to a much greater northern range of the group at the period when a luxuriant sub-tropical vege- tation extended far toward the Arctic regions ; but the dis- covery of Trogon in the Miocene deposits of the South of France renders it almost certain that the latter is the true explanation in the case of both these families. The Neotropical region, owing to its enormous family of humming-birds, is by far the richest in Picariae, possessing nearly half the total number of species, and a still larger pro- portion of genera. Three families, 'the Bucerotidse, Meropidse, ,and Coraciidee are equally characteristic of the Oriental and 324 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Ethiopian regions, a few outlying species only entering the Australian or the Palaearctie regions. One family (Todidse) is confined to the West Indian Islands ; and another (Leptosoinidse) consisting of but a single species, to Madagascar ; parallel cases to the Drepanididae among the Passeres, peculiar to the Sand- wich Islands, and the Apterygidse among the Struthiones, peculiar to New Zealand. Order III.PSITTACI. The Parrots have been the subject of much difference of opinion among ornithologists, and no satisfactory arrangement of the order into families and genera has yet been reached. Professor Garrod has lately examined certain points in the anatomy of a large number of genera, and proposes to revolu- tionize the ordinary classifications. Until, however, a general examination of their whole anatomy, internal and external, has been made by some competent authority, it will be unsafe to adopt the new system, as we have as yet no guide to the com- parative value of the characters made use of. I therefore keep as much as possible to the old groups, founded on external characters, only using the indications furnished by Professor Garrod's paper, to determine the position of doubtful genera. FAMILY 76. CACATUID^. ( Genera, 35 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SrB-REGIOUa NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. In The Cacatuidae, Plyctolophidse, or Camptolophidae, as they have been variously termed, comprise all those crested parrots usually termed Cockatoos, together with one or two doubtful forms. They are very abundant in the Australian region, more espe- cially in the Austr.o-Malayan portion of it, one species inhabiting CHAP. XVIIL] BIRDS. 325 the Philippine Islands ; but they do not pass further east than the Solomon Islands and are not found in New Zealand. The distribution of the genera is as follow: Cacatua (18 sp.) ranges from the Philippine Islands, Celebes, and Lombok, to the Solomon Islands and to Tasmania ; Calopsitta (1 sp.) Australia ; Calyptorhynchus (8 sp.) is confined to Australia and Tasmania ; Microglossus (2 sp.) (perhaps a distinct family) to the Papuan district and North Australia; Licmetis (3 sp.) Australia, Solomon Islands, and (?) New Guinea ; Nasiterna (3 sp.), a minute form, the smallest of the whole order, and perhaps not belonging to this family, is only known from the Papuan and Solomon Islands. FAMILY 77. PLATYCERCID^E. (11 Genera, 57 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIOKS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL -SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1234 The Platycercidse comprise a series of large-tailed Parrots, of weak structure and gorgeous colours, with a few ground-feed- ing genera of more sober protective tints ; the whole family being confined to the Australian region. The genera are : (1996 1999 2000) pi a ty ce rcus (14 sp.), Australia, Tasmania, and Nor- folk Island; Psephotus (6 sp.), Australia; Polytelis (3 sp.), Australia ; Nymphicus (1 sp.), Australia and New Caledonia ; (2002 2003) Aprosmictus (6 sp.), Australia, Papua, Timor, and Mo- luccas; Pyrrhulopsis (3 sp.), Tonga and Fiji Islands; Cyano- mw.pTwis (14 sp.), New Zealand, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, and Society Islands ; Melopsittacus (1 sp.), Australia ; Euphema (7 sp.), Australia ; Pezoporus (1 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; Geopsittacus (I sp.), West Australia. The four last genera are ground-feeders, and are believed by Professor Garrod to be allied to the Owl-Parrot of New Zealand (Strwgops). 326 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 78. PAL^EORTSTITHID^E. (8 Genera, 65 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL | NEARCTIC ST;B-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN j ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS, AUSTRALIAN ' SUB-REGIONS. 1.2-4 I 1.2.3.4 I class here a group of birds brought together, for the most part, by geographical distribution as well as by agreement in in- ternal structure, but which is nevertheless of a very uncertain and provisional character. Palceornis (1 8 sp.), the Oriental region, Mauritius, Eodriguez, and Seychelle Islands, and a species in Tropical Africa, apparently identical with the Indian P. torquatus, and therefore considering the very ancient intercourse between the two countries, and the improbability of the species remaining unchanged if originating by natural causes most likely the progeny of domestic birds in- troduced from India. Prioniturus (3 sp.), Celebes and the Philippine Islands ; ( 2061 ) Geoffroyus (5 sp.), Bouru to Timor and the Solomon Islands ; Tanygnathus (5 sp.), Philippines, Celebes, and Moluccas to New Guinea ; Eclectus (8 sp.), Moluccas and Papuan Islands ; Psittinus (1 sp.), Tenasserim to Sumatra and Borneo ; Cyclopsitta (8 sp.), Papuan Islands, Philippines, and North-east Australia ; Loriculus (17 sp.), ranges over the whole Oriental region to Mores, the Moluccas, and the Papuan island of Mysol; but most of the species are concentrated in the district including the Philippines, Celebes, Gilolo, and Mores, there being 1 in India, 1 in South China, 1 in Ceylon, 1 in Java, 1 in Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, 3 in Celebes, 5 in the Philip- pines, and the rest in the Moluccas, Mysol, and Mores. This genus forms a transition to the next family. CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 327 FAMILY 79. TKICHOGLOSSID.E. (6 Genera, 57 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SITE-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 10 O The Trichoglossidae, or Brush-tongued Paroquets, including the Lories, are exclusively confined to the Australian region, where they extend from Celebes to the Marquesas Islands, and south to Tasmania. The genus Nanodes (= LatJiamus) has been shown by Professor Garrod to differ from Trichoglossus in the position of the carotid arteries. I therefore make it a distinct genus but do not consider that it should be placed in another family. The genera here admitted are as follows : Trichoglossus (29 sp.), ranges over the whole Austro-Malay and Australian sub-regions, and to the Society Islands ; ( 2047 ) Nanodes (1 sp.), Australia and Tasmania; Gharmosyna (1 sp.), New Guinea (Plate X. Vol. I. p. 414) ; Eos (9 sp.), Bouru and Sanguir Island north of Celebes, to the Solomon Islands, and in Puynipet Island to the north-east of New Ireland; ( 2039 204 ) Lorius (13 sp.), Bouru and the Solomon Islands ; ( 2041 2043 ) CoripMus (4 sp.), Samoa, Tonga, Society and Marquesas Islands. FAMILY 80. CONURID^E. (7 Genera, 79 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL jSUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL/EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. In *> A The Conuridaa, which consist of the Macaws and their allies, are wholly confined to America, ranging from the Straits of Magellan to South Carolina and Nebraska, with Cuba and Jamaica. Professor Garrod places Pyrrhura (which has generally VOL. II. 22 328 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. been classed as a part of the genus Conurus) in a separate family, on account of the absence of the ambiens muscle of the knee, but as we are quite ignorant of the classificational value of this character, it is better for the present to keep both as distinct genera of the same family. The genera are : Ara (15 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and Cuba; Rhyncopsitta (1 sp.), Mexico ; Henicognaihus (\. sp.), Chili ; Conurus (30 sp.), the range of the family; Pyrrhura (16 sp.), Paraguay and Bolivia to Costa Rica ; Bolborhynchus (7 sp.), La Plata, Bolivia, and West Peru, with one species in Mexico and Guatemala ; Brotogerys (9 sp.), Brazil to Mexico. FAMILY 81. P31TTACIDJE. (12 Genera, 87 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. INEARCTIC SUB-BEGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REOIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. o a >i |- IQ a A The Psittacidae comprise a somewhat heterogeneous assemblage of Parrots and Paroquets of the Neotropical and Ethiopian regions, which are combined here more for convenience than because they are believed to form a natural group. The genera Chrysotis and Pionus have no oil-gland, while Psittacula and Agapornis have lost the furcula, but neither of these characters are pro- bably of more than generic value. The genera are : Psittacus (2 sp.), West Africa ; Coracopsis (5 sp.), Madagascar, Comoro, and Seychelle Islands ; Pceocephalus (9 sp.), all Tropical and South Africa ; ( 2063 2066 ) Caica (9 sp.), Mexico to Amazonia ; Chrysotis (32 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico and the West Indian Islands ; Triclaria (1 sp.), Brazil : Deroptyus (1 sp.), Amazonia ; Pionus (9 sp.), Paraguay to Mexico ; Urochroma (7 sp.), Tro- pical South America; Psittacula (6 sp.), Brazil to Mexico; Poliopsitta (2 sp.), Madagascar and West Africa; Agapornis (4 sp.), Tropical and South Africa. CHAP. XVIII. ] BIRDS. 329 FAMILY 82. NESTOKID^E. (? 2 Genera, 6 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL NEABCTIC i PAI^EARCTIC ETHIOPIAN | ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-HEGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. The present family is formed to receive the genus Nestor (5 sp.), confined to New Zealand and Norfolk Island. Its affinities are doubtful, but it appears to have relations with the American Conuridae and the Australian Trichoglossidse. With it is placed the rare and remarkable Dasyptilus (1 sp.), of New Guinea, of which however very little is known. FAMILY S3. STRINGOPHLE. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SrB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-BEGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SOB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SOB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. This family contains only the curious owl-like nocturnal Parrot of New Zealand, Stringops habroptilus (Plate XIII. Vol .1. p. 455). An allied species is said to inhabit the Chatham Islands, if not now extinct. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Psittaci. Although the Parrots are now generally divided into several distinct families, yet they form so well marked and natural a group, and are so widely separated from all other birds, that we may best discuss their peculiarities of geographical distri- bution by treating them as a whole. By the preceding enumeration we find that there are about 38p h species of known parrots, which are divided into 52 t} genera. They are pre- eminently a tropical group, for although a few species extend a considerable distance into the temperate zone, these are 330 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. marked exceptions to the rule which limits the parrot tribe to the tropical and sut-tropical regions, roughly defined as extend- ing about 30 on each side of the equator. In America a species of Conurus reaches the straits of Magellan on the south, while another inhabits the United States, and once extended to the great lakes, although now confined to the south-eastern districts. In Africa parrots do not reach the northern tropic, owing to the desert nature of the country ; and in the south they barely reach the Orange Kiver. In India they extend to about 35 N". in the western Himalayas ; and in the Australian region, not only to New Zealand but to Macquarie Islands in 54 S., the farthest point from the equator reached by the group. But although found in all the tropical regions they are most unequally dis- tributed. Africa is poorest, possessing only 6 genera and 25 species ; the Oriental region is also very poor, having but 6 genera and v $9 species ; the Neotropical region is much richer, having 14 genera and l^l^species ; while the smallest in area and the least tropical in climate the Australian region, pos- sesses 3 v l"genera and 176 species, and it also possesses exclusively 5 of the families, Trichoglossidse, Platycercidse, Cacatuidae, Nestoridae, and Stringopidse. The portion of the earth's surface that contains the largest number of parrots in proportion to its area is, undoubtedly, the Austro-Malayan sub-region, including the islands from Celebes to the Solomon Islands. The area of these islands is probably not one-fifteenth of that of the four tropical regions, yet they contain from one-fifth to one-fourth of all the known parrots. In this area too are found many of the most remarkable forms, all the crimson lories, the great black Cockatoos, the pigmy Nasiterna, the raquet-tailed Prionitw*us, and the bareheaded Dasyptilus. The almost universal distribution of Parrots wherever the climate is sufficiently mild or uniform to furnish them with a perennial supply of food, no less than their varied details of organization, combined with a great uniformity of general type, tell us, in unmistakable language, of a very remote antiquity. The only early record of extinct parrots is, however, in the Miocene of France, where remains apparently allied to the West CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 331 African Psittacus, have been found. But the origin of so wide- spread, isolated, and. varied a group, must be far earlier than this, and not improbably dates back beyond the dawn of the Tertiary period. Some primeval forms may have entered the Australian region with the Marsupials, or not long after them ; while perhaps at a somewhat later epoch they were introduced into South America. In these two regions they have greatly nourished, while in the two other tropical regions only a few types have been found, capable of maintaining themselves, among the higher forms of mammalia, and in competition with a more varied series of birds. This seems much more probable than the supposition that so highly organized a group should have originated in the Australian region, and subsequently become so widely spread over the globe. Order IV.COLUMB^. FAMILY 84 COLUMBIDJE. (44 Genera, 355 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^IARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Columbidae, or Pigeons and Doves, are almost universally distributed, but very unequally in the different regions. Being best adapted to live in warm or temperate climates, they dimin- ish rapidly northwards, reaching about 62 N. Latitude in North America, but considerably farther in Europe. Both the Nearc- tic and Palsearctic regions are very poor in genera and species of pigeons, those of the former region being mostly allied to Neotropical, and those of the latter to Oriental and Ethiopian types. The Ethiopian region is, however, itself very poor, and several of its peculiar forms are confined to the Madagascar sub- region. The Neotropical region is very rich in peculiar genera, though but moderately so in number of species. The Oriental 332 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv region closely approaches it in both respects ; but the Austra- lian region is by far the richest, possessing nearly double the genera and species of any other region, and abounding in re- markable forms quite unlike those of any other part of the globe. The following table gives the number of genera and species in each region, and enables us readily to determine the comparative richness and isolation of each, as regards this extensive family : Regions. No. of Genera. Peculiar Genera. No. of Species. Neotropical ..... 13 9 75 Nearctic Palsearctic Ethiopian Oriental 1 Australian 5 1 7 3 ff 0. 9tf> jf * 4 37 and Cabalus (1 sp.), are peculiar to the New Zealand group. The sub-family, Heliornithinee (sometimes classed as a distinct family) consists of 2 genera, Heliornis (1 sp.), confined to the Neotropical region ; and Podica (4 sp.), the Ethiopian region ex- cluding Madagascar, and with a species (perhaps forming another genus) in Borneo. Extinct Rallidce. Remains of some species of this family have been found in the Mascarene Islands, and historical evidence shows that they have perhaps been extinct little more than a century. They belong to the genus Fulica, and to two extinct genera, Aplianapteryx and Erythromachus. The Aphanapteryx was a large bird of a reddish colour, with loose plumage, and perhaps allied to Ocydromus. Erythromachus was much smaller, of a grey-and-white colour, and is said to have lived chiefly on the eggs of the land-tortoises. (See Ibis, 1869, p. 256 ; and Proc. Zool. Soc., 1875, p. 40.) CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 353 FAMILY 100. SCOLOPACID^E. (21 Genera, 121 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALiEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB- REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 .2.4.4 1 .2.3.4 1 . id. 3 .4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 .3.4 The Scolopacidse, comprehending the Snipes, Sandpipers, Cur- lews, and allied genera, are perhaps as truly cosmopolitan as any family of birds, ranging to the extreme north and visiting the remotest islands. The genera of universal distribution are the following : Numenius (16 sp.) ; Limosa (6 sp.) ; Totanus (12 sp.) ; Trin- goides, (6 sp.) ; Himantopus (6 sp.) ; Tringa (20 sp.) ; and Galli- nago (24 sp.). Those which have a more or less restricted dis- tribution are : IUdorhynM\\ sp.), Central Asia and the Himalayas (Plate VII. Vol. I. p. 331) ; Helodromas (1 sp.), Palsearctic region and North India ; Terekia (1 sp.), East Palsearctic, wandering to India and Australia ; Eecurvirostra (6 sp.), Nearctic region to the High Andes, South Palsearctic, East and South Africa, Hin- dostan, and Australia ; Micropelfyma (1 sp.), North America to Chili ; Machetes (1 sp.), Palsearctic region and Hindostan (Plate I. Vol. I. p. 195) ; Ereunetes (3 sp.), Nearctic and Neo- tropical ; Eurinorhynchus (1 sp.), North-east Asia and Bengal ; Calidris (1 sp.), all regions but Australian ; Macrorhamphus (3 sp.), Palsearctic and Nearctic, visits Brazil and India ; Scolopax (4 sp.), the whole Palsearctic region, to India, Java, and Australia ; Philohela (1 sp.), East Nearctic ; Rhynchcea (4 sp.), Ethiopian and Oriental, Australia, and Temperate South America ; Phalaropus (3 sp.), North Temperate zone, and West Coast of America to Chili. 354 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 101. CHIONIDIDJE. fl Genus, 2 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEABCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^E ARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS* The Sheath-bills, Chionis (2 sp.), are curious white birds, whose thick bill has a horny sheath at the base. Their nearest ally is Hcematopus, a genus of Charadriidse. These birds are confined to the Antarctic Islands, especially the Falkland Islands, the Crozets,and Kerguelen's Land. FAMILY 102. THINOCORID^. (2 Genera, 6 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REOIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The Thinocoridse, or Quail-snipes, are small birds, confined to Temperate South America. They have much the appearance of Quails but are more nearly allied to Plovers. The two genera are : Attagis (4 sp.), Falkland Islands, Straits of Magellan, Chili, Bolivia, and the High Andes of Peru and Ecuador ; Thinocorus (2 sp..), La Plata, Chili, and Peru.' (Plate XVI. Vol. II. p. 40.) FAMILY 103. PARRID^E. (2 Genera, 11 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-HEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB- REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. O o 1004 1 2 3 A 1 2 CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 355 The Parridse, or Jaeanas, are remarkable long-toed birds, often of elegant plumage, frequenting swamps and marshes, and walk- ing on the floating leaves of aquatic plants. They are found in all the tropics. Parra (10 sp.), has the distribution of the family ; Hydrophasianus (1 sp.), is confined to the Oriental region. FAMILY 104. GLAREOLID^E. (3 Genera, 20 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEABCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 This family, comprising the Pratincoles and Coursers, is universally distributed over the Old World and to Australia. Glareola (9 sp.), has the distribution of the family ; Pluma- nus (1 sp.), is confined to North Africa; Cursorius (10 sp.), ranges over Africa, South Europe, and India. The position of the genus Glareola is uncertain, for though generally classed here, Prof. Lilljeborg considers it to be an aberrant form of the Caprimulgidae ! It differs, in its insecti- vorous habits and in many points of external structure, from all its allies, and should probably form a distinct family. FAMILY 105. CHAPtAlftlD^. (19 Genera, 101 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. ,4 The extensive family of the Plovers and their numerous allies, ranges over the whole globe. The genera now usually admitted into this family are the following : (Edicnemus (9 sp.), is only absent from North America; .-Esacus (2 sp.), India to Ceylon, Malay Islands, and Australia ; NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC S UB-REGIONS. PAL*:ARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-RKGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRVI SUB-REC 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.3 1.2. 356 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv Vanellus (3 sp.), Palrcarctic and Neotropical regions ; Chcetusia (15 sp.), the whole Eastern Hemisphere ; Erythrogonys (1 sp.), Australia ; Hoplopterus (10 sp.), widely scattered, but absent from North America ; Squatarola (1 sp.), all the regions ; Cha- radrius (14 sp.), cosmopolitan ; Eudromias (5 sp.), Eastern Hemi- sphere and South Temperate America ; JZgialitis (22 sp.), cos- mopolitan ; Oreophilus (I sp.), South Temperate America ; Thinornis (2 sp.), New Zealand; Anarhynchus (1 sp.), New Zealand (Plate XIII. Vol I. p. 455) ; Hcematopus (9 sp.), cos- mopolitan ; Strepsilas (2 sp.), almost cosmopolitan ; Aphriza (1 sp.), West Coast of America ; Pluvianellus (1 sp.), Straits of Magellan ; Dromas (1 sp.), India, Madagascar, and North-east Africa; Pedionomus (1 sp.), Australia. This last genus has usually been placed with the Turnicidse. FAMILY 106. OTIDID^E. (2 Genera, 26 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEAKCTIO BUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. FAL^EARCTIC j ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. I 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 - I 1 .2.3- -* The Otididse, or Bustards, occur in all parts of the Old World and Australia where there are open tracts, being only absent from Madagascar and the Malay Archipelago. Otis (2 sp.), ranges over most of the Palaearctic region ; while Eupodotis (24 sp.), has the range of the family, but is most abund- ant in the Ethiopian region, which contains three-fourths of the whole number of species. FAMILY 107. GRUID^E. (3 Genera, 16 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-BEGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.E ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3 - 1.2.3.4 1.2.3- 1.2.3- -2 CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 357 The Gruidse, or Cranes, are found in all the regions except the Neotropical. Grus (12 sp.) inhabits the southern and western United States, the whole Palsearctic region, South-east Africa, India, and Aus- tralia; Anthropoides (2'sp.), Europe, North and South Africa,and India; Balearica (2 sp.), the Ethiopian region (except Madagascar). FAMILY 108. CAKIAMID^E. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL Sl'B-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.SARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 .2 The genus Cariama (2 sp.), consists of remarkable crested birds inhabiting the mountains and open plains of Brazil and La Plata. In the British Museum Catalogue of the Birds of Prey, they are classed as aberrant Falconidae, but their anomalous characters seem to require them to be placed in a distinct family, which seems better placed among the Waders. FAMILY 109. AEAMID^E. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEAKCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALSEARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 2 3 4- The Guaraunas are birds which have somewhat the appear- ance of Herons, but which are usually classed with the Rails. They are now, however, considered to form a distinct family. The only genus, Aramus (2 sp.), inhabits the Neotropical region, from Mexico and Cuba to Central Brazil. 358 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 110. PSOPHIDXE. (1 Genus, 6 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SOB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC PUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN' SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. o ' The remarkable and beautiful birds called Trumpeters, are confined to the various parts of the Amazon valley ; and it is an interesting fact, that the range of each species appears to be bounded by some of the great rivers. Thus, Psophia crepitans inhabits the interior of Guiana as far as the south bank of the Rio Negro ; on the opposite or north bank of the Rio Negro Psophia ochroptera is found ; beyond the next great rivers, Japura and Lja, Psophia napensis occurs; on the south bank of the Amazon, west of the Madeira, we have the beautiful Psophia leucoptera ; east of the Madeira this is replaced by Psophia viridis, while near Para, beyond the Tapajoz, Xingu,and Tocan- tins, there is another species, Psophia obscura. Other species may exist in the intervening river districts ; but we have here, apparently, a case of a number of well-marked species of birds capable of flight, yet with their range in certain directions accurately defined by great rivers. (Plate XV. Vol. II. p. 28.) FAMILY 111. EURYPYGID.E. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARGTIC PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. SUB-HEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 2 .3 - The Eurypygidae, or Sun-Bitterns, are small heron-like birds with beautifully- coloured wings, which frequent the muddy and wooded river-banks of tropical America, The only genus, Eurypyga (2 sp.), ranges from Central America to Brazil. CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 359 FAMILY 112. RHETOCHETID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB- REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 4 o ' 9 The genus Rhinochetus (1 sp.), consists of a singular bird called the Kagu, which inhabits New Caledonia, an island which may be placed with almost equal propriety in our 1st, 2nd, or 3rd Australian sub-regions. It is a bird of a bluish ash-colour, with a loose plumage, partaking something of the appearance of Kail, Plover, and Heron, but with peculiarities of structure which require it to be placed in a distinct family. Its anatomy shows that its nearest allies are the South American genera, Eurypyga and Psophia. FAMILY 113. AKDEIDJE. (5 Genera, 80 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-RKGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB- REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3 .4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 The well-known Herons and Bitterns are found in every part of the globe, and everywhere closely resemble each other. Omitting the minuter sub-divisions, the genera are as follows: Ardea (60 sp.), cosmopolitan ; Botaurus (6 sp.), almost cos- mopolitan ; Tigrisoma (4 sp.), Tropical America and West Africa ; Nycticorax (9 sp.), cosmopolitan ; Cancroma (1 sp.), Tropical America. VOL. II. 24 360 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 114. PLAT ALEID^E. (6 Genera, 3(KSpecies.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-BEQIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Plataleidae, including the Spoonbills and Ibises, have been classed either with the Herons or the Storks, but have most affinity with the latter. Though not very numerous they are found over the greater part of the globe, except the colder zones and the Pacific Islands. The following is the distribu- tion of the genera : Platalea (6 sp.), all the warmer parts of the globe except the Moluccas and Pacific Islands; Ibis (2 sp.), Temperate North America and Tropical South America ; Falcinellus (2 sp.), almost cosmopolitan ; Geronticus (19 sp.), all Tropical countries and Temperate South America; Scopm (1 sp.), Tropical and South Africa; Balceniceps (1 sp.), the Upper Nile. This last genus the "Shoe-bird," or boat-billed heron, perhaps forms a distinct family. FAMILY 115. CICONIID^E. (5 Genera, 20 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3 - 3 - 1.2.3 .4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 I 1 .2 The Ciconiidae, or Storks, are mostly an Old World family, only three species inhabiting the Neotropical, and one, the Nearctic region. They are also absent from the islands of the Pacific, the Antilles, and, with one exception, from Madagascar. The genera are as follows : Ciconia (6 sp.), ranges through the Palaearctic, Ethiopian, and CHAP. XVIII.] BIRDS. 361 Oriental regions as far as Celebes, and in South America ; Mycteria (4 sp.), inhabits Africa, India, Australia, and the Neotropical region; Leptopilius (3 sp.), the Ethiopian and Oriental regions to Java ; Tantalus (5 sp.), the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Neotro- pical regions, and the South-east of North America; Anas- (2 sp.), the Ethiopian region, and India to Ceylon. FAMILY 116. PALAMEDEID^E. (2 Genera, 3 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-RKGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2 The Palamedeidae, or Screamers, are curious semi-aquatic birds of doubtful affinities, perhaps intermediate between Gal- linae and Anseres. They are peculiar to South America. The genera are: Palamedea (1 sp.), which inhabits the Amazon valley; Chauna (2 sp.), La Plata, Brazil, and Columbia. FAMILY 117. PHCENICOPTEEID^. (1 Genus, 8 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. 1 -3.4- NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. j PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. <2 1.2.3.4 The Flamingoes (Phcenicopterus) seem peculiar to the Ethio- pian and Neotropical regions, ranging from the former into India and South Europe. America has four species, inhabit- ing Chili and La Plata, the Galapagos, Mexico, and the West Indian islands ; the others range over all Africa, South Europe, India, and Ceylon. These singular birds are placed by some authors near the Spoonbills and Ibises, by others with the Geese. Professor Huxley considers them to be "completely 362 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. intermediate between the Anserine birds on the one side and the Storks and Herons on the other." The pterolysis according to Nitzsch is " completely stork-like." General Eemarks on the Distribution of the Grallce, or Wading and Running Birds. The Waders, as a rule, are birds of very wide distribution, the four largest families Kallidse, Scolopacidse, Charadriidae, and Ardeidse, being quite cosmopolitan, as are many of the genera. But there are also a number of small families of very restricted distribution, and these all occur in the two most isolated regions, the Neotropical and the Australian. The Neotropical region is by far the richest in varied forms of Waders, having representatives of no less than 15 out of the 19 families, while 7 are altogether peculiar to it. The Australian region has 11 families, with 1 peculiar. The other two tropical regions each possess 11 families, but none are peculiar. The Palsearctic region has 10, and the Nearctic 7 families. No less than three families Chionididae, Thinocoridae, and Cariamidse are confined to the Temperate regions and highlands of South America ; while four others, Aramidae, Psophiidae, Eurypygidae, and Palamedeidse, are found in Tropical America only; and these present such an array of peculiar and interesting forms as no other part of the globe can furnish. The Phcenicopteridae or Flamingoes, common to the Tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America, but absent from Australia, is the only other feature of general interest presented by the distribution of the Waders. The Order contains about 610 species, which gives about 32 species to each family, a smaller average than in the Gallinae or Accipitres, and only about one-fourth of the average number in the Passeres. This is partly due to the unusual number of very small families, and partly to the wide average range of the species, which prevents that specialization of forms that occurs in the more sedentary groups of birds. CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 363 Order IX.ANSERES. FAMILY 118. ANATID^E. (40 Genera, 18() ? ;Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEAKCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL i SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 i . a . 3 .4 1.2.3 .4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Anatidse, comprehending the Ducks, Geese, and Swans with their allies, are of such universal distribution that there is probably no part of the globe where some of them are not occasionally found. They are, however, most abundant in tem- perate and cold regions ; and, contrary to what occurs in most other families, the most beautifully-coloured species are extra- tropical, and some even arctic. The distribution of the genera is as follows : Anseranas (1 sp.), Australia ; Plectropterus (2 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Sarkidiornis (I sp.), South America, Africa, and India ; Chenalopex (1 sp.), Amazonia ; Callochen (1 sp.), South Europe, North, East, and South Africa ; Cereopsis (1 sp.), Australia ; Anser (13 sp.), Palsearctic and Nearctic regions to Central America and the Antilles ; Bernicla (12 sp.), Temperate regions of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres ; Chloepliaga (5 sp.), South Temperate America and Aleutian Islands ; Nettapus (4 sp.), Tropical Africa and Madagascar, India and Ceylon to Malaya and Australia; Cygnus (10 sp.), Temperate regions of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres-; Dendrocygna (10 sp.), Tropical and sub-tropical regions ; Tadorna (3 sp.), Palaearctic and Australian regions ; Casarca (5 sp.), Palsearctic, Oriental, Ethiopian, and Australian regions, to New Zealand ; Aix (2 sp.), Temperate North America and Eastern Asia ; Mareca (4 sp.), Palsearctic region, North America, Temperate South America, and Australia ; Dafila (3 sp.), all America and the Palsearctic region ; Anas (16 sp.), cosmopolitan ; Querg/uedula (17 sp.), 364 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. cosmopolitan ; Chaulelasmus (2 sp.), Palaearctic region and North America; Spatula (5 sp.), all Temperate regions ; Malacorhynchus (1 sp.), Australia; Cairina (1 sp.), Tropical South America; Branta (1 sp.), Palaearctic region 'and India; Fuligula (5 sp.), North Temperate regions and New Zealand ; JEthya (5 sp.), Palsearctic and Nearctic regions, India, Australia, and South Africa ; Metopiana (1 sp.), South Temperate America ; Bucephala (4 sp.), Nearctic and Palsearctic regions ; Harelda (2 sp.), North- ern Palseartic and Nearctic regions; Hymenol$imm (1 sp.),. New Zealand ; Camptoljkmus (1 sp'.), North-east of North America ; Micropterus (1 sp.), Temperate South America ; Somateria (5 sp.), Arctic and sub-arctic regions ; (Edemia (5 sp.), Nearctic and Palsearctic regions; Biziura (1 sp.), Australia; Thalassornis (1 sp.), South Africa ; Erismatura (6 sp.), all America, South- east Europe, and South Africa ; Nesonetta (1 sp.), Auckland Islands ; Merganetta (3 sp.), Andes of Columbia to Chili; Mer- gus (6 sp.), Palsearctic and Nearctic regions, Brazil, and the Auckland Islands. FAMILY 119. LAKHXE. (13 Genera, 132 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-BEGIOKS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALAEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3. 4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 .4 The Laridse, or Gulls and Terns, are true cosmopolites, in- habiting the shores and islands of every zone ; and most of the genera have also a wide range. They are therefore of little use in the study of geographical distribution. The genera are as follows : Stercw*arius (6 sp.), cosmopolitan, most abundant in cold and temperate zones ; Rhodostethia (1 sp.), North America ; Larus (60 sp.), cosmopolitan ; Xema (1 sp.), North Temperate zone ; Greagrus (1 sp.), North Pacific ; Pagophila (1 sp.), Arctic seas ; Eissa (3 sp.), Arctic and Northern seas; Sterna (36 sp.), cos- mopolitan ; Hydrochelidon (12 sp.), Tropical and Temperate zones; CHAP. XV11I.] BIRDS. 365 Gygis (1 sp.), Indian Ocean and Tropical Pacific Islands ; Anous (6 sp.), Tropical and Temperate zones ; Ncenia, (1 sp.), South Temperate America ; Ehynchops (3 sp.), Tropical America, Africa, and India. FAMILY 120. PEOCELLAKIID^. (6 Genera, 96 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-HEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3 .-4 1.2 . 3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 .4 1.2 .3.4 1.2.34 The Procellariidae, comprising the Shearwaters, Petrels, and Albatrosses, are universally distributed, but some of the genera are local. Puffinus (20 sp.), Procellaria (18 sp.), and Fulmarus (40 sp.), are cosmopolitan ; Priori (5 sp.) and Pelecanoides (3 sp.), belong to the South Temperate and Antarctic regions ; Diomedia (10 sp.), comprises the Albatrosses, which are tropical, occasionally wandering into temperate seas. FAMILY 121. PELECANID^. (6 Genera, 61 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL Sl'B-REGIUNS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2 .3.4 1.2.1 i. 4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 .3 .4 The Pelecanidse, comprising the Gannets, Pelicans, Darters, and Frigate-Birds, although universally distributed, are more abundant in tropical and temperate regions. Sula (8 sp.) and Phalacrocorax (35 sp.), are cosmopolitan ; Pelecanus (9 sp.), is tropical and temperate ; Fregetta (2 sp.) and Phaeton (3 sp.),are confined to Tropical seas; pfatus (4 sp.), to Tropical and warm Temperate zones. 366 GEOGKAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 122. SPHENISCttLE. (3 Genera, 18 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL j NEARCTIC SUB-BEGIONS. I SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. i. 2 -2-4- The Penguins are entirely confined to the Antarctic and South Temperate regions, except two species which are found on the coast of Peru and the Galapagos. They are most plentiful in the southern parts of South America, Australia, New Zealand, and most of the Antarctic islands, and one or two species are found at the Cape of Good Hope. The genera as given in the Hand List are : Spheniscits (1 sp,), South Africa and Cape Horn ; Eudyptes (15 sp.), with the range of the family ; Aptenodytes (2 sp.), Ant- arctic Islands. FAMILY 123. COLYMBID^. (1 Genus, 4 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. jt_ 11 4. ~ The Northern Divers are confined to the Arctic and North Temperate Seas. The only genus, Colymbus, has one species confined to the West Coast of North America, the others being common to the two northern continents. FAMILY 124 PODTCIPID^E. (2 Genera, 33\*Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.SARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2 .3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 367 The Grebes are universally distributed. The genera are Podiceps (26 sp.), cosmopolitan ; and Podilymbus (2 sp.), confined to North and South America. Some ornithologists group these birds with the Colymbidse. FAMILY 125. ALCIRZE. (7 Genera, 28 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. KEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 4 1 4- 1 3 4- 1 3.4 The Alcidse, comprising the Auks, Guillemots, and Puffins, are confined to the North Temperate and Arctic regions, where they represent the Penguins of the Antarctic lands. One of the most remarkable of these birds, the Great Auk, formerly abundant in* the North Atlantic, is now extinct. The genera are as follows : Alca (2 sp.), North Atlantic and Arctic seas ; Fratercula (4 sp.), Arctic and North Temperate zones; Ceratorhina (2 sp.), North Pacific ; Simorhynchus (8 sp.), North Pacific ; Brachy- rhamphus (3 sp.), North Pacific to Japan and Lower California ; Una (8 sp.), Arctic and North Temperate zones ; Mergulus (1 sp.), North Atlantic and Arctic Seas. The last three genera constitute the family Uriidae, of some ornithologists. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Anser'es. The Anseres, or Swimmers, being truly aquatic birds, possess, as might be expected, a large number of cosmopolitan families and genera. No less than 5 out of the 8 families have a world- wide distribution, and the others are characteristic either of the North or the South Temperate zones. Hence arises a pecu- liarity of distribution to be found in no other order of birds ; the Temperate being richer than the Tropical regions. The Ne- arctic and Palsearctic regions each have seven families of Anseres, two of which, the Colymbidse and Alcidse, are peculiar to them. The Ethiopian, Australian, and Neotropical regions, which all 368 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. extend into the South Temperate zone, have six families, with one peculiar to them; while the Oriental region, which is wholly tropical, possesses the five cosmopolitan families only. There are about 78 genera and 552 species of Anseres, giving 69 species to a family, a high number compared with the Waders, and due to there being only one very small family, the Colymbidae. The distribution of the Anseres, being more deter- mined by temperature than by barriers, the great regions which are so well indicated by the genera and families of most other orders of birds, hardly limit these, except in the case of the senera of Anatidse. Order X.STRUTHIONES. FAMILY 126. STRUTHIONIILE. (2 Genera, ^Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEAKCTIC I PAL*:ARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL I AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. [ SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-KEGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. | SUB-REGIONS. SUB-*EGIONS. The Ostriches consist of two genera, sometimes formed into distinct families. Struthio (2 sp.) inhabits the desert regions of North, East, and South Africa, as well as Arabia and Syria. It therefore just enters the Palsearctic region. Rhea (3 sp.) inhabits Temperate South America, from Patagonia to the confines of Brazil. FAMILY 127. CASUARIID^E. (2 Genera, 11 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-RKGION8. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 10 The Cassowaries and Emeus are confined to the Australian region. The Emeus, Dromceus (2 sp.), are found only on the CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 369 main-land of Australia (Plate XII. Vol. I. p. 441). Casuarius (9 sp.) inhabits the islands from Ceram to New Britain, with one species in North Australia ; it is most abundant in the Papuan Islands. FAMILY 128. APTERYGIDJE. (1 Genus, 4 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEABCTIC I PALJEARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN SUB-RBGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-KEGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The species of Apteryx are entirely confined to the two larger islands of New Zealand. They are supposed to have some remote affinity with Ocydromus, a genus of Eails peculiar to Australia and New Zealand ; but they undoubtedly form one of the most remarkable groups of living birds (Plate XIII. Vol. I. p. 45). Struthious Birds recently extinct. A number of sub-fossil remains of birds, mostly large and some of gigantic size, having affinities to the Apteryx and, less closely, to the Cassowaries, have been discovered in New Zealand. These are all classed by Professor Owen in the genus Dinornis and family Dinornithidce ; but Dr. Haast, from the study of the rich collections in the Canterbury (New Zealand) Museum, is convinced that they belong to two distinct families and several genera. His arrangement is as follows. (See Ibis, 1874, p. 209). FAMILY 129. DINORNITHID.E. (2 Genera, 7 Species.) Dinornis (5 sp.) ; Mxionornis (2 sp.). These had no hind toe, and include the largest species. Pro- fessor Newton thinks that they were absolutely wingless, being the only birds in which the fore limbs are entirely wanting. 370 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 130. PALAPTEEYGID^. (2 Genera, 4 Species.) Palapteryx (2 sp.) ; Euryapteryx (2 sp.). These had a well-developed hind toe, and rudimentary wings. FAMILY 131. ^EPYORNITHHLE. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) A gigantic Struthious bird (^pyornis), belonging to a distinct family, inhabited Madagascar. It was first made known by its enormous eggs, eight times the bulk of those of the ostrich, which were found in a sub- fossil condition. Considerable portions of skeletons have since been discovered, showing that these huge birds formed an altogether peculiar family of the order. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Struthiones. With the exception of the Ostrich, which has spread north- ward into the Palsearctic region, the Struthious birds, living and extinct, are confined to the Southern hemisphere, each continent having its peculiar forms. It is a remarkable fact that the two most nearly allied genera, Struthio and Rhea, should be found in Africa and South Temperate America respectively. Equally re- markable is the development of these large forms of wingless birds in Australia and the adjacent islands, and especially in New Zealand, where we have evidence which renders it probable that about 20 species recently coexisted. This points to the conclusion that New Zealand must, not long since, have formed a much more extensive land, and that the diminution of its area by subsidence has been one of the causes and perhaps the main one in bringing about the extinction of many of the larger species of these wingless birds. The wide distribution of the Struthiones may, as we have already suggested (Vol. I., p. 287.), be best explained, by sup- posing them to represent a very ancient type of bird, developed at a time when the more specialized carnivorous mammalia had CHAP, xviii.] BIRDS. 371 not come into existence, and preserved only in those areas which were long free from the incursions of such dangerous enemies. The discovery of Struthious remains in Europe in the Lower Eocene only, supports this view ; for at this time carnivora were few and of generalized type, and had probably not acquired sufficient speed and activity to enable them to exterminate powerful and quick-running terrestrial birds. It is, however, at a much more remote epoch that we may expect to find the remains of the earlier forms of this group ; while these Eocene birds may perhaps represent that ancestral wide-spread type which, when isolated in remoter continents and islands, became modified into the American and African ostriches, the Emeus and Cassowaries of Australia, the Dinornis and ^pyornis of New Zealand. 1 io CHAPTEK XIX. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES AND GENERA OF REPTILES AND AMPHIBIA. REPTILIA. Order LOPHIDIA. FAMILY 1. TYPHLOPID^E. (4 Genera, 70 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEAKCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-HEOIONS. ETHIOPIAN SOB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIOXS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 2.3 .4 -2-4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Typhlopidae, or Blind Burrowing Snakes, are widely scattered over the warmer regions of the earth, but are most abundant in the Oriental and Australian regions, and least so in the Neotropical. They are absent from the Nearctic region; and in the Palsearctic are found only in South-eastern Europe and Japan. The most extensive genus is Typhlops, comprising over 60 species, and having a range almost as extensive as the entire family. The other well characterised genera are : Typhlina (1 sp.), ranging from Penang to Java and Hong Kong ; Typhline (1 sp.), the Cape of Good Hope ; Dibamus (1 sp.), New Guinea. CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 373 FAMILY 2. TOETEICID^. (3 Genera 5 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-RKGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALjEARCTIC SUB-HEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REOIONS. -2.3- 1.2.3.4 The Tortricidse, or Short-tailed Burrowing Snakes, are a small family, one portion of which ranges from India to Cambodja, and through the Malay islands as far as Celebes and Timor ; these form the genus Cylindrophis. Another portion inhabits America, and consists of: Charina (1 sp.), found in California and British Columbia; and Tortrix (1 sp.), in Tropical!; America. We have here a case of discontinuous distribution, indicating, either very imperfect knowledge of the group, or that it is the remnant of a once extensive family, on the road to extinction. FAMILY 3. XENOPELTID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 3jt 1__ . The curious nocturnal carnivorous Snake, forming the genus Xenopeltis, and the sole representative of this family, ranges from Penang to Cambodja, and through the Malay Islands to Celebes. FAMILY 4. UEOPELTID^E. (5 Genera, 18'Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-RFGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. i PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 374 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. The Uropeltidse, or Rough-tailed Burrowing Snakes, are strictly confined to Ceylon and the adjacent parts of Southern India, and would almost alone serve to mark out our second Oriental sub-region. The genera are : RhinopJiis (7 sp.), Ceylon ; Uropeltis (1 sp.), Ceylon ; Silybura (8 sp.), Anamally Hills and Neilgherries ; Plecturus (3 sp.), Neil- gherries and Madras ; and Melanophidium (I sp.), the Wynand. FAMILY 5. CALAMAKIIDJE. (32 Genera, 75 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-BEGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SCJB-REC.IONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 - _ 2 1.2.3 - 1.2.3.4 1.2 The CalamariidsB, or Dwarf Ground Snakes, are found in all warm parts of the globe, extending north into the United States as far as British Columbia and Lake Superior; but they are absent from the Palsearctic region, with the exception of a species found in Persia. The species are in a very confused state. The best characterised genera are the following : Calamaria (20 sp.), Persia, India to Java and the Philippine Islands, Celebes, and New Guinea; Ehabdosoma (18 sp.), Mexico and South America, and also the Malay Islands as far east as Amboyna, Timor, and New Guinea; Typhlocalamus (1 sp.), Borneo ; Macrocalamus (1 sp.), India ; Aspidura (3 sp.), India and Ceylon ; Haplocerus (1 sp.), Ceylon ; Streptophorus (3 sp.), Central and South America ; with a host of others of less im- portance or ill-defined. FAMILY 6. OLIGODONTID^E. (4 Genera, 40 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^E ARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. -2.3 - -*? 4 1..2.3.4 CHAP. XIX.J REPTILES. 375 The Oligodontidae are a small family of Ground Snakes which have been separated from the Calamariidse, and, with the excep- tion of a few species, are confined to the Oriental region. The best characterised genera are : Oligodon (12 sp.), India, Ceylon, and Philippines ; a,nd,Simotes (24 sp.), India to China and Borneo. In addition to these, Achalinus is founded on a single species from Japan; and Teleolepis consists of three species from North and South America. FAMILY 7. COLUBRID^E. (50 Genera, 270 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALJSARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1 . 2.3.4 1.2.3.4 i .a. 3. 4 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Colubrine Snakes are universally distributed over the globe, and they reach the extreme northern limits of the order. They are, however, almost absent from Australia, being there represented only by a few species of Tropidonotus and Coronella in the northern and eastern districts. This great family consists of four divisions or sub-families : the Coronellinee (20 genera, 100 species), the Colubrinse (16 genera, 70 species), the Drya- dinae (7 genera, 50 species), and the Natricinse (7 genera, ,50 species). The more important genera of Colubridse are the following : Ablabes, Coronella, Ptyas, Coluber, and Tropidonotus all have a very wide distribution, but the two last are absent from South America, although Tropidonotus reaches Guatemala ; Tomodon, Xenodon, Liopis, Stenorhina, Erythrolampus, Elapoch- rus, Callirhinus, EnopJirys, and Dromicus are confined to the Neotropical region; Hypsirhynchus, Cryptodacus, Jaltris, and Coloragia, are confined to the West Indian Islands ; Chilomenis- cus, Conophis, Pituophis, and Isctifagnatlius, to North America, the latter going as far south as Guatemala ; Compsosoma, Zamenis, Zaocys, Atretium, XenochropJiys, and fferpetoreas, are peculiarly Oriental, but Zamenis extends into South Europe; YOL. II 25 376 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. LytorhynchuSy Bhamnophis, Herpetethiops, and Grayia, are Ethio- pian ; Rhinechis is peculiar to Europe ; Megablabes to Celebes, and Styporhynchus to Gilolo ; Cyclophis, is found in the Oriental re- gion, Japan, and North America ; Spilotes, in the Nearctic and Neotropical regions ; Xendaphis in the Oriental, Ethiopian, and Palaearctic regions ; Philodryas, Heterodon, and Herpetodryas in America and Madagascar, the latter genus being also found in China. FAMILY 8. HOMALOPSID^E. (24 Genera, 50 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NE ARCTIC S UB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENT VL SUB-KLGIJNS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 -3 - 3 _ -2.3.4 _2 1.2.3. 4 1.2 The Homalopsida?, or Fresh-water Snakes, have been separated from the HydridaB by Dr. Gunther, and they include some groups which have been usually classed with the Natricinse. They are especially characteristic of the Oriental region, where consi- derably more than half the genera and species are found ; next comes the Neotropical region which has 6 species ; while none of the other regions have more than 4 or 5. It is to be observed that the Ethiopian species occur in West Africa only, and mostly constitute peculiar genera, so that in this family the separation of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions is very well marked. The best characterised genera of the family are the following : Cantoria (10 sp.), ranging from Europe to Japan, the Philip- pines, and Timor, with one species in Guinea ; Hypsirhina (6 sp.), Bengal, China, and Borneo ; Fordonia (3 sp.), Eangoon to Borneo and Timor ; Homalopsis (2 sp,), Cambodja to Java ; Cerberus (2 sp.), Ceylon and Siam, the Malay Islands, New Guinea, and North Australia ; Herpeton (1 sp.), Siam ; Ferania (1 sp.), Bengal to Penang ; Pythonopsis (1 sp.), Borneo ; Myron (2 sp.), India and North Australia ; Homalophis (1 sp.), Borneo ; Hipistes (1 sp.), Penang; Xenodermus (1 sp.), Java; Neustero- phis and Limnophis, with one species each, are peculiar to West CHAP. XIX.] KEPTILES. 377 Africa ; Helicops (2 sp.), North and South America ; Farancia and Dimodes, with one species each, are from New Orleans ; and a few others imperfectly known from Tropical America. FAMILY 9. PSAMMOPHIR ETHIOPIAN j ORIENTAL I AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-BEOIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SOB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. The single species of Trogonophis, forming this family, is found only in North Africa. FAMILY 27. CHIROTULE. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. XEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC BUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-RKGIONS. ORIENTAL SOB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. _ a Chirotes, the genus which constitutes this family, inhabits Mexico, and has also been found in Missouri, one of the Southern United States. FAMILY 28. AMPHISB^NID^. (1 Genus, 13 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEABGTIC SOB-REGIONS. PAL^IARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. In 4 f% CHAP. KEPTILES. 389 The Amphisbaenidae, which, in the opinion of Dr. Giinther, are all comprised in the genus Amphisbcena, inhabit Spain and Asia Minor, North and Tropical Africa, South America as far as Buenos-Ayres and the West Indian Islands. FAMILY 29. LEPIDOSTEKNID^E. (3 Genera, 6 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAH SUB-REGIONS. 1 .2 2.3- The small family of Lepidosternidse has nearly the same distribution as the last, indicating a curious relationship between the Tropical parts of Africa and America. Lepidosternon and Cephalopeltis are American genera, while Monotrophis is African. FAMILY 30. VAEANID^E. (3 Genera, 3Cf 'Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL/EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAI, SUB-REGIONS. AOSTRALIAK SUB-REGIONS. _2 1.2.3- 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Varanidae, or Water Lizards, are most abundant in the Oriental region, whence they extend into the Austro-Malay Islands as far as New Guinea, and into Australia. Several species are found in Africa. Psammosaurus (1 sp.), is found in North Africa and North-western India ; Monitor (18 sp.), has the range of the family ; while ffydrosaurus (8 sp.) ranges from Siam to the Philippines, New Guinea, and Australia. 390 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 31. HELODEKMIDJS. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. P A L^E ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB- REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The genus Heloderma, which constitutes this family, is found in Mexico. FAMILY 32. TEIM1. (12 Genera, 74 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-BEGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 123 The Teidae, or Teguexins a group of Lizards allied to the European Lacertidae, but with differently formed superciliary scales are highly characteristic of the Neotropical region, abounding almost everywhere from Patagonia to the Antilles and Mexico, and extending northwards to California on the west and to Pennsylvania on the east. The most extensive genus is Ameiva, containing nearly 60 species and having the range of the entire family ; Teius (3 sp.), inhabits Brazil and Mendoza ; Callopistes (2 sp.), Chili ; Centropyx (3 sp.), Paraguay to Alabama ; Dicrodon (Peru); Monoplocus (Western Ecuador) 1 ; with Acrantus, Acanthopyga, Emminia, Crocodilurus, Custa, and Ada, which each consist of a single species, and all inhabit Tropical America. FAMILY 33. LACERTIDAE. (1$ Genera, 8JS Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PALARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3- 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 The Geckoes, or Wall-Lizards, form an extensive family, of almost universal distribution in the warmer parts of the globe ; and they must have some exceptional means of dispersal, since they are found in many of the most remote islands of the great oceans, as the Galapagos, the Sandwich Islands, Tahiti, New Zealand, the Loo-Choo and the Seychelle Islands, the Nicobar Islands, Mauritius, Ascension, Madeira, and many others. The following are the larger and more important genera : Oedura (3 sp.), Australia ; Diplodactylus (8 sp)., Australia, South Africa, and California; Phyllodactylus (8 sp.), widely scattered in Tropical America, California, Madagascar, and Queensland ; Hemidactylus (40 sp.), all tropical and warm countries; Peropus (12 sp.), the Oriental region, Papuan Islands, Mauritius, and Brazil ; Pentadactylus (7 sp.), Oriental region and Australia; Gecko (12 sp.), Oriental region to New Guinea and 400 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. North Australia ; G-ehyra (5 sp.), Australia, New Guinea, and Fiji Islands ; Tarentola (7 sp.), North Africa, North America, Madeira, Borneo, South Africa ; Phelsuma (6 sp.), Madagas- car, Bourbon, and Andaman Islands; PacJiydactylus (5 sp,), South and West Africa, and Ascension Island ; Sphcerodactyhis (5 sp.), the Neotropical region ; Naultinus, (6 sp.), New Zealand ; Goniodactylus (5 sp.), Australia, Timor, South America, and Algiers ; Heteronota (4 sp.), Australia, Fiji Islands, New Guinea, and Borneo ; Oubina (4 sp.), the Neotropical region ; Gymno- dactylus (16 sp.), all warm countries except Australia; Phyllurus (3 sp.), Australia ; Stenodactylus (4 sp.), North and West Africa, and Eio Grande in North America. The remaining genera mostly consist of single species, and are pretty equally distributed over the various parts of the world indicated in the preceding list. Madagascar, the Seychelle Islands, Chili, the Sandwich Islands, South Africa, Tahiti, the Philippine Islands, New Caledonia, and Australia all have peculiar genera, while two new ones have recently been described from Persia. FAMILY 50. IGUANIDJE. (56 Genera, 236 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.SAKCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB- REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 10 <> 4. In a The extensive family of the Iguanas is highly characteristic of the Neotropical region, in every part of which the species abound, even as far as nearly 50 South Latitude in Patagonia. They also extend northwards into the warmer parts of the Nearctic region, as far as California, British Columbia, and Kansas on the west, and to 43 North Latitude in the Eastern States. A distinct genus occurs in the Fiji Islands, and one has been described as from Australia, and another from Madagascar, but there is some doubt about these. The most extensive genera are : Anolius (84 sp.), found in most, parts of Tropical America and CHAP, xix.] REPTILES. 401 north to California ; Tropidolepis (15 sp.), which has nearly the same range; Leiocephalus (1-t sp.), Antilles, Guayaquil, and Galapagos Islands ; Leiolcemus (14 sp.), Peru to Patagonia ; Sceloporus (9 sp.), from Brazil to California and British Columbia, and on the east to Florida ; Proctotretus (6 sp.), Chili and Pata- gonia ; PJirynosoma (8 sp.), New Mexico, California, Oregon and British Columbia, Arkansas and Florida; Iguana (5 sp.), Antilles and South America; Cychfea (4 sp.), Antilles, Hon- duras, and Mexico. Among the host of smaller genera may be noted : Brachylophus, found in the Fiji Islands ; TrachycepJialus and Oreocephalus, peculiar to the Galapagos ; Oreodeira, said to be from Australia ; Diplolcemus and Phymaturus, found only in Chili and Patagonia; and Callisaurus, Uta, Enphryne, Uma, and Hol- brookia, from New Mexico and California. All the other genera are from various parts of Tropical America. o 1 FAMILY 51. AGAMID^E. (42 Genera, 156 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARGTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. -2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3- The extensive family Agamidse the Eastern representative of the Iguanas is highly characteristic of the Oriental region, which possesses about half the known genera and species. Of the remainder, the greater part inhabit the Australian region ; others range over the deserts of Central and Western Asia and Northern Africa, as far as Greece and South Eussia. One genus extends through Africa to the Cape of Good Hope, and there are three peculiar genera in Madagascar, but the family is very poorly represented in the Ethiopian region. Many of these creatures are adorned with beautifully varied and vivid colours, and the little " dragons " or flying-lizards are among the most interesting forms in the entire order. The larger genera are distributed as follows : 402 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Draco (18 sp.), the Oriental region, excluding Ceylon; Otocryptis (4 sp.), Ceylon, North India, Malaya ; Ceratophora (3 sp.), Ceylon ; Gonyocephalus (8 sp.), Papuan Islands, Java, Borneo, Pelew Islands ; Dilophyrus (7 sp.), Indo-Malaya and Siain ; Japalura (6 sp.), Himalayas, Borneo, Formosa, and Loo Choo Islands ; Sitana (2 sp.), Central and South India and Ceylon ; Bronchocela (3 sp.), Indo-Malaya, Cambodja, and Celebes ; Calotes (12 sp.), Continental India to China, Philippine Islands ; Oriocalotes (2 sp.), Himalayas ; Acanthosaura (5 sp.), Malacca and Siam; Tiaris (3 sp.), Andaman Islands, Borneo, Philip- pine and Papuan Islands; Physignathus (3 sp.), Cochin-China and Australia; Uromastix (5 sp.), South Eussia, North Africa, Central India ; Stellio (5 sp.), Caucasus and Greece to Arabia, High Himalayas and Central India ; Trapelus (5 sp.), Tartary, Egypt, and Afghanistan ; Phrynocephalus (10 sp.), Tartary and Mongolia, Persia and Afghanistan ; Lophura (2 sp.), Amboyna and Pelew -Islands; Grammatophorus (14 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; Agama (14 sp.), North Africa to the Punjaub, South Africa. The remaining genera each consist of a single species. Eight are peculiar to Australia, one to the Fiji Islands, one to the Aru Islands, .three to Ceylon, five to other parts of the Oriental region, one to Persia, and one to South Eussia. FAMILY 52. CHAM^ELEONID^E. (1 Genus, 30 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIOMS. ORIENTAL SUB T REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. -* 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Chamseleons are an almost exclusively Ethiopian group, only one species, the common Chamseleon, inhabiting North Africa and Western Asia as far as Central India and Ceylon. They abound all over Africa, and peculiar species are found in Madagascar and Bourbon, as well as in the Island of Fer- nando Po. CHAP, xix.] REPTILES. 403 General Remarks on the Distribution of the Lacertilia. The distribution of the Lacertilia is, in many particulars, strikingly opposed to that of the Ophidia. The Oriental, instead of being the richest is one of the poorest regions, both in the number of families and in the number of peculiar genera it contains ; while in both these respects the Neotropical is by far the richest. The distribution of the families is as follows : The Nearctic region has 7 families, lione of which x are peculiar to it; but it has $ ( peculiar gQUQi&-^hirotes } Ophisaurus, and Phrynosoma. The Palaearctic region has 12 families, with two (Ophio- moridae and Trogonophidae, each consisting of a single species) peculiar; while it has ^ peculiar or very characteristic genera" Trogonophis in North Africa, Psammodromus in South Europe, Hyalosaurus in North Africa, Scincus in North Africa and Arabia, Ophiomorus in East Europe and North Africa, and Phrynocephalus in Siberia, Tartary, and Afghanistan. We have here a striking amount of diversity between the Nearctic and Palaearctic regions with hardly a single point of resemblance. The Ethiopian region has 13 families, only one of which (the Chamaesauridse, consisting of a single species) is altogether pecu- liar; but it possesses 21^ peculiar or characteristic genera, 9 belonging to the Zonuridae, A 2 !> to the Sepidae, 7 to the Geckotidae, and ^3 to the Agamidae. The Oriental region has only 8 families, none of which are peculiar ; but there are 28 ^peculiar genera, 6 belonging to the Scincidae, 1 to the Acontiadae, 5 to the Geckotidae, and 16 to the Agamidae. Many lizards being sand and desert-haunters, it is not surprising that a number of forms are common to the border- lands of the Oriental and Ethiopian regions ; yet the Sepidae, so abundant in all Africa, do not range to the peninsula of India ; and the equally Ethiopian Zonuridae have only one Oriental species, found, not in the peninsula but in the Khasya Hills. The Acon- tiadae alone offer some analogy to the distribution of the Lemurs, being found in Africa, Madagascar, Ceylon, and the Moluccas. The Australian region has 11 families, 3 of which are pecu- 404 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. tj liar ; and it has about 40 peculiar genera in Jen families, about half of these genera belonging to the Scincidae. Only 3 families of almost universal distribution are common to the Australian and Neotropical regions, with one species of the American Iguanidse in the Fiji Islands, so that, as far as this order is concerned, these two regions have little resemblance. The Neotropical region has 15 families, V 6of which are peculiar to it, and it possesses more than 50 peculiar genera. These are distributed among 12 families, but more than half belong to the Iguanidae, and half the remainder to the Teidas, the two families especially characteristic of the Neotropical region. All the Ne- arctic families which are not of almost universal distribution are peculiarly Neotropical, showing that the Lacertilia of the former region have probably been derived almost exclusively from the latter. On the whole the distribution of the Lacertilia shows a remarkable amount of specialization in each of the great tropical regions, whence we may infer that Southern Asia, Tropical Africa, Australia, and South America, each obtained their original stock of this order at very remote periods, and that there has since been little intercommunication between them. The peculiar affinities indicated by such cases as the Lepidosternidse, found only in the tropics of Africa and South America, and Tachydromm in Eastern Asia and West Africa, may be the results either of once widely distributed families surviving only in isolated locali- ties where the conditions are favourable, or of some partial and temporary geographical connection, allowing of a limited degree of intermixture of faunas. The former appears to be the more probable and generally efficient cause, but the latter may have operated in exceptional cases. Fossil Lacertilia. These date back to the Triassic period, and they are found in most succeeding formations, but it is not till the Tertiary period that forms allied to existing genera occur. These are at present too rare and too ill-defined to throw much light on the geo- graphical distribution of the order. CHAP. XIX.J REPTILES. 405 Order IILRHYNCOCEPHALINA. FAMILY 53. EHYNCOCEPHALID.E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. N EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The singular and isolated genus Hatteria the " Tuatara " or fringed lizard which alone constitutes this family, has peculiari- ties of structure which separate it from both lizards and crocodiles, and mark it out as an ancestral type, as distinct from other living reptiles as the Marsupials are from other Mammalia. It is con- fined to New Zealand, and is chiefly found on small islands near the north-east coast, being very rare, if not extinct, on the main land. A fossil reptile named Hyperodapedon, of Triassic age, has been found in Scotland and India, and is supposed by Professor Huxley to be more nearly allied to Hatteria than to any other living animal. Order ' IV. CROC OD ILIA. FAMILY 54. GAVIALIDJE. (2 Genera, 3 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-BEGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. i The Gavials are long-snouted Crocodiles with large front teeth, and canines fitting in notches of the upper jaw. They consist of two genera, Gavialis(l sp.), inhabiting the Ganges ; Tomistoma (2 sp.), found in the rivers of Borneo and North Australia. 406 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 55. CEOCODILID^. (1 Genus, 12 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEA.RCTIC I PAL^SARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL I AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-HEGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 -2.3.4 The true Crocodiles, which have the canines in notches, and the large front teeth in pits in the upper jaw, are widely distributed over the tropical regions of the globe, inhabiting all the rivers of Africa, the shores and estuaries of India, Siani, and eastward to North Australia. Other forms inhabit Cuba, Yucatan, and Guatemala, to Ecuador and the Orinooko. Four species are Asiatic, one exclusively Australian, three African, and four American. These have been placed in distinct groups, but Dr. Giinther considers them all to form one genus, Crocodilus. FAMILY 56. ALLIGATORID^E. (1 Genus, 10 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL NEARCTIC PAL^EARCTIC ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN- BUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUTJ-REOIONS. SUB-REGIONS. 2 . 3 The Alligators, which are distinguished by having both the large front teeth and the canines fitting into pits of the upper jaw, are confined to the Neotropical, and the southern part of the Nearctic regions, from the lower Mississippi and Texas through all Tropical America, but they appear to be absent from the Antilles. They are all placed by Dr. Giinther in the single genus, Alligator. General Remarks on the Distribution of Orocodilia. These animals, being few in number and wholly confined to the tropical and sub-tropical regions, are of comparatively CHAP, xix.] REPTILES. 407 little interest as regards geographical distribution. America possesses both Crocodiles and Alligators; India, Crocodiles and Gavials ; while Africa has Crocodiles only. Both Croco- diles and Gavials are found in the northern part of the Australian region, so that neither of the three families are restricted to a single region. Fossil Crocodilm. The existing families of the order date back to the Eocene period in Europe, and the Cretaceous in North America. In the south of England, Alligators, Gavials, and Crocodiles, all occur in Eocene beds, indicating that the present distribution of these families is the result of partial extinction, and a gradual restriction of their range a most instructive fact, suggesting the true explanation of a large num- ber of cases of discontinuous distribution which are sometimes held to prove the former union of lands now divided by the deepest oceans. In more ancient formations, a number of Crocqdilian remains have been discovered which cannot be classed in any existing families, and which, therefore, throw no light on the existing distribution of the group. Order V. CHELONIA. FAMILY 57. TESTUDINHLE. (l| Genera, 126 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL BUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC I PAL^ARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL . I AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-IIEGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REOIONS. SUB-REGIONS. 1.2. 3. 4 I 1.2. 3. 4 1. 2-4 j 1.2. 3. 4 1.2. 3. 4 -t The Testudinidse, including the land and many fresh-water tortoises, are very widely distributed over the Old and New worlds, but are entirely absent from Australia. They are especially abundant in the Nearctic region, as far north as Canada and British Columbia, and almost equally so in the VOL. II. 27 408 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Neotropical aiid Oriental regions ; in the Ethiopian there is a considerable diminution in the number of species, and in the Palaearctic they are still less numerous, being confined to the warmer parts of it, except one species which extends as far north as Hungary and Prussia. The genera are : Testudo (25 sp.), most abundant in the Ethiopian region, but also extending over the Oriental region, into South Europe, and the Eastern States of North America ; n Emys (64 sp.), abundant in North America and over the whole Oriental region, less so in the Neotropical and the Palsearctic regions ; Cinosternon (13 sp.), United States and California, and Tropical America; Aromochelys (4 sp.), confined to the Eastern States of North America ; Staurotypus (2 sp.), Guate- mala and Mexico; Chelydra (1 sp.), Canada to Louisiana; Claudius (1 sp.), Mexico ; Dermatemys (3 sp.), South America, Guatemala, and Yucatan ; Terrapene (4 sp.), Maine to Mexico, Sumatra to New Guinea, Shanghae and Formosa a doubtfully natural group ; Ginyxis (3 sp.), Pyxis (1 Sp.), Ghersina (4 sp.), are all Ethiopian ; Dumerilia (1 sp.), is from Madagascar only. FAMILY 58. CHELYDHLE. (10 Genera, 44 A 'Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC I PAL^EARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL 1.2.3.4 AUSTRALIAN The Chelydidae, or fresh-water tortoises with imperfectly retractile heads, have a remarkable distribution in the three great southern continents of Africa, Australia, and South America ; the largest number of species being found in the latter country. The genera are : PeltocepJialus (1 sp.), Podocnemis (6 sp.), Hydromedusa (4 sp.), Ghelys (1 sp.), and Platemys '(16 sp.), inhabiting South America from the Orinooko to the La Plata, the latter genus occurring also in Australia and New Guinea ; Chelodina (5 sp.), Chelemys (1 sp.), and Elseya (2 sp.) from Australia ; while Sternotheres CHAP, xix.] REPTILES. 409 (6 sp.), and Pelomedusa (3 sp.), inhabit Tropical and South Africa and Madagascar. FAMILY 59. TEIONYCHID^E. (3 Genera, 25 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL BUB-REGIONS. NEAKCTIO SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-RKGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The distribution of the Trionychidse, or Soft Tortoises, is very different from that of the Chelydidse, yet is equally interesting. They abound most in the Oriental region, extending beyond it to Northern China and Japan. In the Nearctic region they are only found in the .Eastern States, corresponding curiously to the distribution of plants, in which the affinity of Japan to the Eastern States is greater than to California. The Triony- chidse are also found over the Ethiopian region, but not in Madagascar. The genera are, Trionyx (17 sp.), which extends over the whole area of the family as above indicated; Cycloderma (5 sp.), peculiar to Africa; Emyda (3 sp.), the peninsula of India, Ceylon, and Africa. FAMILY 60. CHELOOTIILE. (2 Genera, 5 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. All the warm and tropical Seas. The Marine Turtles are almost universally distributed. Dermatochelys (1 sp.), is found in the temperate seas of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres ; Chelone (4 sp.), ranges over all the tropical seas G. viridis,. the epicureans' species, inhabiting the Atlantic, while 0. imbricata which produces the " tortoiseshell " of commerce is found in the Indian and Pacific oceans. 410 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Remarks on the Distribution of the Chelonia. The four families into which the Chelonia are classed have all of them a wide distribution, though none are universal. The Ethiopian region seems to be the richest, as it possesses 3 of the four families, while no other region has more than 2 ; and it also possesses 7 peculiar genera. _ Next comes the Neo- tropical region with 2 families and j6 ' peculiar genera ; the Australian with 3, and the Nearctic with 2 peculiar genera; while the Oriental and Palsearctic regions possess none that are peculiar. There are about 30 genera and 200 species in the whole order. Fossil Chelonia. The earliest undoubted remains of this order occur in the Upper Oolite. These belong to the Cheloniidse and Emydidse, which are also found in the Chalk. In the Tertiary beds Chelonia are more abundant, and the Trionychidse now appear. The Testudinidse are first met with in the Miocene formation of Europe and the Eocene of North America, the most remarkable being the gigantic Colossochelys Atlas of the Siwalik Hills. It appears, therefore, that the families of the order Chelonia were already specialised in the Secondary period, a fact which, together with their more or less aquatic habits, sufficiently accounts for their generally wide distribution. Species of Testudo, Emys, and Trionyx, are found in the Upper Miocene of the south of France. CHAP, xix.] AMPHIBIA. 411 AMPHIBIA. Order I.PSEUDOPHIDIA. FAMILY l.CMCILIADM. (4 Genera, 10 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEARCTIO I PAL.EARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-RKGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. -2.3- 1.2. The Caeciliadae are a curious group of worm-like Amphibia sparingly scattered over the three great tropical regions. The genera are, Ccecilia, which inhabits West Africa, Malabar, and South America; Siphonopsis, peculiar to Brazil and Mexico; Ickthyopsis, from Ceylon and the Khasya Mountains ; and Khina- trema from Cayenne. Order ILURODELA. FAMILY 2. SIKENID^E. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.SARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB- REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The genus Siren, consisting of eel-like Batrachians with two anterior feet and permanent branchiae, inhabits the South- Eastern States of North America from Texas to Carolina. 412 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 3. PKOTEID^E. (2 Genera, 4 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. j The Proteidas have four feet and persistent external branchiae. The two genera are, Proteus (1 sp.), found only in caverns of Central Europe ; and Menobranchus, which are like newts in form, and inhabit the Eastern States of North America. FAMILY 4. AMPHIUMIDJE. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The genus Amphiuma, or Murcenopsis, consists of slender eel- like creatures with four rudimentary feet, and no external branchiae. The species inhabit the Southern United States from New Orleans to Carolina. FAMILY 5. MENOPOMID^E. (2 Genera, 4 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEABCTIC I PAL^ARCTIC i ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-KEGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-KEGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. 1 ! There are large Salamanders of repulsive appearance, found only in Eastern Asia and the Eastern United States. The genera are, Sieboldia (2 sp.), Japan and north-west China; Menopoma Protonopsis (2 sp.), Ohio and Alleghany rivers. CHAP, xix.] AMPHIBIA. 413 FAMILY 6. SALAMANDKID^E. (20 Genera, 85 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. -2.3- 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 3 The Salamandridse, of which our common Newts are charac- teristic examples, form an extensive family highly characteristic of the North Temperate regions, a few species only extending into the Neotropical region along the Andes to near Bogota, and one into the Oriental region in Western China. The genera, as arranged by Dr. Strauch, are as follows : Salamandra (2 sp.), Central and South Europe and North Africa ; Pleurodeles (1 sp.), Spain, Portugal, and Morocco ; Brady- bates (1 sp.), Spain ; Triton (16 sp.), all Europe except the extreme north, Algeria, North China and Japan, Eastern States of North America, California and Oregon ; CMoglossa (2 sp.) Portugal .and South Europe ; Salamandrina (1 sp.), Italy to Dal- matia; Ellipsoglossa (2 sp.), Japan; Isodactylium (2 sp.), East Siberia; Onychodactylus (1 sp.), Japan; Amblystoma (21 sp.), Nearctic region from Canada and Oregon to Mexico, most abundant in Eastern States ; fianodon (1 sp.), Tartary and North-east China ; Dicamptodon (1 sp.), California; Plethodon (5 sp.), Massachusetts to Louisiana, and Vancouver's Island to California ; Desmognathus (4 sp.), Eastern United States south of latitude 43 ; Anaides (1 sp.), Oregon and Northern California; Hemidactylium (2 sp.), South-eastern United States and Southern California; Heredia (1 sp.), Oregon and California ; Spelerpes (1 8 sp.), Eastern United States from Massachusetts to Mexico, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Andes of Bogota, with a species in South Europe ; Batrachoseps (2 sp.), South-eastern United States and California ; Tylotriton (1 sp.), Yunan in West China. 414 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Order IILANJIEA. FAMILY 7. KHINOPHRYNID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. . The Bhinophrynidae are Toads with imperfect ears and a tongue which is free in front. The single species of Rhinophry- niis, is a native of Mexico. FAMILY 8. PHRYNISCIDJE. (5 Genera, 13 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3 i .2 A. a The Phryniscidae, or Toads with imperfect ears and tongue fixed in front, are widely distributed over the warmer regions of the earth, but are most abundant in the Neotropical region and Australia, while only single species occur in the Old World. The genera are : Phryniscus (7 sp.), from Costa Eica to Chili and Monte Video ; Brachycephalus (1 sp.), Brazil ; Pseudophryne (3 sp.), Australia and Tasmania ; Hcmisus (1 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Micrhyla (1 sp.), Java. FAMILY 9. HYL APLESIM}. (1 Genus, 5 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALJEARCTIC SUB-KEGXONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUR-REOIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2 4 CHAP. XIX.] AMPHIBIA. 415 The Hylaplesidse are Toads with perfect ears, and they seem to be confined to the Neotropical region. The only genus, Hylaplesia (5 sp.), inhabits Brazil, Chili, and the Island of Hayti. FAMILY 10. BUFONID^E. (J3 Genera, G| Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEABCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^SARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 .3 . 4 1.2.3- 1.2.3.4 1.2- The rather extensive family of the Bufonidae, which includes our common Toad, and is characterised by prominent neck glands and tongue fixed in front, is almost universally distributed, but is very rare in the Australian region ; one species being found in Celebes and one in Australia. The genera are : Kalophrynus (2 sp.), Borneo ; Bufo (58 sp.), has the range of the entire family, except Australia; Otilophus (1 sp.), South America ; Peltaphryne (1 sp.), Porto Kico; Pseudobufo (1 sp.), Malay Peninsula ; Schismaderma (1 sp.), Natal ; Notaden (1 sp.), East Central Australia. FAMILY 11. XENOKHINID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.*ARCTJC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-KEGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. ! The Xenorhinidse may be characterised as Toads with perfect ears and tongue free in front. The only species of Xenorhina is a native of New Guinea. 416 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 12. ENGYSTOMID.E. (15 Genera, 3l%ecies.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL BUB-REOIONS. NEARCTIO SUB-REGIONS. PAL.E ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REOIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3- 3 -2.3- 1.2.3.4 _2 The Engystomidae are Toads without neck-glands and with the tongue tied in front. They are most abundant in the Oriental and Neotropical regions, especially in the latter, which contains about half the known species, with isolated species in Australia, Africa, and the Southern States of North America. They appear to be the remnant of a once extensive and universally distributed group, which has maintained itself in two remote regions, but is dying out everywhere else. The genera are : Engystoma (9 sp.), Carolina to La Plata, with one species in South China ; Diplopelma (3 sp.), South India to China and Java ; Cacopus (2 sp.), Central India ; GlypJioglossus (1 sp.), Pegu ; Callula (4 sp.), Sikhim, Ceylon, China, and Borneo ; Brachymerus (1 sp.), South Africa; Adenomera (1 sp.), Brazil; Pachybatrachus (1 sp.), Australia ; Breviceps (2 sp.), South and West Africa ; Chelydobatrachus (1 sp.), West Australia; Hypopachus (1 sp.), Costa Eica; Rhinoderma (1 sp.), Chili ; Atelopus (1 sp.), Cayenne and Peru ; Copea (1 sp.), South America ; Paludicola (1 sp.), New Granada. FAMILY 13. BOMBINATORID.E. (8 Genera, 9 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEABCTIC I PAL^ARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL I AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. 1 .2 1.2 The Bombinatoridse are a family of Frogs which have imper- fect ears and no neck-glands, and they have a very peculiar and CHAP. XIX.] KEPTILES. 417 interesting distribution, being confined to Central and South Europe, the southern part of South America, and New Zealand. They consist of many isolated groups forming five separate sub- families. The genera are : Bombinator, Central Europe and Italy ; Peldbates and Didocus, Central Europe and Spain ; Telmatobius (2 sp.), Peru and Brazil ; Alsodes, Chonos Archipelago; Cacotus, Chili; Liopelma, New Zealand ; Nannophryne, Straits of Magellan. FAMILY 14 PLECTKOMANTID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NE ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The Plectromantidse, which are Frogs with neck-glands, and the toes but not the fingers dilated, consists of a single species of the genus Plectromantis. It inhabits the region west of the Andes, and south of the Equator. FAMILY 15. ALYTID^. (5 Genera, 37 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEABCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-HEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN ' SUB-REGIONS. 123 The Alytidse are Frogs with neck-glands and undilated toes. They are most abundant in the Ethiopian region, with a few species in the Nearctic and Australian regions, and one in Europe and Brazil respectively. The genera are : Alytes (1 sp.), Central Europe ; Scaphiopus (5 sp.), California to Mexico and the Eastern States ; Hyper olim (29 sp.), all Africa, and two in New Guinea and North Australia ; HeMoporus (1 sp.), in Australia ; Nattereria (1 sp.), Brazil. 418 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 16. PELODKYAD^E. (3 Genera, 7 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. N EARCTIC SUB-REGIOKS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. In The Pelodryadae are Tree Frogs with neck-glands, and are confined to the Australian and Neotropical regions. The genera are : Phyllomedusa (3 sp.), South America to Paraguay ; Chirodryas, Australia ; and Pelodryas (3 sp.), Moluccas, New Guinea, and Australia. FAMILY 17. HYLID^E. (11 Genera, 94 A 'Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. ^NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. N EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB- REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 .2.3 .4 1 .2.3.4 1.2.3 - - 3 - 1.2 The Hylidse are glandless Tree Frogs with a broadened sacrum. They are most abundant in the Neotropical region, which con- tains more than two-thirds of the species ; about twenty species are Australian ; six or seven are Nearctic, reaching northward to Great Bear Lake ; while one only is European, and one Oriental. The genera are : Hyla, (62 sp.), having the range of the whole family ; Hylella (1 sp.), Ololygon (1 sp.), Pohlia (2 sp.), Triprion (1 sp.), Opistho- delphys (1 sp.), and Nototrema (4 sp.), are South American ; while TrachycepJiahis (8 sp.), is peculiar to the Antilles, except one South American species ; Pseudacris (1 sp.), ranges from Georgia, United States, to Great Bear Lake ; Litoria (7 sp.), is Australian and Papuan, except one species in Paraguay ; Ceratohyla (4 sp.), is only known from Ecuador. :' CHAP. xix.J REPTILES. 419 FAMILY 18. POLYPEDATID^E. (24 Genera, 12^Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALJS ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 3 _ -34 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 The Polypedatidse, or glandless Tree Frogs with narrowed sacrum, are almost equally numerous in the Oriental and Neo- tropical regions, more than forty species inhabiting each, while in the Ethiopian there are about half this number, and the re- mainder are scattered over the other three regions, as shown in the enumeration of the genera : Ixalus (16 sp.), Oriental, except one in Japan, and one in Western Polynesia ; Rhacophorus (7 sp.), and Theloderma (1 sp.), are Oriental ; Hylarana, (10 sp.), Oriental, to the Solomon Islands and Tartary, Nicobar Islands, West Africa, and Madagascar ; Megalixalus (1 sp.), Seychelle Islands ; Leptomantis (1 sp.), Philip- pines ; Platymantis (5 sp.), New Guinea, Philippines, and Fiji Islands ; Carnufer (2 sp), Java and New Guinea ; Polypedates (1 9 sp.), mostly Oriental, but two species in West Africa, one Mada- gascar, two Japan, one Loo-Choo Islands, and one Hong Kong ; Hylambates (3 sp.), Hemimantis (1 sp.), and Chiromantis (1 sp.), are Ethiopian ; Eappia (13 sp.), is Ethiopian, and extends to Madagascar and the Seychelle Islands ; Acris (2 sp.), is North American ; Elosia, (1 sp.), Epirhjxis (1 sp.), Phyllobates (9 sp.), Hylodes (26 sp.), Hyloxalus (1 sp.), Pristimantis (1 sp.), Crosso- dactylus (1 sp.), Calostethus (1 sp.), Strabomantis (1 sp.), and Leiyla (1 sp.), are Neotropical, the last two being Central Ame- rican, while species of Hylodes and Phyllobates are found in the West. Indian Islands. 420 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 19. EANID^E. (2$ Genera, 1$8 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-KEGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-RERIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1,2.3.4 1.2. 3. 4 1.2. 3. 4 1.2.3.4 1.2 The Kanidse, or true Frogs, are characterised by having simple undilated toes, but neither neck-glands nor dilated sacrum. They are almost cosmopolitan, extending to the extreme north and south from the North Cape to Patagonia, and they are equally at home in the tropics. They are perhaps most abundant in South America, where a large number of the genera and species are found; the Ethiopian region comes next, while they are rather less abundant in the Oriental and Australian regions ; the Nearctic region has much less (about 12 species), while the Palse- arctic has only five, and these two northern regions only possess the single genus Eana. The genera are distributed as follows : Rana (60 sp.), ranges all over the world, except Australia and South America, although it extends into New Guinea and into Mexico and Central America ; it is most abundant in Africa. Pyxicephalus (7 sp.), extends over the whole Ethiopian region, Hindostan, the Himalayas, and Japan; Cystignathus (22 sp.), is mainly Neotropical, but has three species Ethiopian. All the other genera are confined to single regions. The Neotropical genera are : Odontophrynus (1 sp.), Pseudis (1 sp.), Pithecopsis (1 sp.), EnsopUeus (1 sp.), Limnocharis (1 sp.), HemipJiractus (1 sp.), all Tropical South American east of Andes ; Ceratophrys (5 sp.), Panama to La Plata ; Cydofamphus (1 sp.), West Ecuador and Chili ; Pleurodema (6 sp.), Venezuela to Patagonia ; Leiuperus (12 sp.), Mexico and St. Domingo to Patagonia; Hylorhina (1 sp.), Chiloe. The Australian genera are : Myxophyes (1 sp.), Queensland ; Platyplectrum (2 sp.), Queensland and West Aus- tralia ; Neobatrachus (1 sp.), South Australia ; Limnodynastes 7 sp.), and Crinia (11 ' sp.), Australia and Tasmania. The CHAP. XIX.] REPTILES. 421 Oriental genera are : Dicroglossus (1 sp.), Western Himalayas ; Oxyglossus (2 sp.), Siam to Java, Philippines and China ; Hoplo- latrachus (1 sp.), Ceylon; Phrynoglossus (1 sp.), Siam. The Ethiopian genera are : Phrynobatrachus (1 sp.), Stenorkynchus (1 sp.), both from Natal. FAMILY 20. DISCOGLOSSICLE. (14 Genera, Impedes.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^: ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2 1.2.3.4 -2.3 - - 2.3.4 1.2 The Discoglossidse, or Frogs with a dilated sacrum, are re- markable for the number of generic forms scattered over a large part of the globe, being only absent from the Nearctic and the northern half of the Neotropical regions, and also from Hindostan and East Africa. The genera are : Chiroleptes (4 sp.), Australia ; Calyp$cep1ialus (1 sp.), allied to the preceding, from Chili; Cryptotis (1 sp.), Australia; As- terophjys (2 sp.), New Guinea and Aru Islands ; Xenophrys (1 sp.), Eastern Himalayas ; Megalophrys (2 sp.), Ceylon and the Malay Islands ; Nannoplirys (1 sp.), Ceylon ; Pdodytes (1 sp.), France only ; Leptdbrachium (1 sp.), Java ; Discoglossus (1 sp.), Vienna to Algiers ; Laprissa (1 sp.), Latonia (1 sp.), Palsearctic region ; Arthroleptis (2 sp.), West Africa and the Cape; Grypiscus (1 sp.), Souih Brazil. FAMILY 21. PIPHXE. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^; ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. i ORIENTAL 1 SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. The Pipidse are toads without a tongue or maxillary teeth, and with enormously dilated sacrum. The only species of Pipa is a native of Guiana. FAMILY 22. DACTYLETHKID^E. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARGTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALuEARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 123 The Dactylethridse are Toads with maxillary teeth but no tongue, and with enormously dilated sacrum. The species of Dactylethra are natives of West, East, and South Africa. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Amphibia. The Amphibia, as here enumerated, consist of 22 families, 152 'genera, and nearly 700 species. Many of the families have a very limited range, only two (Kanidse and Polypedatidae) being nearly universal ; five more extend each into five regions, while no less than thirteen of the families are confined to one, two, or three regions each. By far the richest region is the Neotropical, possessing 16 families (four of them peculiar) and about 50 peculiar or very characteristic genera. Next comes the Austra- lian, with 11 families (one of which is peculiar) and 1,6 'pecu- liar genera. The Nearctic region has no less than $ of the families (two of. them peculiar to it) and 15 peculiar genera, 13^ of which are tailed Batrachians, which have here their 1 (\ metropolis. The other three regions have 9 'families each ; the PalaearctiS^has no peculiar family but no less than 15 peculiar genera ; the Ethiopian 1 family and 12 genera peculiar to it; and the Oriental, 19 genera but no family confined to it. It is evident, therefore, that each of the regfons is well characterised by its peculiar forms of Amphibia, there being only a few genera, such as Hyla, liana, and Bnfo which have a wide range. The connection of the Australian and Neotropical CHAP, xix.] REPTILES. 423 regions is well shown in this group, by the Phryniscid.se, Hylidae, and Discoglossidse, which present allied forms in both ; as well as by the genus Liopelma of New Zealand, allied to the Bombinatoridse of South America, and the absence of the otherwise cosmopolitan genus Rana from both continents. The affinity of the Nearctic and Palsearctic regions is shown by the Pro- teidae, which are confined to them, as well as by the genus Triton and almost the whole of the extensive family of the Salaman- dridse. The other regions are also well differentiated, and there is no sign of a special Ethiopian Amphibian fauna extending over the peninsula of India, or of the Oriental and Paljearctic regions merging into each other, except by means of genera of universal distribution. Fossil Amphibia. The extinct Labyrinthodontia form a separ- ate order, which existed from the Carboniferous to the Triassic period. No other remains of this class are found till we reach the Tertiary formation, when Newts and Salamanders as well as Frogs and Toads occur, most frequently in the Miocene de- posits. The most remarkable is the Andrias scheuchzeri from the Miocene of (Ening N en, which is allied to Sieboldia maxima, the great salamander of Japan. VOL. II. 28 CHAPTER XX. THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE FAMILIES OF FISHES, WITH THE EANGE OF SUCH GENERA AS INHABIT FRESH WATER. SUB-CLASS I. TELEOSTEI. Order LACANTHOPTERYGIL FAMILY 1. GASTEROSTEIDJE. (1 Genus, 11 Species.) " Fresh- water or marine scaleless fishes, with elongate com- pressed bodies and with isolated spines before the dorsal fin." DISTRIBUTION. Palaearctic and Nearctic regions. The species of Gasterosteus, commonly called Sticklebacks, are found in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and seas, as far south as Italy and Ohio. Four species occur in Britain. FAMILY 2. BERYCID^E. (10 Genera, 55 Species.) " Marine fishes, with elevated compressed bodies covered with toothed scales, and large eyes." DISTRIBUTION. Tropical and temperate seas of both hemi- spheres. Their northern limit is the Mediterranean and Japan. Most abundant in the Malayan seas. CHAP. xx.J FISHES. 425 FAMILY 3. PERCIDJE. (61 Genera, 476 Species.) " Marine or fresh- water carnivorous fishes, with oblong bodies covered with toothed scales." DISTRIBUTION. Seas, rivers and lakes, of all regions. The genera which inhabit fresh-waters are the following : Perca (3 sp.), inhabits the Nearctic and Palsearctic regions as far south as Ohio and Switzerland ; one species, the common perch, is British. Percichthys (5 sp.), Chili and Patagonia, with one species in Java; Paralabrax (2 sp.), California; Ldbrax (8 sp.), six species are marine, inhabiting the shores of Europe and North America, one being British, two species inhabit the rivers of the northern United States ; Lates (2 sp.), Nile and large rivers of India and China ; Acerina (3 sp.), Europe, from England to Eussia and Siberia ; Percarina (1 sp.), River Dniester ; Lucioperca (6 sp.), North America and Europe ; Pileoma (2 sp.), North America, Texas to Lake Erie ; Boleosoma (3 sp.), Texas to Lake Superior ; Aspro (2 sp.), Central Europe ; Huro (1 sp.), Lake Huron ; Percilia, (1 sp.), Rio de Maypu in Chili ; Centrarclius (10 sp.), North America and Cuba ; Bryttus (8 sp.), South Carolina to Texas ; Pomotis (8 sp.), North America, Lake Erie to Texas. Of the exclusively marine genera a species of Polyprion and one of Serranus are British. The latter genus has nearly 150 species spread over the globe, but is most abundant in the Tropics. Mesoprion is another extensive genus confined to the Tropics. Apogon abounds from the Red Sea to the Pacific, but has one species in the Mediterranean and one ijn. the coast of Brazil. FAMILY 4. APHREDODERID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) "Fresh- water fish, with oblong body covered with toothed scales, and wide cleft mouth." DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic States of North America. GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. .[PART iv. FAMILY 5. PRISTIPOMATIDJE. (25 Genera, 206 Species.) " Marine carnivorous fishes, with compressed oblong bodies, and without molar or cutting teeth." DISTRIBUTION. Seas of temperate and tropical regions, a few only entering fresh water. Of the more extensive genera, nine, comprising more than half the species, are confined to the Indian and Australian seas, while only one large genus (Hcemuloti) is found in the Atlantic on the coast of Tropical America. The extensive Pacific genus, Diagramma, has one species in the Mediterranean. One genus is confined to the Macquarie River in Australia. A species of Dentex has occurred on the English coast, and this seems to be the extreme northern range of the family, which does not regularly extend beyond the coast of Portugal, and in the East to Japan. Australia seems to form the southern limit. FAMILY 6. MULLIME. (5 Genera, 34 Species.) " Marine fishes, with elongate slightly compressed bodies covered with large scales, and two dorsal fins at a distance from each other." DISTRIBUTION. All tropical seas, except the West Coast of America, extending into temperate regions as far as the Baltic, Japan, and New Zealand. Two species of Mullus (Mullets) are British, and these are the only European tish belonging to the family. FAMILY 7. SPARID^E. (22 Genera, 117 Species.) " Herbivorous or carnivorous marine fishes, with oblong com- pressed bodies covered with minutely serrated scales, and with one dorsal fin." DISTRIBUTION. Seas of temperate and tropical regions, a few entering rivers. CHAP, xx:] FISHES. 427 Cantharus, Pagdlus, and Chrysophrys,ha,VG occurred on the English Coast. Haplodactylus is confined to the West Coast of South America, and Australia ; Sargus to the temperate and warm parts of the Atlantic and the shores of East Africa; Pagellus to the western coasts of Europe and Africa. The other large genera have a wider distribution. FAMILY 8. SQUAMIPENNES. (12 Genera, 124 Species.) "Carnivorous marine fishes, with compressed and elevated bodies, and scaly vertical fins." DISTRIBUTION. The seas between the tropics, most abundant in the Oriental and Australian regions, a few entering rivers or extending beyond the tropics. The extensive genus Chcetodon (67 sp.), ranges from the Ked Sea to the Sandwich Islands, and from Japan to Western Aus- tralia, while two species are found in the West Indies. Holacan- thus (36 sp.), has a similar distribution, one species only occurring in the West Indies and on the coast of South America. Only one genus (Pomacanthus), with a single species, is confined to the West Atlantic. FAMILY 9. CIRRHITID^E. (8 Genera, 34 Species.) " Carnivorous marine fishes, with a compressed oblong body, covered with cycloid scales." DISTRIBUTION. The tropical and south temperate waters of the Indian and Pacific oceans, from Eastern Africa to Western America. Absent from the Atlantic. FAMILY 10. TRIGLID^E. (50 Genera, 25^ v ? Species.) " Carnivorous, mostly marine fishes, with oblong compressed or subcylindrical bodies, and wide cleft mouths. They live at the bottom of the water." DISTRIBUTION. All seas, some entering fresh water, and a few inhabiting exclusively the fresh waters of the Arctic regions. 428 GEOGKAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. They are divided by Dr. Giinther into four groups. The Heterolepidina (comprising 4 genera and 12 species) are con- fined to the North Pacific. The Scorpsenina (23 genera 113 species) have an almost universal distribution, but the genera are each restricted to one or other of the great oceans. Sebastes has occurred on the English coast. The Cottina ($,8 general 10 species) have also a universal distribution ; the numerous species of Coitus are found either in the seas or fresh waters of Europe and North America ; four species are British, as well as seven species of the wide-spread genus Trigla. Ptyonotm (1 sp.) is confined to Lake Ontario. The Cataphracti (5 genera, 23 species) have also a wide range ; one genus, Ayonus, is found in the British seas, and also in Kamschatka and on the coast of Chili. Peristethus is also British. FAMILY 11. TEACHINID^E. (24 Genera, 90 Species.) " Carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate bodies, living at the bottom, near the shore." DISTRIBUTION. Almost or quite universal. Trachinus is a British genus. A species of Aphritis inhabits the fresh waters of Tasmania, while its two allies are found on the coasts of Patagonia. FAMILY 12. SCLENID.E. (13 Genera, 102 Species.) " Marine or fresh -water fishes, with compressed and rather elongate bodies, covered with toothed scales." DISTRIBUTION. Temperate and tropical regions, but absent from Australia. Larimus is found in the Atlantic, and in African and American rivers. Oorvina. Scicena, and Otfafthus are also marine and fresh- water, both in the Atlantic and Pacific. The other genera are of small extent and more restricted range. Umbrina and Scicena have occurred in British seas. CHAP, xx.] FISHES. 429 FAMILY 13. POLYNEMID^E. (3 Genera, 23 Species.) " Marine or fresh-water fishes, with compressed oblong bodies and entire or ciliated scales." DISTRIBUTION. Tropical seas and rivers of both the great oceans, but most abundant in the Pacific. FAMILY 14. SPHYRENID.E. (1 Genus, 15 Species.) "Carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate sub-cylindrical bodies covered with small cycloid scales." DISTRIBUTION. The warm and tropical seas of the globe. FAMILY 15. TRICHIUBIDJE. (7 Genera, 18 Species.) " Marine fishes, with elongate compressed bodies covered with minute scales or naked." DISTRIBUTION. All the tropical and sub-tropical seas. FAMILY 16. SCOMBRID^E. (20 Genera, 108 Species.) " Marine fishes, with elongate compressed bodies, scaled or naked." DISTRIBUTION. All the temperate and tropical oceans. Mostly inhabiting the open seas. Scomber^ (the Mackerel), Tkynnus, Naucrates, Zeus, Centro- lopkus, Brama, and Lampris, are genera which have occurred in the British seas. FAMILY 17. CARANGIDJS. (27 Genera, 171 Species.) " Marine fishes, with compressed oblong or elevated bodies covered with small scales or naked." DISTRIBUTION. All temperate and tropical seas ; some species occur in both the great oceans, ranging from New York to Aus- tralia. Trachurus and Capros are genera which occur in British seas. 430" GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [i ART nv FAMILY 18. XIPHIHLE. (2 Genera, 8 Species.) " Marine fishes, with elongate compressed body and a produced sword-shaped upper jaw." DISTRIBUTION. Mediterranean, and open seas between or near the Tropics. Xiphws (the Sword-fish) has occurred on the English coast. . " FAMILY 19. GOBIHLE. (24 Genera, 294 Species.) Carnivorous fishes, with elongate low, naked, or scaly bodies, living at the bottom of the shallow seas or fresh waters of tem- perate or tropical regions. Individuals of the same species often differ in inhabiting exclusively fresh or salt water. DISTRIBUTION. All temperate and tropical regions, from Scotland and Japan to New Zealand. Species of Gobius, Latrun- culus t and Cyllionymus occur in Britain. Several genera are confined to the East Indian seas and rivers, but none seem peculiar to America. The genus Periopthalmus consists of the curious, large-headed, projectiug-eyed fishes, so abundant on the muddy shores of African and Eastern tidal rivers, and which seem to spend most of their time out of water, hunting after insects, &c. x FAMILY 20. DISCOBOLI- (2 Genera, 11 Species.) " Carnivorous fishes, with oblong naked or tubercular bodies, living at the bottom . of shallow seas, and attaching themselves to rocks by means of a ventral disc. DISTRIBUTION. All northern seas, as far south as Belgium, England, and San Francisco. Species of both genera (Cyclopterus and Liparis) occur in British seas. CIIAP. xx.] . FISHES. 431 FAMILY 21. OXUDEKCID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A marine fish, with an elongate sub-cylindrical body and no ' ventral fins." DISTRIBUTION. Macao, China. FAMILY 22. BATKACHID.E. (3 Genera, 12 Species.) " Marine fishes, with sub-cylindrical body and broad depressed head." DISTRIBUTION. The coasts of nearly all tropical and south temperate regions, ranging from New York and Portugal to Chili and Tasmania. . FAMILY 23. PEDICULATI. (8 Genera, 40 Species.) " Marine carnivorous fishes, with very large heads and without, scales." DISTRIBUTION. Seas of .all temperate and tropical regions, extending south to New Zealand and north to. Greenland. <"'.'' '. A species of Lopliius (the Fishing-frog or Sea- Devil) is found' in British seas. The genus Antennarius, comprising two-thirds of the species, is wholly tropical. FAMILY 24 BLENNID^E. (33 Genera, 201 Species.) ."Carnivorous fishes, with long sub-cylindrical naked bodies, living at the bottom of shallow water in seas, or tidal rivers." . DISTRIBUTION. All seas from the Arctic regions to New Zealand, Chili, and the Cape of Good Hope. Species of Anarrhichas, Blcnnius, Blenniops, Centronotus,&&& Zoarces occur in British seas. Chasmodes (3 sp.) is confined to the Atlantic coasts of Temperate North America; Petrosdrtes (26 sp.) to the tropical parts of the Indian and Pacific Oceans ; and Stichceus (9 sp.) to the Arctic Seas. 432 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 25. ACANTHOCLINID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A carnivorous marine fish, with long flat body and very long dorsal fin." DISTRIBUTION. Coasts of New Zealand. FAMILY 26. COMEPHOKID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " An elongate, naked, large-headed fish, with two dorsal fins." DISTRIBUTION. Lake Baikal. Dr. Giinther remarks, that this fish approaches the Scombrina (Mackerel) in several characters. These are exclusively marine fishes, while Lake Baikal is fresh- water, and is situated among mountains, at an elevation of nearly 2000 feet, and more than a thousand miles from the ocean ! FAMILY 27. TEACH YPTEEID^E. (3 Genera, 16 Species.) "Deep sea fishes, with elongate, much compressed, naked bodies." DISTRIBUTION. Europe, East Indies, West Coast of South America, New Zealand. Dr. Giinther remarks, that little is known of these fishes, from their being so seldom thrown on shore, and then rapidly decomposing. The Eibbon-fish (Eegale- cus banksii) has occurred frequently on our shores. They have soft bones and muscles, small mouths, and weak dentition. FAMILY 28. LOPHOTID,E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A marine fish, with elongate compressed naked body, and high crested head." DISTRIBUTION. Mediterranean Sea and Japan. CHAP, xx.] FISHES. 433 FAMILY 29. TEUTHIDHLE. (1 Genus, 29 Species.) " Marine, herbivorous fishes, with compressed, oblong, small - scaled bodies." DISTRIBUTION. Eastern tropical seas, from Bourbon and the Eed Sea to the Marianne and Fiji Islands. FAMILY 30. ACEONUEID.E. (5 Genera, 64 Species.) " Marine, herbivorous fishes, with compressed, minutely-scaled bodies." DISTRIBUTION. All tropical seas, but most abundant in the Malay region, and extending to Japan and New Zealand. FAMILY 31. HOPLEGNATHID^E. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) " Marine fishes, with compressed elevated bodies, covered with very small toothed scales." DISTRIBUTION. Seas of Australia, China, and Japan. FAMILY 32. MALACANTHIDJE. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) " Marine fishes, with elongate bodies covered with very small scales, and with very long dorsal and anal fins." DISTRIBUTION. Atlantic coasts of Tropical America, Mauritius, and New Guinea. FAMILY 33. NANDID^E. (6 Genera, 14 Species.) " Marine or fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with oblong, com- pressed, scaly bodies." DISTRIBUTION. From the Eed Sea to the coasts of China and Australia; and the fresh waters of the Neotropical and Oriental regions. Badis, Nandus, and Catopra inhabit the 434 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART IT. rivers of India and the Malay Islands ; Acharnes the rivers of British Guiana. FAMILY 34. POLYCENTRID.E. (2 Genera, 3 Species.) "Fresh- water carnivorous fishes, with compressed elevated scaly bodies, and raany-spined dorsal and anal fins." DISTRIBUTION. Rivers of Tropical America. -FAMILY 35. LABYRINTHICI. (9 Genera, 25 Species.) " Fresh- water fishes, with compressed oblong bodies, and capable of living for some time out of water or in dried mud." DISTRIBUTION. Fresh waters of South Africa : and the East Indies from the Mauritius to China, the Philippines, Celebes, and Amboyna. FAMILY 36. LUCIOCEPHALID^. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " Fresh-water fish, with elongate scaled body, and a dilated branchial membrane." DISTRIBUTION. Rivers of Borneo, Biliton, and Banca. FAMILY 37. ATHERINID^E. (3 Genera, 39 Species.) " Marine or fresh-water carnivorous fishes, with subcylind- rical scaled bodies, and feeble dentition." DISTRIBUTION. All temperate and tropical seas, from Scotland and New York to the Straits of Magellan and Tasmania. Atherina presbyter occurs in British seas. Species of Atherina and Atherinichthis are found in fresh-watei' lakes and rivers in Europe, America, and Australia. CHAP, xx.] FISHES. 435 FAMILY 38. MUGILIDJE. (3 Genera, 78 Species.) "Fresh-water and marine fishes, with oblong compressed bodies, cycloid scales, and small mouths, often without teeth." DISTRIBUTION. Coasts and fresh waters of all temperate and tropical regions. Miigil (66 sp.) is mostly marine, and is very widely distri- buted ; several species (Grey Mullets) occur on the British coasts. Agonostoma (9 sp.) is confined to the fresh waters of the West Indies, Central America, New Zealand, Australia, Celebes, and the Comoro Islands. Myxus (3 sp.) is marine, and occurs both in the Atlantic and Pacific. FAMILY 39. OPHIOCEPHALID^E. (2 Genera, 26 Species.) "Fresh-water fishes, with elongate subcylindrical scaled bodies; often leaving the water for a considerable time." DISTRIBUTION. Kivers of the Oriental region: India, Ceylon, China, Malay Islands to Philippines and Borneo. FAMILY 40. TRICHONOTIDJE. (2 Genera, 2 Species.) " Marine carnivorous fishes, with elongate subcylindrical bodies, cycloid scales, and eyes directed upwards." DISTRIBUTION. Coasts of Celebes, Ceram, and New Zealand. FAMILY 41. CEPOLID^E. (1 Genus, 7 Species.) " Marine fishes, with very long, compressed, band-like bodies, covered with ''small- cycloid scales." DISTRIBUTION. Temperate seas of Western Europe and East- ern Asia, and one species in the Malayan Seas. Cepola rubescens (the Band- fish) ranges from Scotland to the Mediterranean. All the other species but one are from Japan. 436 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 42. GOBIESOCID^. (9 Genera, 21 Species.) "Carnivorous marine fishes, elongate, anteriorly depressed and scaleless, with dorsal fin on the tail." DISTRIBUTION. Temperate and tropical seas ; Scandinavia to the Cape, California to Chili, West Indies, Red Sea, Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji Islands. Three species of Lepadogaster have occurred in the English Channel. FAMILY 43. PSYCHROLUTID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) "A large-headed, elongate, naked marine fish, with small teeth, and dorsal fin on the tail." DISTRIBUTION. West Coast of North America (Vancouver's IslanoV). FAMILY 44, CENTRISCID^E. (2 Genera, 7 Species.) "Marine fishes, with compressed, oblong or elevated bodies, elongate tubular mouth and no teeth." DISTRIBUTION. West Coast of Europe and Africa, Mediterra- nean, Indian Ocean to Java, Philippines, and Japan. A species of Centriscus has occurred on the South Coast of England, and another species is found both at Madeira and Japan. FAMILY 45. FISTULARID.E. (2 Genera, 4 Species.) " Marine fishes, very elongate, with long tubular mouth and small teeth." DISTRIBUTION. Tropical seas, both in the Atlantic and Indian Ocean, and as far east as the New Hebrides. CHAP, xx.] FISHES. 437 FAMILY 46. MASTACEMBELID^E. (2 Genera, 9 Species.) " Fresh- water fishes, with eel- like bodies and very long dorsal fin." DISTRIBUTION. Eivers of the Oriental region, one species from Ceram (?). FAMILY 47. NOTACANTHI. (1 Genus, 5 Species.) " Marine fishes, with elongate bodies covered with very small scales, and snout protruding beyond the mouth." DISTRIBUTION. Greenland, Mediterranean, and West Aus- tralia. Order ILACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNGOGNATH1. FAMILY 48. POMACENTKID^E. (3 Genera, 143 Species.) " Marine fishes, with short compressed bodies covered with toothed scales, and with feeble dentition." DISTRIBUTION. Tropical parts of Pacific and Indian Ocean } less numerous in Tropical Atlantic, a few reaching the Medi- terranean, Japan, and South Australia. Pomacentrus, Glyphi- dodon, and Heliastes are Atlantic genera. F-AMILY 49. LABKID^E. (46 Genera, 396 Species.) " Herbivorous or carnivorous marine fishes, with elongate bodies covered with cycloid scales, and teeth adapted for crushing the shells of . mollusca." DISTRIBUTION. Temperate and tropical regions of all parts of the globe. The genera Labrus, Crenilabrus, Ctenolabrus, Acantholdbrus, Centrolabrus, and Coris, have occurred in British seas, and all of 438 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. these, except the last, are confined to the Mediterranean and the Atlantic as far as Madeira.- Eight other genera are characteristic of the Atlantic, most of them being West Indian, but one from the coasts of North America. Seven genera are common to all the great oceans ; the remainder being confined to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, ranging from Japan to New Zealand, but being far more abundant between the Tropics. FAMILY 50. EMB^QTOCIDJE. (2 Genera, 17 Species.) " Marine viviparous fishes, with compressed elevated bodies covered with cycloid scales, and with small teeth." DISTRIBUTION.; Pacific Ocean from Japan and California northwards. One species enters the fresh waters of California. FAMILY 51. GERRIDJE. (1 Genus, 28 Species.) " Marine fishes, with compressed oblong bodies covered with minutely serrated scales, and with small teeth." DISTKIBUTION. Tropical seas ; ranging south as far as the Cape of Good Hope and Australia, and north to Japan and (one species) to New Jersey, U.S. FAMILY 52. CHROMID^E. (19 Genera, 100 Species.) " Fresh-water herbivorous or carnivorous fishes, with elevated or elongate scaly bodies, and small teeth." DISTRIBUTION. The Oriental, Ethiopian, and Neotropical re- gions. E-titroplus (2 sp.) is from the rivers of Southern India and Ceylon; Chroniis (15 sp.), Sarotherodon ' (2 sp.), and Hemi- chromis (4 sp.), are from the rivers and lakes of Africa, ex- tending to the Sahara and Palestine. The remaining 15 genera are American, and several of them have a restricted distribution. Acara (17 sp.) inhabits Tropical South America and the Antilles; Theraps (1 sp.), Guatemala; Heros (26 sp.), Texas and CHAP, xx.] FISHES. 439 Mexico to La Plata ; Mesonauta (1 sp.), Brazil ; Petenia (1 sp.), Lake Peten, Guatemala ; Uaru (2 sp.), Brazil ; Hygrogonus (1 sp.), Brazil ; Cichla (4 sp.), Equatorial America ; Crenicichla (9 sp.), Brazil and Guiana ; ChcetobrancTius (3 sp.), Brazil and Guiana ; Mesops (2 sp.), Brazil ; Satanoperca (7 sp.), Amazon Valley and Guiana ; Gcophagus (1 sp.), North Brazil and Guiana ; Symphysodon (1 sp.), Lower Amazon; Pterophyllum (i sp.), Lower Amazon. Order IILANACANTHINI. FAMILY 53. GADOPSID.E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " Fresh-water fish, with rather elongate body covered with very- small scales, the upper jaw overhanging the lower, forming an obtuse snout." DISTRIBUTION. Kivers of Australia and Tasmania. FAMILY 53a. LYCODID^. (3 Genera, 14 Species.) "Marine fishes, with elongate bodies, and the dorsal united with the anal fin." DISTRIBUTION. Arctic seas of America and Greenland, and Antarctic seas about the Falkland Islands and Chiloe Island. FAMILY 54. GADID^E. (21 Genera, 58 Species.) "Marine fishes, with more or less elongate bodies covered with small smooth scales." DISTRIBUTION. Cold and temperate regions of both hemi- spheres ; in the North extending as far south as the Mediterranean, Canary Islands, New York, and Japan (and one species to the Philippines and Bay of Bengal), and in the South to Chili and New Zealand. Gadus (Cod), Merluccius (Hake), Phycis, Lota, Molva, Couckia, Motella, and Raniceps, are British. Lota inhabits fresh waters. VOL. II. 29 440 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 55. OPHIDIIIXE. (16 Genera, 43 Species.) " Marine fishes, with more or less elongate bodies, the dorsal and anal fins united, and the ventral fins rudimentary or absent." DISTRIBUTION. Almost universal ; from Greenland to New Zealand, but most abundant in the Tropics. Ophidium and Ammodytes occur in British seas; Lucifuga inhabits subterranean fresh waters in Cuba. FAMILY 56. MACROURIDJE. (3 Genera, 21 Species.) "Marine fishes, with the body terminating in a long, com- pressed tapering tail, and covered with spiny, keeled or striated scales." DISTRIBUTION. North Atlantic from Greenland to Madeira and the Canary Islands, Mediterranean, Japanese, and Australian seas. None of these fishes have occurred in the British seas. FAMILY 57. ATELEOPODID.E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " Marine fishes, with the naked body terminating in a long compressed, tapering tail." DISTRIBUTION. Japan. FAMILY 58. PLEURONECTID^. (34 Genera, 185 Species.) "Marine carnivorous fishes, with strongly compressed flat bodies, one side of which is colourless, and eyes unsymmetrically placed, both on the coloured side. They inhabit the sandy bottoms of shallow seas, and often ascend rivers." DISTRIBUTION. Universal, on Arctic, Temperate, and Tropical coasts. CHAP, xx:] FISHES. 441 Seven genera occur in British seas, viz. : Hippoglossus, Hippo- glossoides, Rhombus, Phrynorhombus, Arnoglossus, Pleuronectes (Turbot), and Solea (Sole). There are 13 genera in the Atlantic and 23 in the Pacific, 4 being common to both ; and 2 found only in the Mediterranean. A Pacific genus, Synaptura, has one species in the Mediterranean. Order IV.PHYSOSTOMI. FAMILY 59. SILUKID^E. (Ill Genera, 547 Species.) " Fresh- water or marine, scaleless fishes, often with bony shields, and the head always furnished with barbels." DISTRIBUTION. The fresh waters of all the temperate and tropical regions, those which enter the salt water keeping near the coast. This extensive family is divided by Dr. Giinther into eight sub-families and seventeen groups, the distribution of which is as follows : Sub-family 1 (SiLURHLE HOMALOPTERJE) is confined to the Old World. It consists of three groups : Clarina (2 genera, Clarias and Heterobranchus) ranges over the whole area of the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, to which it appears to be strictly- confined ; Plotosina (3 genera, Plotosus, Copidoglanis, and Cnido- glanis) ranges from the eastern coasts of Africa to Japan, Poly- nesia, and Australia, in seas and rivers ; Chacina (1 genus, Chaca) ranges from India to Borneo. Sub-family 2 (SiLURiD^E HETEROPTER.E) is also confined to the Old World ; it consists of one group, -Silurina, containing 19 genera, viz. : Saccobranchus (4 sp.), India to Cochin China and Ceylon ; Silurus (5 sp.), Palsearctic region from Central Europe to Japan, China, and Afghanistan, and a species in Cochin China; Silurichthys (3 sp.), Cashmere, Java, and Borneo ; Wallago (2 sp.), Hindostan, Sumatra, and Borneo ; Belodontichthys (1 sp.), Su- matra and Borneo ; EutropiicJithys (1 sp.), Bengal ; Cryplopterus 442 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. (15 sp.), Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, with a species in the Ganges, in Siam, and (?) in Amboyna; Calliclirous (10 sp.), Afghanistan to Borneo and Java; Schilbe (5 sp.), Tropical Africa; Eutropius (6 sp.), Tropical Africa and Central India ; Hemisilurus (2 sp.), Java and Sumatra ; Siluranodon (1 sp.), Nile ; Ailia (2 sp.), Bengal ; SchilbichtJiys (1 sp.), Bengal ; Lais (1 sp.), Java, Sumatra, Borneo ; Pseudeutropius (6 sp.), India and Sumatra ; Pangasius (7 sp.), Ganges, Sumatra, Java, Borneo; Helicophagus (2 sp.), Sumatra ; Silondia (1 sp.), Ganges. Sub-family 3 (SiLURiDJ,u Cli . . 456 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART rv. America, and India to Australia ; Chilobranchus (1 sp.), Australia and Tasmania. FAMILY 86. MUKJENTD^E. (26 Genera, 230 Species.) " Marine or fresh-water fishes, with cylindrical or band-like bodies and no ventral fins." DISTRIBUTION. The seas and fresh waters of temperate and tropical regions. This family is divided by Dr. Giinther into two sub-families and nine sections. The genus Anguilla, com- prising our common Eel and a number of species from all parts of the world, is the only one which is found in fresh water, though even here most of the species are marine. Anguilla and Conger are the only British genera. FAMILY 87. PEGASIDJE. (1 Genus, 4 Species.) " Small marine fishes, covered with bony plates, and short opposite dorsal and anal fins." DISTRIBUTION. Indian Ocean and seas of China and Aus- tralia. Order V.LOPHOBRANCHIL " Fish with a segmented bony covering, long snout, and small toothless mouth." FAMILY 88. SOLENOSTOMID^E. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) "Marine Lophobranchii, with wide gill openings and two dorsal fins." DISTRIBUTION. Indian Ocean, from Zanzibar to China and the Moluccas. CHAP, xx.]' FISHES. 457 FAMILY 89. SYNGNATHID.E. (15 Genera, 112 Species.) " Marine Lophobranchii, with very small gill opening and one soft dorsal fin." DISTRIBUTION. All the tropical and temperate seas. Some species of Syngnathus, Doryichthys, and Cwlonotus enter fresh water, and a few live in it exclusively. Siphonostoma, Syngna- thus, Nerophis, and Hippocampus are British genera. The Hippocampina (5 genera, 25 sp.), or Sea-horses, are peculiar to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, except three or four species of Hippocampus in the Atlantic and Mediterranean. Order VI. PLECTOGNATHI. "Fishes covered with rough scales or shields, having a narrow mouth, and soft posterior dorsal fin." FAMILY 90. SCLEKODEBMI. (7 Genera, 95 Species.) " Marine Plectognathi, with toothed jaws." DISTRIBUTION. Temperate and Tropical seas, but much more abundant in the Tropics. FAMILY 91. GYMNODONTES. (10 Genera, 82 Species.) " Marine or fresh- water Plectognathi, with jaws modified into a beak." DISTRIBUTION. Temperate and tropical regions. Some species of Tetrodon are found in the rivers of Tropical America, Africa, and Asia, Species of Tetrodon and Ortha- goriscus have been found on the British coasts. 458 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. SUB-CLASS II. DIPNOI. FAMILY 92. SIRENOIDEI. (3 Genera, 3 Species.) " Eel-shaped fresh-water fishes, covered /with cycloid scales ; the vertical fins forming a continuous border to the compressed tapering tail." DISTRIBUTION. Eivers of Tropical Africa, South America, and Australia. The genera are : Protopterus (1 sp.), Tropical Africa ; Lepido- siren (1 sp.), Amazon Valley ; Ceratodus (1 sp.), Queensland. SUB-CLASS III. GANOIDEI. Order LHOLOSTEL " Body covered with scales." FAMILY 93. AMIIDJE. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A fresh-water fish, with cycloid scales and a long soft dorsal fin." DISTRIBUTION. United States. FAMILY 94 POLYPTEEID^E. (2 Genera, 2 Species.) " Fresh- water fishes, with ganoid scales and dorsal spines." DISTRIBUTION. Central and Western Africa. The genera are : Polypterus (1 sp.), the Nile and rivers of West Africa; Cctla- moichthys (1 sp.), Old Calabar. CHAP, xx.] FISHES. 459 FAMILY 95. LEPIDOSTEID^E. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) " Fresh- water fishes, with ganoid scales, and dorsal and anal fins composed of articulated rays." DISTRIBUTION. The genus Lepidosteus, the Garfishes or Bony Pikes, inhabits North America to Mexico and Cuba. Order ILCHONDROSTEL " Sub-cartilaginous scaleless fishes with heterocercal tail, the skin w.ith osseous bucklers or naked." FAMILY 96. ACCIPENSEKID.E. (2 Genera, 20 Species.) " Marine or fresh- water fishes with osseous bucklers and inferior mouth." DISTRIBUTION. Temperate and Arctic regions of the northern hemisphere. Accipenser (19 sp.), comprising the Sturgeons, has the distribution of the family ; most of the species are marine, but some are confined to the Caspian and Black Seas and the great American lakes, with the rivers flowing into them, while the Danube, Mississippi, and Columbia Eiver have peculiar species. The other genus, Scaphirhynchus (I sp.), is confined to the Mississippi and its tributaries. FAMILY 97. POLYDONTID^E. (1 Genus, 2 Species.) " Fresh- water fishes, with wide lateral mouth and naked skin." DISTRIBUTION. The Mississippi and Yang-tse-kiang rivers. 460 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. SUB-CLASS IV. CHONDEOPTERYGII. (SHARKS AND KAYS.) Order IHOLQCEPHALA. (Chimceras.) FAMILY 98. CHIMJERnLE. (2 Genera, 4 Species.) " Shark-like marine fishes, snout of the male with a prehensile organ." DISTRIBUTION. Northern and Southern temperate seas. Chi- mcera is British. Order ILPLAGIOSTOMATA. Sub-order. SELACHOIDEA. (Sharks.) FAMILY 99. CARCHARIID^E. (11 Genera, 59 Species.) " Sharks with two dorsals and a nictitating membrane." DISTRIBUTION. Seas of the Arctic, temperate, and tropical regions. Species of Galeus and Mustelus have occurred on our coasts. FAMILY 100. LAMNID^E. (5 Genera, 7 Species.) " Sharks with two dorsals and no nictitating membrane." DISTRIBUTION. Temperate and tropical seas. Species of Lamna, Alopecias, and Selache have occurred in British seas. CHAP, xx.] FISHES. 461 FAMILY 101. KHINODOOTID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " Sharks with two dorsal fins, the second small, and no nicti- tating membrane." DISTRIBUTION. South and East Africa. FAMILY 102. NOTIDANTD^. (1 Genus, 4 Species.) " Sharks with one dorsal fin and no nictitating membrane." DISTRIBUTION. Temperate and tropical seas, from the North Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope and California. One species has occurred on our southern coasts. FAMILY 103. SCYLLIID.E. (7 Genera, 25 Species.) " Sharks with fene dorsal fin; and no nictitating membrane." DISTRIBUTION. All temperate and tropical seas. Species of Scyllium and Pristiurus are British. FAMILY 104CESTEACIONTID^E. (1 Genus, 4 Species.) " Sharks with two dorsal fins and no nictitating membrane." DISTRIBUTION. Pacific Ocean from Japan to New Zealand, Moluccan Sea. FAMILY 105. SPINACID^E. (10 Genera, 21 Species.) " Sharks with two dorsal fins and no nictitating membrane, no anal fin." DISTRIBUTION. Arctic, temperate, and tropical seas. Species of Acanthias, Lcemargus, and Echinorhinus have occurred on our coasts. 462 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv FAMILY 106. RHINID^E. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " Sharks with depressed flat body and large expanded pectoral fins." DISTRIBUTION. Temperate and tropical seas, from Britain to California and Australia. FAMILY 107. PRISTIOPHORID.E. (1 Genus, 4 Species.) " Sharks with produced flat snout, armed with teeth on each edge." DISTRIBUTION. Seas of Japan and Australia. Sub-order BATOIDEI. (Rays.) FAMILY 108. PRISTHLE. (1 Genus, 5 Species.) " Rays with produced snout and lateral saw-like teeth." DISTRIBUTION. Seas of tropical and sub-tropical regions. FAMILY 109. RHINOBATID^E. (3 Genera, 15 Species.) " Rays with long and strong tail, having a caudal and two dorsal fins." DISTRIBUTION. Tropical and sub-tropical seas. FAMILY 110. TORPEDINID.E. (6 Genera, 15 Species.) " Rays with broad smooth disc, and an electric organ." DISTRIBUTION. Tropical and temperate seas, from Britain to Tasmania. FAMILY 111. RAIID^E. <4 Genera, 29 Species.) " Rays with broad rhombic disc and no serrated caudal spine." DISTRIBUTION. All temperate and tropical seas. Several species of Raia are found on our coasts. CHAP, xx.] FISHES. 463 FAMILY 112. TRYGONID^E. (6 Genera, 43 Species.) " Eays with the pectoral fins extending to end of snout." PISTRIBUTION. Seas of all temperate and tropical regions, and rivers of Tropical America. A species of Trygon has occurred on our Southern coast. Ellipesurus and Tceniura are found in the fresh waters of the interior of South America, while the latter genus occurs also in the Indian seas, but not in the Atlantic. FAMILY 113. MYLOBATILXE. (5 Genera, 22 Species.) " Eays with very broad pectoral fins not extending to end of snout." DISTRIBUTION. Temperate and tropical seas. A species of Myliobatis is British, but most of the species and genera are confined to tropical seas. Dicerobatis and Ceratoptera are very large Rays, commonly called Sea-devils. SUB-CLASS V. CYCLOSTOMATA. " Cartilaginous fishes, with suctorial mouths and without lateral fins." FAMILY 114. PETROMYZONTHLE. (4 Genera, 12 Species.) " Marine or fresh-water eel-like fishes, with suctorial mouths and without barbels." DISTRIBUTION. Coasts and fresh waters of temperate regions of both hemispheres. Three species of Petromyzon (Lampreys), are British. 464 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 115. MYXINIDJE. (2 Genera, 5 Species.) " Marine eel-like fishes, with four pairs of barbels." DISTRIBUTION. Seas of the temperate regions of both hemi- spheres. SUB-CLASS VI. LEPTOCAKDII. FAMILY 116. CIRRHOSTOMI. (1 Genus, 1 Species.) " A small marine fish with no jaws or fins, and with rudi- mentary eyes." DISTRIBUTION. The only species, the Lancelet (Amphioxus), is the lowest form of living vertebrate. It is found in the tem- perate regions of both hemispheres, and has occurred on our southern coast. Remarks on the Distribution of Fishes. Marine Fish. There are about 80 families of marine fishes, and of these no less than 50 are universally, or almost uni- versally, distributed over the seas and oceans of the globe. Of the remainder many are widely distributed, some species even ranging from the North Atlantic to Australia. Six families are confined to the Northern Seas, but four of these consist of single species only, the other two being the Discoboli (2 genera, 11 sp.), and the Accipenseridse 1 (2 genera and 20 sp.). Only one family (Acanthoclinidse) is confined to the Southern oceans, and that consists of but a single species. Four families (Sternop- tychidae), Stomiatidae, Alepocephalidae, and Halosauridae) are confined to the Atlantic Ocean, while 13 are found only in the Pacific ; and of the remainder several are more abundant in the Pacific than the Atlantic. Two families (Lycodidae and Gadidse) are found in the Arctic and Antarctic seas only, though the CHAP, xx.] FISHES. 465 latter family has a single species iu the Indian seas. Among the curiosities of distribution are, the extensive genus Diagramma, confined to the Pacific with the exception of one species in the Mediterranean ; the single species constituting the family Lopho- tidse, found only in the Mediterranean and Japan ; the small family of Notacanthi, confined to Greenland, the Mediter- ranean, and West Australia; and the four families, Sternop- tychidse, Stomiatidse, Alepocephalidse, and Halosauridse, which are believed to inhabit exclusively the depths of the ocean, and are therefore very rarely obtained. Fresh-water Fish. There are 36 families of fishes which inhabit fresh water exclusively, and 5 others, which are both marine and fresh- water. 1 These present many interesting pecu- liarities of distribution. The Neotropical region is the richest in families, and probably also in genera and species. No less than 22 families inhabit it, and of these 6 are altogether peculiar. The Ethiopian and Nearctic regions each have 18 families, the former with 3, and the latter with 5 peculiar. Several isolated forms, requiring to be placed in distinct families, inhabit the great American lakes ; and, no doubt, when the African lakes are equally well known, they will be found also to possess many peculiar forms. The Oriental region comes next, with 1*7 families, of which 3 are peculiar. The Palcearctic has 12, and the Aus- tralian 11 families, each with only 1 altogether peculiar to it. If we take those regions which are sometimes supposed to be so nearly related that they should be combined, we shall find the fresh- water fishes in most cases markedly distinct. The Nearctic and Palsearctic regions, for example, together contain 20 families, but only 11 of these occur in both, and only 5 are exclusive inhabitants of these two regions. This shows an amount of diversity that would not, perhaps, be exhibited by any other class of animals. The Ethiopian and Oriental regions together ' possess 24 families, only 11 of which are found in both, and only 1 exclusively characteristic of the "two. The Australian and Neotropical regions possess together 27 families, of which 7 are found in both, and 3 are exclusively characteristic of the two. This last fact is very interesting : the marine family of >j&i n ^t o***.*. ".^ <* %rr6*~~*<^i.) c^e. ,-. 466 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Trachinidse possesses a fresh-water genus, Aphritis, one species of which inhabits Tasmania, and two others Patagonia; the Haplochitonidse (2 genera, 3 sp.) are found only in Tierra del Fuego, the Falkland Islands, and South Australia; 1 and the Galaxidae (1 genus, 12 sp.) inhabit the same regions, but extend to Chili, to New Zealand, and to Queensland. We have here an illustration of that connection between South America and Australia which is so strongly manifested in plants, but of which there are only scattered indications in most classes of animals. The dividing line across the Malay Archipelago, separating the Oriental from the Australian regions, and which is so strikingly marked in mammalia and birds, is equally so in fresh-water fishes. No less than six families have their eastern limits in Java and Borneo ; while the extensive family of Cyprinidae has no less than 23 genera in Java and Borneo, but not a single species has been found in Celebes or the Moluccas. The distribution of fresh- water fishes lends no support to the view that the peninsula of India belongs to the Ethiopian region. A large proportion of the Oriental families are common to the whole region ; while there is hardly a single example, of a characteristic Ethiopian family or genus extending into the peninsula of India and no further. Among the special peculiarities of distribution, is the curious fish, forming the family Comephoridae, which is confined to Lake Baikal, among the mountains of Central Asia, 2,000 feet above the sea, and a thousand miles distant from the ocean; yet having its nearest allies in the exclusively oceanic family of the mackerels (Scomberidse). The Cbaracinidae are confined to Africa and South America, distinct genera inhabiting each region. The Salmonidae are confined to the two northern regions, except a single species of a peculiar genus in New Zealand. The genus Osteoglossum has a species in South America, another in the Sunda Islands, and a third in Queensland ; while the curious Sirenoidei are represented by single species of peculiar genera in Tropical America, Tropical Africa, and Tropical Australia. Fossil Fishes. Fishes have existed from a very remote era, and it is remarkable that the first whose remains have been dis- CHAP, xix.] FISHES. 467 covered belong to the Ganoidei, a highly developed group which has continued to exist down to our times, and of which the sturgeon is the best known example. "We may therefore be sure that the Upper Silurian rocks in which these are found, although so very far back in geological history, do not by any means lead us to the time when the primitive fish-type appeared upon the earth. In the Carboniferous and Permian formations numerous remains of fishes are found, allied to the Lepidosteus or Gar-pike of North America. The next group in order of appearance, are the Plagiostomata, containing the existing Sharks and Kays. Traces of these are found in the highest Silurian beds, and be- come plentiful in the Devonian and Carboniferous formations and in all succeeding ages, being especially abundant in Creta- ceous and Eocene strata. The Holocephalf appear first in the Oolitic period, and are represented by the living Chimseridse. The Dipnoi, to which belong the Lepidosiren and Ceratodus, are believed to have existed in the Triassic period, from the evidence of teeth almost identical with those of the existing Australian fish. All the ancient fossil fishes belong to the above-mentioned groups, and many of them have little resemblance to existing forms. The Teleostean fishes, which form the great bulk of those now living, cannot be traced back further than the Creta- ceous period, while by far the larger number first appear in the Tertiary beds. The Salmonidae, Scopelidae, Percidae, Clupeidse, Scombresocidas, Mugilidse, and Siluridse, or forms closely allied to them, are found in the Cretaceous formation. In the Eocene beds we first meet with Squamniipennes, Cypri- nidse, Pleuronectidse, Characinidse, Mursenidse, Gadidse, Pedi- culati, Syngnathidas, and Hippocampidae. Most of these fossils represent marine fishes, those of fresh- water origin being rare, and of little importance as an aid in determining the causes of the distribution of living forms. To understand this we must look to the various changes of the land surface which have led to the existing distribution of all the higher vertebrates, and to those special means of dispersal which Mr. Darwin has shown to be possessed by all fresh-water productions. CHAPTER XXI. THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT FAMILIES AND GENERA OF INSECTS. ALTHOUGH insects are, for the most part, truly terrestrial animals, and illustrate in a very striking manner the characteristic pheno- mena of distribution, it is impossible here to treat of them in much detail. This arises chiefly from their excessive numbers, but also from the minuteness and obscurity of many of the groups, and our imperfect knowledge of all but the European species. The number of described species of insects is uncertain, as no complete enumeration of them has ever been made ; but it probably exceeds 100,000, and these may belong to some- where about 10,000 genera many times more than all verte- brate animals together. Of the eight Orders into which Insects are usually divided, only two the Coleoptera and Lepidoptera have been so thoroughly collected in all parts of the globe that they can be used, with any safety, to compare their distri- bution with that of vertebrate animals ; and even of these it is only certain favourite groups which have been so collected. Among Lepidoptera, for example, although the extensive group of Butterflies may be said, in a general sense, to be thoroughly well known every spot visited by civilized man having fur- nished its quota to our collections yet the minute Tineidse, or even the larger but obscure NoctuidaB, have scarcely been col- lected at all in tropical countries, and any attempt to study their geographical distribution would certainly lead to erroneous results. The same thing occurs, though perhaps in a less degree, among the Coleoptera. While the Carabidas, Buprestidse, and CHAP. XXL] INSECTS. 469 Longicorns of the Tropics, are almost as well known as those of the Temperate Zones, the Staphylinidae, the smaller Elateridse, and many other obscure and minute groups, are very imperfectly represented from extra-European countries. I therefore propose to examine with some care the distribution of the Butterflies, and the Sphingina among Lepidoptera, and the following large and well-known families of Coleoptera : Cicindelidse, Carabidse, Lucanidse, Cetoniida3, Buprestidse, and the three families of Lon- gicorns. These families together contain over 30,000 species, classed in nearly 3,000 genera, and comprise a large proportion of the best known and most carefully studied groups. We may therefore consider, that a detailed examination of their distribu- tion will lead us to results which cannot be invalidated by any number of isolated facts drawn from the less known members of the class. Eange of Insects in Time. In considering how much weight is to be given to facts in insect distribution, and what inter- pretation is to be put upon the anomalies or exceptional cases that may be met with, it is important to have some idea of the antiquity of the existing groups, and of the rate at which the forms of insect life have undergone modification. The geo- logical record, if imperfect in the case of the higher animals, is fragmentary in the extreme as regards indications of former insect life; yet the positive facts that it does disclose are of great interest, and have an important bearing on our subject. These facts and the conclusions they lead to have been discussed in our first volume (p. 166), and they must be carefully weighed in all cases of apparent conflict or incongruity between the dis- tribution of insects and that of the higher animals. 470 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Order LEPIDOPTERA. Sub-order LEPIDOPTERA KHOPALOCERA, or BUTTERFLIES. FAMILY 1. DANAID^E. (24 Genera, 530 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC S OB-REOIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REOIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 o m 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Danaidae are now held to comprehend, not only the whole of the group so named by Doubleday, but a large portion of the Heliconidae of that author. Their range is thus extended over the whole of the tropical regions. A few species spread north- wards into the Palaearctic and Nearctic regions, but these are only stragglers, and hardly diminish the exclusively tropical cha- racter of the group. The more remarkable genera are, Hestia (10 sp.), and Ideopsis (6 sp.), confined to the Malayan and Moluccan districts ; Danais (50 sp.), which has the range of the. whole family ; Euplcea (140 sp.), confined to the Oriental and Australian regions, but especially abundant in the Malayan and Moluccan districts ; Hamadryas (4 sp.), Australian region only. The remaining genera constitute the Danaioid Heliconidae, and are strictly confined to Tropical America, except a few species which extend into the southern parts of the Nearctic region. The chief of these genera are : Ithomia (160 sp.), Melincea (18 sp.), Napeogenes (20 sp.), Me- ckanitis (4 sp.), Ceratina (32 sp.), Dircenna (10 sp.), and Lycorca (4 sp.). Florida, Louisiana, and Southern California, mark the northern extent of these insects. CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 471 FAMILY 2. SATYKID^E. (60 Genera, 835 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 This family has an absolutely universal distribution, extending even into the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Many of the genera are, however, restricted in their range. Hfet&a, Lymanopoda, Calisto, Corades, Taygetis, Pronophila, Euptychia, and some allied forms (25 genera in all) are Neotropi- cal, the last named extending north to Canada ; Debis, Melanitis, Mycalesis and Ypthima, are mostly Oriental, but extending also into the Australian and the Ethiopian regions; Gnaphodes, Leptoneura, and a few other small genera, are exclusively Ethio- pian ; Xenica, Hypocista, and Heteronympha, are Australian ; Ere- bia, Satyrus, ffipparchia, Ccenonympha, and allies, are mostly Palaearctic, but some species are Ethiopian, and others Nearctic ; Chionfibas, is characteristic of the whole Arctic regions, but is also found in Chili and the Western Himalayas. The peculiar genera in each region are, Neotropical, 25; Australian, 7; Oriental, 11 ; Ethiopian, 5 ; Palsearctic, 3 ; Nearctic, 0. FAMILY 3. ELYMNIID^E. (1 Genus, 28 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. The genus Elymnias, which constitutes this family, is char- acteristic of the Malayan and Moluccan districts, with some species in Northern India and one in Ashanti. It thus agrees with several groups of Yertebrata, in showing the resemblance VOL. II. 31 472 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. of Malaya with West Africa independently of the Peninsula of India. FAMILY 4. MORPHEME. (10 Genera, 106 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEABCTIC I PAL.SARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL I ADSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. 3 A 10 The Morphidse are a group of generally large-sized butterflies, especially characteristic of the Malayan and Moluccan districts, and of Tropical America ; with a few species extending to the Himalayas on the west, and to Polynesia on the east. The genera are: Amathusia (6 sp.), Northern India to Java ; Zeuxidia (9 sp.), the Malay district ; Discophora (7 sp.), Northern India to Philippines, Java and Timor ; Enispe (3 sp.), Northern India ; Hyades (15 sp.), Moluccan and Polynesian districts, except one species in Java; Chrome (11 sp.), Northern India to Philippines and Celebes ; ^Emona (1 sp.), Sikhim ; Hyantis (1 sp.), Waigiou ; Thaumantis (1 sp.), Indo-Chinese and Malayan districts ; Morpho (40 sp.), Neotropical region, Brazilian and Central American sub-regions. FAMILY 5. BKASSOLDXE. (7 Genera, 62 ''Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEABCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^CARCTIC SUB-HEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-BEGIONS. Q 3 The Brassolidse have the same distribution as the genus Morpho. The genera are : Brassolis (5 sp.) ; Opsiphanes (17 sp.) ; Dynastor (2 sp.); Penetes (1 sp.) ; Caligo (21 sp.) ; Narope (5 sp.) ; and Dasyop- thalma (3 sp.) CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 473 FAMILY 6. ACEMIDM. (1 Genus, 90 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC S UB-BEGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN J ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. SUB-RKGION& SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRAVIAN SuB-REGIONa * 2.3- 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 The genus Acrcea is especially abundant in the Ethiopian region, which contains two-thirds of all the known species ; 3 or 4 species only, range over the whole Oriental, and most of the Australian regions ; while all the rest inhabit the same districts of the Neotropical region as the Brassolidse. FAMILY 7. HELICONULE. (2 Genera, ll^Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NKOTROPICAL I NEARCTIC SUB-REGION;. SUB-REGIONS. PAL/EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 2.3.4 The true Heliconidse are very characteristic of the Neotropical region ; one species only extending into the Southern States of North America as far as Florida. The genus Heliconius (83 sp.), has the range of the family ; while Eueides (19 sp.), is con- fined to the Brazilian and Central American sub-regions. FAMILY 8. NYMPHALIDJE. (113 Genera, 1490 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 This is the largest and most universally distributed family of butterflies, and is well illustrated by our common Fritillaries, 474 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Tortoise-shell, Peacock, Painted Lady, and Purple Emperor butterflies. They are found wherever butterfly-life can exist, and some single species like the Painted Lady (Pyrameis cardui) range almost over the globe. A few of the more extensive and remarkable genera only, can be here noticed : Colcenis, Agraulis, Eresia, Synchloe, Epicalia, Eunica, Eulagis, Catagramma, Callithea, Ageronia, Timetes, Heterochroa, Prepona, Hypna, Paphia, and Siderone, are wholly Neotropical, as well as many others which have a smaller number of species. Euryphene, Romaleosoma, Aterica, and Harma, are exclusively Ethiopian. Terinos, Athyma, Adolias, and Tancecia, are Oriental, but they mostly extend into the Moluccan region; the last however is strictly Malayan, and Adolias only reaches Celebes. Mynes alone, is exclusively Australian, but Prothoe is almost so, having only one outlying species in Java. Eurytela and Ergo- Us are confined to the Oriental and Ethiopian regions, but the latter reaches the Moluccas. Cethosia, Cirrhochroa, Messaras, and Sympkcedra, are both Oriental and Australian ; while Junonia, Cyrestis, Diadema, Neptis, and Nymphalis, are common to the three tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisph ere, the latter ex- tending into the Mediterranean district, while Junonia occurs also in South America and the Southern United States. The most cosmopolitan genus is Pyrameis, which has repre- sentatives in every region and every district. Apatura is found in all but the Ethiopian and the Australian, although it just enters the confines of the latter region in Celebes ; Limenitis is abundant in the Oriental region, but extends eastward to Celebes and westward into Europe, North America, and even into South America. Argynnis, Melitcea, and Vanessa, are almost confined to the Palaearctic and Nearctic regions; the former however occurs in the Himalayas and in the mountains of Java, and also in Chili and in Jamaica. Two genera Dic&orrhagia and Helcyrahave both one species in North India and another in the island of Ce s ra'ni. The number of genera peculiar to each region is as follows: Neotropical, 50; Australian, 2 ; Oriental, 1 5 ; Ethiopian, 14 ; Palsearctic, 1 ; Nearctic, 0. 1 m (b HK< CHAP. XXI.] INSECTS. 475 FAMILY 9. LIBYTHEID.E. (1 Genus, 10 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 2 - 4 -2.3- ,1.2 - 2 4 1.2.3.4 1 The genus Libythea, which constitutes this family, appears to have its head-quarters in the Oriental region, but extends on all sides in an erratic manner, into various remote and disconnected portions of the globe, as indicated above. FAMILY 10. NEMEOBIIOE. (12 Genera, 14^ Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC I PAL/EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN ORIENTAL I AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIOXS. SUB-REGIONS. -2.3 - 3.4 This group has been separated from the Erycinidse of the older authors, and contains all the non- American genera and species. Half the genera and nearly four-fifths of the species of this group are, however, Neotropical ; one is European ; two or three African ; and twenty-six Oriental and Australian. The genera are : Nemeobius (1 sp.), Europe; Dodona (6 sp.), North India; Zemeros (2 sp.), North India and Malaya ; Abisara (11 sp.), North India, Malayan and Moluccan districts, Madagascar and West Africa ; Taxila (8 sp.), North India and Malaya ; Dical- laneura (2 sp.), Moluccan district ; Alesa (6 sp.), Eunogyra (2 sp.), Cremna, (7 sp.), Bceotis (3 sp.), are all from the Brazilian sub-region ; EuryMa (10 sp.), Mesosemia (80 sp.), inhabit both the Brazilian and Mexican sub-regions. 476 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 11. -EURYGONID^E. (2 Genera, 78;Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB- REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-HEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 2 3 -.._ This small family, separated from the true Erycinidae .by Mr. Bates, is confined to the tropical forest-districts of con- tinental America. The genera are : Eurygona (71 sp.); Methonella (1 sp.); the latter found in Equatorial South America. FAMILY 12. ERYCINID^. 1 (59 Genera, 560 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-KEGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 2. 3. A- In f* This extensive family of small, but exquisitely beautiful butterflies, is especially characteristic of the virgin forests of the Neotropical region, only a few species of three genera ex- tending into tne Nearctic region. The more important genera, and those which have an exceptional distribution, can alone be here noticed. Charis extends from Brazil to New York ; Apo- 'demia from Brazil to California, Utah, and Oregon ; Amarynthis inhabits the Brazilian and Antillean sub-regions ; Lepricornis and Metapheles are small genera found only in the Mexican sub-region; Lymnas, Necyria, Ancyluris, Diorhina, JEsthemopsis, Anteros, JZmesis, Symmachia, Cricosoma, Calydna, Lemonias, NympJiidium, Theope, and Aricoris are common to the Brazilian and Mexican sub-regions. All the other genera (40 in number) are only known from the Brazilian sub-region, and of these a considerable proportion are confined to the damp equatorial forests of the Amazon Valley. CHAP, xxi.] INSECTS. 477 FAMILY 13. LYOENID^. (39 Genera, 1,220 Species.) GEXERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-UEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB- REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Lycsenidse of the variety and beauty of which in tropical regions our own " Blues " and " Coppers " give bu,t a faint idea are a group of universal distribution. We shall therefore in- dicate those genera which are restricted to one or more regions, or are nearly cosmopolitan. The large genus Polyommatus (con- taining 325 species) has the same universal distribution as the entire family. Our common " Blues " well represent this genus. Lyccena (comprising the " Coppers ") is more especially charac- teristic of the Palaearctic and Nearctic regions, but straggling species occur also in North India, South Africa, Chili, and New Zealand. Thecla is especially characteristic of the Neotropical region, where there are about 370 species; in the Nearctic region, 36 ; in the Palsearctic, 13 ; and in the Ethiopian, 3. Miletus, Lucia, Hypolyccena, Myrina, and Deudorix are common to the three tropical regions of the Eastern Hemisphere the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian. Aphneus and lolaus are common to the Ethiopian and Oriental regions, the latter extending to Celebes. lalmenus, Pseudodipsas, Curetis, and Amblypodia are common to the Oriental and Australian regions, but the first-named is found also in Madagascar. Zephyrus is found only in the Nearctic and Palsearctic, Eumceus in the Nearctic and Neotropical regions. The Nearctic region has one peculiar genus (Feniseca) ; the Paleearctic has two Thestor and Lceosopis ; the Ethiopian has nine Pentila, Liptana, D'Urlania, Axiocerces, Capys, Phytala, Epitola, Hewitsonia, and Deloneura ; the Oriental has five Allotinus, Ilerda, Poritia, Camena, and Lipliyra; the Australian has three Hypochrysops, Utica, and Ogyris ; and the Neotropical also three Lamprospilus, Theorema, and Trichonis. 478 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 14 PIEKIDJE. (3 N 5 Genera, 817 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEAKCTIC I PAL^SARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL I AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. SUB-KEGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. 1. 3. 3. 41 1.2. 3. 4- I 1.2. 3. 4 1.2. 3. 41. 2. 3. 4 1.2.3 The Pieridas are distributed almost, if not quite, as widely over the globe as the last family, and we shall group the genera in the same manner. Pieris (130 sp.) is cosmopolitan; Terias and Callidryas are found in all the four tropical regions, and as far north as Pennsylvania in the Nearctic region ; Pontia, Tachyris, Eronia, and Thestias are common to the Ethiopian, Oriental, and Australian regions, the last-named, however, only extending as far as Timor; Colias is pre-eminently Palaaarctic and Nearctic, with a few Ethiopian species, one Indian, two in Chili, and one in the Sandwich Islands ; Antho- charis is wholly Palaearctic and Nearctic ; Midea has two species Nearctie, and one in Japan ; Gonepteryx is Palsearctic and Neo- tropical, extending into Texas ; Idmais and Callosune are Ethiopian and Oriental ; Thyca and Iphias are Oriental and Australian ; Meganostoma is Nearctic and Neotropical ; Na- thalis and Kricogonia are Neotropical, ranging into Florida, Texas, and Colorado. The peculiar genera are pretty equally distributed. The Neotropical region has ten, two being confined to Chili ; Euterpe and Leptalis are the most remarkable, the latter containing a number of forms mimicking the Heliconidse and Danaidse. The Oriental region has two, Prioneris and Dercas ; the Australian one, Elodina ; the Ethiopian two, Teracolus and Pseudopontia ; the Palaearctic two, Leucopkasia and Zegris\ the Nearctic one, Neophasia. CHAP, xxi.] INSECTS. 479 FAMILY 15. PAPILIONID.E. (13 Genera, 455 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL 1 SUB-REGIONS. I 1.2.3.4 , NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 .4 1.2 .3 .4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 The Papilionidse, comprising many of the noblest and richest- coloured butterflies, and long placed at the head of the group, are almost as universally distributed as the Pieridae, but they do not extend to so many remote islands nor so far into the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Nine-tenths of the species belong to the genus Papilio, and these are especially abundant in tropical regions, although species occur in every region and every sub- region. Well-marked sub-divisions of this large genus are characteristic of each great region as the " ^Eneas" group in the Neotropical, the "Paris" group in the Oriental, the "./Egeus" group in the Australian, the " Zenobius " group in the Ethiopian, and many others. The few species of the Palsearctic region belong, on the other hand, to a group of universal distribution, and the Nearctic has a good number of species allied to Neotropical forms. The other genera have mostly a very restricted range. Par- naxsius is an Alpine genus, confined to the Palaearctic and Nearctic regions. The Pala3arctic region further possesses 5 peculiar genera Mesapia, Hypermnestra, Doritis, Sericinus, and Thais; the Oriental has 4, Calinaga, Teinopalpus, Bhutanitis, and Leptocircus, the latter going as far as Celebes ; the Aus- tralian has 1, Eurycus ; and the Neotropical 1, Euryades, con- fined to the Chilian sub-region. The Ethiopian and the Nearctic regions have no peculiar genera. 480 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 16. HESPEKID.E. (52 Genera (?) 1,200 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEABCTIC SUB- REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3. 4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3 .4 The Hesperidae, or Skippers, are an immense group of mostly small obscurely coloured butterflies, universally distributed, and of which hosts of species still remain to be discovered and described. As the grouping of these into genera is not yet satisfactorily accomplished, only the more extensive and best known groups will be here noticed. Pamphila and Hesperia are universally distributed ; Nisoniades seems to be only absent from the Australian region. The Neotropical region is pre- eminently rich in Hesperidse, 33 genera being found there, of which 20 are peculiar to it; the Australian region has 12 genera, only 1 (Euschemori)* being peculiar; the Oriental has 18, with 3 peculiar ; the Ethiopian, 13, with 3 peculiar ; the Palae- arctic 6, with 1 (Erynnis) almost peculiar, a species occurring in Mexico ; the Nearctic 9, with none peculiar, 4 being found also in the Neotropical region, 2 in the Palsearctic, and the rest being of wide distribution. Many new genera have, however, been recently described in the United States, but it is impos- sible yet to determine how many, if any, of these are peculiar. More than 100 species of the family are included in Mr. Edwards' " Synopsis of North American Butterflies/' a very large number considering that Europe possesses only about 30. tffr. CHAP. XXL] INSECTS. 481 Sub-order LEPIDOPTERA HETEROCERA, or MOTHS. The Lepidoptera Heterocera, or Moths, are of such immense extent, and are, besides, so imperfectly known compared with the Butterflies, that it would serve no purpose to go into the details of their distribution ; especially as most of the families and a considerable number of the genera are cosmopolitan. We propose therefore to notice only the Sphingina, which, being generally of large size and finely marked or coloured, and many of them day-fliers, have been extensively collected ; and whose numbers are more manageable than the succeeding groups. Group L SPHINGINA. FAMILY 17. ZYG^ENID^E (46 Genera, about 530 Species). The Zygsenidfe are universally distributed, but many of the genera are restricted in their range. Zygcena (85 sp.) is mainly Palsearctic, but 2 species are South African, and 1 North American ; Procris (22 sp.) has a scattered distribution, from the Palsearctic region to South America, South Africa, and North India ; Heterogynis (3 sp.) and Dysauods (3 sp.) are European ; Pollanisus (3 sp.) is Australian ; Glaucopis (1 20 sp.) is mainly Neotropical, with a few Oriental ; Syntomis (94 sp.) is found in all the Old-World regions ; and Euchromia (150 sp.) is found in all warm countries, though especially abundant in South America. FAMILY 18. CASTNIID M (7 Genera, 63. Species). The Castniidse have an interesting distribution, being mainly Neotropical, with four genera in Australia and New Guinea. Castnia, Coronis, and Gazer a, with 51 species, are Neotropical ; Synemon, Euschemon, Damias, and Cocytia, with 12 species, are Australian, the latter being found only in the Papuan Islands. 482 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 19. AGARISTIDJE (13 Genera, 76 Species). The Agaristidae are beautiful diurnal moths, allied to the Castniidae, but almost confined to the Australian and Oriental regions, with a few in the Ethiopian. The most important genera are, Agarista (21 sp.), Australia and New Guinea ; Eu- semia (31 sp.), jEgocera (7 sp.), Oriental and Ethiopian regions ; the other genera being confined to the islands from Java to New Guinea. FAMILY 20. URANIIMi (2 Genera, 12 Species). These magnificent insects have a singular distribution. The gold-spangled Urania (6 sp.) is characteristic of Tropical America, but a single species of great magnificence occurs in Madagascar. The large but sober-tinted Nyctalemon (6 sp.) is found in the Neotropical, Oriental, and Australian regions. FAMILY 21. STYGI1D.E. (3 Genera, 14 Species.) These insects are confined to the Palsearctic and Neotropical regions, 2 genera in the former, 1 in the latter. FAMILY 22. ^EGERIID^E. (24 Genera, 215 Species.) This family is found in all parts of the world except Australia. dEgeria is most abundant in Europe, but is found also in North and South America. FAMILY 23. SPHINGID^l. (40 Genera, 345 Species.) The Sphinx Moths are cosmopolitan. The most important genera are, Macroglossa (26 sp.), Chcerocampa (46 sp.), and Macrosila (21 sp.), all cosmopolitan ; Sesia (12 sp.), Europe, Asia, and North America; Deilephila (19 sp.), Palsearctic and Oriental regions, Nearctic region, and Chili; Sphinx (21 sp.), Europe, CHAP, xxi.] INSECTS. 483 North and South America; Smerinthus (29 sp.), all regions except Australia. Our Death's Head Moth (Acherontia atropos) ranges to Sierra Leone and the Philippine Islands. General Eemar'ks on the Distribution of the Diurnal Lepidoptera and Sphingidea. The Diurnal Lepidoptera or Butterflies, comprehend 431 genera and 7,740 species, arranged in 16 families, according to Mr. Kirby's Catalogue published in 1871. The Sphingidea con- sist of 135 genera and 1,255 species, arranged in 7 families, according to the British Museum Catalogue dated 1864 ; and as this includes all Mr. Bates' collections in America and my own in the East, it is probable that no very large additions have since been made. The distribution of the families and genera of Butterflies corresponds generally with that of Birds and more especially with that of the Passerine birds in showing a primary division of the earth into Eastern and Western, rather than into Northern and Southern lands. The Neotropical region is by far the richest and most peculiar. It possesses 15 families of butterflies, whereas the other regions have only from 8; in the Pala3arctic, to 12 in the J^tmopian and Oriental regions ; and as none of the Old World regions possess any peculiar families, the New World has a very clear superiority. In genera the preponderance is still greater, since the Neotropical region possesses about 200 altogether peculiar to it, out of a total of 431 genera, many of which are cosmopolitan. Comparing, now, the Eastern regions with the Western, we have A two peculiar families in the former to 4 in the latter ; while the Southern regions (Australian and Neotropical) possess not a single peculiar family in common. In the Sphingidea the same general features recur in a less marked degree, the Neotropical being the richest region; but here we have one family (Castniidse) which appears to be con- fined to the two southern regions, the Australian and Neo- tropical. The distribution of the genera affords us some facts of special interest, which must be briefly noticed. There are several 484. GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. genera typically characteristic of the North Temperate regions which have a few species widely scattered on mountains, or in the temperate parts of the Southern Hemisphere. Chili possesses representatives of four of these genera Argynnis, Lyccena, Co- lias, and DeilepTiila ; and this has been thought by some natura- lists to be of such importance as to outweigh the purely Neo- tropical character of a large portion of the Chilian fauna, and to render it advisable to join it on, as an outlying portion of a great North Temperate zoological region. But when we re- member that Argynnis occurs also in Java, and Lyccena in New Zealand, while Colias ranges to Southern Africa, Malabar, and the Sandwich Islands, we can hardly admit the argument to be a sound one. For a fuller discussion of this question see Vol. II., pp. 43 47. The remarkable fact of the existence of the otherwise purely Neotropical genus, Urania, in Madagascar is even more striking, supported as it is by the Antillean, Solenedon, belonging to a family of Mammalia otherwise confined to Mada- gascar, and by one or two Coleopterous genera, to be noticed farther on as common to the two countries. Our view as to the true explanation of this and analogous phenomena will be found at Vol. I., p. 284. The division of the Castniidae (a family almost confined to the Tropics), between the Neotropical and Australian regions, is also a very curious and important phenomenon, because it seems to point to a more remote connection between the two countries than that indicated by the resemblance between the productions of South Temperate America with those of Australia and New Zealand; but we have already shown that the facts may be explained in another way. (See Vol. I., pp. 398 and 404). The division of the Malay Archipelago between the Oriental and Australian regions is clearly marked in the Lepidoptera, and it is very curious that it should be so, for in this, if in any group of animals, we should expect an almost complete fusion to have been effected. Lepidoptera fly readily across wide tracts of sea, and there is absolutely no climatal difference to interfere with their free migration from island to island. Yet we find no less than 10 genera abundant in the Indo-Malayan CHAP. XXL] INSECTS. 485 sub-region which never cross the narrow seas to the east of them ; 6 others which only pass to Celebes ; and 2 more which have extended from Java along the closely connected line of islands eastwards to Timor. On the other side, we find 5 strictly Austro-Malayan genera, and 2 others which have a single re- presentative in Java. The following is a list of these genera : INDO-MALAYAN GENERA : Amathusia, Thaumantis, Tancecia, Eurytela, Ilerda, Zemeros, Taxila, Aphneus, Prioneris, Dercas, Clerome, Adolias, Apatura, Limenitis, lolaus, Leptocircus, (the last six reach Celebes) ; Discophora, Thestias ; (the last two reach Timor.) AUSTRO-MALAYAN GENERA: Hamadryas, Hypocista, Mynes, Dicallaneura, Elodina, Hyades, Prothoe (the last two reach Java). The most characteristic groups, which range over the whole Archipelago and give it a homogeneous character, are the various genera of Danaidae, the genus Elymnias, and Amblypodia with a few other Lycaenidae. These are all abundant and conspicuous groups, but they are nevertheless exceptions to the general rule of limitation to one or other of the regions. The cause of this phenomenon is probably to be found in the limitation of the larvae of many Lepidoptera to definite species, genera, and families 'of plants ; and we shall perhaps find, when the subject is carefully investigated, that the groups which range over the whole Archi- pelago feed on genera of plants which have an equally wide range, while those which are limited to one region or the other, have food- plants belonging to genera which are similarly limited. It is known that the vegetation of the two regions differs largely in a botanical sense, although its general aspect is almost identical ; and this may be the reason why the proportion of wide-ranging genera is greater among such insects as feed upon dead wood, than among those which derive their support from the juices of the living foliage. This subject will be again discussed under the various families of Coleoptera, and it will be well to bear in mind the striking facts of generic limitation which have been here brought forward. 486 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Fossil Butterflies, apparently of existing genera, occur in the Miocene and Eocene formations, and an extinct form in the Lower Oolite ; but these cannot be held to give any adequate idea of the antiquity of so highly specialised a group, which, in all probability, dates back to Palaeozoic times, since one of the Bombycidse, a group almost as highly-organised has been discovered in the coal formation of Belgium. (See Vol. I. p. 168.) Order COLEOPTERA. GEODEPHAGA, or CARNIVOROUS GROUND BEETLES. The Geodephaga consist of two families, Cicindelidee and Carabidse, differing in their form and habits no less than in their numbers and distribution. The former, comprising about 800 species, are far more abundant and varied in Tropical regions ; the latter, more than ten times as numerous, are highly charac- teristic of the North Temperate zone, where fully half of all the known species occur. CICINDELID^E. (35 Genera, 803 Species.) The Cicindelidae, or Tiger Beetles, are a moderately extensive group, spread over the whole globe, but much more abundant in tropical than in temperate or cold countries. More than half of the species (418) belong to the single genus Cicindela, the only one which is cosmopolitan. The other large genera are, Collyris (81 sp.), wholly Oriental ; Odontochila (57 sp.), South American, with species in Java and Celebes ; Tetracha (46 sp.) t mostly South American, but with species in South Europe, North America, and Australia ; Tricondyla (31 sp.), characteristic of the Oriental region, but extending eastward to New Guinea ; Ctenostoma (26 sp.), wholly Neotropical; Dromica (24 sp.), wholly African, south of Lake Ngami and Mozambique ; Therates (18 sp.), wholly Malayan, from Singapore to New Guinea. The genera are distributed in the several regions as follows : the Nearctic region has 5 genera, 3 of which are peculiar to it ; the CHAP. xxi. j INSECTS. 487 Palasarctic has 2, but none peculiar ; the Ethiopian 13, with 11 peculiar ; the Oriental 8, with 3 peculiar ; the Australian 9, with 2 peculiar; and the Neotropical 15, with 10 peculiar. The connection between South America and Australia is shown by the latter country possessing 9 species of the characteristic South American genus Tetracha, as well as one of Megacephala. The small number of peculiar genera in the Oriental and. Aus- tralian regions is partly owing to the circumstance that two otherwise peculiar Oriental genera have spread eastward to the Moluccas and New Guinea, a fact to be easily explained by the great facilities such creatures have for passing narrow straits, and by the almost identical physical conditions in the Malayan portion of the two regions. The insects of Indo-Malaya were better adapted to live in the Austro-Malay Islands than those of Australia itself, and the latter group of islands have thus ac- quired an Oriental aspect in their entomology, though not with- out indications of the presence of an aboriginal insect-fauna of a strictly Australian type. The relation of the Australian and Neotropical regions is exhibited by this family in an unusually distinct manner. Tetracha, a genus which ranges from Mexico to La Plata, has 9 species in Australia ; while Megacephala has 2 American and 1 Australian species. Another curious, and more obscure relation, is that between the faunas of Tropical America and Tropical Africa. This is also illustrated by the genus Megacephala, which has 4 African species as well as 2 South American ; and we have also the genus Peridexia, which has 2 species in South America and 2 in Madagascar. Several of the sub-regions are also well characterised by pecu- liar genera ; as AmblycJiila and Omus confined to California and the Eocky Mountains ; Manticora, Ophryodera, PlatycKile, and Dromica, characteristic of South Africa; Megalomma and Pogonos- toma peculiar to the Mascarene Islands ; and Caledonica to the islands east of New Guinea. The extensive and elegant genus Collyris is highly characteristic of the Oriental region, over the whole of which it extends, only just passing the limits into Celebes and Timor. The Cicindelidse, therefore, fully conform to those divisions of YOL. II 32 488 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. the earth which have been found best to represent the facts of distribution in the higher animals. CAKABID^E. (620 Genera, 8500 Species.) The enormous extent of this family, necessitates a somewhat general treatment. It has been very extensively collected, while its classification has been most carefully worked out, and a detailed exposition of its geographical distribution by a compe- tent entomologist would be of the greatest interest. A careful study of Gemminger and Harold's Catalogue, however, enables me to sketch out the main features of its distribution, and to detail many of its peculiarities with considerable accuracy. The Carabidse are remarkable among insects, and perhaps among all terrestrial animals, as being a wonderfully numerous, varied, conspicuous, and beautiful group, which is pre-eminently characteristic of the Palsearctic region. So strikingly and unmistakably is this the case, that it must be held completely to justify the keeping that region distinct from those to which it has at various times been proposed to join it. Although the Carabidse are thoroughly well represented by hosts of peculiar genera and abundant species in every part of the world without exception, yet the Palsearctic region alone contains fully one- third, or perhaps nearer two-fifths, of the whole. It may also be said, that the group is a temperate as compared with a tropical one ; so that probably half the species are to be found in the temperate and cold regions of the globe, leaving about an equal number in the much more extensive tropical and warm regions. But, among the cold regions, the Palsearctic is pre-eminent. North America is also rich, but it contains, by far, fewer genera and fewer species. The magnificent genus Carabus, with its allies Procerus and Procrustes, containing about 300 species, all of large size, is almost wholly confined to the Palsearctic region, only 10 species inhabiting North America, and 11 Temperate South America, with one on the African mountain of Kilimandjaro. Twelve large genera, containing together more than 2000 species, are truly cosmopolitan, inhabiting both temperate and tropical CHAP, xxi.] INSECTS. 489 countries all over the globe ; but many of these are more abun- dant in the Palsearctic region than elsewhere. Such are Scarites, Calosoma, JBmchinus, Cymindis, Lebia, Chlcenius, Platynus, Har- palus, Bemlecidium, Pcecilus, and Argutor. Of tropical cosmopo- lites, or genera found in all the tropical regions, but not in the temperate zones, there seem to be only four, Catascopus, Cop- todera, Colqpodes, and Caasnonia. Pheropsophus is confined to the tropics of the Old World ; while Drimostoma, though widely scattered, is characteristic of the Southern Hemisphere. The Palsearctic region has about 50 genera of Carabidse which are strictly confined to it, the most important being, Leistus (30 sp.), Procerus (5 sp.), Procrustes, (17 sp.), Zdbrus (60 sp.), Pristonychus (42 sp.), and Ophonus (60 sp.) ; but it possesses a large number in common with the Nearctie region. The more remarkable of these are, Carabus, Nebria, Amara, Cyrtonotus, Brady cellus, Anopthalmus, Celia, Gychrus, Patrobus, Maphrus, Notiophilus, Bradytus, Callisthenus, Blethisa, and several others. Many too, though not strictly confined to the North Temperate regions, are very abundant there, with a few species isolated in remote countries, or widely scattered, often in an eccentric man- ner. Among these may be mentioned, Trechus (120 sp.), all North Temperate but 8, which are scattered in Java, New Cale- donia, and South America ; Dyschirus (127 sp.), North Temperate, with 3 or 4 species in Australia, China, and La Plata ; Omaseus, (88 sp.), Steropus (90 sp.), Platysoma (114 sp.), and Pterostichus (138 sp.), are mostly North Temperate, but each has a few species in the South Temperate zone, New Zealand, Australia, Chili, and the Cape of Good Hope. Dromius (54 sp.), is about two-thirds Palsearctic, the rest of the species being scattered over the world, in Chili, North and South America, South Africa, Burmah, Ceylon, and New Zealand. The North Temperate genera Calathus and Olisthopus, have each one species in New Zealand ; Percus has most of its species in South Europe, but 3 in Australia; Abax is confined to the north temperate zone, but with one species in Madagascar; while Lcemosthenes is said to have a species identically the same in South Europe and Chili. Some of thse apparent anomalies may be due to wrong 490 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART TV. determination of the^genera, but there can be little doubt that most of them represent important facts in distribution. The Nearctic region is comparatively poor in Carabidse. Its more important peculiar genera are, Diccelus (22 sp.), Pasimachus (17 ^^Eurytrichus (9sp.), Sphceroderus (7 sp.), Pinacodera (6 sp.), and others of smaller extent, about 30 in all. It also possesses representatives of a considerable number of Palsearctic genera, as already indicated ; and a few of South American genera, of which Helluomorpha and Galerita are the most important. The Neotropical region is very rich in peculiar forms of Cara- bidse, as in almost all other great groups. It possesses more than 100 peculiar genera, but about 30 of these are confined to the South Temperate sub-region. The more important peculiar genera of Tropical America are, Agra (144 sp.), Ardistomus (44 sp.), Schizogenius (25 sp.), Pelecium, (24 sp.), Calophena (22 sp.), Ctenodactyla (7 sp.). Among the Chilian and South Temperate peculiar forms are, Antarctia (29 sp.), Scelodontis (10 sp.), Tropi- dopterm (4 sp.). Among the Neotropical genera with outlying species are, Pachyteles (50 sp.), one of which is West African ; Sdenopkorut (70 sp.), with 4 African, 4 Oriental, and 1 from New Caledonia; Ega (11 sp.), with one in the East Indies, and one in New Caledonia ; Galerita, with 36 American species, 8 African, and 3 Indian; Callida and Tetragonoderus, mostly American, but with a few African, Oriental, and Australian species ; and Pseudomorpha, common to America and Oceania. The Australian region is almost equally rich, possessing about 95 peculiar genera of Carabidse, no less than 20 of which are con- fined to New Zealand. The most important are, Carenum, Pro- mecoderus, Scaraphites, Notonomus, ^Enigma, Sphallomorpha, Sil- phomorpha, and Adelotopus. The gigantic Catadromus has 4 Australian species and 1 in Java ; Homalosoma has 31 species in Australia and New Zealand, and 1 in Madagascar. Celebes and New Guinea have each peculiar genera, and one is common to Australia and the Cape of Good Hope. The Oriental region possesses 80 peculiar genera, 10 of which are confined to Ceylon. The more important are, Pericallus, Planetes, and Mormolyce. Distrigus is also characteristic of this CHAP, xxi.] INSECTS. 491 region, with* oner species in Madagascar ; while it has Orthogo- nius, Hexagonia, Mavrochilus, and Thyreopterus in common with the Ethiopian region, and is rich in the fine tropical genus, Catascopus. The Ethiopian region has 75 peculiar genera, 8 of which are confined to Madagascar. The more important are, Polyhirma, Graphipterus, and Piezia. Anthia is chiefly African, with a few species in India; Abacetus is wholly African, except a species in Java, and another in South Europe ; and Hypolitlius is typically African, but with 7 species in South America and 1 in Java. The facts of distribution presented by this important family, looked .at broadly, do not support any other division of the earth into primary regions than that deduced from a study of the higher animals. The amount of speciality in each of these regions is so great, that no two of them can be properly united ; and in this respect the Carabidse accord wonderfully with the Vertebrates. In the details of distribution there occur many singular anomalies ; but these are not to be wondered at, if we take into consideration the immense antiquity of Coleopterous insects which existed under specialised forms so far back as the Carboniferous epoch, the ease with which they may be dispersed as compared with larger animals, and the facilities afforded by their small size, habits of concealment, and often nocturnal habits, for adaptation to the most varied conditions, and for surviving great changes of surface and of the surrounding organic forms. The wonder rather is, not that there are so many, but so few cases of exceptional and anomalous distribution ; and the fact that these creatures, so widely different from Vertebrates in organi- sation and mode of life, are yet on the whole subject to the same limitations of range as were found to occur among the higher animals, affords a satisfactory proof that the principles on which our six primary regions are founded, are sound ; and that they are well adapted to exhibit the most interesting facts of geo- graphical distribution, among all classes of animals. Much stress has been laid on the fact of a few species of such typical European genera as Carabus, Dromius, and others, being 492 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. found in Chili and Temperate South America ; " and it has been thought, that in a system of Entomological regions this part of the world must be united. to the Northern Hemisphere. But these writers omit to take into account, either the large numbers of isolated and peculiar forms characteristic of South Temperate America, or the indications of affinity with Tropical America and Australia, both of which are really more important than the connection with Europe. The three important Chilian genera, Cascelius, Barypus, and Cardiopthalmus, are closely allied to the Australian Promecoderus ; others, as Omostenus and Plagiotelium, are quite isolated ; while Antarctia and Metius, according to Lacordaire, form a distinct division of the family. Chili, too, has many species of Pachyteles y Coptodera, and other South American genera ; and this affinity is far stronger in many other families than in the Carabidae. The existence of representatives of typical northern forms in Chili, is a fact of great interest, and may be accounted for in a variety of ways (see Vol. II. p. 44); but it is not of such a magnitude as to be of primary import- ance in geographical distribution, and it can only be estimated at its fair value, by taking into account the affinities of all the groups inhabiting that part of the world. LUCANIDJE. (45 Genera, 529 Species.) Passing over a number of obscure families, we come to the remarkable group of the Lucanidas, or Stag-beetles, which, being almost all of large size, and many of them of the most striking forms, have been very thoroughly collected and assiduously studied. The most curious feature of their general distribution, is their scarcity in Tropical South America, and their complete absence from Tropical North America and the West Indian Islands, though they appear again in Temperate North America. In the New World they may, in fact, be looked upon as a temperate group characteristic of the extra-tropical regions and the highlands ; while in the Old World, where they are far more abundant, they are distinctly tropical, being especially numerous CHAP, xxi.] INSECTS. 493 in the Oriental and Australian regions. No genus has the range of the whole family, Dorcus and Lucanus being absent from Africa, while Cladognathus is unknown in the New World and on the continent of Australia. The Oriental region is the richest in peculiar forms, possessing 16 genera, 7 of which are wholly confined to it, while 3 others only just range beyond it to North China on the one side, or to the Austro-Malayan islands on the other. The Australian region comes next, with 15 genera, of which 7 are wholly peculiar. South America has 12 genera, 10 of which are peculiar. The Ethiopian region has 10 genera, 7 of which are peculiar, and 2 of these are confined to the island of Bourbon. The Palsearctic region has 8 genera, and the Nearctic 5; one genus being peculiar to Europe, and two confined to Europe and North America. The Ethiopian and Oriental regions have 3 genera in common and peculiar to them; the Oriental and Australian 3 ; while the Australian and Neo- tropical have 1 in common, to which may be added Streptocerus, which represents in Chili the Australian Lamprima. Among the special features presented by the distribution of the Lucanidse, may be mentioned the remarkable group of genera, Pholidotus, Chiasognathus, and Sphenognathus, confined to Temperate South America, the Andes, and mountains of Brazil; Lucanus (19 sp.), almost confined to the Oriental and Palaearctic regions, three species only inhabiting North America ; Odontoldbris (29 sp.), wholly Oriental, with 2 sp. in Celebes; Nigidius (11 sp.), Ethiopian, but with species in Formosa, the Philippines, and Malacca; Syndesus (11 sp.), common to Australia, New Caledonia, and South America ; Figulus (20 sp.), divided between Africa and Madagascar on the one hand, and Australia, with the Malay and Pacific Islands, on the other. The facts of distribution here sketched out are in perfect accordance with those of many groups of Vertebrates. The regions are sharply contrasted by their peculiar and character- istic genera; the several relations of those regions are truly indicated ; while there is a comparatively small proportion of cases of anomalous or eccentric distribution. 494 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. CETONIID^E. (120 Genera, 970 Species.) As representative of the enormous group of the Lamellicorns, which, according to continental entomologists, forms a single family numbering nearly 7,000 species, we take the Cetoniidae or Kose-Chafers. These comprise a number of the most bril- liant and beautifully-coloured insects, including the gigantic Goliathi, which are among the largest of known beetles. They have been assiduously collected in every part of the world, and their classification has been elaborated by many of our most eminent entomologists. The Cetoniidse are especially abundant in tropical and warm countries, yet far more so in the Old World than in the New ; and in the Old World, the Ethiopian region exhibits a marvellous richness in this family, no less than 76 genera being found there, while 64, or more than half the total number, are peculiar to it. Next in richness, though still very far behind, comes the Oriental region, with 29 genera, 17 of which are peculiar. The Neo- tropical has only 14 genera, but all except two are peculiar to it, and one of these is not found out of the New World. The Australian region has 11 genera, three only being peculiar. The Palsearctic region has 13, with 4 peculiar; the Nearctic 7, with 2 peculiar. The affinities of the regions for each other, as indicated by the genera confined to two adjacent regions, are in this family somewhat peculiar. The Ethiopian and Oriental show the most resemblance, 6 genera being common and peculiar to the two ; the Oriental and the Australian are unusually well contrasted, having only one genus exclusively in common, while 8 genera are found in the Indo-Malay Islands which do not cross the boundary to the Austro-Malayan division, and several others only pass to the nearest adjacent islands ; on the other hand, the only large Australian genus, Schizorhina, is found in many parts of the Moluccas, but not further west. The Australian and Neotropical regions exhibit no direct affinity, the nearest ally to the South American Gymnetidse being Clinteria, an African and Asiatic genus ; while not a single genus is common CHAP, xxi.] INSECTS. 405 to Australia and South America. The Nearctic and Palsearctic regions have 3 genera in common, which are found in no other part of the world. Among the special features of interest connected with the distribution of this family, we must first notice the exceptional richness of Madagascar, which alone possesses 21 peculiar genera. South Africa is also very rich, having 8 peculiar genera. Stethodesma is very peculiar, being divided between South America and Mexico on the one hand, and West and South Africa on the other. Stalagmosoma is a desert genus, ranging from Persia to Dongola. No genus is cosmopolitan, or even makes any approach to being so, except Valgus, which occurs in all the regions except the Neotropical ; and even the family seems to be not universally distributed, since no species are recorded either from New Zealand, the Pacific Islands, or the Antilles. The facts here brought forward, lead us to the conclusion that the Cetoniidae are an Old- World tropical family, which had been well developed in Africa and Asia before it spread to Australia and America; and that it is only capable of being freely dispersed in the warmer regions of the earth. This view will explain the absence of affinity between the Australian and Neotropical regions, the only closer connection between which, has almost certainly occurred in the colder portions of the Tem- perate zone. BUPBESTID.E. (109 Genera, 2,686 Species,) The next family suited to our purpose is that of the Bupres- tidae, consisting as it does of many large and some gigantic species, generally adorned with brilliant metallic colours, and attracting attention in all warm countries. Although these in- sects attain their full development of size and beauty only in the Tropics, they are not much less abundant in the warmer parts of the Temperate zone. In the Catalogue of the Coleop- tera of Europe and the Mediterranean Basin, by M. de Marseul (1863), we find 317 species of Buprestidse enumerated, although 496 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. the district in question only forms a part of the Palsearctic region, which would thus seem to possess its full proportion of the species of this family. Confining ourselves to the generic forms, we find far less difference than usual between the numbers possessed by the tropical and the temperate regions ; the richest being the Australian, with 47 genera, 20 of which are peculiar ; and the poorest the Nearctic, with 24 genera, of which 7 are peculiar. The Oriental has 41 genera, 14 of which are peculiar ; the Neotropical 39, of which the large proportion of 18 are peculiar ; the Ethiopian 27, of which 6 are peculiar ; and the Palaearctic also 27, but with 9 peculiar. A most interesting feature in the distribution of this family, is the strong affinity shown to exist between the Australian and Neotropical regions, which have 4 genera common to both and found nowhere else ; but besides this, the extensive and highly characteristic Australian genus, Stigmodera, is closely related to a number of peculiar South American genera, such as Conognatha, Hyperantha, Dactylozodes, the last altogether con- fined to Chili and Temperate South America. Here we have a striking contrast to the Cetoniidae, and we can hardly help concluding, that, as the latter is typically a tropical group, so the present family, although now so largely tropical, had an early and perhaps original development in the temperate regions of Australia, spreading thence to Temperate South America as well as to the tropical regions of Asia and Africa. The Australian and Oriental regions have 4 genera exclusively in common, but they also each possess a number of peculiar or characteristic genera, such as the Indo-Malayan Catoxantha (which has only a single species in the Moluccas) and nine others of less importance ; and the exclusively Austro-Malayan genus, Sambus, with five smaller groups, and Cypliogastra, with only 2 Indo-Malay species. The Oriental and Ethiopian regions are very distinct, only possessing the single genus, Sternocera, exclusively in common. The Nearctic and Palsearctic are also distinct, only one genus, Dicerca, being confined to America (North and South) and Europe, a fact which again points to a southern origin for this family, and its comparatively recent extension into the CHAP, xxi.] INSECTS. 497 North Temperate zone. It must be remembered, however, that in view of the immense geological antiquity of the existing families of Beetles, dating back certainly to the Secondary and probably to the Palaeozoic epoch, " comparatively recent " may still be of considerable antiquity. It is somewhat singular that North and South America have no genera exclusively in common. The connection between South America and Africa seems to be shown, by the genus Psiloptera, the mass of the species being divided between these regions, with a few widely scattered over the globe; and the American genus Actenodes, which has one species in West Africa. Somewhat allied, is the extensive genus Polyboihris, strictly confined to Madagascar. The genus Agrilus is perhaps cosmopolitan, although no species of the family is recorded from New Zealand. Among the peculiarities of distribution we may notice, the genus Sponsor, with 8 species in the island of Mauritius, 1 in Celebes, and 1 in New Guinea ; Ptosima, scat- tered between the United States, Mendoza in South Temperate America, South Europe, the Philippine Islands, and North China ; Polycesta, which besides inhabiting South America, North America, and Europe, has a single species in Madagascar ; and Belionota, which has 8 species African, 8 Indo-Malayan, 2 Austro-Malayan, and 1 in California. The extensive genus Acmceodera, is most abundant in the warm and dry portions of the Palsearctic, Ethiopian, and Nearctic regions, with some in the Andes and South Temperate America, a few in Brazil and the West Indies, and 1 said to be from the Philippines. About one-third of the genera (containing more than half the species) have a tolerably extensive range, while the genera confined to single regions contain only about one-fourth of the total number of species. It will, I think, be admitted, after a careful study of the preceding facts, that the regions and sub-regions here adopted, serve to exhibit, with great clearness, the chief phenomena of distribution presented by this interesting family. 498 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. LONGICORNIA. (l,48^benera, 7,576 Species). The elegant and admired group of the *Lougicorn Beetles, is treated by continental authors as a single family, consisting of three sub-divisions the Prionidae, Cerambycidse, and Lamiidse of English entomologists. These are so closely related, and are so similar in form, habits, and general distribution, that it will be best to consider the whole as one group, noticing whatever peculiarities occur in the separate divisions. The endless structural differences among these insects, have led to their being classed in an unusual number of genera, which average little more than 5 species each ; a number far below that in any of the other families we have been considering, and probably below that which obtains in any of the more extensive groups of animals or plants. This excessive subdivision of the genera, a large number of which consist of only one or two species, renders it difficult to determine with precision the relations of the several regions, since the affinities of these genera for each other are in many cases undetermined. A group of such enormous extent as this, can only be properly understood after years of laborious study ; we must therefore content ourselves with such results as may be obtained from a general survey of the group, and from a comparison of the range of the several genera, by means of a careful tabulation of the mass of details given in the recent Catalogue of Messrs. Gemminger and Harold and the noble work of Lacordaire. The proportionate extent of the three families of Longicorns is very unequal ; the Prionidse comprising about 7 per cent., the Cerambycidae 44 per cent., and the Lamiidse 49 per cent, of the total number of species ; and the genera are nearly in the same proportions, being almost exactly 10, 40, and 50 per cent, of the whole, respectively ; or, 135 Prionidse, 609 Cerambycidse, and 746 Lamiidse. The several regions, however, present marked differ- ences in their proportions of these families. In the two North Temperate regions, the Cerambycidse are considerably more numerous than the Lamiidaj, in the proportion of about 12 to CHAR xx:.] INSECTS. 499 9; and in this respect the Neotropical region agrees with them, though the superiority in the proportion of Cerambycidse is somewhat less. In the Old World tropical regions, however, and in Australia, the Lamiidae greatly preponderate being nearly double in the Oriental and Ethiopian regions (or as 11 to 6), while in the Australian it is as 6 to 5. The Prionidse show a similar difference, though in a less degree ; being proportion- ately more numerous in the North Temperate and Neotropical regions. Now, as regards the North Temperate regions, this difference can be, to some extent explained, by a difference in the habits of the insects. The Lamiidse, which both in the larva and perfect state have exceedingly powerful jaws, exclusively frequent timber trees, and almost always such as are dead ; while the Cerambycidse, are generally more delicate and have weaker mandibles, and many of the species live on shrubs, dead twigs, foliage, and even on flowers. The immense superiority of the Tropics in the number and variety of their timber trees, and the extent of their forests, sufficiently accounts for their superiority to the Temperate regions in the develop- ment of Lamiidse ; but the great excess of Cerambycidae in South America as compared with the rest of the Tropics, is not to be so readily explained. Bearing in mind the different proportions of the families, as above noted, we may now consider the distribution of the Longicorns as a whole. In number of generic forms, the Neo- tropical region, as in so many other groups, has a marked superiority. It possesses 516 genera, 489 of which (or about J|- of the whole) are peculiar to it. The Australian and Orien- tal regions come next, and are exactly equal, both possessing 360 genera, and having almost exactly the same proportion (in each case a little less than f) peculiar. The Ethiopian region has 262 genera, with about -f- peculiar ; the Palaearctic 196, with 51 (rather more than J) peculiar; and the Nearctic 111, with 59 (a little more than half) peculiar. The more isolated of the sub-regions are also well characterised by peculiar genera. Thus, Chili with Temperate South America possesses 37, a large proportion being Cerambycidse ; the MalagaSr group 26, 500 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. with a preponderance of Lamiidse ; and New Zealand 12, of which the Cerambycidse are only slightly in excess. The relations between the Longicorn fauna of the several regions, are such as are in accordance with the dependence of the group on a warm climate and abundant vegetation ; and indicate the efficiency of deserts and oceans as barriers to their migration. The Neotropical and Australian regions have only 4 genera in common, but these are sufficient to show, that there must proba- bly once have been some means of communication between the two regions, better adapted to these insects than any they now possess. The Nearctic and Neotropical regions have 5, and- the Nearctic and Palsearctic 13 genera in common and peculiar to them, the latter fact being the most remarkable, because no means of inter-communication now exists, except in high lati- tudes where the species of the Longicorns are very few. The Oriental and Australian regions, on the other hand, are closely connected, by having no less than 52 genera of Longicorns in common and peculiar to them. Most of these are specially characteristic of the Malay Archipelago, often extending over all the islands from Sumatra to New Guinea. This large number of wide-spread genera of course gives a character of uniformity to the entire area over which they extend ; and, with analogous facts occurring in other families, has led many entomologists to reject that division of the Archipelago between the Australian and Oriental regions, which has been so overwhelmingly demon- strated to be the natural one in the case of the higher animals. The general considerations already advanced in Chapter II. enable us, however, to explain such anomalies as this, by the great facilities that exist for the transfer from island to island of such small animals, so closely connected with woody vege- tation in every stage of their existence. That this is the true and sufficient explanation, is rendered clear by certain additional facts, which those who object to the sharp division of the Indo- Malay and Austro-Malay sub-regions have overlooked. An analysis of all the Malay Longicorns proves, that besides the 52 genera characteristic of the Archipelago as a whole, there are 100 genera which are confined to one or other of its component CHAP. XXL] INSECTS. 501 sub-regions. Many of these, it is true, consist of single species confined to a single island, and we will not lay any stress on these ; but there are also several important groups, which extend over the Indo-Malay or the Austro-Malay islands only, stopping abruptly at the dividing-line between them. For example, on the Indo-Malay side we have Euryarthrum, Leprodem, Aris- tobia, Coelosterna, and Entelopes, and what is perhaps even more satisfactory, the large genera Agelasta and Astathes, abundant in all the Indo-Malay islands, but having only one or two species just passing the boundary into Celebes. On the other side we have Tethionea, Sphingnotus, Arrhenotus, Tmesisternus (the last three genera abounding from New Guinea to Celebes, but totally unknown further west), Hestima, Trigonoptera, Amblym&ra, Ste- silea, Enes, and the large genus Micracafaha, with but a single species beyond the boundary, 30 Austro-Malayan genera in all, each found in more than one island, but none of them extending west of Celebes. Here we have clear proof that the boundary line between the two great regions exists for Longicorns, as well as for all other animals ; but in this case an unusually large number have been able to get across it. This, however, does not abolish the barrier, but only proves that it is not absolutely effect- ual in all cases. Those who maintain that the Malay Archi- pelago forms a single Coleopterous region, must disprove or explain the instances of limited range here adduced. Out of nearly 1500 known genera of these insects, only one genus, Clytus, appears to be cosmopolitan. Saperda and Callichro- ma aie the only others that perhaps occur in every region ; but these are both wanting over wide tracts of the earth's surface, Saperda being absent from Tropical Africa and the Malay Archi- pelago ; and Callichroma from the Australian region, except one species in Polynesia. Many of the genera of Longicorns have a somewhat wide and scattered distribution, indicative of decadence or great antiquity. Mallodon and Parandra are mostly South American, but have species in Australia and Africa ; Oeme is found in Brazil and the United States, with one species in West Africa ; Ceratoplwrus has 2 species in West Africa and 1 in New Zealand. Xystrocera is mostly African, but has single species in 502 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Borneo, Java, Amboyna, and South Australia ; Phyton has one species in North America and the other in Ceylon; Philage- tes has 2 in South Africa, and 1 in Malacca : Toxotus abounds in North America and Europe, with one species away in Mada- gascar. Leptura is also North Temperate, but has a species at the Cape, one at Singapore, and a third in Celebes. Necydalis has species in North and South America, Europe, and Australia. Hylotrupes has 1 species in North America and Europe, and 1 in Australia ; Leptocera prefers islands, being found only in Ceylon, Madagascar, Bourbon, Batchian, the New Hebrides, New Caledonia, and North Australia ; Hathliodes is Australian, with 1 species in Ceylon ; Schwnionta has 3 Malayan species, and 1 in Natal. Many other cases equally curious could be quoted, but these are sufficient. They cannot be held to indicate any close relation between the distant countries in which species of the same genus are now found, but perhaps serve to remind us that groups of great antiquity, and probably of great extent, have dwindled away, leaving a few surviving relics scattered far and wide, the sole proofs of their former predominance. General Observations on the Distribution of Coleoptera. We have now passed in review six of the most important and best known groups of the Coleoptera or Beetles, comprising about 2,400 genera, and more than 21,000 species. Although presenting certain peculiarities and anomalies, we have found that, on the whole, their distribution is in very close accordance with that of the higher animals. We have seen reason to believe that these great and well-marked groups have a high geological antiquity, and by constantly bearing this fact in mind, we can account for many of the eccentricities of their distribu- tion. They have probably survived changes of physical geo- graphy which have altogether extinguished many of the more highly organised animals, and we may perhaps gain some insight into the bearing of those changes, by considering the cross rela- tions between the several regions indicated by them. On care- fully tabulating the indications given by each of the groups here discussed, I arrive at the following approximate result. The CHAP, xxi.] INSECTS. 503 best marked affinities between the regions are those between the Nearctic and Palaearctic, the Oriental and Australian, the Australian and Neotropical, which appear to be about equal in each case. Next comes that between the Ethiopian and Oriental on the one side, and the Ethiopian and Neotropical on the other, which also appear about equal. Then follows that between the Nearctic and Neotropical regions ; and lastly, and far the least marked, that between the North Temperate and South Temperate regions. That the relation between the Ethiopian and Neotropical region should be so comparatively well marked, is unexpected ; but we must consider that in such a comparison as the present, we probably get the result, not of any recent changes or intermigrations, but of all the long series of changes and opportunities of migration that have occurred during many geological epochs, probably during the whole of the Tertiary period, perhaps extending far back into the Secondary age. It appears evident that Insects exhibit in a very marked degree in their actual distribution, the influence both of very ancient and very modern conditions of the earth's surface. The effects of the ancient geographical features of the earth, are to be traced, in the large number of cases of discontinuous and widely scattered groups which we meet with in almost every family, and which, to some extent, obscure the broader features oPdistri- bution due to the period during which the barriers which divide the several primary regions have continued to exist. And this, which we may consider as the normal distribution, is still further obscured in those cases where the barriers between existing regions are of such a nature as to admit of the free passage of insects or their larva in a variety of ways, and (what is perhaps of more importance) in which the physical features on both sides of the barrier are so nearly identical, as to admit of the ready establishment of such immigrants as may occasion- ally arrive. These conditions concur, for some families of insects, in the case of the Oriental and Australian portions of the Malay Archipelago: and it is there that the normal distribution has been sometimes greatly obscured, but never, as we have suffi- ciently shown, by any means obliterated. VOL. II. 33 CHAPTER XXII. AN OUTLINE OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MOLLUSCA. THE Mollusca being for the most part marine, it does not enter into the plan of this work to go into much detail as to their distribution. The orders and families will, however, be passed briefly in review, and all terrestrial and fresh-water groups discussed in somewhat more detail ; with the object of showing how far their distribution accords with that of the higher animals, and to what extent the anomalies they present can be explained by peculiarities of organisation and habits. If the views advocated in our fifffi. chapter are correct, the regions there marked out must apply to all classes of animals ; and it will be the task of the students of each group, to work out in detail the causes which have led to any special features of distribution. All I can hope to do here, is to show, generally and tentatively, that such a mode of treatment is possible ; and that it is not necessary, as it is certainly not convenient or instructive, to have a distinct set of " Regions " established for each class or order in the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms. For all the Marine groups I have merely summarised the information contained in Mr. Woodward's Manual of the Mollusca, but in the case of the Land Shells. I have consulted the most recent general works, and endeavoured to give an accurate, though doubtless a very incomplete, account of the most interesting facts in their distribution. As their classifica- tion is very unsettled, I have followed that of the two latest great works, by Martens and Pfeiffer. CHAP, xxn.] MOLLUSCA. 505 CLASS. CEPHALOPODA. * Order LDIBRANCHIATA. FAMILY 1. AKGOJSTAUTID^E. " Paper Nautilus." (1 Genus, 4 Species). DISTRIBUTION. Open seas of all warm regions. Two species fossil in Tertiary deposits. FAMILY 2. OCTOPODIDJE. "Polypi." (7 Genera, 60 Species). DISTRIBUTION. Norway to New Zealand, all tropical and temperate seas and coasts. FAMILY 3. TEUTHID^E. " Squids or Sea-pens. (16 Genera, 102 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. Universal, to Greenland ; 2 other genera are fossil, in the Lias and Oolite. i FAMILY 4 SEPIADJE. " Cuttle Fish." (1 Genus, 30 Species). DISTRIBUTION. All seas : 4 other genera are fossil, in Eocene and Miocene deposits. FAMILY 5. SPIEULID^E. (1 Genus, 3 Species). DISTRIBUTION. All the warmer seas. 506 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 6. BELEMNITHLE. Fossil. (6 Genera, 100 Species). DISTRIBUTION. Lias to Chalk in Europe, India, and North America. Order II.TETRABRANCHIATA. FAMILY 7. NAUTILID^E. (1 Genus, 3 Species, Living; 4 Genera, 300 Species, Fossil). DISTRIBUTION. Indian and Pacific Oceans ; and the fossil species from the Silurian Period to the Tertiary, in all parts of the world. FAMILY 8. ORTHOCEKATID^E. Fossil. (8 Genera, 400 Species). DISTRIBUTION. Lower Silurian to Lias. FAMILY 9. AMMONITIDJE. Fossil. (14 Genera, 1100 Species). DISTRIBUTION. Upper Silurian to Chalk. Found at 16,000 feet elevation in the Himalayas. CHAP. XXIL] MOLLUSCA. 507 CLASS. GASTEKOPODA. Order L PRO SO BE ANC HI AT A. FAMILY 1. STKOMBID^E. (4 Genera, 86 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Strombidse, or Wing-shells, inhabit tropi- cal and warm seas from the Mediterranean to New Zealand ; most abundant in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. There are nearly 200 fossil species, from the Lias to Miocene and recent deposits. FAMILY 2. MUKICID.ZE. (12 Genera, 1000 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. All seas, most abundant in the Tropics. Trichotropis is confined to Northern seas ; Murex and Fusus are cosmopolitan. There are about 700 fossil species, ranging from the Oolite to the Miocene and recent formations; FAMILY 3. BUCCINID^. (24 Genera, 1100 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Buccinidse, or " Whelks," range over the whole world, but some of the genera are restricted. Buccinum inhabits the north and south temperate seas; Monoceros the West Coast of America ; Cassidaria the Mediterranean ; Phos, Harpa, JEburna, and Ricinula, are confined to the Pacific ; Dol- ium inhabits the Mediterranean as well as the Pacific. There are about 350 fossil species, mostly from the Eocene and Miocene beds. 508 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 4 CONID^E. (3 Genera, 850 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Cones are universally distributed, but this applies only to the genus Pleurotoma. Conus is tropical and sub-tropical, and Cithara is confined to the Philippine Islands. There are about 460 fossil species, from the Chalk formation to the most recent deposits. FAMILY 5. VOLUTID^E (5 Genera, 670 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Volutes are mostly tropical ; but a small species of Mitra is found at Greenland, and a Marginella in the Mediterranean. Cymla is confined to the West Coast of Africa and Portugal. Valuta extends south to Cape Horn. There are about 200 fossil species, from the Chalk and Eocene to recent formations. FAMILY 6. CYPE^ID^E. (3 Genera, 200 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The well-known Cowries are found all over the world, but they are much more abundant in warm regions. One small species extends to Greenland. There are nearly 100 fossil species, from the Chalk to the Miocene and recent forma- tions. FAMILY 7. NATICID^E. (5 Genera, 270 species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Naticidse, or Sea-snails, though most abundant in the Tropics, are found also in temperate seas, and far into the Arctic regions. Two other genera are fossil ; and there are about 300 extinct species, ranging from the Devonian to the Pliocene formations. CHAP, xxii.] MOLLUSCA. 509 FAMILY 8. PYRAMIDELLID^E. (10 Genera, 220 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. These turreted shells are very widely distri- buted botji in temperate and tropical seas; and most of the genera have also a wide range. There are about 400 extinct species, from so far back as the Lower Silurian to the Pliocene formations. FAMILY 9. CERITHIAD^E. (5 Genera, 190 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. These are marine, estuary, or fresh-water shells, of an elongated spiral form; they have a world- wide distribution, but are most abundant in the Tropics. Potamides (41 sp.), is the only fresh-water genus, and is found in the rivers of Africa, India and China, to North Australia and Cali- fornia. Another genus is exclusively fossil, and there are about 800 extinct species, ranging from the Trias to the Eocene and recent formations. FAMILY 10. MELANIAD^E. (3 Genera, 410 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. Fresh-water only : lakes and rivers in warm countries, widely scattered. South Palsearctic and Australian regions, from Spain to New Zealand ; South Africa, West Africa, and Madagascar ; United States. There are about 50 fossil species, from the Wealden and Eocene to recent formations. FAMILY 11. TUEEITELLTD^E. (5 Genera, 230 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. Universal. Caecum is found in north tem- perate seas only. The other genera are mostly tropical, but some species reach Iceland and Greenland. There are near 300 species fossil, ranging from the Neocomian to the Pliocene formations. 510 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv FAMILY 12. LITTORINID.E. (9 Genera, 310 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Littorinidse are mostly found on the coasts in shallow water ; as the common Periwinkle (Littorinq littorea). They are of world- wide distribution ; but Solarium and Phorus are tropical ; while Lacuna, Skenea, and most species of Eissoa are Northern. About 180 species are fossil, ranging from the Permian to the Pliocene formations. FAMILY 13. PALUDINID^E. (4 Genera, 217 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Paludinidae, or Eiver-snails, are all fresh- water, and range over the whole world. Paludina (60 sp.), is confined to the Northern Hemisphere ; Ampullaria (136 sp.), is tropical ; Amphibola (3 sp.), inhabits New Zealand and the Pacific Islands ; Valvata (18 sp.), North America and Britain. There are 72 fossil species of Paludina and Valvata, in the Wealden formation and more recent fresh- water deposits. FAMILY 14 NERITID7E. (10 Genera, 320 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. All warm seas, ranging north to Norway and the Caspian Sea. ' Neritina and Navicella inhabit fresh or brack- ish waters, the latter confined to the countries bordering the Indian Ocean and the islands of the Pacific. There are 80 fossil species, from the Trias, Lias, and Eocene formations down to recent deposits. FAMILY 15. TURBINID^E. (10 Genera, 425 Species). DISTRIBUTION. The genus Trochus (200 sp.) has a world- wide range, but the other genera are mostly tropical, and are most abundant in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. There are more than 900 fossil species, found in all parts of the world, from the Lower Silurian to the Tertiary formations. CHAP, xxii.] MOLLUSCA. 511 FAMILY 16. HALIOTID^E. (6 Genera, 106 Species), DISTRIBUTION. The Ear-shells are most abundant in the Indian and Pacific Oceans ; some are found on the east coasts of the Atlantic, but there are very few in the West Indies. lanthina (10 sp.) consists of floating oceanic snails found in the warm parts of the Atlantic. Three other genera are fossil, and there are near 500 fossil species of this family ranging from the Lower Silurian to the Pliocene formations. FAMILY 17. FISSUKELLID^E. (5 Genera, 200 Species). DISTRIBUTION. All seas. Puncturella (6 sp.) is confined to Northern and Antarctic seas ; Eimula to the Philippines ; and Parmophorus (15 sp.) from the Cape of Good Hope to the Philippines and New Zealand. There are about 80 fossil species, ranging from the Carboniferous formation to the deposits of the Glacial epoch. FAMILY 18. CALYPTILEIDJE. (4 Genera, 125 Species), DISTRIBUTION. The Calptrseidse, or Bonnet-Limpets, are found on the coasts of .all seas from Norway to Chili and Australia; but are most abundant within the Tropics. The genera are all widely scattered. There are 75 fossil species, ranging from the Devonian to recent formations. FAMILY 19. PATELLIDJE. (4 Genera, 254 Species). DISTRIBUTION. The Patellidse, or Limpets, are universally distributed, and are as abundant in the temperate as in tropical seas. There are about 100 fossil species, ranging from the Silurian to the Tertiary formations. 512 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 20. DENTALIAD.E. (1 Genus, 50 Species). DISTRIBUTION. The genus Dentalium is found in the North Atlantic, Mediterranean, West Indies, and India. There are 125 fossil species, found in various formations as far back as the Devonian in Europe and in Chili. FAMILY 21. CHITONID^. (1 Genus, 250 Species). DISTRIBUTION. On rocky shores in all parts of the world. There are 37 fossil species ranging back to the Silurian period. Order ILPULMONIFERA. (" Terrestrial Molluscs.") The Land and Fresh-water snails are so important and exten- sive a group, and their classification has been so carefully studied, that their geographical distribution is a subject of much interest. The range of the genera will therefore be given in some detail. For the Helicidse I follow the classical work of Albers Die Helicien, Von Martens' Edition (1860) ; and for the Operculate families, Pfeiffer's Monographia Pneumonopo- morum Viventium, 2nd Supplement, 1865. The number of species is, of course, very considerably increased since these works were published (and the probable amount of the increase I have in most cases indicated), but this does not materially affect the great features of their geographical distribution. FAMILY 22. HELICID^. (33 Genera, 3,332 JSpecies) (1860). GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. Universal. The Helicidse, or Snails, are a group of immense extent and absolutely cosmopolitan in their range, being found in the most barren deserts and on the smallest islands, all over the globe. They reach to near the line of perpetual snow on mountains, and CHAP, xxii.] MOLLUSCA. 513 to the limit of trees or even considerably beyond it, in the Arctic regions ; but they are comparatively very scarce in all cold countries. The Antilles, the Philippine Islands, Equa- torial America, and the Mediterranean sub-region are especially rich in this family. Comparatively few of the genera, and those generally small ones, are restricted to single regions ; but on the other hand very few are generally distributed, only two Helix and Pupa occurring in all the six regions, while Helix alone is truly cosmopolitan, occurring in every sub-region, in every country, and perhaps in every island 011 the globe. The Neotropical region is, on the whole, the richest in this family, the continental Equatorial districts producing an abun- dance of large and handsome species, while the Antilles are pre-eminent for the number of their peculiar forms. This region possesses 22 of the genera, and 6 of them are peculiar. The Palsearctic region seems to come next in productiveness, but this may be partly owing to its having been so thoroughly explored. It possesses 16 of the genera, and 3 of them are confined to it. The great mass of the species are found in the warm and fertile countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. The Ethiopian region has 13 genera, only one of which is peculiar. The Australian region has 14 genera; 2 of which are confined to the Pacific Islands. The Oriental has 15 genera and the Nearctic 12, but in neither case are there any peculiar generic types. The following is the distribution of the several genera taken in the order of their magnitude : Helix (1,115 sp.), cosmopolitan. This genus is divided into 88 sub-genera, a number of which have a limited distribution. An immense quantity of species have been recently described, so that the number now exceeds 2,000. Nanina (290 sp.) is characteristic of the Oriental and Aus- tralian regions, over the whole of which it extends, just entering the Palaearctic region as far as North China and Japan. Isolated from this area is a small group of 4 species occurring 514 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. in West Africa. The number of species in this genus have now been increased to about 400. Clausilia (272 sp.) is most abundant in Europe, with a few species widely scattered in India, Malaya, China, Japan, Equa- torial America, and one in Porto Kico. The described species have been increased to nearly 500. Bulimulus (210 sp.) is American, and almost exclusively Neotropical, ranging from Montevideo and Chili, to the West Indian Islands, California and Texas ; with two sub-genera con- fined to the Galapagos Islands. About 100 new species have been described since the issue of the second edition of Dr. Woodward's Manual Pupa, (210 sp.) abounds most in Europe and the Arctic regions, but has a very wide range, being scattered throughout Africa, continental India, Australia, the Pacific Islands, North America to Greenland, and the Antilles; but it is absent from South America, the Himalayan and Malayan sub-regions, China and Japan. An extinct species has occurred abundantly in the carboniferous strata of North America. About 160 addi- tional species have been described. Bulimus (J 72 sp.) abounds most in Tropical South America ; it is also found from Burmah eastward through Malaya to the Solomon and Fiji Islands; there are also scattered species in Patagonia, St. Vincents, Texas, St. Helena, and New Zealand. More than 100 additional species have been described. Buliminus (132 sp.) ranges from Central and South Europe over the whole Ethiopian and Oriental regions to North China, and through the Australian to New Zealand ; there is also a single outlying species in the Galapagos Islands. About 50 more species have been described. Cochlostyla (127 sp.) is almost peculiar to the Philippine Islands, beyond which, are a species in Borneo, one in Java, and two in Australia. Very few new species have been added to this genus. Achatindla (95 sp.) is absolutely confined to the Sandwich Island group. Eecent researches have more than tripled the number of described species. CHAP, xxii.] MOLLUSCA. 515 Achatina (87 sp.) is most abundant and finest in the Ethio- pian region, over the whole of which it ranges ; but there are also species in Florida, the Antilles, the Sandwich Islands, Ceylon, and India. The described species are now more than doubled. Hyalina (84 sp.) inhabits all Tropical America and the Antilles, North America to Greenland, and Europe to the Arctic regions. Comparatively few new species have been described. Cylindrella (83 sp.) inhabits the West Indian islands and Guatemala to Texas, with a sub-genus in the Philippine Islands. Species since described have more than trebled the number in this genus. Cionella (67 sp.) is widely scattered ; in India from Ceylon to the Khasia Mountains, Brazil, New Granada, the West Indian islands, Palsearctic, and northern part of Nearctic regions, Pacific Islands, New Zealand, and Juan Fernandez. About 20 new species have since been described. Glandina (66 sp.), Peru to South Carolina and the Antilles, with three species in Central Africa and one in South Europe. About 40 species have been added to this genus. Stenogyra (49 sp.), widely distributed : Tropical America and West Indies to Florida, South and West Africa, the Mediter- ranean region, India, and the Philippines. About a dozen new species have been described. Succinea (41 sp.), widely scattered in all the regions, and in St. Helena, Juan Fernandez, Tahiti, Chiloe, Greenland, West Africa, Himalayas, and Australia. The described species are now more than 100. Partula (39 sp.), Solomon Islands to Tahiti and Sandwich Islands. This genus has also been increased to near 100 species. Streptaxis (34 sp.), most abundant in Tropical South America, but occurs in West Africa, the Seychelles and Eodriguez Islands, Ceylon, and Burmah. It now contains over 100 described species. Spiraxis (33 sp.), Yucatan to Mexico, and less abundant in the West Indian Islands. About 20 species have been added. 516 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Macroceramus (27 sp.), Antilles, Florida, and Peru. The species have been more than doubled. Vitrina (26 sp.), widely scattered through North and Central Europe, North-west America and Greenland, Abyssinia, Mada- gascar and South Africa, Himalayas to Burmah and Australia. Species since described have more than doubled the number in this genus. 4 Orthalicus (23 sp.), Bolivia to Mexico and Antilles. This genus has been increased to about 40 species. Sagda (19 sp.), Antilles only. Very few new species, if any, have been described. Zonites (12 sp.), South Europe, with one species of a distinct type in Guatemala. The number of species in this genus has been since about tripled. Leucochroa (11 sp.), Mediterranean region to Syria and Arabia Petrja. Simpulopsis (7 sp.), Bahia, Antilles, and far away in the Solomon Islands. Two or three have been added. Baha (6 sp.), Middle and North Europe, Brazil, and the Island of Tristan d'Acunha. Daudebardia (6 sp.), Central and South Europe ; and a species has since been discovered in New Zealand. Macrocycl$s (4 sp.), Chili, California, Oregon, and Central North America. Columna (3 sp.), West Africa, Prince's Island^, and Madagascar. Stenopus (2 sp.), Island of St. Vincent (West Indies.) Pfeifferia (2 sp.), Philippines and Moluccas. Testacella (2 sp.), West Europe and Teneriffe. About 8 species have been since described, including one from New Zealand. Fossil species of Helix, Bulimm, Achatina, Balea, and Clau- silia, are found in all the Tertiary formations ; while a species of Pupa (as already stated) occurs in the carboniferous forma- tion. For interesting details of the distribution of the sub- genera and species of AcTiatinella in the Sandwich Islands, see a paper by Rev. J. T. Gulick in the Journal of the Linnean Society. (Zoology, vol. xi. p. 496.) CHAP. XXII.] MOLLUSCA. 517 FAMILY 23. LIMACID^E. (12 Genera, 116 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 .2.3.4 1 .2.3.4 3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2 .3.4 The Limacidae, or Slugs, are widely distributed, but they are absent from South America, where they are represented by the next family. They also seem to be absent from the greater part of Africa. The genera are distributed as follows : Limax (51 sp.), Palaearctic region, Australia, and the Sand- wich Islands ; Anadenus (2 sp.), Himalayas ; Philomychus (9 sp.), North America, China, and Java; Arion (25 sp.), Norway to Spain and South Africa ; Parmacella (7 sp.), South Europe, Canary Islands, and North India ; Janella (1 sp.), New Zealand ; Aneitea (1 sp.), NewHebrides and New Caledonia ; Parmarion (4 sp.), India ; Triboniophorus (3 sp.), Australia ; Testacella\3 sp.), South Europe, Canary Islands, and New Zealand; Hyalimax (2 sp.), Bourbon and Mauritius; Krynickia (8 sp.), Eastern Europe and North America. A few species of Limax, Arion, and Testacella have been found fossil in Tertiary deposits. FAMILY 24 ONCIDIAD^E. (2 Genera, 36 Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALAEARCTIC SUB-UEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2 4 1.2.3.3 2 4 The Oncidiadae, or Slugs with a coriaceous mantle, inhabit the Oriental region, Mauritius, Australia, the Pacific Islands, South America, and South Europe. The genera are : 518 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Oncidium (16 sp.), South Europe (1 sp. British), Mauritius, Australia, and Pacific Islands; Vaginulus (20 sp.), Neotropical and Oriental regions. FAMILY 25. LIMMSID^E. (7 Genera, 332;Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEAKCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PALJEARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-KEGIONS. 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 1.2.3.4 3 - 1.2.3.4 I 4 The Limnseidse, or Fresh-water Snails, inhabit ponds and rivers in most parts of the world, but appear to be absent from the Australian region. The genera are distributed as follows : Limncea (95 sp.), Nearctic, Palaearctic, and Oriental regions ; Ckoanomphalos (2 sp.), Lake Baikal ; Pompholyx (2 sp.), Western America; Chilinia (18 sp.), South America; Physa (20 sp.), Nearctic, Palaearc tic, Ethiopian, and Oriental regions, and extends to above 73 North Latitude in Siberia, being the most Arctic of land or fresh- water shells; Ancylus (49 sp.), Nearctic and Neotropical regions, Europe, and New Zealand; Planorbis (145 sp.), Nearctic, Palaearctic, and Oriental regions. Several genera are found fossil, chiefly in the Wealden, Eocene, and Miocene formations. FAMILY 26. AUKICULID^. (I Genera, 21Q Species.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-KEGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 1 4 1 1.2.3.4 1 1.2 - 1.2.3- 1.2.3.4 1.2 4 The Auriculidse are chiefly found near the sea in hot countries and are most abundant in the Eastern tropics. They are absent CHAP. XXII.] MOLLUSCA. 519 from the East coast of South America. The genera have a somewhat restricted distribution as follows: Auricula (128 sp.), India, Pacific Islands, Peru, and West Indies; Melampus (56 sp.), West Indies and Europe; Cary- chium (9 sp.), Europe and North America ; Plectrotrema (14 sp.), Australia, Malay Islands, China, Cuba ; Blauneria (2 sp.), West Indian and Sandwich Islands. There are many fossil species ranging back to the Eocene formation. FAMILY 27. ACICULUX3E. (4 Genera, 65 Species.) (1865.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. N EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^ARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 2.3 .4 1.2 - 1.2-4 -4 I -2-4 12.3- The Aciculidse are small cylindrical shells chiefly found in the West Indian Islands, but with representatives widely scattered over the globe. Acicula (5 sp.) is European only; Geomelania (21 sp.), and Chiltya (1 sp.), are confined to the Island of Jamaica ; Trunca- tella (38 sp.), is most abundant in the Antilles, but is also found in some part of each of the six regions, as indicated by the diagram of the family. But few new species have been added to this group. FAMILY 28. DIPLOMMATINID^E. (3 Genera, 23; Species.) (1865.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SlJB-REGlONS. N EARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL^EARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 2 13 4 1234 The Diplommatinidae are minute shells of the Oriental and Australian regions. VOL. II. 34 520 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Diplommatina (18 sp.) inhabits India to Burmah, and the greater part of the Australian region ; the number of species has now been doubled, and one has been discovered in the island of Trinidad ; Clostophis (1 sp.), Moulmein ; Paxillus (3 sp.), Borneo, Hong Kong, and Loo Choo Islands. FAMILY 29. CYCLOSTOMID^E. (41 Genera, 1009 ' Species.) (1865.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL SUB-REGIONS. * NEARCTIC SUB-REGIONS. PAL.E ARCTIC SUB-KEGIONS. ETHIOPIAN SUB-REGIONS. ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. 4-. 2 . 3 . 4 3 _ -t.ft--4 3.4 1.2.3.4 1.3-.3-.-* This extensive group, comprising the largest of the opercu- lated land-shells, is especially characteristic of the Oriental region, which possesses 25 genera, no less than 12 of them being wholly confined to it. The Neotropical region comes next, with 15 genera, 9 of which are peculiar; but a large number of these are confined to the West Indian Islands, South America itself being very poor in this group. The Palsearctic region has 3 peculiar genera ; the Ethiopian and Australian 1 each. The Nearctic region has but a single West Indian species in Florida. The distribution of the genera is as follows : Peculiar to or characteristic of the Oriental region are, Opis- thoporus (11 sp.), Rhiostoma (6 sp.), Alycaeus (39 sp.), Opisthos- toma (1 sp.), Hylocistis (3 sp.), Pterocydos (19 sp.), extending to the Moluccas ; Aulopoma (4 sp.), Dermatocera (4 sp.), Leptopoma (54 sp.), extending west to the Seychelles and east to the Mo- luccas and New Guinea; Cyclophorus (163 sp.), most abundant in the Oriental region, but ranges to Japan, to Chili, and all Tropical America, over the whole Australian region, and to Natal and Madagascar ; Cataulus (15 sp.), confined to Ceylon, the Neilgherries, and Nicobar Islands ; Rhaphaulus (4 sp.), Penang to Ceram ; Streptaulus (1 sp.), Arinia (3 sp.), Pupinella (2 sp.), Pupina (24 sp.), half in North India to Philippines and CHAP, xxii.] MOLLUSCA. 521 Japan, the other half in Moluccas, New Guinea, and Australia ; Cyclotopsis (2 sp.), India and Malaya : Eegistoma (9 sp.), Philip- pines and Moluccas, New Caledonia and Pacific. Characteristic of the Neotropical region are : Cyclotus (111 sp.), half in the Antilles and Tropical America, the rest in the Moluccas, China, Malaya, India^ Natal, and the Seychelle Islands; Megalomastoma (27 sp.), abundant in Cuba, West Indies, and South America, others in India, Malaya, and Mauritius ; Jamaica (2 sp.), Jamaica ; Licina (5 sp.), Antilles ; Chodnopoma (49 sp.), Antilles; Ctenopoma (25 sp.), Antilles; Diplopoma (1 sp.), Cuba; Adamsiella (15 sp.), Jamaica, Cuba, Guatemala ; Cyclostomus (113 sp.), abundant in Antilles, also occurs in Madagascar, Arabia, Syria, Hungary, and New Zealand ; Tudora (34 sp.), Antilles, and one species in Algeria ; Cistula (40 sp.), Ghondropoma (94 sp.)> Bourcieria (2 sp.), Tropical America. Peculiar to or characteristic of the Palsearctic region are : Craspedopoma (5 sp.), confined to Madeira, the Azores, and Canaries ; Leonia (1 sp.), Spain and Algeria ; Pomatias (22 sp.), Europe and Canaries with a species in the Himalayas ; Cecina (1 sp.), Manchuria. The Ethiopian region has the peculiar genus Lithodion (5 sp.), Madagascar, Socotra, and Arabia; and Otopoma(l$ sp.), Mascarene Islands and Socotra, with a species in Western India and another in New Ireland. The Australian region is characterised by Gallia (3 sp.), in Ceram, Australia, and the Philippines respectively ; Realia (7 sp.), New Zealand and the Marquesas Islands ; OmpJialotropis (38 sp.), the Australian region, with some species in India, Malaya, and the Mauritius. The remaining genus, Hydrocena (27 sp.), has a very widely scattered distribution, being found in South Europe, Japan, the Cape, China, Malaya, New Zealand, the Pacific Islands, and Chili. From 10 to 20 per cent, of new species have been since described in most of the genera of this family. 522 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 30. HELICINID^E. (7 Genera, 433 Species.) (1868.) GENERAL DISTRIBUTION. NEOTROPICAL I NEABCTIC I PAL^EARCTIC I ETHIOPIAN I ORIENTAL SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-KEGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. SUB-REGIONS. AUSTRALIAN SUB-REGIONS. n * Jt 123 The Helicimdae are very characteristic of the Antilles, com- paratively few being found in any other part of the world except the Islands of the Pacific. The genera are : Trochatella (33 sp.), Antilles with a species in Venezuela, and another in Cambodja ; Lucidella (5 sp.), Antilles ; Helicina (274 sp.), Antilles, Pacific Islands, Tropical America, Southern United States, Moluccas, Australia, Philippines, Java, Andaman Islands, and North China ; Schasicheila (5 sp.), Mexico, Guate- mala, and Bahamas ; Alcadia (28 sp.), Antilles ; G-eorissa (5 sp.) Moulmein to Burmah. About 10 per cent, of new species appear to have been since described in the larger genera of this family. General Observations on the Distribution of the Land Mollusca. A consideration of the distribution of the families and genera of land-shells shows us, that although they possess some special features, yet they agree in many respects with the higher animals in their limitation by great natural barriers, such as oceans, deserts, mountain ranges, and climatal zones. A remarkable point in the distribution of these animals, is the number of genera which have a very limited range, and also the prevalence of genera having species scattered, as it were at random, all over the earth. No less than 14 genera (or about one-sixth of the whole number) are confined to the Antilles, while the greater part of the sub-genera of modern authors are restricted to limited areas. If we first compare the New World with the Old, we find the difference as regards genera quite as great as in most of the CHAP, xxn.] MOLLUSCA. 523 vertebrates. In the Helicidse, 10 genera are confined to the New, and 7 to the Old World, 16 being common to both. In the Operculata the number of genera of restricted range is greater, the New World having 15, the Old World 32 genera, only 8 being common to both. Of the New World genera 12 out of the 15 do not occur at all in South America ; and of those of the Old World, 22 out of the 32 occur in a single region only. If we take the northern and southern division proposed by Professor Huxley (the latter comprising the Australian and Neotropical regions), we find a much less well-marked diversity. Among the Helicidse only 4 are exclusively northern, 8 southern ; while among the Operculata 22 are northern, 16 southern. The best way to compare these two kinds of primary division will be to leave out all those genera confined to a single region each, and to take account only of those characteristic of two or more of the combined regions ; which will evidently show which division is the most natural one for this group. The result is as follows : GENERA COMMON TO TWO OR MORE REGIONS IN, AND CONFINED TO, EACH PRIMARY DIVISION OF THE EARTH. Helicidae Operculata. Totals. ( Northern . ..0. . .0. . .0" ( Southern . . .0. . .0. . .0 ( Old World . . . 1 . . . 12 . . .13 ( New World . .4.. .0. . .4 We find then that the northern and southern division of the globe is not at all supported by the distribution of the terrestrial molluscs. It is indeed very remarkable, that the connection so apparent in many groups between Australia and South America is so scantily indicated here. The only facts supporting it seem to be, the occurrence of Geotrochus (a sub-genus of Helix) in Brazil, as well as in the Austro-Malayan and West Pacific Islands and North Australia ; and of Bulimus in the same two parts of the globe, but peculiar sub-genera in each. But in neither case is there any affinity shown between the temperate portions of the two regions, so that we must probably trace this resemblance to some more ancient diffusion of types than that which led to the similarity of plants and insects. Still more curious is the entire 524 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. absence of genera confined to, and characteristic of Africa and India. One small sub-genus of Helix, (Rachis), and one of Acha- tina, (Homorus), appear to have this distribution, a fact of but little significance when we find another sub-genus of Helix, (Hapalus), common and confined to Guinea and the Philippine Islands ; and when we consider the many other cases of scattered distribution which cannot be held to indicate any real connection between the countries implicated. No genus is confined to the Palsearctic and Nearctic regions as a whole. A large number of sub-genera, many of them of considerable extent, are peculiar to one or other of these regions, but only 3 sub-genera of Helix and 2 of Pupa are common and peculiar to the two combined, and these are always such as have an Arctic range and whose distribution therefore offers no difficulty. We find, then, that each of our six regions and almost all of our sub-regions are distinctly confirmed by the distribution of the terrestrial mollusca; while the different combinations of them which have at various times been suggested, receive little or no support whatever. Even those remarkably isolated sub-regions, New Zealand and Madagascar, have no strictly peculiar genera of land- shells, although they both possess several peculiar sub- genera ; being thus inferior in isolation to some single West Indian Islands, to the Sandwich Islands, and even to the North Atlantic Islands (Canaries, Madeira, and Azores), each of which have peculiar genera. This of. course, only indicates that the means by which land mollusca have been dispersed are some- 'what special and peculiar. To determine in what this speciality consists we must consider some of the features of the specific distribution of this group. The range of genera, and even of sub-genera is, as we have seen, often wide and erratic, but as a general rule the species have a very restricted area. Hardly a small island on the globe but has some land-shells peculiar to it. Juan Fernandez has 20 species, all peculiar. Madeira and Porto Santo have 109 peculiar species out of a total of 134. Every little valley, plain, or hill-top, in the Sandwich Islands, though only a few square miles in extent, has its CHAP, xxii.] MOLLUSCA. 525 peculiar species of Acliatinella. Another striking feature of the distribution of land molluscs, is the richness of islands as com- pared with continents. The Philippines contain more species than all India ; and those of the Antilles according to Mr. Bland almost exactly equal the numbers found in the entire American continent from Greenland to Patagonia. Taking the whole world, it appears that many more species of land-shells are found in the islands than on the continents of the globe, a peculiarity that obtains in no other extensive group of animals. Looking at these facts it seems probable, that the air-breathing molluscs have been chiefly distributed by air- or water-carriage, rather than by voluntary dispersal on the land. Even seas and oceans have not formed impassable barriers to their diffusion ; whereas they only spread on dry land with excessive slowness and difficulty. The exact mode in which their diffusion is effected is not known, and it may depend on rare and exceptional circumstances ; but it seems likely to occur in two ways. Snails frequently conceal themselves in crevices of trees or under bark, or attach themselves to stems or foliage, and either by their operculum or mucous diaphragm, are able to protect themselves from the in- jurious effects of salt water for long periods. They might there- fore, under favourable conditions, be drifted across arms of the sea or from island to island ; while wherever there are large rivers and occasional floods, they would by similar means be widely scattered over land areas. Another possible mode of dis- tribution is by means of storms and hurricanes, which would carry the smaller species for long distances, and might occasionally transport the eggs of the larger forms. Aquatic birds might occasionally get both shells and eggs attached to their feet or their plumage, and convey them across a wide extent of sea. But whether these, or some other unknown agency has acted, the facts of distribution clearly imply that some means of transport over water is, and has been, the chief agent in the distribution of these animals ; but that its action is very rare or intermittent, so that its effects are hardly perceptible in the distribution of single species. Another important factor in enabling us to account for the 526 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. distribution of these animals is the geological antiquity of the group, and the amount of change exhibited in time, by species and genera. Now we find that most of the genera of land-shells range back to the Eocene period, while those inhabiting fresh water are found almost unchanged in the Wealden. In North America a species of Pupa and one of Zonites, have been dis- covered in the coal measures, along with Labyrinthodonts ; and this fact seems to imply, that many more terrestrial molluscs would be discovered, if fresh- water deposits, made under favour- able conditions, were more frequently met with in the older rocks. If then the existing groups of land-molluscs are of such vast antiquity, and possess some means, however rarely occurring, of crossing seas and oceans, we need not wonder at the wide and erratic distribution now presented by so many of the groups ; and we must not expect them to conform yery closely to those regions which limit the range of animals of higher organization and less antiquity. The total number of species of pulmoniferous mollusca is about 7,000, according to the estimate of Mr. Woodward, brought down to 1868 by Mr. Tate. But this number would be largely in- creased if the estimates of specialists were taken. Mr. Woodward for example, gives 760 as the number of species in the West Indian Islands ; whereas Mr. Thomas Bland, who has made the shells of these islands a special study, considers that there were 1,340 species in 1866. So, the land-shells of the Sandwich Islands are given at 267; but Mr. Gulick has added 120 species of Achatinellidse, bringing the numbers up to nearly 400, but no doubt several of these are so closely related that many con- chologists would class them as varieties. The land-shell fauna of the Antilles is undoubtedly the most remarkable in the world, and it has been made the subject of much interesting discussion by Mr. Bland and others. This fauna differs from that of all other parts of the globe in the proportions of the operculate to the inoperculate shells. The Operculata of the globe are about one-seventh, the Inoperculata about six-sevenths of the whole ; and some general approximation to this proportion (or a much smaller one) exists in almost all the continents, islands, and CHAP, xxii.] MOLLUSCA. 527 archipelagoes. In the Philippines, for example, the proportion of the Operculata is a little more than one-seventh ; in the Mauritius, between one-third and one-fourth; in Madeira, one- fourteenth ; in the whole American continent about one-eighth ; but when we come to the Antilles we find them to amount to nearly five-sixths, about half the Operculata of the globe being found there ! ' Mr. Bland endeavours to ascertain the source of some of the chief genera found in the West Indian Islands, on the principle that " each genus has had its origin where the greatest number of species is found ;" and then proceeds to determine that some have had an African, some an Asiatic, and some an American origin, while others are truly indigenous. But we fear there is no such simple way of arriving at so important a result ; and in the case of groups of extreme antiquity like the genera of mol- lusca, it would seem quite as possible that the origin of a genus is generally not where the greatest number of species are now found. For during the repeated changes of physical conditions that have everywhere occurred since the Eocene period (to go no further back) every genus must have made extensive migra- tions, and have often become largely developed in some other district than that in which it first appeared. As a proof of this, we not unfrequently find fossil shells where the species and even the genus now no longer exists ; as Auricula, found fossil in Europe, but only living in the Malay and Pacific Islands ; Anas- toma and Megaspira, now peculiar to Brazil, but fossil in the Eocene of France ; and Proserpina of the West Indies, found in the Eocene formation of the Isle of Wight. The only means by which the origin of a genus can satisfactorily be arrived at, is by tracing back its fossil remains step by step to an earlier form ; and this we have at present no means of doing in the case of the land-shells. Taking existing species as our guide we should certainly have imagined that the genus Equus originated in Africa or Central Asia ; but recent discoveries of numerous extinct species and of less specialized forms of the same type, seem to indicate that it originated in North America, and that the whole tribe of " horses " may be, for anything we yet know 528 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. to the contrary, recent immigrants into the Old World ! This example alone must convince us, that it is impossible to form any conclusion as to the origin of a genus, from the distribution of existing species only. The general conclusion we arrive at, therefore, is, that the causes that have led to the existing distribution of the genera and higher groups of the terrestrial mollusca are so complex, and have acted through such long periods, that most of the barriers which limit the range of other terrestrial animals do not apply to them, although the species are, in most cases, strictly limited by them. Some means of diffusion which, though probably acting very slowly and at long intervals, and more powerfully on continents than between islands, is yet highly efficient when we consider the long duration of genera has, to a considerable extent, dispersed them across continents, seas, and oceans. On the other hand, those mountain barriers which separate many groups of the higher vertebrates, are generally less ancient than the genera of land-shells, which are thus often distributed inde- pendently of them. In order to compare the distribution of the terrestrial mollusca on equal terms with those of land animals generally, we must take genera of the former as equivalent to family groups of the latter ; and we shall, I believe, then find that the distribution of the sub-genera and smaller groups of species do accord mainly with those divisions of the earth into regions and sub-regions which we have here indicated. Mr. Harper Pease, in a communication on Polynesian Land Shells in the Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1871 (p. 449), marks out the limits of the Polynesian sub-region, so as exactly to agree with that arrived at here from a consideration of the distribution of vertebrata ; and he says that this sub-region* (or region, as he terms it), is distinctly characterised by its land- shells from all the surrounding regions. The genera (or sub- genera) Partula, Pitys, Achatinella, Palaina, Omphalotropis, and many others, are either wholly confined to this sub-region or highly characteristic of it. Mr. Binney, in his Catalogue of the Air-breathing Molluscs of North America, marks out our Nearctic region .(with almost identical limits) as most clearly CHAP. xxn.J MOLLUSCA. 529 characterised. He also arrives at a series of sub-divisions, which generally (though not exactly) agree with the sub-regions which I have here adopted. The Palsearctic, the Ethiopian, and the Oriental regions, are also generally admitted to be well characterised by their terrestrial molluscs. There only remain the Australian and the Neotropical regions, in which some want of homogeneity is apparent, owing to the vast development and specialisation, of certain groups in the islands which belong to these regions. The Antilles, on the one hand, and the Polyne- sian Islands, on the other, are so rich in land- shells and possess so many peculiar forms, that, judged by these alone, they must form primary instead of secondary divisions. We have, however, already pointed out the inconvenience of any such partial systems of zoological geography, and the causes have been sufficiently indicated which have, in the case of land-shells as of insects, produced certain special features of distribution. We therefore venture to hope, that -conchologists will give us the advantage of their more full and accurate knowledge both of the classification and distribution of this interesting group of animals, not to map out new sets of regions for themselves, but to show what kind of barriers have been most efficient in limiting the range of species, and how their distribution is actually effected, so as to be able to explain whatever dis- crepancies exist between the actual distribution of land-shells and that of the higher animals. Order IILOPISTHO-BRANCHIATA. There are ten families in this order, all of which, as far as known, are widely or universally distributed. Some of them are found fossil, ranging back to the Carboniferous epoch. They are commonly termed Sea-slugs, and have either a thin small shell or none. We shall therefore simply enumerate the families, with the number of genera and species as given by Mr. Wood- ward. 530 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 31. TOENATELLID^E. (7 Genera, 62 Species living, 166 fossil.) FAMILY 32. BULLID^E. (12 Genera, 168 Species living, 88 fossil.) FAMILY 33. APHYSIAD.E. (8 Genera, 84 Species living, 4 fossil.) FAMILY 34 PLEUEOBKANCHID^. (7 Genera, 28 Species living, 5 fossil.) FAMILY 35. PHYLLIDIAD^E. (4 Genera, 14 Species living, fossil.) FAMILY 36. DOEID.E. (23 Genera, 160 Species living, fossil.) FAMILY 37. TEITONIAD^. (9 Genera, 38 Species living, fossil.) FAMILY 38. ^EOLID^E. (14 Genera, 101 Species living, fossil.) FAMILY 39. PHYLLYEHOID^. (1 Genus, 6 Species living, fossil.) FAMILY 40. ELYSIAD^E. (5 Genera, 13 Species living, fossil.) CHAP, xxii.] MOLLUSCA. 531 Order IV.NUCLEO-BRANCHIATA. These are oceanic, swimming molluscs, of a delicate texture. They are found in all warm seas, and range back to the Lower Silurian epoch. There are only two families. FAMILY 41. FIEOLID^E. (2 Genera, 33 Species living, 1 fossil.) FAMILY 42. ATLANTID^E. (5 Genera, 22 Species living, 159 fossil.) CLASS. PTEROPODA. These a.re swimming, oceanic mollusca, inhabiting both Arctic, Temperate, and Tropical seas. The three families have each a wide distribution in all the great oceans. They range back to the Silurian period. / FAMILY 1. HYALEID^. (9 Genera, 52 Species living, 95 fossil.) FAMILY 2. LIMACINID^. (4 Genera, 19 Species living, fossil.) FAMILY 3. CLIONIDJE. (4 Genera, 14 Species living, fossil.) GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. - CLASS. BBACHIOPODA. These are sedentary, bivalve, marine mollusca, having laterally symmetrical shells, but with unequal valves. Both in space and time they are the most widely distributed molluscs. They are found in all seas, and at all depths ; and when any of the families or genera have a restricted range, it seems to be due to our im- perfect knowledge, rather than to any real geographical limita- tions. In time they range back to the Cambrian formation, and seem to have had their maximum development in the Silurian period. It is not, therefore, necessary for our purpose, to do more than give the names of the families with the numbers of the genera and species, as before. FAMILY 1. TEREBRATULID^E. (5 Genera, 67 Species living, 340 fossil.) FAMILY 2. SPIRIFERID^E. (4 Genera, Species living, 380 fossil.) FAMILY 3. EHYNCHOKELLID^E. (3 Genera, 4 Species living, 422 fossil.) FAMILY 4. ORTHID^. (4 Genera, Species living, 328 fossil.) FAMILY 5. PEODUCTID^E. (3 Genera, Species living, 146 fossil.) FAMILY 6. CRAETIAD^E. (1 Genus, 5 Species living, 37 fossil.) FAMILY 7. DISCINID^E. (2 Genera, 10 Species living, 90 fossil.) FAMILY 8. LINGULIDJE. (2 Genera, 1 6 Species living, 99 fossil.) CHAP, xxii.] MOLLUSCA. 533 CLASS. CONCHIFERA. The Conchifera, or ordinary Bivalve Molluscs, may be distin- guished from the Brachiopoda by having their shells laterally unsymmetrical, while the valves are generally (but not always) equal. They are mostly marine, but a few inhabit fresh water. As the distribution of some of the families presents points of interest, we shall treat them in the same manner as the marine Gasteropoda. FAMILY 1. OSTKEID^E. (5 Genera, 426 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Ostreidse, including the Oysters and Scal- lops, are found in all seas, Arctic as well as Tropical. There are nearly 1,400 species fossil, ranging back to the Carboniferous period. FAMILY 2. AVICULIDJE. (3 Genera, 94 Species.) DISTRIBUTION, The Aviculidse, or Wing-shells and Pearl Oysters, are characteristic of Tropical and warm seas, a few only ranging into temperate regions. Nearly 700 fossil species are known from various formations ranging back to the Devonian, and Lower Silurian. FAMILY 3. MYTILID^E. (3 Genera, 217 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Mytilidse, or Mussels, have a world-wide distribution. There is one fresh-water species, which inhabits the Volga. There are about 350 fossil species, ranging back to the Carboniferous epoch. 534 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 4. AKCAD^E. (6 Genera, 360 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Arcadse are universally distributed, and are most abundant in warm seas. The genus Leda is, however, abundant in Arctic and Temperate regions, and Solenella is con- fined to the South Temperate zone. There are near 1,200 fossil species, found in all strata as low as the Lower Silurian. FAMILY 5. TKIGONTAD./E. (1 Genus, 3 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The living Trigonice are confined to Australia, but there are 5 other genera fossil, containing about 150 species, and found in various formations from the Chalk to the Lower Silurian. FAMILY 6. UNIONID^. (7 Genera, 549 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Unionidae, or Fresh-water Mussels, are found in all the fresh waters of the globe, but some of the genera are restricted. Castalia, Mycetopus, and Mulleria are confined to the rivers of South America ; Anodon, to the Nearctic and Paige- arctic regions ; Iridina, and Etheria, to the rivers of Africa ; Unio has a universal distribution, but is especially abundant in North America. About 60 fossil species are found in the Tertiary and Wealden formations. FAMILY 7. CHAMID^E. (1 Genus, 50 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Chamidse, or Giant Clams, are confined to Tropical seas, chiefly among coral reefs. There are two other genera and 62 species fossil, ranging from the Chalk to the Oolite formations. FAMILY 8. HIPPUKITID.E. (5 Genera, 103 Species.) Fossils of doubtful affinity, from the Chalk formation. CHAP, xxn.] MOLLUSCA. 535 FAMILY 9 TRIDACNID^E. (1 Genus, 8 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Tridacriidse, or Clam-shells, are of very large size, and are confined to the Tropical regions of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. A few species have been found fossil in the Miocene formation. FAMILY 10. CARDIAD^E. (1 Genus, 200 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Cardiadse, or Cockles, are of world-wide distribution. Another genus is fossil, and nearly 400 fossil species are known, ranging back to the Upper Silurian forma- tion. FAMILY 11. LUCLNmE. (8 Genera, 178 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Lucinidse inhabit the Tropical and Tem- perate seas of all parts of the world ; but the genus Corbis is con- fined to the Indian and Pacific Oceans, Montacuta and Lepton, to the Atlantic. There are nearly 500 extinct species, ranging from the Tertiary back to the Silurian formation. FAMILY 12. CYCLADID.E. (3 Genera, 176 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. The Cycladidse are small fresh- or brackish- water shells found all over the globe. The genus Cyclas is most abundant in the North Temperate zone, while Cyrena inhabits the warmer shores of the Atlantic and Pacific, but is absent from the West Coast of America. There are about 150 species fossil, ranging back from the Pliocene to the Wealden formations. FAMILY 13. CYPEINID^. (10 Genera, 176 Species). DISTRIBUTION. Universal. Cyprina and Astarie are Arctic and North Temperate ; Cardita is Tropical and South Temperate. There are several extinct genera and about 1,000 species found in all formations as far back as the Lower Silurian. VOL. 11-35 536 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. FAMILY 14. VENERID.E, (10 Genera, 600 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. Universal. Lucinopsis is confined to the North Atlantic ; Glauconeza to the mouths of rivers in the Orien- tal region ; Meroe and Trigona to warm seas. There are about 350 fossil species, ranging back to the Oolitic period. FAMILY 15. MACTRID^E. (5 Genera, 147 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. All seas, but more abundant in the Tropics. Gnathodon is found in the Gulf of Mexico ; Anatinella in the Oriental region. There are about 60 fossil species, ranging back to the Carboniferous period. FAMILY 16. TELLINID^E. (11 Genera, 560 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. All seas ; most abundant in the Tropics. Galatea is confined to African rivers. There are about 60 fossil species, mostly Tertiary, but ranging back to the Carboniferous period. FAMILY 17. SOLENID.E. (3 Genera, 63 Species.) m DISTRIBUTION. All Temperate and Tropical seas. There are 80 fossil species which range back to the Carboniferous epoch. FAMILY 18 MYACID^E. (6 Genera, 121 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. All seas. Panopcea inhabits both North and South Temperate seas ; Glycimeris, Arctic seas. There are near 350 fossil species, ranging back to the Lower Oolite formation. FAMILY 19. AN ATINID^E. (8 Genera, 246 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. All seas. Pholadomya is from Tropical Africa ; Myadora from the Western Pacific ; Myochama and Chamostrcea are Australian. There are about 400 fossil species, ranging back to the Lower Silurian formation. CHAP, xxii.] MOLLUSCA. 537 FAMILY 20. GASTKOCHJENnm (5 Genera, 40 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. Temperate and warm seas. Aspergillum ranges from the Eed Sea to New Zealand. There are 35 fossil species, ranging back to the Lower Oolite. FAMILY 21. PHOLADIDJE. (4 Genera, 81 Species.) DISTRIBUTION. These burrowing molluscs inhabit all Temp e- rate and warm seas from Norway to New Zealand. There are about 50 fossil species, ranging back to the epoch of the Lias. General Remarks on the Distribution of the Marine Mollusca. The marine Mollusca are remarkable for their usually wide distribution. About 48 of the families are cosmopolitan, rang- ing over both hemispheres, and in cold as well as warm seas. About 15 are restricted to the warmer seas of the globe ; but several of these extend from Norway to New Zealand, a distri- bution which may be called universal, and only 2 or 3 are absolutely confined to Tropical seas. Two small families only, are confined to the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Marine fishes, on the other hand, have a much less cosmopolitan character, no less than 30 families having a limited distribution, while 50 are universal. Some of these 30 families are confined to the Northern seas, some to the Atlantic and Mediterranean, and a considerable number to the Indian Ocean and Western Pacific. Many of these families, it is true, are much smaller than those of the Mollusca, which seem to possess very few of those small isolated families of two or three species only, which abound in all the Vertebrate classes. These differences are no doubt con- nected with the higher organisation of fishes, which renders them more susceptible to changed conditions of life ; and this is indi- cated by the much less antiquity of existing families of fishes, the greater part of which do not date back beyond the Cretaceous epoch, and many of them only to the Eocene. In striking con- trast we have the vast antiquity of most of the families of Mol- 538 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [FART iv. lusca, as shown in the following table of their range taken from Mr. Woodward's work, but re-arranged, and somewhat modified. Range of Families of Mollusca in Time ; arranged in their order of appearance and disappearance. Lower Silurian. 1 n j Devonian. . B3 ff 2 <2 o Permian. g Lower Oolite. Upper Oolite. Lower Cretaceous. Upper Cretaceous. Eocene. Miocene. Pliocene. 43 a Productidae Orthoceratidae ... Spiriferidae, Orthidae ... E E Rhynchonellidse, Cra- ) niadae, Discinidse j Ammonitidae ... Naticidae, Calyptraeidae., Helicidae Pectinidae, Solenidae ... Cerithiadae, Littorini- ) dae, Astartidse \ Belemnitidse Neritidae, Patellidae, ) Bullidse ... i Gastrochaenid8e,Pholadidae Limriaeidae, Melaniadae Chamidae, Myadae Cycladidae, Veneridae, | Tellinidae ... \ Hippuritidae Unionidae Strombidae, Buccinidae Conidae, Volutidse ... Auriculidae, Cyclostomidae Mactridaa ... Limacidae Argonautidae Tridacnidae Nor is this enormous antiquity confined to family types alone. Many genera are equally ancient. The genus Lingula has CHAP, xxii.] MOLLUSCA. 539 existed from the earliest Palaeozoic times down to the present day ; while Terebratula, Rhynchonella, Discina, Nautilus, Natica, Pleurotomaria, Patella, Dentalium, Mytilus, and many other living forms, range back to the Palaeozoic epoch. That groups of such immense antiquity, and having power to resist such vast changes of external conditions as they must have been subject to, should now be widely distributed, is no more than might reasonably be expected. It is only in the case of sub-genera and species, that we can expect the influence of recent geological or climatal changes to be manifest ; and it must be left to special students to work out the details of their distribution, with reference to the general principles found to obtain among the more highly organised animals. CHAPTER XXIII. SUMMARY OF THE DISTRIBUTION, AND LINES OF MIGRATION, OF THE SEVERAL CLASSES OF ANIMALS. HAVING already given summaries of the distribution of the several orders, and of some of the classes of land animals, we propose here to make a few general remarks on the special phenomena presented by the more important groups, and to indicate where possible, the general lines of migration by which they have become dispersed over wide areas. MAMMALIA. This class is very important, and its past history is much better known than that of most others. We shall therefore briefly summarise the results we have arrived at from our ex- amination of the distribution of extinct and living forms of each order. Primates. This order, being pre-eminently a tropical one, became separated into two portions, inhabiting the Eastern and Western Hemispheres respectively, at a very early epoch. In consequence of this separation it has diverged more radically than most other orders, so that the two American families, Cebidse and Hapalidae, are widely differentiated from the Apes, Monkeys, and Lemurs of the Old World. The Lemurs were probably still more ancient, but being much lower in organisation, they became extinct in most of the areas where the higher forms of Primates became developed. Eemains found in the Eocene formation indicate, that the North American and European CHAP, xxmj SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. , 541 Primates had, even at that early epoch, diverged into distinct series, so that we must probably look back to the secondary period for the ancestral form from which the entire order was developed. Chiroptera. These are also undoubtedly very ancient. The most generalised forms the Vespertilionidse and Noctilionidae are the most widely distributed ; while special types have arisen in America, and in the Eastern Hemisphere. Kemains found in the Upper Eocene formation of Europe differ little from species still living in the same COUD tries ; so that we can form no con- jecture as to the origin or migration of the group. Their power of flight would, however, enable them rapidly to spread over all the great continents of the globe. Insectivora. This very ancient group, now probably verging towards extinction, appears to have originated in the Northern continent, and never to have reached Australia or South America. It may, however, have become extinct in the latter country owing to the competition of the numerous Edentata. The In- sectivora now often maintain themselves amidst more highly developed forms, by means of some special protection. Some burrow in the earth, like the moles ; others have a spiny cover- ing, as the hedgehogs and several of the Centetidae ; others are aquatic, as the Potamogale and the desman ; others have a nauseous odour, as the shrews ; while there are several which seem to be preserved by their resemblance to higher forms, as the elephant-shrews to jerboas, and the tupaias to squirrels. The same need of protection is shown by the numerous Insecti- vora inhabiting Madagascar, where the competing forms are few; and by one lingering in the Antilles, where there are hardly any other mammalia. Carnivora. Although perhaps less ancient than the preced- ing, this form of mammal is far more highly organised, and from its earliest appearance appears to have become dominant in the world. It would therefore soon spread widely, and diverge into the various specialised types represented by exist- ing families. Most of these appear to have originated in the Eastern Hemisphere, the only Carnivora occurring in North 642 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. American Miocene deposits being ancestral forms of Canidae and Felidse. It seems probable, therefore, that the order had attained a considerable development before it reached the Western Hemisphere. The Procyonidae, now confined to America, are not very ancient ; and the occurrence of a few allied forms in the Himalayas (^Elurus and ^Eluropus) render it probable that their common ancestors entered North America from the Palsearctic region during the Miocene period, but being a rather low type they have succumbed under the competition of higher forms in most parts of the Eastern Hemisphere. Bears and Weasels are probably still more recent emigrants to America. The aquatic carnivora (Seals, &c.) are, as might be expected, more widely and uniformly distributed, but there is little evidence to show at what period the type was first developed. Ungulata. These are the dominant vegetable-feeders of the great continents, and they have steadily increased in numbers and in specialisation from the oldest Tertiary times to the present day. Being generally of larger size and less active than the Carnivora, they have somewhat more restricted powers of dispersal. We have good evidence that their wide range over the globe is a comparatively recent phenomenon. Tapirs and Llamas have probably not long inhabited So.uth America, while Ehinoceroses and Antelopes were once, perhaps, unknown in Africa, although abounding in Europe and Asia. Swine are one of the most ancient types in both hemispheres ; and their great hardiness, their omnivorous diet, and their powers of swimming, have led to their wide distribution. The sheep and goats, on the other hand, are perhaps the most recent develop- ment of the Ungulata, and they seem to have arisen in the Palaearctic region at a time when its climate already ap- proximated to that which now prevails. Hence they are pre-eminently a Temperate group, never found within the Tropics except upon a few mountain ranges. Proboscidea. These huge animals (the Elephants and Masto- dons) appear to have originated in the warmer parts of the Palaearctic region, but they soon spread over all the great CHAP, xxin.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 543 continents, even reaching the southern extremity of America. Their extinction has probably depended more on physical than on organic changes, and we can clearly trace their almost total disappearance to the effects of the Glacial epoch. Rodentia. Kodents are a very dominant group, and a very ancient one. Owing to their small size and rapid powers of increase, they soon spread over almost every part of the globe, whence has resulted a great specialisation of family types in the South American continent which remained so long isolated. They are capable of living wherever there is any kind of vegetable food, hence their range will be determined rather by organic than by physical conditions ; and the occupation of a country by enemies or by competing forms, is probably the chief cause which has prevented many of the families from acquiring a wide range. The occurrence of isolated species of the South American families, Octodontidse and Echimyidse, in the Ethiopian and Palaearctic regions, is an indication that the range of many of the families has recently become less extensive. Edentata. These singular and lowly-organised animals ap- pear to have become almost restricted to the two great Southern lands South Africa and South America at an early period ; and, being there free from the competition of higher forms, developed a number of remarkable types often of huge size, of which the Megatherium is one of the best known. The incur- sion of the highly-organised Ungulates and Carnivora into Africa during the Miocene epoch, probably exterminated most of them in that continent ; but in America they continued in full force down to the Post-Pliocene period ; and even now, the comparatively diminutive Sloths, Ant-eaters, and Armadillos, form a large and important portion of the fauna. Marsupialia and Monotremata. These are probably the representatives of the most ancient and lowly-organised types of mammal. They once existed in the northern continents, whence they spread into Australia; and being isolated, and preserved from the competition of the higher forms which soon arose in other parts of the world, they have developed into a variety of types, which, however, still preserve a general 44 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. uniformity of organisation. One family, which continued to exist in Europe till the latter part of the Miocene period, reached America, and has there been preserved to our day. Lines of Migration of the Mammalia. The whole series of phenomena presented by the distribution of the Mammalia, looked at broadly, are in harmony with the view that the great continents and oceans of our own epoch have been in existence, with comparatively small changes, during all Tertiary times. Each one of them has, no doubt, undergone considerable modifi- cations in its area, its altitude, and in its connection with other lands. Yet some considerable portion of each continent has, probably, long existed in its present position, while the great oceans seem to have occupied the same depressions of the earth's crust (varied, perhaps, by local elevations and sub- sidences) during all this vast period of time. Hence, allowing for the changes of which we have more or less satisfactory evidence, the migrations of the chief mammalian types can be pretty clearly traced. Some, owing to their small size and great vitality, have spread to almost all the chief land masses ; but the majority of the orders have a more restricted range. All the evidence at our command points to the Northern Hemisphere as the birth-place of the class, and probably of all the orders. At a very early period the land communication with Australia was cut off, and has never been renewed ; so that we have here preserved for us a sample of one or more of the most ancient forms of mammal. Somewhat later the union with South America and South Africa was severed; and in both these countries we have samples of a somewhat more advanced stage of mammalian development. Later still, the union by a northern route between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres appears to have been broken, partly by a physical separation, but almost as effectually by a lowering of tempera- ture. About the same period the separation of the Palsearctic region from the Oriental was effected, by the rise of the Himalayas and the increasing contrast of climate; while the formation of the great desert-belts of the Sahara, Arabia, Persia, and Central Asia, helped to complete the separation of CHAP. XXIIL] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 545 the Temperate and Tropical zones, and to render further intermi- gration almost impossible. In a few cases of which the Eodents in Australia and the pigs in Austro-Malaya are perhaps the most striking examples the distribution of land-mammals has been effected by a sea- passage either by swimming or on floating vegetation ; but, as a rule, we may be sure that the migrations of mammalia have taken place over the land; and their presence on islands is, therefore, a clear indication that these have been once connected with a continent. The present class of animals thus affords the best evidence of the past history of the land surface of our globe ; and we have chiefly relied upon it in sketching out (in Part III.) the probable changes which each of our great regions has undergone. Birds. Although birds are, of all land-vertebrates, the best able to cross seas and oceans, it is remarkable how closely the main features of their distribution correspond with those of the Mam- malia. South America possesses the low Formicarpid type of Passeres, which, compared with the more highly developed forms of the Eastern Hemisphere, is analogous to the Cebidae and Hapalidae as compared with the Old World Apes and Mon- keys ; while its Cracidse as compared wi$i the Pheasants and Grouse, may be considered parallel to the Edentata as compared with the Ungulates of the Old World. The Marsupials of America and Australia, are paralleled, among birds, in the Stru- thionidae and Megapodiidae ; the Lemurs and Insectivora pre- served in Madagascar are represented by the Mascarene Dididae ; the absence of Deer and Bears from Africa is analogous to the absence of Wrens, Creepers, and Pheasants ; while the African Hyracidae and Chrysochloridae among mammals, may well be compared with the equally peculiar Coliidae and Musophagidae among birds. From these and many other similarities of distribution, it is clear that birds have, as a rule, followed the same great lines of migration as mammalia ; and that oceans, seas, and deserts, have 546 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. always to a great extent limited their range. Yet these barriers have not been absolute ; and in the course of ages birds have been able to reach almost every habitable land upon the globe. Hence have arisen some of the most curious and interesting phenomena of distribution ; and many islands, which are entirely destitute of mammalia, or possess a very few species, abound in birds, often of peculiar types and remarkable for some unusual character or habit. Striking examples of such interesting bird- faunas are those of New Zealand, the Sandwich Islands, the Galapagos, the Mascarene Islands, the Moluccas, and the An- tilles ; while even small and remote islets, such as Juan Fer- nandez and Norfolk Island, have more light thrown upon their past history by means of their birds, than by any other portion of their scanty fauna. Another peculiar feature in the distribution of this class is the extraordinary manner in which certain groups and certain external characteristics, have become developed in islands, where the smaller and less powerful birds have been pro- tected from the incursions of mammalian enemies, and where rapacious birds which seem to some degree dependent on the abundance of mammalia are also scarce. Thus, we have the Pigeons and the Parrots most wonderfully developed in the Australian region, which is pre-eminently insular; and both these groups here acquire conspicuous colours very unusual, or altogether absent, elsewhere. Similar colours (black and red) appear, in the same two groups, in the distant Mascarene islands; while in the Antilles the parrots have often white heads, a character not found in the allied species on the South American continent. Crests, too, are largely developed, in both these groups, in the Australian region only ; and a crested parrot for- merly lived in Mauritius, a coincidence too much like that of the colours as above noted, to be considered accidental. Again, birds exhibit to us a remarkable contrast as regards the oceanic islands of tropical and temperate latitudes; for while most of the former present hardly any cases of specific identity with the birds of adjacent continents, the latter often show hardly any differences. The Galapagos and Madagascar CHAP, xxm.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 547 are examples of the first-named peculiarity ; the Azores and the Bermudas of the last ; and the difference can be clearly traced to the frequency and violence of storms in the one case and to the calms or steady breezes in the other. It appears then, that although birds do not afford us the same convincing proof of the former union of now disjoined lands as we obtain from mammals, yet they give us much curious and suggestive information as to the various and complex modes in which the existing peculiarities of the distribution of animals have been brought about. They also throw much light on the relation between distribution and the external characters of animals ; and, as they are often found where mammalia are quite absent, we must rank them as of equal value for the purposes of our present study. Eeptiles. These hold a somewhat intermediate place, as regards their distribution, between mammals and birds, having on the whole rather a wider range than the former, and a more restricted one than the latter. Snakes appear to have hardly more facilities for crossing the ocean than mammals ; hence they are generally absent from oceanic islands. They are more especially a tropical group, and have thus never been able to pass from one continent to another by those high northern and southern routes, which we have seen reason to believe were very effectual in the case of mammalia and some other animals. Hence we find no resemblance between the Australian and Neotropical regions, or between the Palae- arctic and Nearctic; while the Western Hemisphere is com- paratively poor as regards variety of types, although rich in genera and species. Deserts and high mountains are also very effectual barriers for this group, and their lines of migration have probably been along river valleys, and occasionally across narrow seas by means of floating vegetation. Lizards, being somewhat less tropical than snakes, may have passed by the northern route during warm epochs. They are also more suited to traverse deserts, and they possess some unknown 648 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. means of crossing the ocean, as they are not ^infrequently found in remote oceanic islands. These various causes have modified their distribution. The Western Hemisphere is much richer in lizards than it is in snakes ; and it is also very distinct from the Eastern Hemisphere. The lines of migration of lizards appear to have been along the mountains and deserts of tropical countries, and, under special conditions, across tropical seas from island to island. Crocodiles are a declining group. They were once more gene- rally distributed, all the three families being found in British Eocene deposits. Being aquatic and capable of living in the sea, they can readily pass along all the coasts and islands of the warmer parts of the globe. Tortoises are equally ancient, and the restriction of certain groups to definite areas seems to be also a recent phenomenon. Amphibia. The Amphibia differ widely from Eeptiles in their power of. enduring cold; one of their chief divisions, the Urodela or Tailed-Batrachia, being confined to the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere. To this class of animals the northern and southern routes of migration were open; and we accordingly find . a considerable amount of resemblance between South America and Australia, and a still stronger affinity between North America and the Palsearctic continent. The other tropical regions are more distinct from each other; clearly indicating that, in this group, it is tropical deserts and tropical oceans which are the barriers to migration. The class however is very fragmentary, and probably very ancient ; so that descendants of once wide- spread types are now found isolated in various parts of the globe, between which we may feel sure there has been no direct transmission of Batrachia. Eemembering that their chief lines of migration have been by northern and southern land-routes, by floating ice, by fresh- water channels, and perhaps at rare intervals by ova being carried by aquatic birds or by violent storms, we shall be able to comprehend most of the features of their actual distribution. CHAP, xxiii.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 549 Fresh-water Fishes. Although it would appear, at first sight, that the means of dispersal of these animals are very limited, yet they share to some extent the wide range of other fresh-water organisms. They are found in all climates ; but the tropical regions are by far the most productive, and of these South America is perhaps the richest and most peculiar. There is a certain amount of identity between the two northern continents, and also between those of the South Temperate zone ; yet all are radically distinct, even North America and Europe having but a small proportion of their forms in common. The occurrence of allied fresh-water species in remote lands as the Aphritis of Tasmania and Patagonia, and the Comephorus of Lake Baikal, distantly allied to the mackerels of Northern seas- would imply that marine fishes are often modified for a life in fresh waters; while other facts no less plainly show that per- manent fresh-water species are sometimes dispersed in various ways across the oceans, more especially by the northern and southern routes. The families of fresh-water fishes are often of restricted range, although cases of very wide and scattered distribution also occur. The great zoological regions are, on the whole, very well characterized ; showing that the same barriers are effectual here, as with most other vertebrates. We conclude, therefore, that the chief lines of migration of fresh-water fishes have beeji across the Arctic and Antarctic seas, probably by means of float- ing ice as well as by the help of the vast flocks of migratory aquatic birds that frequent those regions. On continents they are, usually, widely dispersed ; but tropical seas, even when of small extent, appear to have offered an effectual barrier to their dispersal. The cases of affinity between Tropical America, Africa, Asia, and Australia, must therefore be imputed either to the survival of once widespread groups, or to analogous adap^ tation to a fresh-water life of wide-spread marine types ; and these cases cannot be taken as evidence of any former land connection between such remote continents. 550 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. Insects. It has already been shown (Vol. I. pp. 209-213 and Vol. II. pp. 44-48) that the peculiarities of distribution of the various groups of insects depend very much on their habits and general economy. Their antiquity is so vast, and their more important modifications of structure have probably occurred so slowly, that modes of dispersal depending on such a combina- tion of favourable conditions as to be of excessive rarity, may yet have had time to produce large cumulative effects. Their small specific gravity and their habits of flight render them liable to dispersal by winds to an extent unknown in other classes of animals ; and thus, what are usually very effectual barriers have been overstepped, and sometimes almost obliterated, in the case of insects. A careful examination will, however, almost always show traces of an ancient fauna, agreeing in character with other classes of animals, intermixed with the more promi- nent and often more numerous forms whose presence is due to this unusual facility of dispersal. The effectual migration of insects is, perhaps more than in any other class of animals, limited by organic and physical conditions. The vegetation, the soil, the temperature, and the supply of moisture, must all be suited to their habits and economy ; while they require an immunity from enemies of various kinds, which immigrants to a new country seldom obtain. Few organisms have, in so many complex ways, become adapted to their special environment, as have insects. They are in each country more or less adapted to the plants which belong to it ; while their colours, their habits, and the very nature of the juices of their system, are all modified so as to protect them from the special dangers which surround them in their native land. It follows, that while no animals are so well adapted to show us the various modes by which dispersal may be effected, none can so effectually teach us the true nature and vast influence of the organic barrier in limiting dispersal. It is probable that insects have at one time or another taken advantage of every line of migration by which any terrestrial CHAP, xxiii.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 551 organisms have spread over the earth, but owing to their small size and rapid multiplication, they have made use of some which are exclusively their own. Such are the passage along moun- tain ranges from the Arctic to the Antarctic regions, and the dispersal of certain types over all temperate lands. It will perhaps be found that insects have spread over the land surface in directions dependent on our surface zones forests, pastures, and deserts ; and a study of these, with a due consideration of the fact that narrow seas are scarcely a barrier to most of the groups, may assist us to understand many of the details of insect-distribution. Terrestrial Mollusca. The distribution of land-shells agrees, in some features, with that of insects, while in others the two are strongly contrasted. In both we see the effects of great antiquity, with some special means of dispersal ; but while in insects the general powers of motion, both voluntary and involuntary, are at a maximum, in land -molluscs they are almost at a minimum. Although to some extent dependent on vegetation and climate, the latter are more dependent on inorganic conditions, and also to a large extent on the general organic environment. The result of these various causes, acting through countless ages, has been to spread the main types of structure with considerable uniformity over the globe ; while generic and sub-generic forms are often wonderfully localized. Land-shells, even more than insects, seem, at first sight, to require regions of their own; but we have already pointed out the disadvantages of such a method of study. It will be far more instructive to refer them to those regions and sub- regions which are found to accord best with the distribution of the higher animals, and to consider the various anomalies they pre- sent as so many problems, to be solved by a careful study of their habits and economy, and especially by a search after the hidden causes which have enabled them to spread so widely over land and ocean. The lines of migration which land-shells have followed, can VOL. II. 36 552 GEOGRAPHICAL ZOOLOGY. [PART iv. hardly be determined with any definiteness. On continents they seem to spread steadily, but slowly, in every direction, checked probably by organic and physical conditions rather than by the barriers which limit the higher groups. Over the ocean they are also slowly dispersed, by some means which act perhaps at very long intervals, but which, within the period of the duration of genera and families, are tolerably effective. It thus happens that, although the powers of dispersal of land-shells and insects are so very unequal, the resulting geographical distribution is almost the opposite of what might have been expected, the former being, on the whole, less distinctly localized than the latter. CONCLUSION. The preceding remarks are all I now venture to offer, on the distinguishing features of the various groups of land-animals as regards their distribution and migrations. They are at best but indications of the various lines of research opened up to us by the study of animals from the geographical point of view, and by looking upon their range in space and time as an important portion of the earth's history. Much work has yet to be done before the materials will exist for a complete treatment of the subject in all its branches ; and it is the author's hope that his volumes may lead to a more systematic collection and arrange- ment of the necessary facts. At present all public museums and private collections are arranged zoologically. All treatises, mo- nographs, and catalogues, also follow, more or less completely, the zoological arrangement ; and the greatest difficulty the student of geographical distribution has to contend against, is the total absence of geographical collections, and the almost total want of complete and comparable local catalogues. Till every well- marked district, every archipelago, and every important island, has all its known species of the more important groups of animals catalogued on a uniform plan, and with a uniform nomenclature, a thoroughly satisfactory account of the Geographical Distribu- tion of Animals will not be possible. But more than this is wanted. Many of the most curious relations between animal CHAP, xxiii.] SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION. 553 forms and their habitats, are entirely unnoticed, owing to the productions of the same locality never being associated in our museums and collections. A few such relations have been brought to light by modern scientific travellers, but many more remain to be discovered ; and there is probably no fresher and more productive field still unexplored in Natural History. Most of these curious and suggestive relations are to be found in the productions of islands, as compared with each other, or with the continents of which they form appendages ; but these can never be properly studied, or even discovered, unless they are visibly grouped together. When the birds, the more conspicuous families of insects, and the land-shells of islands, are kept together so as to be readily compared with similar associations from the adja- cent continents or other islands, it is believed that in almost every case there will be found to be peculiarities of form or colour running through widely different groups, and strictly indicative of local or geographical influences. Some of these coincident variations have been alluded to in various parts of this work, but they have never been systematically investigated. They constitute an unworked mine of wealth for the enterprising explorer ; and they may not improbably lead to the discovery of some of the hidden laws (supplementary to Natural Selection), which seem to be required, in order to account for many of the external characteristics of animals. In concluding his task, the author ventures to suggest, that naturalists who are disposed to turn aside from the beaten track of research, may find in the line of study here suggested a new and interesting pursuit, not inferior in attractions to the lofty heights of transcendental anatomy, or the bewildering mazes of modern classification. And it is a study which will surely lead them to an increased appreciation of the beauty and the harmony of nature, and to a fuller comprehension of the complex relations and mutual interdependence, which link together every animal and vegetable form, with the ever-changing earth which supports them, into one grand organic whole. GENEEAL INDEX. GENERAL INDEX. ALL names in Italics refer, either to the genera arid other groups of Extinct Animals in Part II. of the First Volume ; or to the genera whose distribution is given under Geographical Zoology (Part IV.) in the Second Volume; the Families and higher groups being in small capitals. All other references are in ordinary type. The various matters discussed under Zoological Geography (Part III.), are indexed as much as possible by subjects and localities. None of the genera mentioned in this Part are indexed, as this would have more than doubled the extent of the Index, and would have served no useful purpose, because the general distribution of each genus is given in Part IV., and the separate details can always be found by referring to the region, sub-region, and class. Aard-vark of East Africa, figure of, i. 261 Aard-vark. ii. 246 Aard-wolf, ii. 196 Abacetus, ii. 491 Abax, ii. 489 Abisara, ii. 475 Ablabes, ii. 375 Ablepharus, ii. 395 Abramis, ii. 453 Abronia, ii. 392 Abrornis, ii. 258 Abrostomus, ii. 451 Aburria, ii. 343 Acalyptus, ii 384 Acanthias, ii. 461 Acanthicus, ii. 444 Acanthion, ii. 240 Acanthis, ii. 283 Acanthisitta. ii. 265 Acanthiza, ii. 258 Acanthobrama, ii. 453 ACANTHOCLINID.E, ii. 432 Acanthodactylus. ii. 391 Acanthodelphis, ii. 209 Acantholcibrus, ii. 437 Acanthomys, ii. 229 Acanthophis, ii. 383 Acanthopsis, ii. 453 ACANTHOPTERYGTI, ii 424 ACANTHOPTERYGII PHARYNCO- GNATHI, ii. 437 Acanthopthalmus, ii. 453 Acanthoptila, ii. 261 Acanthopyga, ii. 390 Acanthorhynchus, ii. 275 Acanthosaura, ii. 402 Acura, ii. 438 Accentor, ii. 260 Accentorinae, ii. 257 Accipenser, ii. 459 ACCIPENSERID^E, ii. 459 Accipiter, ii. 348 Accipitres, European Eocene, i. 163 Accipitres, classification of, i. 97 range of Palaearctic genera of, i. 248 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 312 range of Oriental genera of, i. 385 range of Australian genera of, i. 486 ACCIPITRES, ii. 345 general remarks on the distribution of, 351 ACCIPITRINjE, ii. 347 Acerina, ii. 425 Aceros, ii. 317 Acerotherium, ii. 214 Acerotherinm, European Miocene, i. 119 N. American Tertiary, i. 136 Acestra, ii. 444 Acestotra, ii. 108 Achalinus, ii. 375 Acharnes, ii. 434 Achatina, ii. 515 Achatinella, ii. 514 Acherontia, ii. 483 Achilognathus, ii. 452 Achcenodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Acicula, ii. 519 ACICULID.E, ii. 519 Acmceodera, ii. 497 Acodon, ii. 230 ACONTIADjE, ii. 399 AconVas, ii. 399 Acotherium, European Eocene, i. 126 Acotherium, ii. 215 558 GENERAL INDEX. Acrcna. ii. 473 ACR/EID.E, ii. 473 Acrantus, il 390 Acredula, ii. 266 Acridotheres, ii. 287 Acris, ii. 419 Acrobata, ii. 252 AcrocepMlus, ii. 258 Acrochilus, to. 452 ACROCHORDID,, ii. 382 Acrochordonichthys, ii. 442 Acrochordus, ii. 382 ACRONURID.E, ii. 433 Acropternis, ii. 297 Acryllium, ii. 340 Actenodes, ii. 497 ^ctfnodwra, ii. 261 ^Ida, ii. 390 Adamsiella, ii. 521 j4ttopis, European Eocene, i 125 Addax, ii. 223 Adelvmia, ii. 108 ^ldiotoj:n~yotriorchis, ii. 348 Dubusia, ii. 98 Ducks, ii 363 Dulus, ii. 280 Dumerilia, ii. 408 Dumetia, ii. 261 Dumeticola, ii. 258 Duncan, Dr. , on fossil corals of the Antilles, ii. 21 D'Urbania, ii. 477 ' Dwarf-ground snakes, ii. 374 Dynastor, ii. 472 DyscMrus, ii. 489 Dysauxis, ii. 481 Dysithamnus, ii. 104 Dysopes, ii. 184 Eagles, ii. 347 Eared Seals, ii. 202 Ear-shells, ii. 511 East Africa, geographical features of, i. 258 wide range of genera and species over, i. 259 few special types in, i. 260 East African sub-region, description of, i. 258 genera and species ranging over the whole of, i. 259 mammalia of, i. 260 birds of, i. 260 reptiles of, i. 260 amphibia and fishes of, i. 260 insects of, i. 260 few peculiar types in, i. 260 illustration of zoology of, i. 261 East Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 440 GENEKAL INDEX. 573 East Thibet, mammalia of, i. 222 Eaton, Rev., A. E., on insects of Kergueleh Island, i. 211 Eburna, ii. 507 Echidna, ii. 254 ECHIDNID.E, ii. 254 Echimyidce, in Brazilian caves, I. 145 ECHIMYIDvE, ii. 238 Echimys. ii. 239 EcMnqg&le, European Miocene, i. 118 Echinops, ii. 188, 189 Echinorhinus, ii. 461 Echiothrix, ii. 230 Echis, ii. 386 Eclectus, ii. 326 Ectognathns, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Ectopistes, ii. 332 Edentata, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 121 N. American Post- Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Pliocene, i. 140 of Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Edentata, classification of, i. 90 probable birthplace of, i. 155 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 305 range of Oriental genus of, i. 375 EDENTATA, ii. 244 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 247 summary and conclusion, ii. 543 Ega, ii. 490 Egerina, ii. 397 Elainea, ii. 101, 291 ELAINElNjE, ii. 291 Elmia, ii. 397 Elanoides, ii. 349 Elanus, ii. 349 Elaphodus, ii. 220 Elaphrus, ii. 489 ELAPID.E, ii. 382 Elapochrus, ii. 375 Elaps, ii 383 Elapsoidea, ii. 383 Elasmognathus, ii. 212 Electra, ii. 209 ELEPHANTIDjE. ii. 227 Elephants, fossil, of Indian Miocene, i. 123 fossil in N. American Post-Pliocene for- mations, i. 130 birthplace and migrations of, L 155 ii. 227 Elephant shrews. S. African, i. 267 ii. 186 Elephas, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 fossil in N. China, i. 123 N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 227 Eliomys, ii. 232 Elliot, Mr.., his great work on the birds of paradise, i. 415 on classification of the birds of paradise, ii. 274 Ellipesurus, ii. 463 Ellipsoglossa, ii. 413 Ellisia, ii. 258 Ellobius, ii. 231 Elminia, ii. 271 Elodina, ii. 478 Elopichthys, ii. 453 Elornis, European Miocene, i. 162 Elosia, ii. 419 Elotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 137, 139 ii. 215, 216 Elseya, ii. 408 Elwes, Mr., on birds of Persia, i. 204 Elwes, Mr., on true relations of the birds of Central India, i. 323 Elymnias, ii. 471 ELYMNIID^E, ii. 471 ELSIAD^E, ii. 530 Embasis, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Emberiza, ii. 285 EMBERIZIN.E, ii. 285 Emberizoides, ii. 284 Smblema, ii. 287 Embernagra, ii. 284 EMB$pTOCIDvE, ii. 438 Emesis, ii. 476 Emeu, figure of, i. 441 Emeus, ii. 368 Emminia, ii. 390 Empidagra, ii. 101 Empidias, ii. 102, 291 Empidochanes, ii. 102 Empidonax, ii. 102, 291 Empidonomus, ii. 102 Emyda, ii. 409 Emydida, Indian Miocene, i. 123 Emydocephalus, ii. 384 Emys, Indian Miocene, i. 123 ' Miocene and Eocene, i. 165 ii. 408 Enes, ii. 501 Engystoma, ii. 416 ENGYSTOMID.E, ii. 416 Enhydrina, ii. 384 Enhydrion, Indian Miocene, L 121 ii. 200 Enhydris, ii. 199 Enicurus, ii. 263 Enispe, ii. 472 Enodes, ii. 288 Enophrys, ii. 375 Ensophleus, ii. 42ft Entelopes, ii. 501 Entoriiza, ii. 276 Entomophila, ii. 275 Enygrus, ii. 381 Eobasileus, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Eocene period, i. 124 fauna of 8. America, i. 148 Eophona, ii. 284 Eopsaltria, ii. 271 Eos, ii. 327 Epalzeorhynchus, ii. 451 Ephemera, from the Lias, i. 167 Ephthianura, ii. 260 Epicalia, ii. 474 Epicrates. ii. 381 EPIM ACHING, ii. 275 Epimachvs, ii. 275 fipiodon, ii. 208 Epirh&is, ii. 419 Epitola, ii. 477 Eporeodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 EQUID.E, ii. 211 Equidce, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Eocene, i. 125 Equut, European Pliocene, i. 112 Post- Pliocene, i. 112 Indian Miocene, i. 121 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 135 Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 146 ii. 211 Erebia, ii. 471 Eremias, ii. 391 Eremomela, ii. 258 Eremophilus, ii. 444 574 GENERAL INDEX. Ereptodon, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 Eretia, ii. 474 Erethistes, ii. 444 Erethizon, ii. 239 Ereumtes, ii. 353 Ergaticus, ii. 279 Ergoli*, ii. 474 Ericulus, ii. 188 Ericymba, ii. 452 ERINACEID.E, ii. 187 Erinaceus, European Miocene, i. 117 ii. 187 Eriocnemis, ii. 109 Eriodes, ii. 174 Erismatura. ii. 364 hrithacus, ii. 259 Eroessa, ii. 258 Eronia, ii. 478 Erpornis, ii. 267 ERYCID^, ii. 381 ERYCINID,E, ii. 476 Erynnis, ii. 480 Erythrinus, ii. 4-15 Erythrocercus, ii. 270 Erythrocncma, ii. 347 Erythrogonys, ii. 356 Erythrolampus, ii. 375 Erythromachus of Rodriguez, i. 164 il 352 Erythrospiza, ii. 285 Erythrosterna, ii. 270 Erythrura, ii. 387 Eri/rr, ii. 382 ESOCID^, ii. 449 soc,ii 449 Esthemopsis, ii. 476 Esthonyx, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Estrilda, ii. 286 Etheria, ii. 534 Ethiopian region should not include any part of India, i. 63 defined, i. 73 subdivisions of, i 73 general features of, i. 251 zoological characteristics of, i. 252 mammalia of, i. 253 great speciality of, i. 253 birds of, i. 253 reptiles of, i. 254 amphibia of, i. 255 fresh-water fish of, i. 255 summary of vertebrates of, i. 255 insects of, i. 255 coleoptera of, i. 256 terrestrial mollusca of, i. 257 sub-regions of, i. 258 Atlantic islands of, i. 269 the probable past history of, i. 285 tables of distribution of animals of, i. 293 Euanemus, ii. 443 Eubagis, ii. 474 Eucephala, ii. 109 Euchcetes, ii. 98 Eucometis, ii. 99 Euchromia, ii. 481 Eucichla, ii. 298 Eudyptosternum, ii. 443 Eudromias, ii. 356 Eudynamis, ii. 310 Eudyptes, ii 366 E'teides, ii. 473 Eugenes, ii. 107 Eugenia, ii. 107 Euhyrax, ii. 229 Eulabeornis, ii. 352 Eulabes, ii. 287 Eulampis, ii. 107 EumcEus, ii. 477 Eumeces, ii. 397 Euinetopias, ii. 203 Eumomota, ii. 313 Eumys, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 ii. 231 Eumyias, ii. 270 Eunectes, il 381 Eunica, ii. 474 Eunogyra, ii. 475 Eupetes, ii. 263 Eupetomena, ii. 107 Euphema, ii. 325 Eupherusa, ii. 109 Euphonia, ii. 98 Euphractus, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 'Euphryne, ii. 401 Euphysetes, ii. 208 Eupleres, ii. 195 Euplcea, ii. 470 EUPLOCAMIira, ii. 340 Euplocamus, ii. 340 Eupodotis, ii. 356 Euprepes, ii. 397 Eupsychortyx, ii. 339 Euptilotis, ii. 314 Euptychia, ii. 471 Eurinorhynchus, ii. 353 Eurocephalus, ii. 272 Europe, recent changes in physical geography of, i. 39 Miocene fauna of Central, i. 117 Miocene fauna of, allied to existing fauna of tropical Asia and Africa, i. 124 European sub-region, description of, i. 191 forests of, i. 192 mammalia of, i. 192 birds of, i 193 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 195 fresh-water fish of, i. 196 insects of, i. 196 islands of, i. 197 Eurostopodus, ii. 320 Euryades, ii. 479 Euryapteryx, ii. 370 Euryarthrium, ii. 501 Eurybia, ii. 475 Euryceros of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278 Euryceros, ii. 288 Eurycus, ii. 479 Eurygona, ii. 476 EURYGONIDjE, ii. 476 EURYL.MID,, ii. 294 Eurylcemus, ii, 295 Euryodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 246 Euryphene, ii. 474 Eurypyga, ii. 358 EURYFYGIDjE, ii. 358 Eurystomus, ii. 312 Eurytela, ii. 474 Eurytherium, European Eocene, i. 126 Eurytrichus, ii. 490 Euscarthmus, ii. 101 Euschemon, ii. 480 ii. 481 Eusemia, ii. 482 Euspiza, ii. 285 Eustephanus, ii. 108 Eustira, ii. 453 Eutatus, 8. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 246 Eutelodon, European Eocene, i. 126 Eutemnodus, S. American Eocene, i. 148 GENERAL INDEX. 575 Euterpe, ii. 285 Euthyrhynchus, ii. 276 Eutoxeres, ii. 107 Eutriorchis, ii. 348 Eutropia, ii. 209 Eutropiichthys, ii. 441 Eutropius, ii. 442 Et^roplus, ii. 438 Exocetus, ii. 449 Exoglossum, ii. 452 Exostoma, ii. 444 Extinct mammalian fauna of Europe, general considerations on, i. 126 mammalia of N. America and Europe, comparison of, i. 140 mammalia of the Antilles, i. 148 mammalia of the Old and New Worlds, general remarks on, i. 148 fauna of New Zealand, i. 459 Amphibia, ii. 423 Ant-eaters, ii. 247 Armadillos, ii. 246 Bovida;, ii. 225 Bradypodidae, ii. 245 Camelidae, ii. 217 Camelopardalidse, ii. 221 Canidse, ii. 197 Castoridae, ii. 234 Caviidse, 241 Centetidse, ii. 189 Cercolabidse, ii. 240 Cetacea, ii. 209 Chinchillidae, ii. 237 Chiroptera, ii. 185 Crocodiles, ii. 407 Deer, ii. 220 Didelphyidse, ii. 249 Dipodidse, ii. 232 Echidnidae, ii. 254 Echimyidse, ii. 239 Elephants, ii. 227 Equidae, ii. 211 Erinaceidae, ii. 188 Felidse, ii. 193 Hippopotami, ii. 214 Hyaenas, ii. 196 Hystricidae, ii. 240 Insectivora, ii. 192 Lacertilia, ii. 404 Lagomyidae, ii. 242 Leporidae, ii. 243 Macropodidse, ii. 251 Muridse, ii. 230 Mustelidae, ii. 199 Myoxidae, ii. 232 Octodontidse, ii. 238 Ophidia, ii. 387 Orycteropodidae, ii. 246 Otariidae, ii. 203 Procyonidse, ii. 201 Quadrumana, ii. 178 Rallidae, ii. 252 Rhinocerotida?, ii. 213 Sciuridae, ii. 236 Seals, ii. 204 Sirenia, ii. 210 Struthionidae, ii. 369 Suidae, ii. 215 Talpidae. ii. 190 Tapirs, ii. 212 Tortoises, ii. 410 Tragulidae, ii. 218 Tupaiidae, ii. 186 Ursidae, ii. 202 Viverridae, ii. 195 Extinction of large animals, causes of, i. 158 F. Falcinellus, ii. 360 Fako, ii. 349 FALCONIDJE, ii. 347 FALCONING, ii. 349 Falcons, ii. 347 Falculia, ii. 228 Falkland Islands, zoology of, ii. 49 Fanged ground -snakes, ii. 380 Farancia, ii. 377 Fauna of Japan, general character and ami- ties of, i. 230 of Palaearctic region, general conclusions as to, i. 231 extinct, of Madagascar and "Mascarere Islands, i. 282 Malayan, probable origin of, i. 359 Moluccan, peculiarities of, i. 419 Timorese, origin of, i. 422 of Celebes, origin of, i. 436 of New Zealand, origin of, i. 460 of Galapaqos, origin of, ii. 33 of Central America, origin of, ii. 57 of Antilles, origin of, ii. 78 of Neotropical region, origin of, ii. 80 FELICE, ii. 192 Felis, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 193 Felis spelcea, i. 110 Feniseca, ii. 477 Fennecus, ii. 197 Ferania, ii. 376 Fernando Po, zoological features of, i. 265 Feroculus, ii. 191 Fiber, ii. 230 Figulus, ii. 493 Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa Islands, birds of, i. 443 Finches, ii. 283 FIROLID,E, ii. 531 Fishes, means of dispersal of, i. 29 classification of, i. 101 cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176 of the Palaearctic region, i. 186 of the European sub-region, i. 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205 of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227 fresh -water, table of Palaearctic families of, i. 227 of the Ethiopian region, i. 255 of South Africa, i. 268 fresh-water, table of Ethiopian families of, i. 298 fresh-water, of the Oriental region,!. 318 of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 341 fresh-water, table of Oriental families of i. 369 fresh-water, of the Australian region, i. 397 fresh- water, resemblance of Australian and 8. American, i. 400 how the transmission may have taken place, i. 401 fresh-water, of New Zealand, i. 457 fresh-water, table of Neotropical families of, ii. 89 of Central N. America, ii. 131 of Eastern United States, ii. 134 of Canada, ii. 137 fresh-water, table of Nearctic families of, ii. 143 576 GENERAL INDEX. Fishes, remarks on the distribution of, ii. 464 fossil, ii. 466 Fishing-hawks, ii. 349 FISSURELLID^:, ii. 511 FISTULARID^E, ii. 436 Fitzraya, ii. 450 Flamingoes, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 361 Flora, of New Zealand, as influenced by scarcity of insects, i. 462 fossil of Australia, i. 467 Floras, cretaceous and tertiary, of North America, ii. 155 Florisuga, ii. 107 Flower-peckers, ii. 277 Flower, Professor, on classification of mam- malia, i. 85 classification of camivora, i. 87 Fluvicola, ii. 100 Flycatchers, ii. 270 Flying Lemur, Malayan, figure of, i. 337 ii. 186 Flying Lizards, ii. 401 Flying Opossum, figure of, i. 442 Fordonia, ii. 376 Forests, essential to existence of many Euro- pean animals, i. 192 Siberian, greatest extent of, i. 216 FORMICARIID.E, ii. 297 FORMICARIINjE, ii. 298 Formicarius, ii. 104 Formicivora, ii. 104 FORMICIVORINjE, ii. 297 Formosa, zoology of, i. 33? Fossa, ii. 195 Foudia, ii. 286 Francolinus, ii. 338 Fraseria, ii. 272 Fratercula, ii. 367 Fregetta, ii. 365 Fregilupus, ii. 288 Fregilus, ii. 274 Fresh-water fishes, Neotropical, ii. 12 of S. Temperate America, ii. 42 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 54 of the Antilles, ii 73 of the Nearctic region, ii. 120 of California, ii. 128 summary and conclusion, ii. 549 Fresh-water mussels, ii. 534 shell, the most Arctic, ii. 518 snakes, ii. 376 snails, ii. 518 Fringilla, ii. 283 Fringillaria, ii. 285 Fringillauda, ii. 282 FRINGILLID.E, ii. 284 Frog-mouths, ii. 318 Frogs, ii. 420 Fulica, ii. 352 Fuligula, ii. 364 Fulmarus, ii. 365 Fundulus, ii. 450 FURNARIIN^E, ii. 295 Furnarius, ii. 103 Fusus, ii. 507 G. GADID^E, ii. 439 GADOPSIDyE, ii. 439 Gadvs, ii. 439 Galago, ii. 177 Galapagos, scarcity of insects in, i. 463 Galapagos islands, ii. 29 mammalia of, ii. 29 birds of, ii. 30 reptiles of, ii. 32 insects of, ii. 33 land-shells of, ii. 33 conclusions as to the origin of their fauna, ii. 33 Galatea, ii. 536 Galaxias, ii. 448 GALAXID.E, ii. 448 Galbalcyrhynchiis, ii. 311 Galbula, ii. 311 GALBULID^S, ii. 311 , Galecynus, in European Pliocene, i. 112 ii. 198 Galeichthys, ii. 443 GALEOPlTHECIDjE, ii. 186 Galeoscoptes, ii. 256 Galeospalax, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 190 Galeotherium, Post-Pliocene, i. Ill Galera, N. American Post- Pliocene, i. 130- Galerella, ii. 195 Galerita, ii. 289 ii. 490 Galerix, ii. 188 GaUthylax, European Eocene, i. 125 ii. 198 Gcthus, ii 460 Galictis, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 199 Galidia, ii. 195 Galidiclis, ii. 195 Gallinse, classification of, i. 96 range of Palaearctic genera of, i. 248 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 311 range of Oriental genera of, i. 384 range of Australian genera of, i. 485 GALLING, ii. 337 ii. 340 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 344 Gallinago, ii. 353 Gallinula, ii. 352 Gallus, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 ii. 340 Gallus bravardi, European Pliocene, i. 161 titilogale, ii. 195 Ganibusia, ii. 450 Gampsonyx, ii. 349 Gampsorhynchus, ii. 261 Gannets, ii. 365 GANOIDEI, ii. 458 Gape-eyed Sciuks, ii. 395 Gar-fish, ii. 459 Garrod, Professor, on the Classification of Parrots, ii. 324 Garrulax, ii. 261 Gamtlus, ii. 273 GASTEROPODA, ii. 507 GASTEROSTEID^l, ii. 424 Gasterosteus, ii. 424 Gastornis, European Eocene, i. 163 GASTROCHJENID.E, ii. 537 Gastropelecus, ii. 445 GAVIALIDJE, ii. 405 Gavialis, ii. 405 Gavials, ii. 405 Gazella, ii. 223 GAZELLIN^E, ii. 223 Gazera,.ii. 481 Gecinulus, ii. 303 Gecinus, ii. 303 Gecko, ii. 399 GECKOTID.E, ii. 399 GENERAL INDEX. 577 Geese, ii. 363 Gehyra, ii. 400 Genera common to Post-Pliocene and Pliocene faunas of N. America, i. 132 Genetta, ii. 195 Genidens, ii. 443 Geobates, ii. 103 Geobiastes, ii. 312 Geocichla, ii. 256 Geococcyx, ii. 309 Geocolaptes, ii. 304 GEODEPHAGA, ii. 486 Geo/royus, ii. 326 Geographic?! zoology, introduction, ii. 167 materials for, ii. 168 Geological history of Oriental region, i. 362 Geology and Physical Geography of the Antilles, ii. 62, 79 Geomelania, ii. 519 Geomys, ii. 233 Geopelia, ii. 332 Geophaps, ii. 333 Geophagus, ii. 439 Geopsittacus, ii. 325 Georissa, ii. 522 Georychus, ii. 231 Geositta, ii. 103 Geospiza, ii. 284 Geothlypis, ii. 279 GeotrocJius, ii. 523 Geotryon, ii. 383 Geotrypus, ii. 190 Geranospiza, ii. 347 Gerbillus, ii. 230 ii. 232 Geronticus, ii. 360 Gerrhonotus, ii. 392 Gerrhosaurus, ii. 392 GERRID^E, ii. 438 Gervasia, ii. 260 Gerygone, ii. 258 Giant-Clams, ii. 534 Gibbon, ii. 171 Gibraltar, cave fauna of, i. 114 Giraffes, ii. 221 Girardinus, ii. 450 Glacial epoch, as affecting the distribution of animals, i. 40 as a cause of the great change in the fauna of the temperate zones, since Pliocene times, i. 151 probably simultaneous in both hemi- spheres, i. 151 causing a general subsidence of the ocean, i. 152 Glandina, Eocene, i. 169 ii. 515 Glareola, ii. 355 GLAREOLID.E, ii. 355 Glands, ii. 107 Glaucidium, ii. 350 Glauconeza, ii. 536 Glaucopis, ii. 481 Gfytiphila, ii. 275 Glis, ii. 232 Globiocephalus,\\. 209 Glossoptila, ii. 278 Glossotherium, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 247 Glycimeris, ii. 536 Glyphidodon, ii. 437 Glyphoglossus, ii. 416 Glyphorhynchus, ii. 103 Glyptodon, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Glyptosternum, ii. 443 GnapJiodes, ii. 471 Gnathodon, ii. 536 Gnathopsis, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Goats, Palsearctic, i. 182 ii. 221 Goat-suckers, ii. 519 GOBIESOCID^E, ii. 436 GOBIIDjE, ii. 430 Gobio, ii. 452 Gobius, ii. 430 Godman, Mr., on Natural History of the Azores, i. 207 Golden Moles, S. African, i. 267 Goliathi, ii. 494 Gonepteryx, ii. 478 Goniodactylus, ii. 400 Gongylophis, ii. 382 GonorhynchidcK, ii 453 Gonyocephalus, ii. 402 Gonyosoma, ii. 379 Gouldia, ii. 107 Goura, ii. 333 Graculavus, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164 Grallse, arrangement of, i. 97 peculiar or characteristic Palsearctic ge- nera, i. 249 peculiar Ethiopian genera of, i. 31 peculiar Oriental genera of, 386 peculiar Australian genera of, i. 486 GRALL.E, ii. 351 general remarks on the distribution of, ii 362 Grallaria, ii. 104 Grallaricula, ii. 104 Grallina, ii. 273 Grammatophorus, ii. 402 Grammatoptila, ii. 261 Grampus, ii. 209 Granatellus, ii. 279 Grandala, ii. 259 Graphidurus, ii. 232 Graphipterus, ii. 491 Gravcalus, ii. 268 Gray, Dr. J. E., on classification of Cetacea, i. 88 Grayia, ii. 376 Grayson, Col , on birds of Tres Marias, ii. 59 Grebes, ii. 367 Greece, Upper Miocene deposits of, i. 115 summary of Miocene fauna of, i. 116 Green Bulbuls, ii. 267 Greenland, zoology of, ii. 138 Greenlets, ii. 280 Groups peculiar to a region, how defined, ii. Grouse, ii. 328 GRUID.E, ii. 356 Grus, ii. 357 Grypsicus, ii. 421 Grypus, ii. 107 Guacharo, ii. 107 Guans, ii. 342 Guaraunas, ii. 357 Gubernatrix, ii. 285 Guillemots, ii. 267 Guira, ii. 309 Guiraca, ii. 285 Gwlick, Rev. J. T., on Achatinellidse of the Sandwich Islands, i. 446 Gulls, ii. 364 Gulo, ii. ]99 Giinther, Dr., his classification of reptiles, i. 98 * his classification of fishes, i. 101 on gigantic tortoises of Galapagos and the Mascarene Islands, i. 289 578 GENERAL INDEX. Giinther, Dr., on range of Indian reptiles in the Himalayas, i. 329 on identical Atlantiic and Pacfic fishes, ii. 21 on fresh- water fishes of Central America, ii. 54 Gygis, ii. 365 GYMNARCHID^E, ii. 449 Gymnarchus, ii. 449 GYMNETIN^E, ii. 494 Gymnobucco, ii. 306 Gymnocephalus, ii. 103 Gymnocichla, ii. 104 Gymnocorvus, ii. 274 Gymnocypris, ii. 452 Gymnodactylus, ii 400 GYMNODER1N.E, ii. 293 Gymnoderus, ii. 103 GYMNODONTES, ii. 457 Gymnoglaux, ii. 350 Gymnokitta, ii. 273 Oymnomystax, ii. 282 Gymnopelia, ii. 333 Gymnops, ii. 287 GYMNOPHTHALMID^, ii. 395 Gymnophthalmus, ii. 395 Gymnopus, ii. 199 Gymnorhina, ii. 273 Gymnostomus, ii. 451 GYMNOTID^, ii. 455 Gymnotus, ii. 455 Gymnura, ii. 188 Gypaetus, ii. 348 Gypohierax, ii. 348 Gypoictinia, ii. 349 Gyps, ii. 346 Haast, Dr., on extinct birds of New Zealand, i. 460 Habitat, definition of, i. 4 Habrocomus, ii. 238 Habroptila, ii. 352 Habrura, ii 101 Hadrostomus, ii. 102, 293 Hcematoderus, ii. 103 Haematopus, ii. 356 Hcematospiza, ii 285 Hasmophila, ii. 284 Hcemidon, ii. 426 Hcetera, ii. 471 tfogrria, ii. 397 Hainan, zoology of, i. 334 Halcyon, ii. 316 Halcyornis, European Eocene, i. 103 Halicyon, ii. 204 Haliceetus, ii. 348 Haliastur, ii. 348 Halichcerus, ii. 204 Halicore, ii. 210 HALIOTID,E, ii. 511 Halitherium, European Pliocene, i. 112 European Miocene, i. 119 ii. 211 Halmaturus, ii. 251 HALOSAURID.E, ii. 455 Halys, ii. 385 Hamadryas, ii. 470 Hang-nests, ii. 281 \fapale, ii. 176 ii. 178 llapalemur, ii. 176 HAPALID.E, ii. 175 Hapaktis, ii. 230 Hapalus, ii. 524 1 Haplocerus, ii. 374 | Haplochilus, ii. 450 I Haplochiton, ii. 446 HAPLOCHITONIDJE, ii. 446 Haplodactylus, ii. 427 Haploodon, ii. 236 HAPLOODONTID^, ii. 236 Haplospiza, ii. 284 Hapsidrophis, 379" Harelda, ii. 364 Hares, ii. 242 Harma, ii. 474 Harpa, ii. 349 ii. 507 Harpactes, ii. 314 Harpagus, ii. 349 Harpalus, ii. 489 Harporhynchus, ii. 256 Harpyhaliceetus, ii. 348 Hartlaubius, ii. 288 Hathliodes, ii. 502 Hatteria of New Zealand, i. 456 Hatteria, ii. 405 Hawks, ii. 347 Hedgehogs, ii. 187 Hedymeks, ii. 285 Helarctos, ii. 202 Helcyra, ii. 474 Heleothreptus, ii. 320 Heliactin, ii. 108 Heliangelus, ii. 108 Helianthea, ii. 108 Heliastes, ii. 437 HELICID^E, ii. 512 Hdicina, ii. 522 HELICONID.E, ii. 473 ii. 522 Heliconius, ii. 473 Helicophagus, ii. 442 Helicops, ii. 377 Helictis, Himalayan, figure of, i. 331 Hdictis, ii. 199 Heliobktus, il 103 HeliocJuera, ii. 102 Heliodoxa, ii. 107 Heliomastes, ii. 108 Heliopcedwa, ii. 107 Helioplwfyis, ii. 231 Helioporus, ii. 417 Heliornis, ii. 352 Heliothrix, ii 108 Heliotrypha, ii. 108 #eto, Eocene, i. 169 ii. 513 Helladotherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 221 Helluomorpha, ii. 490 Hdmintherus, ii. 279 HelminthopJiaga, ii. 279 Heloderma, ii. 390 HELODERMID.E, ii. 390 Helodromas, ii. 353 Helogak, ii. 195 Helogenes, ii. 442 HELORNITHIN^, ii. 352 Helotarsus, ii. 348 Hemibos, Indian Miocene, i. 122 ii. 225 Hemicentetes, ii. 188 Hemicercus, ii. 303 , Femicfce^idoTi, ii. 2$) Hemichromis, 438 Hemicyon, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 198 Hemidacnis, ii. 278 GENEKAL INDEX. 579 Hemidactylium, ii. 413 Hemidactylus, ii. 399 Hemierges, ii. 397 Hemigalea, ii.195 Hemignathus, ii. 277 Hemimantis, ii. 419 Hemiodus, ii. 445 Hemiphractus, ii. 420 Hemipimelodus, ii. 443 Hemiprocne, ii. 320 Hemipus, ii. 270 Hemirhamphus, ii. 450 Hemisilurus, ii. 442 Hemisorubim, ii. 442 Hemistilbon, ii. 109 Hemisus, ii. 414 Hemitriccus, ii. 101 Hemixus, ii. 267 Henicognathvs, ii. 328 Henicopernis, ii. 349 Henicophaps, ii. 333 Henicorhina, ii. 264 Henicornis, ii. 103 Heptapterus, ii. 444 Heredia, ii. 413 Herons, ii. 359 iferos, ii. 438 Herpestes, ii. 195 Herpetethiops, ii. 376 Herpetodryas, ii. 376 Herpeton, ii. 376 Herpetoreas, ii. 375 Herpetotheres, ii. 348 Herpetotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Herpsilochmus, ii. 104 Herring, ii. 454 Hesperia, ii. 4SO HESPER1D.E, ii. 480 Hesperomys, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 230, 231 Hesperornis, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164 tfesia, ii. 470 Hestima, ii. 501 Heterobranchus, ii. 441 Heterocephalus, ii. 231 Heterocercus, ii. 102 Heterochroa, ii. 474 Heterocnemis, ii. 104 Heterocorys, ii. 289 Heterodactylus, ii. 393 Heterodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 1-15 ii. 246 ii. 376 Heterogynis, ii. 481 Hcterolocha, 287 HeteromorpJia, ii. 262 Heteromys, ii. 233 Heteronota, ii. 400 Heteronympha, ii. 471 Heteropelma, ii. 102, 292 Heteropus, ii 397 HETEROPYGII, ii. 450 Hetcrospizias, ii. 348 Heterotis, ii. 454 Heterura, ii. 290 Hewitsonia, ii. 477 Hexagonia, ii. 491 Hexaprotodon, Indian Miocene, i. 122 Hickman, Mr. John, on a cause of the extinc- tion of large animals, i, 158 Hieracidea, ii. 349 tfiero*, ii. 349 Hierococcyx, ii. 310 Hierofalco, ii. 349 Hill-Tits, ii. 260 Himalayas, altitude reached by various groups in the, i. 329, 333 Himantornis, ii. 352 Himantopus, ii. 353 Hinulia, h. 397 Hipistes, ii. 376 Hipparchia, ii. 471 Hipparion, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 119 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 135 ii. 211 Hippocampus, ii. 457 Hippoglossoides, ii. 441 Hippoglossus, 441 HIPPOPOTAMID.E, ii. 214 Hippopotamus, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 Europe in Pliocene, i. 113 Indian Pliocene, i. 122 ii. 214 Hipposyus, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Hippotherium, European Miocene, i. 119 Indian Miocene, i. 122 HTPPOTRAGIN^E, ii. 223 Hippotragus, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 223 HIPPURITID.E, ii. 534 Hirundinea, ii. 101 HIRUNDINID.E, ii. 280 Jfirundo, ii. 281 Hoazin, ii. 345 Hotfcanthus, ii. 427 Holbrookia, ii. 401 Holochilus, ii. 230 Hologerrhum, ii. 379 HOLOSTEI, ii. 458 Holurophis, ii. 380 Homalodontotherium, S. American Pliocene, i. 146 Homalophis, ii. 376 Homalophus, European Miocene, i. 161 HOMALOPSID^E, ii. 376 Homalopsis, ii. 376 Homaloptera, ii. 453 Homalosoma, ii. 490 Hombronia, ii. 397 Homocamelus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 217 Homorus, ii. 103 ii. 524 Honey-guides, ii. 304 Honeysuokers, birds specially adapted to Australia, i. 392 ii. 275 Hooker, Dr., on deficiency of odours in New Zealand plants, i. 464 Hoopoes, ii. 317 Hopladelus, ii. 442 HOPl^GNATHIDjE, ii. 433 Hoplobatrachus, ii.421 HOPLOCEPHALA, ii. 460 Hoplocephalus, ii. 383 Hoplocetus, European Pliocene, i. 112 Hoplophoneus, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Hoplophorus, ii. 246 Hoploptenis, ii 356 Horites, ii. 258 Hornbills, ii. 316 Horses, fossil, in Indian Miocene, i. 121 perfect series of ancestral, in N. America, i. 136 probable birthplace o(, i. 154 ii. 211 Horse-shoe bats, ii. 182 p p 2 580 GENERAL INDEX. Hortulia, ii. 381 Howling monkeys, ii. 175 Hudson, Mr. v on land-birds of Patagonia, ii. 39 Humming-birds, ii. 321 Hiiro, ii. 425 Hutton, Capt. F. W., on origin of New Zealand fauna, i. 461 Huxley, Professor, on zoological regions, i. 59 division of animal kingdom by, i. 85 Hyades, ii. 472 Hycena, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 fossil in N. China, i. 123 ii. 196 Hycenarctos in European Pliocene, i. 112 European Miocene, i. 118 Indian Miocene, L 121 S. American Pliocene, i. 146 Hycenictis, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 196 Hyamida, European Miocene,!. 118 HYjENIDJ-:, ii. 196 Hycenodon, European Miocene, i. 118 European Eocene, i. 125 N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Hycenodontidce, European Miocene, i. 118 HYALEID.E, ii. 531 Hyalimax, ii. 517 Hyalina, ii. 515 Hyalosaurus, ii. 392 Hyantis, ii. 472 Hybocystis, ii. 520 Hyborhynchvs, ii. 452 Hydrocena, ii. 521 Hydrockelidon, ii. 3*64 Hydrochcerus, N. American Post- Pliocene, i. 130 Hydrocharus, ii. 241 Hydrocissa, ii. 317 Hydrocyon. ii. 445 Hydrogale, ii. 199 Hydromcdusa, ii. 408 Hydromys, ii. 230 Hydrophasianus, ii. 355 HYDROPHID^:, ii.384 Hydrophis, ii. 384 Hydropotes, ii. 219 Hydropsalis, ii. 319 Hydrornis, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 298 Hydrosaurus, ii. 389 Hyetornis, ii. 309 Hygroyonus, ii. 439 Hyla, ii. 418 Hylactes, ii. 297 Hylambates, ii. 419 Hylaplefia, ii. 415 HYLAPLESID.E, ii. 414 HylaraiM, ii. 419 Hylatomus, ii. 303 Rylella. ii. 418 HYLID^E, ii. 418 Hyliota, ii. 270 Hylobate,ii. 171 Hylocharis, ii. 109 ii. 271 Hylodes, ii. 419 tfylomanes, ii. 313 Hylomys, ii. 186 Hylophilus, ii. 280 Hylorhina, ii. 420 Hylotrupex, ii. 502 Hyloxalus. ii. 419 Hymenolaimus, ii 364 HYODONTID.E, ii. 453 Hyohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 Hyomoschus, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 218 Hyopicus, ii. 303 Hyopotamus, European Miocene, i. 119 N. American Tertiary, i. 137 ii. 216 Hyopsodus, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Hyotherium, European Miocene, i. 119 ii. 215 Hypargos, ii. 287 Hyperantha, ii. 496 Hypergerus, ii. 261 Hypermnestra, ii. 479 Hyperodapedvn, ii. 405 Hyperolius, ii. 417 Hyperoodon, ii. 208 HYPEROODONTID^;, ii. 208 Hyperopsius, ii. 448 Hypertragulus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Hyphantornis, ii. 286 Hypherpes, ii. 265 Hypisodus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Hypna, ii. 474 Hypnale, ii. 385 Hypochera, ii. 287 Hypochrysops, ii. 477 Hypocista, ii 471 Hypocnemis, ii. 104 Hypocolius, ii. 272 Hypodes, ii. 272 Hypogeomys, ii. 230 Hypolais, ii. 258 Hypolithus, ii. 491 Hypolyccena, ii. 477 Hypomesus, ii. 477 Hypopacbus, ii. 416 Hypophthalmichlhys, ii. 453 Hypophthalmus, ii. 442 Hypopyrrhus, ii. 282 Hyporissus, ii. 190 Hypothymis, ii. 271 Hypoxanthus, ii 304 Hypsipetes, ii 267 Hypsiprymnus, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 251 Hypsirhina, ii. 376 Hypsirhynchus, ii. 375 Hyrachyus, N. American Tertiary, i. 136 HYRACIDJL ii. 228 Hyracodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 136 ii. 214 ii. 248 Hyracoidea, classification of, i. 90 Palaearctic, i. 242 Ethiopian, i. 304 HYRACOIDEA, ii. 2?8 Hyracotherium, suppused, in European Eocene, i. 125 European Eocene, i. 126 ii. 216 ii. 229 Hyrax, ii. 228 HYSTRICID^, ii. 240 Hystricodon, ii. 445 Hystrix, European Pliocene, i. 113 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 N. American Tertiary, i. 140 ii. 240 lanthcenas, ii. 332 lanthina, ii. 511 GENERAL INDEX. 581 Ibidipodia, European Miocene, i. 162 Ibidorhynchus, ii. 353 Ibidorhynchus, figure of, i. 331 Ibis, ii. 360 Ibises, ii. 360 Ibycter, ii. 347 Iceland, zoology of, i. 198 Ichneumia, ii 195 Ichthyoborus, ii. 445 Ichthyopsis, ii. 411 Icteria, ii. 279 ICTERID^, ii. 281 Icterus, ii. 282 Icthyornis, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164 Icticyon in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 197 Ictinia, ii. 349 Ictitherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 195 ii. 197 Ictonyx, ii. 199 Ictops, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Ideopsis, ii. 470 Idmais, ii. 478 Iguana, ii. 401 Iguanas, ii. 400 IGUANID.E, ii. 400 Ilerda, ii. 477 Ilicura, ii. 102 India, Miocene fauna of, allied to that of Europe, i. 123 geological features of, i. 328 Indian sub-region, description of, i. 321 supposed relation to Ethiopian region, i. 321 mammalia of, i. 322 birds of, i. 323 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 326 Indicator, ii. 304 INDICATORID.E, ii. 304 Indo-Chinese sub-region, description of, i. 329 zoological characteristics of, i. 330 illustration of, i. 331 reptiles of, i. 331 amphibia of, i. 331 insects of, i. 332 islands belonging to, i. 333 Indo-Malayan sub- region, description of, i. 334 mammalia of, i. 336 illustrations of, i. 336, 339 birds of, i. 337 remote geographical relations of, i. 339 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 340 fishes of, i. 341 insects of, i. 341 coleoptera of, i. 342 terrestrial mollusca of, i. 343 zoological relations of islands of, i. 345 recent geographical changes in, i. 357 probable origin of fauna of, i. 359 Inia, ii. 209 Insectivora, European Miocene, i. 117 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129 N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Insectivora, classification of, i. b7 of the Palsearctic region, i. 181 of N. China and E. Thibet, i. 222 range of Palsearctic genera of, i. 239 of Madagascar, i. 273 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 301 of the Oriental region, i. 315 range of Oriental genera of, i. 372 range of Australian genera of, i. 476 INSECTIVORA, ii. 186 INSECTIVORA, general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 191 summary and conclusion, ii. 541 Insects, means of dispersal of, i 32 tenacity of life of, i. 33 adapted to special conditions, i. 33 groups selected for the study of their geographical distribution, i. 102 antiquity of the genera of, i. 166 fossil of European Miocene, i. 166 European Cretaceous, i. 167 European Wealden, i. 167 Palaeozoic, i. 168 Palsearctic, i. 187 of Central Europe, i. 196 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 205 of the Siberian sub-region, i. 220 of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 227 of the Ethiopian region, i. 255 of the E African sub-region, i. 260 of W. African, i. 265 S. African, i. 268 of Madagascar, i. 282 general remarks on, i. 284 of tropical Africa and America, probable caus.e of similarities in, i. 291 of Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 332 of the Oriental region, i. 318 of Ceylon, i. 327 of Indp-Malay sub-region, i. 341 statistics of collecting in the various islands of the Malay Archipelago, i. 343 of the Australian region, i. 403 of New Guinea, i. 417 of the Moluccas, i. 420 of the Timor group, i. 426 of Celebes,!. 454 of New Zealand, i. 458 scarcity of, in New Zealand, i. 462 influence of, on the flora, i. 463 of the Neotropical region, ii. 13 of S. Temperate America, ii. 42 of S. Temperate America, Palsearctic affinity of, ii. 45 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 55 of the Antilles, ii. 73 of the Nearctic region, ii. 122 of Canada, ii. 137 distribution of, ii. 468 range of, in time, ii. 469 summary and conclusion, ii . r .50 lines of migration of, ii. 551 lodopleura, ii. 102 . lolcema, ii. 107 lolaus, ii. 477 Me, ii. 267 lora, ii. 267 Iphin*. ii. 478 ii- 394 IPHISAD.E, ii. 394 Irena, ii. 269 Iridina, ii. 534 Iridornis, ii. 98 Irrisor, ii. 318 IRRISORID^E, ii. 318 Isacis, N. American Tertiary, i 133 IscMognathus, ii. 375 Ischyromys, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 ii. 236 Islands, N. European, zoology of, i. 197 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 206 of the W. African sub-region, i. 265 of the Ethioj ian region, i. 269 Mascarene, i. 280 of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 333 of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 345 582 GENERAL INDEX. Islands, Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, i. 443 Society and Marquesas, i, 444 New Caledonia and New Hebrides, i. 445 Sandwich, i. 446 of New Zealand sub-region, i. 453 Norfolk, i. 453 Lord Howe's, i. 454 Chatham, i. 454 Auckland, i. 455 of Tropical S. America, ii. 29 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 59 of Eastern United States, ii. 134 peculiar colours of pigeons in, ii. 336 abundance of land- shells in, ii. 525 Isodactylium, ii. 413 Ispidina, ii. 316 Issiodromys, European Pliocene, i. 113 ii. 232 Ithaginis, ii. 340 Ithomia, ii. 470 Ithycyphus, ii. 379 Ixalus, ii. 419 Ixonotus, ii. 267 Ixulus, ii. 266 J. Jacamaralcyon, ii. 311 Jacamars, ii. 311 Jacamerops, ii. 311 Jacanas, ii. 255 Jacchus, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 Jaculus, ii. 232 Jaltris. ii. 375 Jamai6.ia, ii 521 Janella, ii. 517 Janthocincla, ii. 261 Japalura, ii. 402 Japan and North China, physical features of i. 221 southern extremity of perhaps belongs to the Oriental region, i. 226 Japan, general character of the fauna of, i. 230 former land-connexions of, i. 231 Java, mammalia of, i. 349 productions of, well known, i. 350 birds of, i. 351 representative species of birds in, i. 352 origin of the anomalous features of its fauna, i. 352 Sumatra and Borneo, their geographical contrasts and zoological peculiarities explained, i. 357 Jays, ii. 273 Jenynsia, ii. 450 Jerboas, ii. 231 Juan Fernandez, Carabidae of, ii. 44 birds of, ii. 49 beetles and land-shells of, ii. 51 Juida, ii. 288 Juliamyia, ii. 109 Junco, ii. 284 Junonia, European Miocene, i. 167 it 474 K. Kagu, ii. 359 Kakapoe, of New Zealand, i. 455 Kalophrynus, ii. 415 Kangaroos extinct in Australia, i. 157 ii. 251 Keneuxia, ii. 397 Kerguelen Island, apterous insects of, i. 211 (note) Kerodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 241 Ketingus, ii. 443 Ketupa, ii. 350 King-fisher, racquet-tailed, of New Guinea, figure of, i. 415 King-fishers, ii. 315 Kittacincla, ii. 259 Kiwi of New Zealand, i. 455 Kneria, ii. 453 Kobus, ii. 224 Koodoo antelope, figure of, i. 261 Kricogonia, ii. 478 Krynickia, ii. 517 Labeo, ii. 451 Labrax, ii. 425 LABRID^E, ii. 437 Labrus, ii. 437 LA.BYRINTHICI, ii. 434 Lacerta, ii. 391 LACERTID^E, ii. 390 Lacertilia, classification of, i. 99 LACERTILIA, ii. 388 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 403 fossil, ii. 404 Lacuna, ii. 510 Ladrone Islands, birds of, i. 444 Lcemargus, ii. 461 Lcemosthenes, ii. 489 Lwosopis, ii. 477 Lafresnaya, ii. 107 Lagenocetus, ii. 208 Lagenorhynchus, ii. 209 Lagidium, ii. 237 LAGOMYID^, ii. 242 Lagomys. European Pliocene, i. 113 European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 242 Lagopus, ii. 339 Lagorchestes, ii. 251 Lagostomus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 237 Lagothrix, ii. 174 Lais, ii. 442 Lake Baikal, seals of, i. 218 ii. 206 Lalage, ii. 269 Lalet.es. ii. 280 LAMIIIXE, ii. 498 Lamna, ii. 460 LAMNIILE, ii. 460 iMmpornis, ii. 107 Lampreys, ii. 463 Lamprima, ii. 493 Lampris, ii. 429 Lamprocolius, ii. 288 Lamprolcema, ii. 107 Lamrophis, ii. 380 Lampropsar, ii. 282 Lampropygia, ii. 108 iMmprospilus, ii. 477 Lamprospiza, ii. 99 Lamprotes, ii. 98 Lancelet. ii. 464 Land-lizards, ii. 391 Land and water, proportions of, i. 35 Land and fresh-water shells, antiquity of the genera of, i. 168 GENEKAL INDEX. 583 Land-shells, Palaeozoic, i. 169 Palsearctic, i. 190 of Madeira, i. 209 of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215 of the Ethiopian region, i. 257 of W. Africa, i. 265 of Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands, i. 285 of the Indo-Malay sub-region, i. 344 of the Australian region, i. 407 of the Sandwich Islands, i. 466 of New Zealand, i. 459 of the Neotropical region, ii. 19 of the Antilles, ii. 75 conditions favouring development of, ii. 75 of N. America, ii. 124 general observations on the distribution of, ii. 522 richness of islands in, ii. 525 their mode of diffusion, ii. 525, 528 comparative distribution of Operculate and In-operculate, ii. 526 estimated numbers of, ii. 526 Land-snakes, ii. 382 Langaha, ii. 379 Laniarius, ii. 272 Lanicterus, ii. 268 Laniellus, ii. 272 LANIID.E, ii. 272 Lanio, ii. 99 Lanius, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 272 Laopithecm, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Laornis, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164 Laprissa, ii. 421 LARID,, ii. 364 Larimus, ii. 428 Larks, ii. 289 Larus, ii. 364 Larvivora, ii. 259 Lasiomys, ii. 229 Lasiuromys, ii. 239 Latax, ii. 199 Lates, ii. 425 Lathria, ii. 102 Latonia, ii. 421 Latrunculus, ii. 430 Layardia, ii. 261 Lea, Dr. Isaac, on N. American Unionidse, ii. 125 Lebia, ii. 489 Lebiasina, ii. 445 Legatus, ii. 101 Leiocephalus, ii. 401 Leiolcemus, ii. 401 Letetes, ii. 282 Leistus, ii. 489 Leiuperus, ii. 420 Leiyla, ii. 419 Lemonias. ii. 476 Lemur, ii. 176 Lemur, fossil, ii. 178 Lemur avidce, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Lemuravus, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Lemuria, a hypothetical land, i. 76 Lemurida;, European Eocene, i. 124 LEMURID^J, ii. 176 Lemuroidea, range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300 range of Oriental genera of, 371 LEMUROIDEA, ii. 176 Lemurs, ii. 176 Leonia, ii. 521 Lepjadogaster, ii. 436 Lepjictis, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Lepidocepalichthys, ii. 453 Lepidocephalus, ii. 453 YOL. II 38 Leptdo^rammas, ii. 309 Lepidolarynx, ii. 108 Lepidoptera, cosmopolitan families of, i. 177" table of Palsearctic families of, i. 238 S. African, i. 268 table of Ethiopian families of, i. 299 of the Oriental region, i. 318 table of Oriental families of, i. 369 of the Australian region, i. 404 table of Australian families of, i. 472 of the Neotropical region, ii. 13 of the Antilles, ii. 73 table of Neotropical families of, ii. 90 of the Nearctic region, ii. 122 Nearctic families of, ii. 143 LEPIDOPTERA, ii. 470 Lepidosiren, ii. 458 LEPIDOSTEID.E, ii. 459 Lepidosteus, ii. 459 LEPIDOSTERNID^, ii. 389 Lepidosternon, ii. 389 Lepilemur, ii. 176 Lepistes, ii. 450 LEPOKID^E, ii. 242 Leporinus, ii. 445 Lepricornis, ii. 476 Leprodera, ii. 501 Leptalis, ii. 478 Leptarchus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 ii. 202 Leptasthenura, ii. 103 Leptauchenm, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Leptobarbina ii/452 Leptobrachium, ii. 421 LEPTOCARDII, ii. 464 Leptocera, ii. 502 Leptochoerus, N. American Tertiary i. 137 ii. 215 Leptocircus, ii. 479 Leptodeira, ii. 379 Leptodon, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 ii. 214 ii. 349 Leptognathus, ii. 381 Leptomantis, ii. 419 Leptomeryx, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 ii, 220 Lepton, ii. 535 Leptoneura, ii. 471 Leptcmyx, ii. 204 Leptopogon, ii. 101 Leptoma, ii. 520 Leptoptila, ii. 333 Leptoptilus, European Miocene i. 162 ii. 361 Leptorhytaon, ii. 380 Leptornis, ii. 276 LEPTOSOMID^l, ii. 310 Leptosomus, allied form in European Eocene, i. 168 ii.310 Leptosomus of Madagascar i. 278 figure of, i. 279 Leptotherium, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 226 Leptotriccm, ii. 101 Leptura, ii. 502 Lepus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S American Pliocene, i. 147 Lerista, ii. 395 Lerwa, ii. 339 Lesbia, ii. 108 Lestodon, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Leucippus, ii. 109 Leiiciscus, ii. 452 Leucochroa, ii. 516 584 GENERAL INDEX. Leucocyon^ ii. 197 Leucomeltena, ii. 332 Leuconerpes, ii 304 Leucophantes, ii. 270 Leiicophasia, ii. 478 Leucvpleurus, ii. 209 Leucosarcia, ii. 333 Leucosomus, ii. 452 Leucosticte, ii. 285 Lewis, Mr. George, his collection of Japan insects, i. 228 LIALID.E, ii. 396 Lialis, ii. 396 Liasis, ii. 381 Libellula, from the Lias, i. 167 Libythea, ii. 475 LIBYTHEID./E, ii. 475 Lichanotus, ii. 381 Lichenops, ii. 101 Licina, ii. 521 Lwmftis, ii. 325 Lilljeborg, Professor, on classification of the Rodentia, i. 90 LIMACID^l, ii. 517 LIMACIN1D.E, il 531 Limax, ii. 517 Limenitis, ii. 474 Limruea, Eocene, 169 European Secondary, i. 169 ii 518 LIMNJEIDJE, ii. 518 Limnatornis, European Miocene, i. 161 Limnocharis, iL 420 Limnocyon. N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Limnodynastes, ii. 420 Limnohyus, N. American Tertiary, i. 136 Limnophis, ii. 376 Limnornis, ii. 103 Limnotheridce, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Limnotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Limnurgus, ii. 450 Limosa, ii 353 Limpets, ii. 511 Lingula, ii. 538 LINGULID.E, ii. 532 Linota, ii. 285 Linsang, ii. 195 Liocassis, ii. 442 Liopelma, ii. 417 Lippis, ii. 375 Lioptilus, ii. 267 Lioscelis, ii. 297 LIOTRICHIDJE, ii. 266 Liothrix, ii. 266 Lipaugus, ii. 102 Liparis, ii. 430 Liphyra, ii, 477 Lipinia, ii. 397 Lipoa, ii. 342 Liposarcus, ii. 444 Liptala, ii. 477 Lissolepis, ii. 397 Listriodon, European Miocene, i. 119 Lithiodfrn, ii. 521 Lithomys, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 236 Lithornis, European Eocene, i. 163 Litoria, ii. 418 Littorina, ii. 510 LITTORINIILE, ii. 510 lizards, classification of, i. 90 Tertiary, i. 165 wide range of a species in Polynesia, i. 448 distribution and lines of migration of, ii. 547 J^ribodon, ii. 204 Lochmias, ii. 103 Locustella, ii. 258 Loddigesia, ii. 108 Lcmcheres, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 239 Lonchophorus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 239 LONGICORNIA, ii. 498 Longicornia, Paleearctic, i. 188 Ethiopian, i. 257 Oriental, i. 320 Australian, i. 407 Neotropical, ii. 17 of Chili, ii. 46 Nearctic, ii. 123 Lontra, ii. 199 Lophiodon, European Eocene, i. 125 N. American Tertiary, i. 136 ii. 212 Lophiomeryx, ii. 218 Lophiotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 136 Lophius, ii. 431 Lophoaetus, ii. 348 LOPHOBRANCHII, ii. 456 Lophocitta, ii. 273 Lophogyps, ii. 346 Lophoictinia, ii. 3.49 LopJwti&mus, ii. 362 Lophiomys, ii. 230 Lophophaps, ii. 333 Lophophanes, ii. 266 LOPHOPHORIN.E, ii. 340 Lophophorus, ii. 340 Lophorhina, ii. 274 Lophornis, ii. 107 Lophortix, ii. 339 Lophostrix, ii. 350 LOPHOTID^, ii. 432 Lophotragus, ii. 220 Lophotriorchis, ii. 348 Lophura, ii. 402 Lord Howe's Island, birds of, i. 453 Loricaria, ii. 444 Loriculus, ii. 326 Loris, ii. 176 Lorius, ii. 327 Lota, ii. 439 Loxia, ii. 285 Loxigilla, ii. 285 Loxomylus. Pliocene of Antilles, i. 148 ii. 237 Loxops, ii. 277 Lucania, ii. 450 LUCANID^E, ii. 492 Lucanus, ii. 493 Lucia, ii. 477 Lucidella, ii. 522 Lucifuga, ii. 440 LUCINID^E, ii. 535 Lucinopsis, ii 536 LUCIOCEPHALIDJE, ii. 434 Lucioperca, ii. 425 Luciotrutta, ii. 447 Lucisoma, ii. 452 Lund, Dr., his researches in caves of Brazil, i. 143 Lupus, ii. 197 Lurocalis, ii. 320 Luscinia, ii. 259 Lusciniola, ii. 258 Lutra, European Miocene, i. 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 ii. 199 Lutronectes, ii. 199 Lyccena, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 ii. 196 GENERAL INDEX. 585 LYC^ENID^E, ii. 477 Lycalopex. i 197 LYCOUID/E, ii. 439 Lycodon, ii. 380 LYCODONTIU^E, ii. 380 Lycophidion, ii. 380 Lycorea, ii. 470 Lygosoma, ii. 397 Lygosomella, ii. 397 Lymanopoda, ii. 471 Lymnas, ii. 476 Lyncornis, ii. 320 Lyncus, ii. 193 Lytorhynchvs, ii. 376 Lyre-bird, figure of, i. 441 ii. 298 M. Mabouya, ii. 397 Macacus, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 Indian Miocene, i. 121 supposed in European Eocene, i. 125 ii. 173 ii. 178 Macaws, ii. 327 Machairodus, i 110, 111 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 Indian Miocene, i. 121 N. American Tertiary, i. 134 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 146 ii. 193 Machetornis, ii. 101 Machcerhamphus, ii. 349 Machcerirhynchus, ii. 271 Machceropterus, ii. 102 Machetes, ii. 353 Macramhenia, S. American Pliocene, i. 146 Macrocalamvsy ii. 374 Macroceramus, ii- 516 Macrochilus, ii. 491 Macrocyclis, ii. 516 Macrodipteryx, ii. 320 Macrodon, ii. 445 Macroglossa, ii. 482 Macrones, ii. 442 Macronvs, ii. 261 Macronyx, ii. 290 MACROPODIDjE, ii. 250 Macropus, ii. 251 Macropygia, ii. 332 Macrorhamphus, ii. 353 MACROSCELIDID^, ii. 186 Macroscelides, it. 186 Macrosila, ii. 482 Macrotherium, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 121 ii. 246 Macrotus californicus, ii. 182 MACROURIDJE, ii. 440 MACTRID.E, ii. 443 Madagascar, extinct birds of, i. 164 description of, i. 272 mammalia of, i. 272 birds of, i. 274 reptiles of, i. 279 amphibia of, i. 280 extinct fauna of, i. 282 general remarks on insert fauna of, i. 284 Madeira, birds of, i. 208 land-shells of, i. 208 beetles of, i. 210 Madeira, wingless insects numerous in, i. 211 how stocked with animals, i. 213 MALACANTHID^E, ii. 433 Malacca, Sumatra, and Borneo, zoological unity of, i. 353 comparison of mammalia, i. 354 of birds, i. 355 Malacofacus, ii. 261 Malacopteron, ii. 261 Malacoptila, ii. 310 MalacorhyncJius, ii. 364 Malacothrix, ii. 230 Malagasy sub-region, description of, i. 272 mammalia of, i. 272 birds of, i. 274 illustration of zoology of, i. 278 reptiles of, i, 279 amphibia of, i. 280 extinct fauna of, i. 282, 289 insects of, i. 282 early history of, i. 286 Malapterurus, ii. 443 Malaya and Indo-Malaya, terms denned, i. 345 (note) Malaya, meaning of term, ii. 261 Malay Archipelago, distribution of butterflies in. ii. 484 distribution of Cicindelidse in, ii. 487 distribution of Longicorns in, ii. 500 Malavan forms of life reappearing in West " Africa, i. 263 fauna, probable origin of, i. 359 resemblances to that of Madagascar and Ceylon explained, i. 361 Malimbus, ii. 286 Mallodon, ii. 501 Mallotus, ii. 447 Malta, Post-Pliocene fauna of, i. 114 formerly joined to Africa, i. 201 fossil elephants of, i. 201 birds of, i. 206 (note) Malurvs, ii. 258 Mammal, the most ancient American, i. 134 Mammalia, means of dispersal of, i. 10 as limited by climate, i. 11 as limited by rivers, i. 12 how far limited by the sea, i. 13 dispersed by ice-floes and drift-wood, i. 14 means of dispersal of aquatic, i. 15 of most importance in determining zoo- logical regions, i. 57 classification of, i. 85 birthplace and migrations of some families of, i. 142, 153 cosmopolitan groups of, i. 176 of the Palsearctic region, i. 181 of the European sub-region, i. 192 of the Mediterranean sub-region, i. 202 of the Siberian sub-region, i. 217 characteristic of Western Tartary, i. 218 of the Manchurian sub-region, i. 222 Palsearctic genera of, in the Manchurian sub-region, i. 222 Oriental genera of, on borders of same sub-region, i. 223 peculiar to Japan, i. 223 characteristic of N. W. China and Mongolia, i. 226 table of Palaearctic families of, i. 234 range of Palaearctic genera of, i. 239 of the Ethiopian region, i. 253 absence of certain important groups, i. 253 of the E. African sub-region, i. 260 of W. Africa, i. 262 of S. Africa, i. 267 GENERAL INDEX. Mammalia, of Madagascar, i. 272 table of Ethiopian families of, i. 294 table of Ethiopian genera of, i. 300 of the Oriental region, i. 315 range of the genera inhabiting the Indian sub-region, i. 322 of Ceylon, i. 327 of the Indo-Chinese sub-region, i. 330 of the Indo-Malayan sub-region, i. 336 illustration of characteristic Malayan, i. 336 of the Philippine Islands, i. 345 table of Oriental families of, i. 365 table of Oriental genera of, i. 371 of Australian region, i. 390 of the Papuan Islands, i. 410 of the Moluccas, i. 417 of the Timor group, i. 422 of Celebes, i. 427 of Australia, i. 439 illustration of, i. 439 of New Zealand, i. 450 table of families of Australian, i. 470 table of genera of Australian, i. 475 destinctive characters of Neotropical, ii. 6 of S. Temperate America, ii. 36 of Straits of Magellan, ii. 37 of the Mexican sub-region, ii. 52 of the Antilles, ii 62 table of Neotropical families of, ii. 85 table of Neotropical genera of, ii. 91 of the Nearctic region, ii. 115 of California, ii. 127 of N. American central plains ii. 129 of E. United States, ii. 132 of Canada, ii. 135 table of Nearctic families of, ii. 140 table of Nearctic genera of, ii. 145 Mammalia, extinct, of Old World, i. 107 extinct, of historic period, i. 110 extinct, comparative age of in Europe, i. extinct, of the New World, i. 129 extinct, of N. America and Europe, com- pared, i. 141 original birthplace of some families and genera, i. 142, 153 of the secondary period, i. 160 MAMMALIA, summary and conclusion, ii.540 lines of migration of, ii. 544 Manakins, ii. 102 MANATJD.E, ii 210 Manatus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 ii. 210 Manchurian sub-region, description of, i. 220 mammalia of, i. 222 birds of, i. 223 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 227 fresh-water lish of, i. 2*27 insects of, i 227 coleoptera of, i. 228 MANIDID^B, ii. 245 Mania, ii. 245 Manorhina, ii. 276 Manticora, ii. 487 Manucodia, ii. 274 Mareca, ii. 363 Margaroperdix, ii. 338 Margarops, ii. 256 Margarornis, ii. 103 Marginella, ii. 508 Marine Mollusca, general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 5.S7 Marine shells of the Neotropical region, ii. 20 Marmosets, ii. 175 Marquesas Islands, birds of, i. 443 Marsh, Mr., on improyability of Asiatic and African deserts, i. 200 on camels and goats as destructive to vegetation, i. 200 MARSUPIALIA, ii. 248 general remarks on the distribution of. ii. 253 Marsupials, classification of, i. 91 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 European Miocene, i. 121 first migration to America, i. 155 diversified forms of, i. 391 of America prove no connection with Australia, i. 399 list of Australian genera of, i. 476' MARSUPIALIA and MONOTREMATA, sum- mary and conclusion, ii. 543 Maries, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 ii. 198 Mascarene Islands, zoology of, i. 280 extinct fauna of, i. 282 gigantic land-tortoises of, i. 289 Masiiis, ii. 102 MASTACEMBELIDjE, ii. 437 Mastodon, European Pliocene, i. 113 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 8. American Pliocene, i. 147 Indian Miocene, i. 123 N.. American Post-Pliocene, i. 1?0 N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 227, 228 Mauritius, zoology of, i. 280 reptiles of, i. 281 McCoy, Professor, on Palaeontology ol Victoria, i. 466 Mechanitis, ii. 470 Meda, ii. 452 Mediterranean, recent changes in, i. 39 sub-region, description of, i. 199 mammalia of, i. 202 birds of, i. 203 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 204 fresh-water fish of, i. 205 insects of, i. 205 islands of, i. 206 sea not separating distinct faunas, i. 201 Megabias, ii. 270 Megablales, ii. 376 Magacephala, ii. 478 Megacephalon, ii. 342 Megacerops, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 Megaderma, ii 182 Megcsrophis, ii. 383 MegalcKma. ii. 306 MEGAL,EMID.E, ii. 305 MEGAL^EMIN^E. ii. 306 Megalixalus, ii. 419 Megalocnus, fossil in Cuba, i. 148 Megalomastoma, ii. 521 Megalomeryx, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Megalomma, ii. 487 Megalonyx, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Megalophrys, ii. 421 Megalostoma, Eocene, i. 169 Megalurus, ii. 258 Megalophonus, ii. 289 Megamys, S. American Eocene, i. 148 ii. 238 Meganostoma, ii. 478 MEGAPODIID.E, ii. 341 Megapodius, ii. 342 Megaptera, ii. 207 GENERAL INDEX. 587 MegarhynchuK, ii. 101 Megaspira, European Tertiary, i. 169 ii. 527 Megatheridw, in Brazilian caves, i 145 Megatherium, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 in Brazilian eaves, i. 145 8. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 245 Mtiffiiit, ii. 369 Meldmpitta, ii. 298 Melampus, ii. 519 Melanerpes, ii. 303 Melania, European Secondary, i. 169 MELANIAD^, ii. 509 Melanitis, ii. 471 Melanochlora. ii. 266 MelanocorypJia, ii. 289 Melanophidium, ii. 374 Melanoptila, ii. 256 Melanotis, ii. 256 MELEAGRIN.E, ii. 340 Mekagris, N. American Miocene, i. 163 ii. 340 Meles, ii. 199 Melidectes, ii. 276 Melidora, ii. 316 Melierax, ii. 348 Melinosn, ii. 470 Meliornis, ii. 275 Meliphaga, ii. 275 MELIPHAGID^E, ii. 275 Melipotes, ii. 276 Melirrhophetes, ii. 276 Melitcm. ii. 474 Melithreptus, ii. 276 Melittophagus, ii. 312 Melizophilus, ii. 259 Mcllisuga, ii. 108 Mellivora, Indian Miocene, i. 121 ii. 199 Melolonthidium, Oolitic insect, i. 167 Melopelia, ii. 333 Melopsittaeus, ii. 325 Melopyrrha, ii. 285 Melospiza, ii. 284 Mefcmus, ii. 202 Jlfcwefia, ii. 395 Meniceros, ii. 317 Meniscotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Menobranchus, ii. 412 Menopoma, ii. 412 MENOPOMID^E, ii. 412 Menotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Menura, ii. 298 MENURID.E, ii. 298 Mephitis, in Brazilian caves, i. 144 ii. 199 Merganetta, ii. 364 Merguhis. ii. 367 Mergus, ii. 364 Meriones, ii. 232 ii. 230 Aferistes, ii. 272 Merluccius, ii. 439 Meroe, ii. 536 MEROPID^, ii. 312 Meropiscus, ii. 312 Meropogon, ii. 312 Merops, ii. 312 ' Merulaxis, ii. 297 Merychfrs, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Merychippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 Merychoch&rus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 Merycodus, N. American Tertiary, i. 138 ii. 220 Merycopotamus, Indian Miocene, i. 122 ii. 214 Merycotherium, of Siberian drift, i. 112 ii. 217 Afesacodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Mesapia, ii. 479 Mesites, ii. 263 Mesohippus, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 Mesomys, ii. 239 Mesonauta, ii. 438 Mesonyx, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Mesopiths.cus, iMiocene of Greece, i. 115 ii. 178 Mesoprion, ii. 425 Mesops, ii. 439 Mesosemia, ii. 475 Messcdina, ii. 391 Messaras, ii. 474 Metallura, ii. 108 Metapheles, ii. 476 Methonella, ii. 476 Metius, ii. 492 Metopia, ii. 102 Metopiana, ii. 364 Metoponia, ii. 283 Metopothrix, ii. 102 Metriopelia, ii. 333 Mexican sub-region, ii. '., N. American Tertiary, i. 136 RHINOCEROTID/E, ii. 213 RHINOCHETID^E, ii. 359 RTiinochetus, ii. 359 Rhinococcyx, ii. 309 Rhinocrypta, ii. 297 Rhinoderma, ii 416 RHINODONTID.E, ii. 461 Rhinodoras, ii. 443 Rhinogale, ii. 195 Rhinoglanis, ii. 443 RHINOLOPHID^J, ii. 182 Rhinolophus, ii. 183 Rhinophis, ii. 374 RHINOPHRYNID^E, ii. 414 Rhinophrynus, ii. 414 Rhinoplax. ii. 317 Rhinopoma, ii. 183 Rhinortha, ii. 309 Rhipidura, ii. 271 Rhizomys, ii. 231 Rhodeus, ii. 452 Rhodinocincla, ii. 256 Rhodona, ii. 397 Rhodopis. ii. 108 Rhodosttehia, ii. 364 Rhombomys, ii. 230 Rhombus, ii. 441 Rhopodytes, ii. 309 Rhopoterpe, ii. 104 Rhynchcea, ii. 353 RHYNCHOCEPHALTD^E, ii. 405 RHYNCHOCEPH4.LINA, ii. 405 Rhynchocyon, ii. 18,6' Rhynchocyclus, ii. 101 RhynchoneUa, ii. 539 RHYNCHONELLID.E, ii. 532 Rhynchops, ii. 365 Rhynchopsitta, ii. 328 Rhynchotus, ii. 344 R&ytina, ii. 210, 211 Rhytiodus t ii. 445 VOL. II. 39 Ricinula, ii. 507 Rimator, ii. 263 Rlmula, ii. 511 Rissa, ii. 364 Rissoa, ii. 510 .Rita, ii. 442 River-hog, of West Africa, figure of, i. 264 of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278 Rivers, limiting the nnge of mammalia, 1. 12 limiting the range of birds, i. 17 River-scene in West Africa, i. 264 River-snails, ii. 510 Rivulus, ii. 450 Rock-snakes, ii. 381 Rocky mountain sub-region, ii. 129 mammalia of, ii. 129 birds of, ii. 130 reptiles, amphibia, and fishes of, ii. 130 Rodentia, classification of, i. 90 range of Palsearctic genera of, i. 242 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 304 range of Oriental genera of, i. 374 range of Australian genera of, i. 476 Rodentia, European Pliocene, i. 113 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120 European Eocene, i. 126 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 139 of Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 of S. American Eocene, i. 148 RODENTIA, ii. 229 Rodentia, general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 243 Rodentia, summary and conclusion, ii. 543 Rohteichthys, ii. 452 Rollers, ii. 311 Rollulus, ii. 339 Romaleosoma, ii. 474 Rose-chafers, ii. 494 Rostrhamus, ii. 349 Rough-tailed burrowing snakes, ii. 374 Ruff, figure of, i. 195 Rupicapra, ii. 224, 225 RUPICAPRESLE, ii. 224 Rupicola, ii. 102, 293 RUPICOL1N/E, ii. 293 Ruticilla, ii. 259 RUTICILLIN^E, ii. 257 . S. SaccobrancJius, ii. 441 Saccodon, ii. 445 SACCOMYID.E, ii. 233 Saccomys, it 233 Saccostomus, ii. 230 Sagda, ii. 516 Sahara, a debatable land, i. 251 Saiga, antelope of W. Tartary, L 218 Saiga, ii. 223 Saimiris, ii. 175 Sakis, ii. 175 Salamandra, ii. 413 SALAMANDRIDjE, ii. 413 Salamandrina, ii. 413 Salarix, ii. 448 Salminus, ii. 445 Salmo, ii. 447 SALMONID.E, ii. 447 Salpinctes, ii. 264 Salpornis, ii. 264 Saltator, ii. 99 600 GENERAL INDEX. Salvin, Mr., on birds of Galapagos, ii. 30 Sambus, ii. 496 Samoa Islands, birds of, i. 443 Sand-grouse, Pallas', of Mongolia, i. 226 ii. 337 Sand-lizards, ii. 398 Sandpipers, ii. 353 Sandwich Islands, birds of, i. 445 probable past history of, i. 446 mountain plants of, i. 446 depth of ocean around, i. 447 Sanzinia, it 381 S iperda, ii. 501 Sapphironia, ii. 109 Sarcodaces, ii. 445 Sarcophilus, ii. 249 SARCORHAMPtllN^J, ii. 346 Sarcorhamphus, ii. 346 Sargus, ii. 427 Sarkidiornis, ii. 363 Saroglossa, ii. 288 Swotherodon, ii. 438 Sasia, ii. 303 Satanoperca, ii. 439 SATYRIDjE, ii. 471 Satyrites Reynesii, European Cretaceous in- sect, i. 167 Satyrus, ii. 471 Saucerottia, ii. 109 Saunders, Mr. Edward, on the Buprestidje of Japan, i. 229 Saurocetes, ii. 210 Saurophis, ii. 392 Saurothera, ii. 309 Saxicola, ii. 260 Saxicolince, ii. 257 Sayornis, ii. 100, 291 Scallops, ii. 533 Scalops, ii. 190 Scapanus, ii. 190 Scaphiopus, ii. 417 Scaphirhynchus, ii. 459 Scaptochirus. ii. 190 Scaptonyx, ii. 190 Scaraphites, ii. 490 Scardafella, ii. 333 Scarites, ii. 489 Scelidotherium, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 S. American Pliocene, i. 147 ii. 245 Scelodontis, ii. 490 Sceloporus, ii. 401 Scelotes, ii. 398 Schacra. ii. 452 Schasicheila, ii. 522 Schi/omis, ii. 102 Schilbe, ii. 442 Schilbichiliys, ii. 442 Schismaderma, ii. 415 Schistes, ii. 108 Schistopleurum, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 Schizodon, ii. 238 Schizogenius, ii. 490 Schizopygopsis, ii. 452 Schizorhitia, ii. 494 Schizorhi*, ii. 307 Schizothorax, ii. 452 Schoenipnta, ii. 502 Schweinfurth, Dr., on natural history of Cen- tral Africa, i. 252 on limits of W. African sub-region, i. 262 (note) Scindes, ii. 443 Scicena, ii. 428 SCI.ENID^, ii 428 8CINCID,E, ii. 396 Scincus, ii. 397 Scinks, ii. 396 Scissirostrum, ii. 288 Scissor, ii. 445 Sdurnvus, N. American Eocene, i. 140 Sciuravus, ii. 236 SCIURID.E, ii. 234 Sciuropterus, ii. 235 Sciurus, European Miocene, i. 120 European Eocene, i. 126 ii. 235, 236 Sclater, Mr., on zoological regions, i. 59 why his six regions are adopted, i. 63 on birds of Sandwich Islands, i. 445 on systematic position of Certhidea, ii. p. 31 Sclater and Salvin, Messrs., on Neotropical sub-regions, ii. 25 SCLERODERMI, ii. 457 Sc.lerognathus, ii. 451 SCLERURIN^, ii. 295 Sclerurus, ii. 103 Scolecophagus, if 282 SCOLOPACID.E, ii. 353 Scolopax, ii. 353 Scomber, ii. 429 SCOMBRESOCIDjE, ii. 449 Scombresox, ii. 449 SCOMBRlDjE, ii. 429 SCOPELID.E, ii. 446 Scops, ii. 350 Scopus, ii. 360 Scortornis, ii. 320 Scotopelia, ii. 350 Scotophilus, ii. 183 Scrapteira, ii. 391 Screamers, ii. 361 Scrub-birds, ii. 299 SCYLLID.E, ii. 461 Scyllium, ii. 461 Scytale, ii. 379 SCYTALID.E, ii. 379 Scytalopus, ii. 297 Scythrops, ii. 310 Sea, as a barrier to mammalia, i. 13 Sea-devils, ii. 463 Seals, fossil in European Miocene, i. 118 of Lake Baikal, i. 218 ii. 203 Sea-pens, ii. 505 Sea-snails, ii. 508 Sea-snakes, ii. 384 Sebastes, ii. 428 Secondary formations, mammalian remains in, i. 169 Secretary bird, of Africa, figure of, i. 261 ii. 346 Seemann, Dr., on protective resemblance ol sloths, ii. 24 Seisura, t ii 270 Selache, ii. 460 Selasplioriis, ii. 108 Selenidera, ii. 307 Selenophorus, ii. 490 Selettr.ides, ii. 275 Semioptera, ii. 275 Semlplotus, ii. 452 SEMNOPITHECTD^:, ii 171 Semnopithecus, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 117 Indian Miocene, i. 121 ii. 171 ii. 178 Semper, Dr., on Philippine mammalia, i. 345 Senira, ii. 397 GENERAL INDEX. 601 SEPIAD.E, ii. 505 SEPID^E, ii. 398 Seps, ii. 398 Sepsina, ii. 398 Sericinus, ii. 479 Sericornis, ii. 258 Sericulus, ii. 275 Serilophus, ii. 295 SERPENTARIID.E, ii. 346 Serpentarius, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 346 Serphophaga, ii. 101 * Serranus, ii. 425 SeTrasalmo, ii. 445 Sesia, ii. 482 Setophaga, ii. 279 Setornis, ii. 267 Seychelle Islands, zoology of, i. 281 amphibia of, i. 281 Shad, ii. 454 Sharks, ii. 460 Sharp, Dr., on Japan beetles, i. 229 Sharpe, Mr. R. B., his arrangement of Acci- pitres, i. 97 on birds of Cape Verd Islands, i. 215 on classification of Cuckoos, ii. 309 Sheath-bills, ii. 354 Sheep, Palaearctic, i. 182 ii. 221. Short-tailed burrowing snakes, ii. 373 Shrikes, ii. 272 Sialia, ii. 260 Siamanga, ii. 171 Siaphos, ii. 397 Siberia, climate of, i. 217 Siberian sub region, description of, i. 216 mammalia of, i. 217 birds of, i. 219 reptiles and amphibia of, i. 220 insects of, i. 220 Sibia, ii. 262 Siderone, ii. 474 Sieboldia, ii. 412 Sigmodon, ii. 230 Silondia, ii. 442 SilpTiomorpha, ii. 490 Silubosaurus, ii. 397 Siluranodon, ii. 442 Silurichthys, ii. 441 SILURID.E, ii. 441 Silurus, ii. 441 Silybiira, ii. 374 Simenia, ii. 197 Simia, ii. 171 SIMIID.E, ii. 170 Simocephalus, ii. 380 Simocyon, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 ii. 198 SimorhyncJius, ii. 367 Simotes, ii. 375 Simpulopsis, ii. 516 Sinopa, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Siphia, ii. 270 Siphneus, ii. 230 Siphonopsis, ii. 411 Siphonorhis, ii. 320 Siphonottoma, ii. 457 Siren, ii. 411 Sirenia, classification of, i. 89 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 303 range of Oriental genus, i. 374 range of Australian genus of, i. 476 Sirenia, European Pliocene, i. 112 European Miocene, i. 119 SIRENIA, ii 210 SIRENID.E, ii. 411 SIRENOIDEI, ii. 458 Sirystes, ii. 101 Sisor, ii. 444 Sitana, ii. 402 Sitta, ii. 265 Sittasomus, ii. 103 Sittella, ii. 265 SITTIDjE, ii. 265 Siurus, ii. 279 Siva, ii. 266 Sivatherium, Indian Miocene, i, 122 ii. 226 Siwalik Hills, Miocene deposits of, i. 121 Skenea, ii. 510 Sloths, ii. 244 Slugs, ii. 517 Smaragdochrysis, ii. 109 Smerinthus, ii. 483 Smilwgaster, ii. 453 Sminthus, ii. 230 Smith, Mr. Frederick, on Hymenoptera of Japan, i. 230 SmitJiornis, ii. 270 Srmitsia, ii 245 Snails, ii. 512 Snake, at great elevation in Himalayas, i. 220 Snakes, classification of, i. 99 Eocene, i. 165 large proportion of venomous species in Australia, i. 396 of New Zealand, i. 457 distribution and lines of migration of, ii. 547 Snipes, ii. 353 Society Islands, birds of, 1. 443 Socorro, zoology of, ii. 60 Soft-tortoises, ii. 409 Solarium, ii. 510 Solea, ii. 441 SOLENID.E, ii. 536 Solenodon, ii. 188 SOLENOSTOMIU^, ii. 456 Solitaire, ii. 334 Somateria, ii. 364 Soricictis, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 196 Soricidce, European Miocene, i. 118 SORICID^E, ii. 191 Soridia, ii. 397 Sorubim. ii. 442 Sotalla, ii. 209 South African sub-region, description of, i. 266 mammalia of, i. 267 birds of, i. 267 reptiles of, i. 268 amphibia of, 1. 268 fresh- water fish of, i. 268 butterflies of, i. 1:68 coleoptera of, 1. 268 summary of its zoology, i. 269 South America, fossil fauna of, i. 143 Pliocene deposits of, i. 146 supposed land connection with Australia, i. 398 South America and Africa, parallelism of their past zoological history, ii 83 South Australia, peculiar birds of, 1. 441 SPALACID^E, ii. 231 Spalacomys, ii. 230 Spalacopus, ii. 238 Spalax, ii. 231 Sparganura, ii. 108 SPARID^, ii. 426 Spatula, ii. 364 Species, representative, i. 4 602 GENERAL INDEX. Spelerpes, ii. 413 Speothos, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 Spermestes, ii. 287 Spermophila, ii. 285 Spermophilus, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 235, 236 Spermospiza, ii. 286 Sperm Whales, ii. 207 Sphcerocephalus, ii. 209 Sphcerodactylvs, ii. 400 Sphceroderus, ii. 490 Sphattomorpha, ii. 490 Sphecotheres, ii. 268 Sphenceacus, ii. 258 SPHENISCID^E, ii. 366 Spheniscus, ii. 366 Sphenocephalus, ii. 398 Sphenodon, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 245 Sphenognathus. ii. 493 SphenoproctvA, ii. 107 Sphenops, ii. 398 Sphenostoma, ii. 266 Sphenura, ii. 258 SPHINGiDvE, ii. 482 Sphingidea, distribution of, ii. 483 SPHINGINA, ii. 481 Sphingnotus, ii. 501 Sphinx, in European Oolite, i. 167 ii. 482 Sphinx Moths, ii. 482 Sphyrapicus, ii. 303 SPHYRENID^E, ii. 429 Spider monkeys, ii. 174 Spilornis, ii. 348 Spilotes, ii. 376 SPINACID^E, ii. 461 Spindalis, ii. 98, 284 Sjnraxis, ii. 515 ^IRIFERIDjE, ii. 532 8PIRULID/E, ii. 505 Spizaetus, ii. 348 Spizella, ii. 284 Spiziapteryx, ii. 349 Spiziastur, ii. 348 Spodiornis, ii. 285 Sponsor, ii. 497 Spoonbills, ii. 360 Sporadinus, ii. 109 Sporopipes. ii. 286 Sprat, ii. 454 Spreo, ii, 288 Squalodon, ii. 210 Squaliobarbus, ii. 452 SQUAMIPENNE8, ii. 427 Squatarola, ii. 356 Squirrel monkeys, ii. 175 Squirrels, ii. 234 St. Helena, zoological features of, i. 269 coleoptera of, i. 270 landshells of, i. 271 St. Thomas's Island, birds of, i. 266 Stachyris, ii. 261 Stactolcema, ii. 306 Stag-beetles, ii. 492 Stalagmosoma, ii. 495 Starlings, ii. 287 Starncenas, ii. 33 Stations, definition of, i. 4 Staurotypus, ii. 408 Steatomys, ii. 230 Steatornis. ii. 319 STEATORN1THID.E, ii. 319 Steganura, ii. 108 Stegnolcema, ii. 343 Stegophilus, ii. 444 Stelgidopteryx, ii. Stellio, ii. 402 281 Stellula, ii. 108 Steneofiber, European Miocene, i. 120 ii. 234 Steno, ii. 209 Stenodactylus, ii. 400 Stenogyra, ii. 515 Stenopsis, ii. 320 Stenopus, ii. 516 Stenorhina, ii. 375 Stenorhynchus, ii. 204 ii. 421 Stephanophorus, ii. 98 Stercorarius, ii. 364 Sterna, ii. 364 Sternarchus, ii. 455 Sternocera, ii. 496 Sternoclyta, ii. 107 STERNOPrYCHIDjE, ii. 446 Sternopygus, ii. 455 Sternotheres, ii. 408 Steropus, ii. 489 Stesilea, ii. 501 Stethodesma, ii. 495 Sthenurus, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 251 Stictuxiui, ii. 431 Sticklebacks, ii. 424 Stigmatura, ii. 101 Stigmodera, ii. 496 S'10MIATID^,ii. 447 Storks, ii. 360 Stabomantis, ii. 419 Straits of Magellan, mammalia of, ii. 37 birds of, ii. 39 Strepera, ii. 273 Strepsilas, ii. 356 Streptaulus, ii. 520 Streptaxis, ii. 515 Streptocerus, ii. 493 Streptocitta, ii. 274 Streptophorus, ii. 374 STRIGID^E, ii. 350 Stringnps, ii. 329 STRINGOPID^, ii. 329 i'^ria;, European Miocene, i. 162 ii. 350 STROM BID,E. ii. 507 Struthio, \\. 368 Struthiones, arrangement of, i. 98 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 313 range of Australian genera of, i. 487 STRUTHIONES, ii. 368 general remarks on the distribution of, ii. 370 STRUTHIONID^E, ii. 368 Struthious birds, probable origin of, i. 287 Sturgeons, ii. 459 Sturnella, ii. 282 Sturnia, ii. 287 STURNIDJE, ii. 287 Stumopastor, ii. 287 Sturnus. ii. 287 STYGIID^E, ii. 482 Stygogenes, ii. 444 Stylinodontia, N. American Eocene, i. 139' Stylinodontidie, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Stvporhynchus, ii. 376 Sublegatus, ii. 101 Sub-regions, on what principle formed, i. 180 Palsearctic, i. 191 Ethiopian, i. 258 Oriental, i. 321 Australian, i. 408 Neotropical, ii. 21 GENERAL INDEX. 603 Sub-regions, Nearctic, ii. 125 Succinea, ii. 515 Sugar-birds, ii. 278 Suidce, European Miocene, i. 119 SUHLE, ii. 214 Sula Islands, fauna of, i. 433 Sula, ii. 365 Summary of relations of regions, ii. 155 Sun-birds, ii. 276 Sun-bitterns, ii. 358 Suricata, ii. 195 Surnia, ii. 350 Surniculus, ii 310 Sws, European Pliocene, i. 113 Miocene of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 119 Indian Miocene, i. 122 ii. 215 Suthora, ii. 262 Svya, ii. 258 Swallows, ii. 281 Swallow-shrikes, ii. 288 Swifts, ii. 320 Swine, ii. 214 Swinhoe, Mr., on zoology of Formosa and Hainan, i. 332 Sycalis, ii. 284 Sylvia, ii. 259 Sylvietta, ii. 264 SYLVIIDyE, ii. 256 SYLVIIN.E, ii. 257 Sylviorthorhynchus, ii. 103 Sylviparus, ii. 266 Syma, ii. 316 Symborodon, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 SYMBRANCHID.E, ii. 455 Symbranchus, ii. 455 Symmachia, ii. 476 Symmorphus, ii. 269 Symphcedra, ii. 474 Symphysodon, ii. 439 Symplectes,ii. 286 SYNALLAXIN.E, ii. 295 Synallaxis, ii. 103 Synaphodus, .European Miocene, i. 119 Synaptura, ii. 441 Synchloe, ii. 474 Syndesus, ii 493 Synemon, ii. 481 Syngnathus, ii. 457 SYNGNATHimE, ii- 457 Synodontis, ii. 443 Synoplotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Syntomis, ii. 481 Syrnium, ii. 350 Syrrhaptes, ii. 337 Sysopygis, ii. 101 T. Tables of distribution of families and genera explained, i. 177 Taccocoua, ii. 309 Tachydromus, ii. 391 Tachyphonus,i\. 99 Tachyris. ii. 478 Tachytriorchis, ii. 348 Tadorna, ii. 363 Tceniogale, ii. 195 Tcenioptera, ii. 100, 291 TjENIOPTERIN.fi, ii. 291 Tazniura, ii. 463 Talegallus, ii. 342 Talpa, European Miocene, i. 117 ii. 190 TALPID.fi, ii. 190 Tamandua, ii. 247 Tamlas, ii. 235, 236 Tancecia, ii. 474 Tanagers, ii. 283 Tanagra, ii. 98 Tanayrella, ii. 98 TANAGRID.fi, ii. 281 s Tantalus, ii. 361 Tanygnathus, ii. 326 Tanysiptera, ii. 316 Taoniscus, ii. 344 Taphozous, ii. 183 Tapir, fossil in N. China, i. 123 Tapir, Malayan figure of, i. 337 Tapiridce, European Eocene, i. 125 TAPIRID.fi, ii. 212 Tapirs, birthplace and migrations of, i. 154 ii. 212 Tapirus, European Pliocene, i. 113 Indian Miocene, i. 122 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 Tarandus, ii. 219 Tarentola, it 400 Tarsier, Malayan, figure of, i. 337 Tarsiger, ii. 259 TARSIID.fi, ii 177 Tarsipes, ii. 252 Tarsius, ii. 177 Tasmania, comparative zoological poverty of, Tatare,'ii. 258 Tatusia, ii. 246 Taxidea, ii. 199 Taxila, ii. 475 Taxodon, European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 200 Taygetis, ii. 471 Tchitrea, ii. 271 TECTONARCHIN.fi, ii. 275 Teguexius, ii. 390 TEID.fi, ii. 390 Teinopalpus, ii. 479 Teira, ii. 391 Teius, ii. 390 Teleopis, ii. 375 TELEOSTEI, ii. 424 Telephonus, ii. 272 Tellia, ii. 450 TELLINID.fi, ii. 506 Telmatdbius, N. American Cretaceous, i. 164 ii. 417 Telmatolestes, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Temnotrogon, ii. 314 Temnurus, ii. 273 Tephrocorys, ii. 289 Tephrodornis, ii. 272 Teracolus, ii. 478 Terebratula, ii. 539 TEREBRATULID^, ii. 532 Terekia, ii. 353 Terenura, ii. 104 Teretristis, ii. 279 Terias, ii. 478 Terinos, ii. 474 Terns, ii. 364 Terrapene, ii. 408 Terrestrial Molluscs, ii. 512 Terrestrial Mollusca, summary and conclusion, . ii. 551 lines of migration of, ii. 552 Tesia. ii. 263 Testacella, ii. 516 ii. 517 TESTUDINID^E, ii. 407 Testudo, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 Indian Miocene, i. 123 604 GENERAL INDEX. Testudo, great antiquity of the genus, i. 289 Testudo, ii. 408 Tethionea, ii. 501 TETRABRANCHIATA, ii. 506 Tetracha, ii. 486, 487 Tetrachus, European Miocene, i. 117 Tetraceros, ii. 224 Tetracus, ii. 188 Tetradactylus, ii. 397 Tetragonoderus, ii. 490 Tetragonops, ii. 306 Tetragonopterus, ii. 445 Tetragonosoma, ii. 380 Tetranertiatichthys, ii. 443 Tetrao albw, in Italian caverns, i. 161 Tetrao, ii. 339 Tetraogallus, ii. 339 TETRAONID^:, ii. 338 Tetraophasis, ii. 340 Tetrodon, ii. 457 TEUTHIDJE, ii. 505 TEUTHIDID^!, ii. 433 Textor, ii. 286 Thais, ii. 479 Thalassarctos, ii. 201 Thalassictis, Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 195 ii. 197 Thalassornis, ii. 364 Thaleichthys, ii. 447 ThaLuraniii, ii. 107 Thamnistes, ii. 104 Thamnobia, ii. 260 Thamnodyastes, ii. 379 Thamnomanes, ii. 104 THAMNOPHILINjE, ii. 297 ThamnophUits, ii. 104 Thaumalea, ii. 340 Thaumantis, ii. 472 Thaumastura, ii. 108 Thaumatias, ii. 109 Thecla. ii. 477 TJieloderma, ii. 419 TTieope, ii. 476 Theorema, ii. 477 Theraps, ii. 438 Therates, ii. 486 Theridomys, European Miocene, i. 126 European Eocene, i. 126 8. American Eocene, i. 148 ii. 239 Theropithenis, ii. 173 Thestias, ii. 478 . Thestor, ii. 477 Thetia, ii. 391 THINOCORID.E, ii. 354 Thinocorus, ii. 354 Thinohyus, ii. N. American Tertiary, i 137 ii. 215 Thinolestes, N. American Tertiary, i. 133 Thinornis, ii. 356 Thomomys, ii. 233 Thmu, ii. 197 Thrasaetiis, ii. 348 Threnetes, ii. 107 . Thripadectes, ii. 103 Thripophaga, ii. 103 Thryophilus, ii. 263 Thryothorus, ii. 263 Thrushes, ii. 255 JTiyca, ii. 471 Thylacinus, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 249 Thylatoleo, Australian Post-Tertiary, i. 157 ii. 252 Thymallus, ii. 447 Thynnichthys, 452 Thynnus, ii. 429 Thyreopterus. ii. 491 Thyrus, ii. 398 Tiaris, ii. 284 ii. 402 Tichodroma, ii. 264 Tiga, ii. 303 Tiger-beetles, ii. 486 Tigrisoma, ii. 359 Tijuca, ii. 102 Tillodontia, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Tillotheridce, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Tillotherium, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Tilmatura, ii. 108 Tinialia, ii. 261 TIMALIID^, ii. 260 Timetes, ii. 474 Timor, physical features of, i. 389 group, mammalia of, i. 422 birds of, i. 422 origin of fauna of, i. 424 insects of, i. 426 TINAMID^.ii. 343 TINAMIN^E, ii. 344 Tinamous, ii. 343 TINAMOTIN^E, ii. 344 Tinamotis, ii. 344 Tinamus, ii. 344 Tinea, ii. 452 Tinoceras, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Titanomys, European Miocene, i. 121 ii. 242 Titanotherium, N. American Tertiary, i. 137 Tits, ii. 265 Tityra, ii. 102 TITYRIN^E, ii. 293 Tmesisternus, ii. 501 Toads, ii. 415 TOC/CMS, ii. 317 TODID^;, ii. 313 Todies, ii. 313 Todirhamphw, 316 Todirostrum, ii. 101 Todopsis, ii. 271 Todus, ii. 313 Tolypeutes, ii. 246 Tomarctos, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 Tomistoma, ii. 405 Tomodon, ii. 175 Tonga Islands, birds of, i. 443 Topaza, ii. 107 TORNATELLIDJE, ii. 530 TORPEDINID^E, ii. 462 Tortoises, classification of, i. 100 of Mascarene Islands and Galapagos, i. 289 1 ii. 407 TORTRICID^, ii. 373 Tortrix, ii. 373 Totamts, ii. 353 Toucans, ii. 30H Touraco of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264 Toxodon, 8. American Pliocene, i. 137 Toxodontidce, 8. American Pliocene, i. 147 Toxotvs, ii. 502 Trachelyopterus, ii. 443 TRACHINIDjE, ii. 428 Trachinus, ii. 428 Trachurm, ii. 429 Trachycephalits, ii. 401 ii. 418 Trachydosaurus, ii. 397 TracJiyphonus, ii. 306 TRACHYP^TERID^E, ii. 432 Trachytherium, European Miocene, i. 119 GENERAL INDEX. G05 TRAGELAPHIN^;, ii. 223 Tragelaphus, ii. 223 Tragocervs, Miocem, of Greece, i. 116 European Miocene, i. 120 Tragopan, Himalayan, figure of, i. 331 Tragops, ii. 379 TRAGULHXfi, ii. 218 Trogulus, ii. 218 Trapelus, ii. 402 Trechus, ii. 489 Tree-crows, ii. 273 Tree-kangaroo, figure of, i. 415 Tree-shrew of Borneo, figure of, i. 337 Tree-snakes, ii. 378 Tremarctos, ii. 202 Treron, ii. 332 Tres Marias, zoology of, ii. 59 Tribolonotus, ii. 397 Triboniophorus, ii. 517 Tribonyx, ii. 352 Trichastoma, ii. 261 TRICHECHID^E, ii. 203 Trichechus, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 ii. 203 TRICHIURIDJE, ii. 429 Trichixos, ii. 262 TRICHOGLOSSIDJE, ii. 327 Trichoglossidse, birds specially adapted to Australia, i. 393 Trichoglrjssi(s, ii. 327 Triclwlcema, ii. 06 Trichomycterus, ii. 444 Trycondyla, ii. 486 Trichonis, ii. 477 TRICHONOTID.E, ii. 435 Trichothraupis, ii. 99 Trichotropis, ii. 507 Triclaria, ii. 328 TRIDACNID^E.ii. 35 Trigla, ii. 428 TRIGLIDjE, ii. 427 Trigona, ii. 536 TRIGONIAD.E, ii. 534 Trigonoptera, ii. 501 Trimeresurus, ii. 385 Tringa, ii. 353 Tringoides, ii. 353 TRIONYCHIDjE, ii. 409 Trionyx, Indian Miocene, i. 123 Miocene and Eocene, i. 165 ii. 409 Triprion, ii. 418 Triptorhinus, ii. 297 Tristan d'Acunha, zoology of, i. 271 Tristram, Canon, summary of the birds of Palestine, i. 203 on the arrangement of the Sylviidse, ii. 257 Triton, ii. 413 TRITONIAD^E, ii. 530 Trochalopteron, ii. 261 Trochatella, ii. 522 TROCHILIDyE, ii. 321 Trochilus. ii. 108 Trochm, ii. 510 Troglodytes, ii. 170 ii. 263 TROGLODYTID.E. ii. 263 Trogon, European Miocene, i. 161 ii. 314 Trogon, ii. 314 TROGONIDJE, ii.314 TROGONOPHID^E, ii. 388 Trogonophis, ii. 388 Trogontherium, Post-Pliocene of Europe, i 111 ii. 234 Tropidechis, ii. 383 Tropidococcyx, ii. 37Q" Tropidodipsas, ii. 379 Tropidotepis, ii. 401 Tropidolepisma, ii. 397 Tropidonotus, ii. 375 Tropidophoriis, ii. 397 Tropidopterus, ii. 490 Tropidorhynchus, ii. 276 Trucifelis, N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 129 Trugon, ii. 333 Trumpeters, ii. 358 Truncatella, ii. 519 Trgyon, ii. 463 TRYGONID.E, ii. 463 Tuatara, ii. 405 Tudora, ii. 521 Tundras of Siberia, greatest extent of, i. 216 Tupaia, ii. 186 TUPAIID^, ii. 186 Tupaiidce, European Miocene, i. 118 Turaecena, ii. 333 Turacos, ii. 307 Turacus, ii. 307 TURBINID^E, ii. 510 TURDIDvE, ii. 255 Turdinus, ii. 262 Turdus, ii. 256 Turnagra, ii. 263 Turner, Mr., on classification of Edentata, i. 90 TURNICID^E, ii. 341 Turnix, ii. 341 TURRITELLIDvE, ii. 509 Tursio, ii. 209 Turtles, ii. 409 Turtur, ii. 333 Tylis, ii. 267 Tylodon, European Eocene, i. 125 ii. 196 Tylognathus, ii. 451 Tylotritnn, ii. 413 Typhlina, ii. 372 Typhline, ii. 372 Typhlocalamus, ii. 374 TYPHLOPID.E, ii. 372 Typhlops, ii. 372 TypJiloscincus, ii. 399 Typotherium, S. American Pliocene, i. 147 TYRANNIDjE.ii. 290 TYRANNIN^, ii. 291 Tyranniscus, ii. 101 Tyrannulus, ii. 101 . Tyranmis, ii. 102, 291 Tyrant-Shrikes, ii. 290 U. Uaru, ii. 439 Uintacyon, N. American Tertiary, i. 134 Uintatherium, N. American Eocene, i. 139 Uintornis, N. American Eocene, i. 163 Uma, ii. 401 UMBRID.E, ii. 449 Umbrina, ii. 428 Ungalia, ii. 381 Ungulata, classification of, i. 89 antiquity of, i. 154 of the Palsearctic region, i. 182 range of Palsearctic genera of, i. 241 range of Ethiopian genera of, i. 303 range of Oriental genera of, i. 374 range of Australian genera of, i. 476 Ungulata, European Pliocene, i. 112 Miocene of Greece, i. 115 European Miocene, i. 119 606 GENERAL INDEX. Ungulata, Indian Miocene, i. 121 European Eocene, i. 125 N. American Post-Pliocene, i. 130 N. American Tertiary, i. 135 of Brazilian caves, i. 144 S. American Pliocene, i. .146 UNGULATA, ii. 211 general remarks on the distribution of, ii -226 summary and conclusion, ii. 542 Unio, European Secondary, i. 169 ii. 534 UNIONID^E, ii. 534 Upucerthia, ii. 103 UPUPIILE, ii. 31T Uragus, ii. 285 . Urania of Madagascar, i. 282 Urania, ii. 482 URANIID^E, ii. 482 Una, ii. 367 Uroaetus, ii. 348 Urocissa, ii. 273 Urochroa, ii. 107 Urochroma, ii. 328 Urocyon, ii. 197 URODELA, ii. 411 Urogalba, ii. 311 Urolestes, ii. 272 Urwmastix, ii. 402 UROPELTID.E, ii. 373 Uuropeltis, ii. 374 Uropsila, ii. 264 Uropsilus, ii. 190 Uropsophorus, ii. 385 Urospatha, ii. 313 Urospizias, ii. 348 Urosticte, ii. 108 Urotrichus, ii. 190 Urotriorchis, ii 347 Ursidce, N. American Tertiary, i. 135 in Brazilian caves, i. 144 URSID^E, ii. 201 Ursitaxus, Indian Miocene, i. 121 ii. 200 Ursus, Post-Pliocene, i. 112 Indian Miocene, 121 ii. 201 Urubutinga, ii. 348 Urva, ii. 195 Uta, ii. 401 Utica, ii. 477 V. Vaglnulus, ii. 518 Valgits, ii. 495 Valvata, ii. 510 Vanga of Madagascar, figure of, i. 278 Vanga, ii. 272 Vandellia, ii. 444 Vandlus, ii. 356 Vanessa, ii. 474 VARANIDJE, ii. 389 Varanus, Miocene of Greece, i. 116 Indian Miocene, i. 123 VENERID^ii. 536 Venilia, ii. 303 Ver micella, ii. 383 Verreauxw., ii. 303 Vertebrata, summary of Palsearctic, i. 186 summary of Ethiopian, i. 255 summary of Oriental, i. 318 summary of Australian, i. 897 summary of Neotropical, ii. 13 summary of Nearctic, ii. 120 Vespertitto, European Eocene, i. 125 ii. 183 VESPERTILIONID^E, ii. 183 Vidua, ii. 286 Vipera, ii. 385 VIPERID^.ii. 385 Vipefks, European Miocene, i. 165 Vipers, ii. 385 Vireo, ii. 280 VIREONID^E, ii. 279 Vireolanius, ii. 280 Vireosylvia, ii. 280 Viscacha, ii. 237 Fitrina, ii. 516 Viverra, European Pliocene ,i. 112 European Miocene, i. 118 ii. 195 Viverricula, ii. 195 Viverridce, European Miocene, i. 118 European Eocene, i. 125 VIVERRID.E, ii. 194 Vivia, ii. 303 Volatinia, ii. 284 Valuta, ii. 508 Volutes, ii. 508 VOLUTID^:, ii. 508 Volvocivora, ii. 269 Vulpes, ii. 197 Vultur, ii. 346 VULTURID^E, ii. 345 VULTURIN.E, ii. 346 W. Wagtails, ii. 290 Walden, Viscount, on birds of Philippine islands, i. 346 on birds of Celebes, i. 428 on arrangement of the Timaliidae, ii. 261 Wallago, ii. 441 Wall-lizards, ii. 399 Walrus, ii. 203 Wart-snakes, ii. 382 Washakius, N. American Tertiary i. 134 Waterhouse, Mr. G. R., on classification of rodentia, i. 90 on classification of marsupials, i 91 Water-lizards, ii. 389 Weaver-finches, ii. 286 West African sub-region, description of, i. 262 mammalia of, i. 262 birds of, i. 262 Oriental or Malayan element in. i. 263 river scene with characteristic animals, i. 264 reptiles of, i. 264 amphibia of, i. 264 Oriental and Neotropical relations of, i. 265 insects of, i. 265 land-shells of, i. 265 islands of, i. 265 West Australia, peculiar birds of, i. 441 Whelks, ii. 507 Whip-snakes, ii. 379 Whydah finch of W. Africa, figure of, i. 264 Wing-shells, ii. 507 ii. 533 Wollaston, Mr. T. V. , on the Coleoptera of the Atlantic Islands, i. 209 on the wings of the Madeiran beetles, i. 211 on the origin of the insect fauna of the Atlantic Islands, i. 214 on the Coleoptera of the Cape Verd Islands, i. 215 GENERAL INDEX. 607 Wollaston, Mr. T. V., on the beetles of St. He- lena, i. 270 Wombats, ii. 253 Woodpeckers, ii. 302 Wood- warblers, ii. 278 Woolly monkeys, ii. 174 Wrens, ii. 263 Wrynecks, ii. 304 Xanthocephalus, ii. 282 Xanthol&ma, ii. 306 Xanthomelus, ii. 275 Xanthopygia, ii. 270 Xanthosomus, ii. 282 Xanthotis, ii. 275 Xema, ii. 364 Xenelaphis, ii. 376 Xenica, ii. 471 Xenicus, ii. 265 Xenochrophys, ii. 375 Xenocypris, ii. 452 Xenodermus, ii. 376 Xenodon, ii. 375 XENOPELTID^E, ii. 373 Xenopeltis, ii. 373 Xenophrys, ii. 421 Xenopipo, ii. 102 Xenops, ii. 103 Xenorhina, ii. 415 XENORHINID^E, ii. 415 Xenospingus, ii.284 Xenurelaps, ii 383 Xenurus, in Brazilian caves, i. 145 ii. 246 Xiphias, ii. 430 Xiphidiopicus, ii. 303 XIPHIID.E, ii. 430 XipMus, ii. 208 XipJiocolaptes, ii. 103 Xiphodontidce, European Miocene, i. 119 Xipholena, ii. 102 Xiphorhampus, ii. 445 Xiphorhynchi.^, 103 Xiphostoma, ii. 445 Xystrocera ii. 501 Y. Ypthima, ii. 471 Yuhina, ii. 266 YUNGIDJE, ii. 304 Yungipicus, ii. 303 Yunx, ii. 304 Zaferus, fi. 489 Zalophus, ii. 203 Zamenis, ii. 375 Zandostomus, ii. 309 Zaocys, ii. 375 Zebras, ii. 211 Zefirm, ii. 478 Zemeros, ii. 475 Zenaida, ii. 833 Zenaidura, ii. 332 Zephyrus, ii. 477 Zeuglodon, ii. 210 Zeuglodontidce, N. American Tertiary, i. 140 ii. 210 Zews, ii. 429 Zeiixidia, ii. 472 Zoarces, ii. 431 Zonites, ii. 516 Zonites priscus. Palaeozoic, i. 169 Zonotrichia, ii. 284 ZONURID^:, ii. 391 Zonurus, ii. 392 Zoological characteristics of Palsearctic region, i. 181 Ethiopian region, i. 252 Oriental region, i. 315 Australian region, i. 390 of Neotropical region, ii. 5 of Nearctic region, ii. 115 Zoological regions, discussion on, i. 50 their origin and relations, ii. 155-161 Zoothera, ii. 256 Zootoca, ii. 391 Zosterops, ii. 277 Zygcena, ii. 481 ZYG^ENIDjE, ii. 481 Zygnopsis, ii. 398 THE END. WALLACE'S MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. THE MALAY AECHIPELAGO: the Land of the Orang-Utan and the Bird of Paradise. A Narrative of Travel, 1854-62. With Studies of Man and Na- ture. By AJ^FKED RUSSEL WALLACE, Author of " The Geographical Distribution of Animals." With Maps and numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $2 50. Mr. Wallace's style is as charming as Darwin's, and greater praise it could not have. His scientific observations are as interesting as other peo- ple's adventures. He is a truly intelligent writer one who has the power to interest others in his pursuits, investigations, and speculations. Those who have read Mr. Darwin's "Voyage of a Naturalist," a book too little known, will find in this a companion volume as absorbingly interesting and as clear and instructive as that. JV. Y. Evening Post. * * * In short, no book of travels, adventure, and observations of our tune can be pronounced superior to this. Boston Traveller. Mr. Wallace deserves all the praise which we can bestow upon him for his lucid arrangement of facts, and for the pleasant and suggestive style in which he narrates his travels. Many of the chapters are exceedingly novel and amusing, while his scientific generalizations should be carefully read by all students of natural history. Examiner, London. A vivid picture of tropical life, which may be read with unflagging in- terest, and a sufficient account of his scientific conclusions to stimulate our appetite without wearying us by detail. In short, we may safely say that we have seldom read a more agreeable book of its kind. Saturday Review, London. PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS, NEW YORK. The above volume will be sent by mail, postage prepaid, to any part of the United States or Canada, on receipt of the price. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. BY ELISEE RECLUS. THE EAETH. A Descriptive History of the Phe- nomena of the Life of the Globe. By ELISEE RECLUS. 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